Stonehenges Multiphase Construction

Archaeologists believe England most iconic prehistoric ruin was built in several stages, with the
earliest constructed 5,000 or more years ago. First, Neolithic Britons used primitive toolspossibly
made from deer antlersto dig a massive circular ditch and bank, or henge, on Salisbury Plain.
Deep pits dating back to that era and located within the circleknown as Aubrey holes after John
Aubrey, the 17th-century antiquarian who discovered themmay have once held a ring of timber
posts, according to some scholars.
Did You Know?
In 1620, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, dug a large hole in the ground at the center of
Stonehenge looking for buried treasure.
Several hundred years later, it is thought, Stonehenges builders hoisted an estimated 80 nonindigenous bluestones, 43 of which remain today, into standing positions and placed them in either
a horseshoe or circular formation. During the third phase of construction, which took place around
2000 B.C., sarsen sandstone slabs were arranged into an outer crescent or ring; some were
assembled into the iconic three-pieced structures called trilithons that stand tall in the center of
Stonehenge. Some 50 sarsen stones are now visible on the site, which may once have contained
many more. Radiocarbon dating suggests that work continued at Stonehenge until roughly 1600
B.C., with the bluestones in particularly being repositioned multiple times.
The Megaliths of Stonehenge
Stonehenges sarsens, of which the largest weighs more than 40 tons and rises 24 feet, were likely
sourced from quarries 25 miles north of Salisbury Plain and transported with the help of sledges and
ropes; they may even have already been scattered in the immediate vicinity when the monuments
Neolithic architects first broke ground there. The smaller bluestones, on the other hand, have been
traced all the way to the Preseli Hills in Wales, some 200 miles away from Stonehenge. How, then,
did prehistoric builders without sophisticated tools or engineering haul these boulders, which weigh
up to 4 tons, over such a great distance?
According to one longstanding theory, Stonehenges builders fashioned sledges and rollers out of
tree trunks to lug the bluestones from the Preseli Hills. They then transferred the boulders onto rafts
and floated them first along the Welsh coast and then up the River Avon toward Salisbury Plain;
alternatively, they may have towed each stone with a fleet of vessels. More recent hypotheses have
them transporting the bluestones with supersized wicker baskets or a combination of ball bearings,
long grooved planks and teams of oxen.
As early as the 1970s, geologists have been adding their voices to the debate over how Stonehenge
came into being. Challenging the classic image of industrious Neolithic builders pushing, carting,
rolling or hauling the craggy bluestones from faraway Wales, some scientists have suggested that
glaciers, not humans, did most of the heavy lifting. The globe is dotted with giant rocks known as
glacial erratics that were carried over long distances by moving ice floes. Perhaps Stonehenges
mammoth slabs were snatched from the Preseli Hills by glaciers during one of the Ice Ages and
deposited a stones throw awayat least comparativelyfrom Salisbury Plain. Most archaeologists
have remained cool toward the glacial theory, however, wondering how the forces of nature could
possibly have delivered the exact number of stones needed to complete the circle.
Who Built Stonehenge?
According to the 12th-century writer Geoffrey of Monmouth, whose tale of King Arthur and
mythical account of English history were considered factual well into the Middle Ages, Stonehenge

