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TC 503

Digital Communication Theory

Course Teacher:
Dr. Muhammad Imran Aslam

BASEBAND
DEMODULATION/DETECTION

Signal Space Representation


Detection of Binary Signal in Gaussian Noise
Matched Filters and Correlators
Bayes Decision Criterion
Maximum Likelihood Detector
Error Performance

Why Demodulate
In baseband signaling the received waveform is
already in the form of pulses then why demodulate?
Because the waveform in not in the original shape
Pulses are smeared into each other i.e. have
intersymbol interference (ISI).
The goal of baseband demodulator (or receiving
filter) is recover the baseband pulse with best
possible signal to noise ratio (SNR).
Equalization may be used to compensate channelinduced interference.
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Why Demodulate
Signal processing at the receiver is not affected by
the frequency translation
Bandpass signals are first converted to baseband
signals (frequency down conversion) and then
required signal processing is used.
For AWGN channels, the signal impairments only
occur due to thermal noise.

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Demodulation and Detection

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Demodulation and Detection

Description of Blocks
Frequency Down-conversion: Used for converting bandpass
signal into baseband signal
Receiving Filter: used to recover baseband pulse with best
possible signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), free from any ISI.
The optimum receiving filter is called matched filter or
correlator
Equalizing Filter: Used to compensate channel distortion
Sampler: At the end of each symbol duration T, the output of
the sampler, the predetection point, yields a sample z(T),
sometimes called test statistic. z(T) has a voltage directly
proportional to the energy the of the received symbol and
inversely proportional to the noise.
Detector: Make the decision (detection) regarding the digital
meaning of the sample. Dr. M. Imran Aslam
6

Detection of Binary Signal in Gaussian Noise


For any binary channel, the transmitted signal over a symbol
interval (0,T) is:

s1 (t ) 0 t T
si (t ) =
s2 (t ) 0 t T

for a binary 1
for a binary 0

The received signal r(t) degraded by noise n(t) and possibly


degraded by the impulse response of the channel hc(t), is

r (t ) = si (t ) * hc (t ) + n(t )

i = 1,2

Where n(t) is assumed to be zero mean AWGN process


For ideal distortionless channel where hc(t) is an impulse function
and convolution with hc(t) produces no degradation, r(t) can be
represented as: (Referred to as AWGN channel)

r (t ) = si (t ) + n(t )

i = 1,2

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

0t T

Detection of Binary Signal in Gaussian Noise

The recovery of signal at the receiver consist of two parts


Filter
Reduces the effect of noise (as well as Tx induced ISI) by
optimizing signal to noise ratio
The output of the filter is sampled at t=T. This reduces the
received signal to a single variable z(T) called the test
statistics
Detector (or decision circuit)
Compares the z(T) to some threshold level 0 , i.e.,
H
where H1 and H2 are the two
>
z(T ) < 0
possible binary hypothesis
1

H2

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Receiver Functionality
The recovery of signal at the receiver consist of two parts:
1. Waveform-to-sample transformation (Blue Block)
Demodulator followed by a sampler
At the end of each symbol duration T, predetection point
yields a sample z(T), called test statistic

z (T ) =
ai (T ) + n0 (T ) i =
1, 2

2.

Where ai(T) is the desired signal component,


and n0(T) is the noise component
Detection of symbol
Assume that input noise is a Gaussian random process and
receiving filter is linear
2

1
1 n0

p ( n0 ) =
exp
0 2
2 0
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Then output is another Gaussian random process (with same variance


and different mean) Therefore, likelihoods of s1 and s2 are
2
2

1
1 z a1
1
1 z a2
p( z | s2 )
p( z | s1 )
exp
exp
=
=

0 2
0 2
2 0
2 0
Where 0 2 is the noise variance
The ratio of instantaneous signal power to average noise power ,
(S/N)T, at a time t=T, out of the sampler is:
Need to achieve maximum (S/N)T
ai2
S
= 2

0
N T

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

10

Detection
Matched filter reduces the received signal to a single variable z(T),
after which the detection of symbol is carried out
Detection is performed by choosing the hypothesis that results
from the threshold measurement
The concept of maximum likelihood detector is based on Statistical
Decision Theory (Bayesian criterion)
It allows us to
formulate the decision rule that operates on the data
optimize the detection criterion

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

11

Detection
The basic binary Detection criterion can be written as
H1
>
<
H2

z(T ) 0
Where, H1 and H2 are the two possible (binary) hypotheses. The
inequality relation ship indicates that hypothesis H1 is chosen if
> 0 , and hypothesis H2 is chosen if < 0 . If
= 0 , the decision can be an arbitrary one. Choosing H1 is
equivalent to deciding that signal s1( t) was sent and hence a
binary 1 is detected . Similarly, choosing H2 is equivalent to
deciding that signal s2(t) was sent, and hence a binary 0 is
detected.
How to choose threshold? minimize probability of error
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

12

Probabilities Review
P[s1], P[s2] a priori probabilities
These probabilities are known before transmission
P[z]
probability of the received sample
p(z|s1), p(z|s2) Likelihood
conditional pdf of received signal z, conditioned on the class si
P[s1|z], P[s2|z] a posteriori probabilities
After examining the sample, we make a refinement of our previous
knowledge
P[s1|s2], P[s2|s1]
Probabilities of wrong decision
P[s1|s1], P[s2|s2]
Probabilities of correct decision

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

13

How to Choose the threshold?


