Sequence stratigraphic principles and recognition of flooding surfaces

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SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC PRINCIPLES AND RECOGNITION OF FLOODING SURFACES

Definitions
Sequence Stratigraphy concepts are based on the assumption that sea level changes are the
predominant control on stratigraphic architecture, geometries and facies, but recognises that tectonic
subsidence, isostasy and compaction contribute to creating space for sediment accommodation. High
resolution sequence stratigraphy relies on the recognition of time significant surfaces from cores and
logs.
Sequence stratigraphy is a hierarchical system in which genetic units and elements are correctly placed in
a high resolution framework of time lines. A sequence is defined as a relatively conformable, genetically
related succession of strata bounded by unconformities or their correlative conformities (Mitchum et al.,
1977). Parasequences and parasequence sets are the building blocks of sequences. Parasequences
comprise a relatively conformable, genetically related succession of beds or bed sets bounded by marine
flooding surfaces that mark an increase in water depth resulting from a change in relative sea level.
Parasequence Sets comprise a succession of genetically related parasequences that form a distinctive
stacking pattern (i.e. progradational, aggradational or retrogradational, usually bounded by major marine
flooding surfaces(Van Wagoner et al., 1990). Systems Tracts are defined as a linkage of
contemporaneous depositional systems, which are more or less equivalent to parasequence sets.
The fundamental advantage of sequence stratigraphic analysis over conventional techniques for the
reservoir geologist (irrespective of scale), is that it provides a series of tools with which sedimentary
architecture can be analysed and predicted in areas away from well control.
The technique of high-resolution sequence stratigraphy relies on the recognition of key surfaces of
chronostratigraphic significance from logs: flooding surfaces (FS), maximum flooding surfaces (MFS), and
sequence boundaries (SB). These key bounding surfaces subdivide the strata into contemporaneouslydeposited sediment packages (systems tracts) within which reservoir quality and sediment architecture
become predictable.
Flooding surfaces are caused by a rise in relative sea level (transgression) and usually characterised by
sediment reworking and non-deposition in shallow water where storm waves impinge on the sea bottom.
A ravinement surface often characterises the early phase of flooding in these shallow waters, while in
deeper water, below storm wave base, shale deposition continues.
Maximum flooding surfaces represent the time when the shoreline was at its furthest landward
position relative to other flooding surfaces.
Initial flooding surfaces represent the time at which the first major trangression occures in a
transgressive systems tract.
Sequence boundaries reflect a fall in relative sea level (regression) and may be characterised by
processes including subaerial erosion, channel incision and a basinward shift in sedimentary facies.
Sequence stratigraphic subdivisions (Spaak and Boering, 1997)
Unit

Bounding Surface

Resulting Sequence

Sequence boundary SB

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SB~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Highstand Systems
Tract - HST

Hghstand Systems Tract - HST

Maximum flooding
surface - MFS

Tansgressive Systems
Tract - TST

---------------------MFS----------------------Transgressive Systems Tract - TST

Transgressive surface TS
Lowstand Systems Tract
- LST

---------------------TS-------------------------Lowstand Systems Tract - LST

Sequence boundary SB

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SB~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Correlation steps and recognition of flooding surfaces and sequence boundaries