is the handiwork of the wizard Merlin. In the mid-fifth century, the story goes, hundreds of British
nobles were slaughtered by the Saxons and buried on Salisbury Plain. Hoping to erect a memorial to
his fallen subjects, King Aureoles Ambrosias sent an army to Ireland to retrieve a stone circle
known as the Giants Ring, which ancient giants had built from magical African bluestones. The
soldiers successfully defeated the Irish but failed to move the stones, so Merlin used his sorcery to
spirit them across the sea and arrange them above the mass grave. Legend has it that Ambrosias and
his brother Uther, King Arthurs father, are buried there as well.
While many believed Monmouths account to be the true story of Stonehenges creation for
centuries, the monuments construction predates Merlinor, at least, the real-life figures who are
said to have inspired himby several thousand years. Other early hypotheses attributed its building
to the Saxons, Danes, Romans, Greeks or Egyptians. In the 17th century, archaeologist John Aubrey
made the claim that Stonehenge was the work of the Celtic high priests known as the Druids, a
theory widely popularized by the antiquarian William Stukeley, who had unearthed primitive graves
at the site. Even today, people who identify as modern Druids continue to gather at Stonehenge for
the summer solstice. However, in the mid-20th century, radiocarbon dating demonstrated that
Stonehenge stood more than 1,000 years before the Celts inhabited the region, eliminating the
ancient Druids from the running.
Many modern historians and archaeologists now agree that several distinct tribes of people
contributed to Stonehenge, each undertaking a different phase of its construction. Bones, tools and
other artifacts found on the site seem to support this hypothesis. The first stage was achieved by
Neolithic agrarians who were likely indigenous to the British Isles. Later, it is believed, groups with
advanced tools and a more communal way of life left their stamp on the site. Some have suggested
that they were immigrants from the European continent, but many scientists think they were native
Britons descended from the original builders.
Stonehenges Function and Significance
If the facts surrounding the architects and construction of Stonehenge remain shadowy at best, the
purpose of the arresting monument is even more of a mystery. While historians agree that it was a
place of great importance for over 1,000 years, we may never know what drew early Britons to
Salisbury Plain and inspired them to continue developing it. There is strong archaeological evidence
that Stonehenge was used as a burial site, at least for part of its long history, but most scholars
believe it served other functions as welleither as a ceremonial site, a religious pilgrimage
destination, a final resting place for royalty or a memorial erected to honor and perhaps spiritually
connect with distant ancestors.
In the 1960s, the astronomer Gerald Hawkins suggested that the cluster of megalithic stones
operated as an astronomical calendar, with different points corresponding to astrological phenomena
such as solstices, equinoxes and eclipses. While his theory has received quite a bit of attention over
the years, critics maintain that Stonehenges builders probably lacked the knowledge necessary to
predict such events or that Englands dense cloud cover would have obscured their view of the
skies. More recently, signs of illness and injury in the human remains unearthed at Stonehenge led a
group of British archaeologists to speculate that it was considered a place of healing, perhaps
because bluestones were thought to have curative powers.
Stonehenge Today
One of the most famous and recognizable sites in the world, Stonehenge draws more than 800,000
tourists a year, many of whom also visit the regions numerous other Neolithic and Bronze Age
marvels. In 1986 Stonehenge was added to UNESCOs register of World Heritage sites in a colisting with Avebury, a Neolithic henge located 17 miles away that is older and larger than its more
famous neighbor. Stonehenge has undergone several restorations over the years, and some of its
boulders have been set in concrete to prevent collapse. Meanwhile, archaeological excavations and

development of the surrounding area to facilitate tourism have turned up other significant sites
nearby, including other henges.
The Real Robin Hood - British History - HISTORY.com

Beginning in the 15th century and perhaps even earlier, Christian revelers in certain parts of
England celebrated May Day with plays and games involving a Robin Hood figure with nearreligious significance. In the 19th century, writer-illustrators like Howard Pyle adapted the
traditional tales for children, popularizing them in the United States and around the world. More
recently, bringing Robin to the silver screen has become a rite of passage for directors ranging from
Michael Curtiz and Ridley Scott to Terry Gilliam and Mel Brooks.
Throughout Robins existence, writers, performers and filmmakers have probed their imaginations
for new incarnations that resonate with their respective audiences. In 14th-century England, where
agrarian discontent had begun to chip away at the feudal system, he appears as an antiestablishment rebel who murders government agents and wealthy landowners. Later variations from
times of less social upheaval dispense with the gore and cast Robin as a dispossessed aristocrat with
a heart of gold and a love interest, Maid Marian.
Academics, meanwhile, have combed the historical record for evidence of a real Robin Hood.
English legal records suggest that, as early as the 13th century, Robehod, Rabunhod and other
variations had become common epithets for criminals. But what had inspired these nicknames: a
fictional tale, an infamous bandit or an amalgam of both? The first literary references to Robin
Hood appear in a series of 14th- and 15th-century ballads about a violent yeoman who lived in
Sherwood Forest with his men and frequently clashed with the Sheriff of Nottingham. Rather than a
peasant, knight or fallen noble, as in later versions, the protagonist of these medieval stories is a
commoner. Little John and Will Scarlet are part of this Robins merry crewmeaning, at the
time, an outlaws gangbut Maid Marian, Friar Tuck and Alan-a-Dale would not enter the legend
until later, possibly as part of the May Day rituals.
While most contemporary scholars have failed to turn up solid clues, medieval chroniclers took for
granted that a historical Robin Hood lived and breathed during the 12th or 13th century. The details
of their accounts vary widely, however, placing him in conflicting regions and eras. Not until John
Majors History of Greater Britain (1521), for example, is he depicted as a follower of King
Richard, one of his defining characteristics in modern times.
We may never know for sure whether Robin Hood ever existed outside the verses of ballads and
pages of books. And even if we did, fans young and old would still surely flock to Englands
Nottinghamshire region for a tour of the legends alleged former hangouts, from centuries-old pubs
to the Major Oak in Sherwood Forest. What we do know is that the notion of a brave rebel who
lives on the outskirts of society, fighting injustice and oppression with his band of companions, has
universal appealwhether hes played by Erroll Flynn, Russell Crowe or even, as on a 1979
episode of The Muppet Show, Kermit the Frog.
English Civil Wars - British History - HISTORY.com

The civil wars of seventeenth-century England also involved the two other kingdoms ruled by the
Stuart dynasty, Scotland and Ireland. The invasion of England by a Scottish army seeking religious
concessions in 1639 and again in 1640 precipitated political deadlock in London, which paved the
way for a rebellion by Catholic Ireland (October 1641). The struggle between King Charles I and

his Westminster Parliament over who should control the army needed to crush the Irish insurrection
in turn provoked the outbreak of civil war in England (August 1642). Initially northern and western
England, together with much of Ireland, stood for the king, while the southeast (including London),
the Royal Navy, and Scotland fought for Parliament. However, at Marston Moor (July 2, 1644)
Charles lost control of the north; and the following year, at Naseby (June 14, 1645) the
Parliamentary forces led by Oliver Cromwell routed his main field army.
Did You Know?
In May 1660, nearly 20 years after the start of the English Civil Wars, Charles II finally returned to
England as king, ushering in a period known as the Restoration.
Having pacified all England, Parliament turned to the conquest of Ireland and Scotland. Since 1642
the Catholic Confederation of Kilkenny had controlled Irish affairs and periodically aided Charles.
However, any chance of rekindling the Royalist cause in Ireland ended in September 1649, when
Oliver Cromwell massacred the combined force of Irish Confederates and Royalists at Drogheda
and, the following month, captured the Confederate fleet in Wexford.
The Cromwellian reconquest of Ireland dragged on until the fall of Galway in April 1652 because of
the outbreak of the third English Civil War. Early in 1650, Charles II, son and heir of the executed
Charles I, cobbled together an army of English and Scottish Royalists, which prompted Cromwell to
invade Scotland; at the Battle of Dunbar (September 3, 1650) he won control of most of Scotland.
The following year at Worcester (September 3, 1651) Cromwell shattered the remaining Royalist
forces and ended the wars of the three kingdoms.
The English conflict left some 34,000 Parliamentarians and 50,000 Royalists dead, while at least
100,000 men and women died from war-related diseases, bringing the total death toll caused by the
three civil wars in England to almost 200,000. More died in Scotland, and far more in Ireland.
Moreover, the trial and execution of an anointed sovereign and the presence of a standing army
throughout the 1650s, combined with the proliferation of radical religious sects, shook the very
foundations of British society and ultimately facilitated the restoration of Charles II in 1660. This
was the last civil war fought on Englishthough not Irish and Scottishsoil.
The Readers Companion to American History. Eric Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors. Copyright
1991 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.
Battle of Waterloo - British History - HISTORY.com
Napoleons Rise to Power
Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, on the Mediterranean island of
Corsica. The year before his birth, France acquired Corsica from the city-state of Genoa, Italy.
Although Napoleons parents were members of the minor Corsican nobility, his family was not
wealthy.
Did You Know?
Today, the expression that someone has met his Waterloo means the person has suffered a
decisive or final defeat or setback.
After graduating from a French military academy in 1785, Napoleon joined an artillery regiment of
the French army. The French Revolution began in 1789, and within three years revolutionaries had
overthrown the monarchy and proclaimed a French republic. During the decade-long revolution,
Napoleon rose rapidly through the ranks of the military and proved himself a talented and daring
leader.
After seizing political power in France in a 1799 coup dtat, he was given the title of first consul