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In the subsurface flooding surfaces and maximum flooding surfaces are the geologically most important
correlation tools. Flooding surfaces are excellent for correlation because:
They are geologically synchronous and approximate timelines. For example in the Cretaceous
Blackhawk Formation (Book Cliffs) fourth order flooding surfaces represent about 5,000 to 10,000
years while each parasequence represents about 40,000 years.
Flooding surfaces are expected to be laterally continuous, with more or less uniform thickness, and
can be easily identified from log trends (see below).
Flooding surfaces often form almost near horizontal surfaces with little or no erosion during
transgression.
Flooding surfaces are also important because they typically extend beyond the field scale and therefore
compartmentalise the reservoir by thin shales or cemented sand-on-sand contacts. Thus, these
mudstones also provide top reservoir seals and consistent well-developed seismic events.
In order to correlate using flooding surfaces, the following steps must be followed (1-3 and 4):
a) Identify the flooding surfaces using lowest shale resistivity values and neutron-density log
data. The neutron-density log data should be plotted on sandstone scale and disregarding the zones
affected by washouts. The flooding surfaces within marine shales are identified by locating the point of
maximum separation between the neutron and density porosities. This point also corresponds to the
lowest shale resistivity value (2 and 4). However, care must be taken if using resistivity logs alone, as
water-bearing sands can exhibit even lower resistivities than the shales, and can have high Gamma Ray
readings. Mark on all the flooding surfaces over the interval of interest.
b) Identify the maximum flooding surfaces over the interval. They represent the time when the
delta shoreline was at its furthest landward position relative to other flooding surfaces. They can be
recognised from logs as those flooding surfaces which show the highest relative neutron porosity values
and the corresponding lowest resistivity values relative to the surrounding flooding surfaces.
c) Identify the flooding surface trends. It is helpful to draw lines joining up the resistivity lows and
peak porosity separations. Trends of upwards-increasing flooding surface resistivity and upwardsdecreasing flooding surface neutron porosity correspond to forward-stepping (progradation) of delta
cycles. In contrast, trends of decreasing flooding surface resistivity and increasing flooding surface
neutron porosity correspond to a back-stepping (retrogradation) of the delta (2 & 3). These two stacking
patterns are separated by a surface which contains the time of maximum basinward shift of the shoreline
position within the cycle, and thus defines the position of the sequence boundary (3).
d) Join up the MFS and FS in all the wells, using the trends (stacking patterns) to guide you.
Maximum flooding surfaces can be recognised from logs as those flooding surfaces which show the lowest
shale resistivity log value and corresponding highest neutron porosity values relative to the surrounding
flooding surfaces.
Sequence boundaries can be identified by analysing stacking patterns of flooding surfaces. Trends of
upward-increasing flooding surface resistivity log values correspond to forward-stepping (progradation)
of the shoreline. In contrast, trends of decreasing flooding surface resistivity correspond to back-stepping
(retrogradation) of the delta. These two different stacking pattern trend of para-sequence sets are
separated by a surface which represents the time of maximum basinward shift of the shoreline within the
relative sea level cycle, and define the position of the sequence boundary (H. Williams et al., 1997). If
any lowstand deposits are developed, they will be associated with this, potentially erosive surface.

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Sequence stratigraphic principles and recognition of flooding surfaces

1) Flooding surfaces from logs

2) Inter-cycle log trends

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3) Key sequence stratigraphic s

4) Recognising of flooding
surfaces in the Champion
Field

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When all steps have been completed you have:

Created a framework of timelines within which to correlate the reservoir as the sands cannot cross the
flooding surfaces.
Can make predictions about the relative extents of sands from their position in the sequence, e.g.
sands within a succession of flooding surfaces which show an upwards trend of decreasing separations
and increasing resistivities should extend progressively further down depositional dip.
Ensures that diachronous sand-top miscorrelations are avoided.
There are two important points to remember about using flooding surfaces. Firstly, maximum flooding
surfaces are hierarchical in nature, as are all sequence stratigraphic surfaces. In the Niger delta, MFS
are traditionally picked by their high faunal diversity and abundance. These MFS typically occur with a
periodicity of 1-3 my., that is they are third order MFS. But within intervals bounded by these MFS,
smaller scale fourth order MFS may also be present (periodicity 200,000-500,000 yr.). These MFS
typically show no significant faunal peak. Both scales of MFS show large neutron log separations and low
resistivities, but the third order MFS show the greatest separations and lower resistivities as they
represent more significant flooding events than the fourth order surfaces.
Secondly the term maximum flooding surface should be used with care in seismic interpretations. In
some studies a third order MFS has been identified from the biostratigraphic data and then the well
synthetics are used to identify the loop generated by the sand-shale contact near this MFS. It is
important to remember that the MFS does not generate the main loop. The MFS surface is a
chronostratigraphically significant timeline within the shale, but shows a relatively small change in
acoustic impedance and has no significant seismic expression. It is the sand-shale contact below the
MFS which generates the strongest loop but these sand-shale contacts are not chronostratigraphically
significant and may be highly diachronous. This distinction should not be obscured by sloppy use of

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Sequence stratigraphic principles and recognition of flooding surfaces

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terminology because:
Calling a surface one of maximum flooding gives the impression that it is a well defined timeline and a
strong correlation.
Using this label incorrectly stops the interpreter thinking about other possibilities e.g. the loop may
actually consist of a series of shingled and backstepping shorefaces separated by shales are consisting
of different compartments.
The loop may be a poor one to hang seismic sections from in the seismic workstation if the sand-shale
contacts it represents are strongly diachronous.
Mainly based on SPDC/SRCW/3, 1997: A guide for modelling shoreface and estuarine reservoirs in the
Tertiary Niger delta

Hierarchy:
Hierarchy | Main reservoir types | Sequence stratigraphic approach
See also: Sequence-stratigraphy principles | Correlation tools |
Exploration Bulletin Special Issue Summer 1992
Clastic RMKB - Restricted

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