and became Frances leading political figure. In 1804, he crowned himself the emperor of France in
a lavish ceremony. Under Napoleon, France engaged in a successful series of battles against various
coalitions of European nations, and the French empire expanded across much of western and central
continental Europe.
Napoleons Abdication and Return
In 1812, Napoleon led a disastrous invasion of Russia in which his army was forced to retreat and
suffered massive casualties. At the same time, the Spanish and Portuguese, with assistance from the
British, drove Napoleons forces from the Iberian Peninsula in the Peninsular War (1808-1814). In
the 1813 Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of Nations, Napoleons army was defeated by a
coalition that included Austrian, Prussian, Russian and Swedish troops. Afterward, Napoleon
retreated to France, where in March 1814 coalition forces captured Paris.
On April 6, 1814, Napoleon, then in his mid-40s, was forced to abdicate the throne. With the Treaty
of Fontainebleau, he was exiled to Elba, a Mediterranean island off the coast of Italy. Less than a
year later, on February 26, 1815, Napoleon escaped Elba and sailed to the French mainland with a
group of more than 1,000 supporters. On March 20, he returned to Paris, where he was welcomed
by cheering crowds. The new king, Louis XVIII (1755-1824), fled, and Napoleon embarked on
what came to be known as his Hundred Days campaign.
Napoleon Marches on Belgium
Upon Napoleons return to France, a coalition of alliesthe Austrians, British, Prussians and
Russianswho considered the French emperor an enemy began to prepare for war. Napoleon raised
a new army and planned to strike preemptively, defeating the allied forces one by one before they
could launch a united attack against him.
In June 1815, Napoleons forces marched into Belgium, where separate armies of British and
Prussian troops were camped. At the Battle of Ligny, on June 16, Napoleon defeated the Prussians
under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher (1742-1819). However, the French were
unable to totally destroy the Prussian army.
The Battle of Waterloo
Two days later, on June 18, Napoleon led his army of some 72,000 troops against the 68,000-man
British army, which had taken up a position south of Brussels near the village of Waterloo. The
British army, which included Belgian, Dutch and German troops, was commanded by Arthur
Wellesley, Duke of Wellington (1769-1852), who had gained prominence fighting against the
French during the Peninsular War.
In a critical blunder, Napoleon waited until midday to give the command to attack in order to let the
waterlogged ground dry after the previous nights rainstorm. The delay gave Bluchers remaining
troops, who, by some accounts, numbered more than 30,000, time to march to Waterloo and join the
battle later that day.
Although Napoleons troops mounted a strong attack against the British, the arrival of the Prussians
turned the tide against the French. The French emperors outnumbered army retreated in chaos. By
some estimates, the French suffered more than 33,000 casualties (including dead, wounded or taken
prisoner), while British and Prussian casualties numbered more than 22,000.
Reportedly fatigued and in poor health during the Belgian campaign, Napoleon committed tactical
errors and acted indecisively. He also was blamed for appointing inadequate commanders.
Ultimately, the Battle of Waterloo marked the end of Napoleons storied military career. He
reportedly rode away from the battle in tears.

Wellington went on to serve as British prime minister, while Blucher, in his 70s at the time of the
Waterloo battle, died a few years later.
Napoleons Final Years
On June 22, 1815, Napoleon once again abdicated. That October, he was exiled to the remote,
British-held island of Saint Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean. He died there on May 5, 1821, at
age 51, most likely from stomach cancer. Napoleon was buried on the island; however, in 1840, his
remains were returned to France and entombed in a crypt at Les Invalides in Paris, where other
French military leaders are interred.
Industrial Revolution - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com
Britain: Birthplace of the Industrial Revolution
Before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, most people resided in small, rural communities
where their daily existences revolved around farming. Life for the average person was difficult, as
incomes were meager, and malnourishment and disease were common. People produced the bulk of
their own food, clothing, furniture and tools. Most manufacturing was done in homes or small, rural
shops, using hand tools or simple machines.
Did You Know?
The word "luddite" refers to a person who is opposed to technological change. The term is derived
from a group of early 19th century English workers who attacked factories and destroyed machinery
as a means of protest. They were supposedly led by a man named Ned Ludd, though he may have
been an apocryphal figure.
A number of factors contributed to Britains role as the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. For
one, it had great deposits of coal and iron ore, which proved essential for industrialization.
Additionally, Britain was a politically stable society, as well as the worlds leading colonial power,
which meant its colonies could serve as a source for raw materials, as well as a marketplace for
manufactured goods.
As demand for British goods increased, merchants needed more cost-effective methods of
production, which led to the rise of mechanization and the factory system.
Innovation and Industrialization
The textile industry, in particular, was transformed by industrialization. Before mechanization and
factories, textiles were made mainly in peoples homes (giving rise to the term cottage industry),
with merchants often providing the raw materials and basic equipment, and then picking up the
finished product. Workers set their own schedules under this system, which proved difficult for
merchants to regulate and resulted in numerous inefficiencies. In the 1700s, a series of innovations
led to ever-increasing productivity, while requiring less human energy. For example, around 1764,
Englishman James Hargreaves (1722-1778) invented the spinning jenny (jenny was an early
abbreviation of the word engine), a machine that enabled an individual to produce multiple spools
of threads simultaneously. By the time of Hargreaves death, there were over 20,000 spinning
jennys in use across Britain. The spinning jenny was improved upon by British inventor Samuel
Comptons (1753-1827) spinning mule, as well as later machines. Another key innovation in
textiles, the power loom, which mechanized the process of weaving cloth, was developed in the
1780s by English inventor Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823).
Developments in the iron industry also played a central role in the Industrial Revolution. In the
early 18th century, Englishman Abraham Darby (1678-1717) discovered a cheaper, easier method to

produce cast iron, using a coke-fueled (as opposed to charcoal-fired) furnace. In the 1850s, British
engineer Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) developed the first inexpensive process for mass-producing
steel. Both iron and steel became essential materials, used to make everything from appliances,
tools and machines, to ships, buildings and infrastructure.
The steam engine was also integral to industrialization. In 1712, Englishman Thomas Newcomen
(1664-1729) developed the first practical steam engine (which was used primarily to pump water
out of mines). By the 1770s, Scottish inventor James Watt (1736-1819) had improved on
Newcomens work, and the steam engine went on to power machinery, locomotives and ships
during the Industrial Revolution.
Transportation and the Industrial Revolution
The transportation industry also underwent significant transformation during the Industrial
Revolution. Before the advent of the steam engine, raw materials and finished goods were hauled
and distributed via horse-drawn wagons, and by boats along canals and rivers. In the early 1800s,
American Robert Fulton (1765-1815) built the first commercially successful steamboat, and by the
mid-19th century, steamships were carrying freight across the Atlantic. As steam-powered ships
were making their debut, the steam locomotive was also coming into use. In the early 1800s, British
engineer Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) constructed the first railway steam locomotive. In 1830,
Englands Liverpool and Manchester Railway became the first to offer regular, timetabled
passenger services. By 1850, Britain had more than 6,000 miles of railroad track. Additionally,
around 1820, Scottish engineer John McAdam (1756-1836) developed a new process for road
construction. His technique, which became known as macadam, resulted in roads that were
smoother, more durable and less muddy.
Communication and Banking in the Industrial Revolution
Communication became easier during the Industrial Revolution with such inventions as the
telegraph. In 1837, two Brits, William Cooke (1806-1879) and Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875),
patented the first commercial electrical telegraph. By 1840, railways were a Cooke-Wheatstone
system, and in 1866, a telegraph cable was successfully laid across the Atlantic.The Industrial
Revolution also saw the rise of banks and industrial financiers, as well as a factory system
dependent on owners and managers. A stock exchange was established in London in the 1770s; the
New York Stock Exchange was founded in the early 1790s. In 1776, Scottish social philosopher
Adam Smith (1723-1790), who is regarded as the founder of modern economics, published The
Wealth of Nations. In it, Smith promoted an economic system based on free enterprise, the private
ownership of means of production, and lack of government interference.
Quality of Life during Industrialization
The Industrial Revolution brought about a greater volume and variety of factory-produced goods
and raised the standard of living for many people, particularly for the middle and upper classes.
However, life for the poor and working classes continued to be filled with challenges. Wages for
those who labored in factories were low and working conditions could be dangerous and
monotonous. Unskilled workers had little job security and were easily replaceable. Children were
part of the labor force and often worked long hours and were used for such highly hazardous tasks
as cleaning the machinery. In the early 1860s, an estimated one-fifth of the workers in Britains
textile industry were younger than 15. Industrialization also meant that some craftspeople were
replaced by machines. Additionally, urban, industrialized areas were unable to keep pace with the
flow of arriving workers from the countryside, resulting in inadequate, overcrowded housing and
polluted, unsanitary living conditions in which disease was rampant. Conditions for Britains
working-class began to gradually improve by the later part of the 19th century, as the government
instituted various labor reforms and workers gained the right to form trade unions.

Industrialization Moves Beyond Britain

The British enacted legislation to prohibit the export of their technology and skilled workers;
however, they had little success in this regard. Industrialization spread from Britain to other
European countries, including Belgium, France and Germany, and to the United States. By the mid19th century, industrialization was well-established throughout the western part of Europe and
Americas northeastern region. By the early 20th century, the U.S. had become the worlds leading
industrial nation.
6 Famous Prisoners of the Tower of London - History Lists
Anne Boleyn
The second wife of Henry VIII, Anne Boleyn was twice a resident of the Tower of Londononce
as a queen-in-waiting and once as a condemned prisoner. Boleyn married Henry in 1533 after the
English king defied the Roman Catholic Church and annulled his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
Housed in the Tower of London prior to her coronation in June 1533, Boleyn would reign as queen
of England for nearly three years.
Coupled with courtly intrigue and accusations of infidelity, Boleyns failure to give birth to a male
heir ultimately proved to be her undoing. Accused of seducing the king into a cursed marriage, in
May 1536 she was arrested on trumped-up charges of adultery, treason and even an alleged
incestuous affair with her brother. Boleyn was confined to the Lieutenants Lodgings of the Tower
of London, where she was tried and found guilty. She was beheaded by a French swordsman on a
scaffold at the Tower on May 19, 1536. Catherine Howard, Henrys fifth wife, would meet a similar
fate when she was imprisoned and then executed at the Tower of London in 1542.
Sir Walter Raleigh
One of the longest-serving prisoners of the Tower of London was the famed Sir Walter Raleigh,
who was confined to the citadel for some 13 years. A soldier and explorer who engineered the illfated English colony at Roanoke Island, Raleigh was knighted by Elizabeth I in 1585 and became
one of the queens favorite courtiers. Despite his influential position, Raleigh was briefly
imprisoned in the Tower in 1592 when it was revealed that he had secretly wed Elizabeth
Throckmorton, one of the queens maids of honor.
Raleigh was confined to the Tower a second time in 1603 after he was accused of plotting against
King James I. Stripped of most of his wealth, he would spend nearly 13 years detained in a part of
the castle known as the Bloody Tower. While he was ostensibly a prisoner, Raleighs high social
standing ensured that he had comfortable lodgings, and he was even joined in the Tower by his
family. During this time he devoted himself to science and writingcomposing his History of the
World in 1614and also fathered a son. Raleigh was released in 1616 and dispatched to Central
America in search of the mythical gold city of El Dorado. The mission proved unsuccessful, and
Raleigh was arrested and executed at the block after his forces attacked a Spanish outpost against
the orders of the king.
The Princes in the Tower
Twelve-year-old Prince Edward V and 10-year-old Prince Richard of Shrewsburybetter known as
the Princes in the Towerare among the most famous prisoners to have disappeared within the
bowels of the Tower of London. The two boys first arrived at the castle in 1483 after the death of
their father, King Edward IV. The princes were originally housed in the Tower on the orders of their
uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, but were stripped of their royal titles after the duke invalidated
their fathers marriage, declared them illegitimate and claimed the throne for himself as King
Richard III. Moved from their opulent royal apartments to the confines of the Garden Tower (later
known as the Bloody Tower), the boys effectively became prisoners of the crown.

While there were initially sightings of the former princes playing in the Tower courtyard, by mid1483 they had vanished without a trace. The would-be monarchs true fate remains a mystery. While
a Flemish man claiming to be Prince Richard would invade England in 1497 and attempt to take the
throne, he was later revealed to be a pretender and was executed at the Tower of London. The only
clue would come in 1674, when the skeletons of two children were found during renovations to the
Tower. While these were never proven to be the bodies of the Princes in the Tower, the discovery
fueled speculation that the boys had been murdered, with their uncle Richard III the most likely
culprit.
Guy Fawkes
Guy Fawkes was a soldier and revolutionary who was imprisoned in the Tower of London for his
role in the notorious Gunpowder Plot. A militant Catholic, in 1604 Fawkes became embroiled in an
audacious plan to assassinate the Protestant King James I and other members of the British
government by blowing up the House of Lords. After renting the storage room beneath Westminster
Palace, Fawkes and his accomplices packed the cellar with 35 barrels of gunpowder, which they
planned to detonate on November 5, 1605, during the opening of Parliament.
The plot was foiled after an anonymous letter led authorities to search the cellar, and Fawkes was
captured when he was found guarding the door. He was then sent to the Tower of London and
confined to the infamous cell known as the Little Ease, a cramped room that prevented its
occupant from either standing up straight or lying down. Following intense interrogation and torture
most likely on the rackFawkes exposed the other men involved in the plot. Found guilty of
treason, he was condemned to be hanged, drawn and quartered at the palace yard at Westminster,
but he avoided this gruesome punishment by throwing himself from the gallows and breaking his
own neck. The Gunpowder Plot would later become the inspiration for Guy Fawkes Day, a British
holiday celebrated every November 5.
Lady Jane Grey
Lady Jane Greys meteoric rise and fall saw her go from ruler of England to a prisoner in the Tower
of London in little more than a week. The teenage Grey was installed as queen of England in July
1553 after her cousin Edward VI died without a male heir. Desperate to thwart his Catholic halfsister Marys claim to the throne, Edward VI had chosen Grey as his successor in order to ensure
the crown remained under Protestant control.
The new queens reign would last only nine days. After Mary raised a large band of supporters, the
royal government abruptly switched their allegiance and declared her the rightful queen of England.
Forced to relinquish the crown, Grey was taken prisoner and moved from the Towers royal
apartments to the Gentleman Gaolers lodgings. While she was kept under constant guard, she was
allowed occasional walks around the castle grounds and even given a weekly allowance. Grey was
tried and found guilty of treason in November 1553, but was quickly pardoned by Queen Mary I. A
final twist of fate came in January 1554, when Greys fathers participation in a Protestant rebellion
led the royal government to proceed with its death sentence. Grey was then beheaded on the Tower
Green on February 12, 1554.
Rudolf Hess
By the 20th century the Tower of London had primarily become a tourist site and storage facility for
the Crown Jewels. But during World War II the castle was briefly restored to its role as a state
prison when it held two high profile Nazis captured on British soil. One of these men was Josef
Jakobs, a German spy apprehended in rural England. Jakobs became the last man put to death at the
Tower of London when he was executed by a firing squad in August 1941.
Even more famous was Deputy to the Fhrer Rudolf Hess, who served as Hitlers second-incommand in the Nazi Party. Hess was captured in May 1941 after he parachuted into Scotland as

part of a renegade plan to negotiate peace with the British. Doubtful of Hesss motives, Prime
Minister Winston Churchill had him sent to the Tower, making him the final state prisoner to be
held at the castle. Hess would only remain for a few days, but rumors that he was hidden away in
the Tower would persist for several months. Hess was later tried at Nuremberg and given a life
sentence. He died at Spandau Prison, West Berlin, in 1987.