Maximum Likelihood Ratio test and Maximum a posteriori (MAP)
criterion:
Decide
If
p(s1 | z) > p(s2 | z)
H1
Decide
else p(s2 | z) > p(s1 | z) H 2
Problem is that a posteriori probabilities are not known.
p( z | s )P(s )
Solution: Use Bayes theorem:
i
i

p(s | z) =
i

p( z)

Therefore, Decision is based on the following inequality

p( z|s1 )P(s1 )
P( z)

H1
>
<
H2

p( z|s2 )P(s2 )
P( z)
H1

p( z | s1)P(s1)

>
<
H2

p( z | s2 )P(s2 )

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

14

Likelihood ratio is defined as:


L( z) p( z|s1 )
p( z|s2 )

MAP criterion: (Based on maximum likelihood ratio test)


The rule for minimizing the error probability states that we should
choose hypothesis H1 if the ratio of likelihoods is greater than the
ratio of a priori probabilities. Therefore

L( z) p( z|s1 )
p( z|s2 )

H1
>
<
H2

P(s2 )
P(s1 )

[Likelihood ratio test (LRT)]

In this inequality, P(s1) and P(s2 ) are the a priori probabilities that
s1(t) and s2(t), respectively, are transmitted, and H1 and H2 are the
two possible hypotheses.
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

15

When the two signals, s1(t) and s2(t), are equally likely,
i.e., P(s2) = P(s1) = 0.5, then the decision rule becomes

p
(
z
|
s
)
1
L( z) =
p( z|s2 )

H1
>
<
H2

1 [Maximum likelihood ratio test]

This is known as maximum likelihood ratio test because


we are selecting the hypothesis that corresponds to the
signal with the maximum likelihood.
In terms of the Bayes criterion, it implies that the cost of
both types of error is the same

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

16

Substituting the pdfs


2

1
1 z a1
H1 :=
p( z | s1 )
exp

0 2
2 0
2

1
1 z a2
H 2 :=
p ( z | s2 )
exp

0 2
2 0
H1
p ( z | s1 ) >
1
L( z ) =
p ( z | s2 ) <
H2
2

1
1 z a1 H1
exp

0 2
2 0 >
1

2
1 za <
1
2
exp
H
2
0 2
2 0
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

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H1

1 z a 2 1 z a 2 >
1
2
1
exp
+

2 0 <
2 0

H2
H1
1
exp 2
2 0
1
exp 2
2 0

{( z a )
2

( z a1 )

>
1

<
H2

H1
>
2
2
2
2
z 2za2 + a2 z + 2 za1 a1
1
<
H2
H1

1
>
2
2
exp 2 2 z (a1 a2 ) (a1 a2 )
1
2 0
<
H2

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

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Hence:

H1
z (a1 a2 ) (a12 a22 ) >
exp
1

2
2
2 0
0

<
H2

Taking the log of both sides will give

H1

z (a1 a2 ) (a12 a22 ) >


ln{L( z )} =2
ln1 =
0

2
<
2 0
0
H2

H1
z (a1 a2 ) > (a12 a22 ) (a1 + a2 )(a1 a2 )

=
2
2
<
2 0
2 02
0
H2
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

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Hence

H1
> 02 (a1 + a2 )(a1 a2 )
z
<
2 02 (a1 a2 )

H1

> (a1 + a2 )
z
0
<
2
H2
H2
where z is the test statistics and 0 is optimum threshold (based
on minimum error criterion)

For equally likely signals, the optimum threshold 0 passes through


the intersection of the likelihood functions, as shown in the Figure
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

20

For antipodal signal, s1(t) = s2 (t) a1 = a2


This means that if received signal was positive,
s1 (t) was sent, else s2(t) was sent

H1
>
z
0
<
H2

A detector that minimizes the error probability (for the case


where the signal classes are equally-likely) is also known as a
maximum likelihood detector.
If this was an M-ary instead of a binary example, there would
be a total of M likelihood functions representing the M signal
classes to which a received signal might belong. The maximum
likelihood decision would then be to choose the class that
had the greatest likelihood of all M likelihoods.
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

21

Probability of Error
Error will occur if
s1 is sent s2 is received

P ( H 2 | s1 ) = P (e | s1 )
P (e | s1 )

= p ( z | s1 ) dz

s2 is sent s1 is received

P ( H1 | s2 ) = P (e | s2 )
P (e | s2 )

= p ( z | s2 ) dz
0

The total probability of error is:

Pe
=

P (e, s )
=

i =1

P (e | s1 ) P ( s1 ) + P (e | s2 ) P ( s2 )

P ( H 2 | s1 ) P ( s1 ) + P( H1 | s2 ) P( s2 )
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

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If signals are equally likely: P(s1) = P(s2) = 1/2

=
Pe P ( H 2 | s1 ) P( s1 ) + P( H1 | s2 ) P( s2 )
1
=
[ P( H 2 | s1 ) + P( H1 | s2 )]
2

Pe

1
=
[ 2 P( H1 | s2 )] [As P( H 2 | s1 ) P( H1 | s2 ) by symmetry]
2
Pe = P( H1 | s2 )

Numerically, Pe is the area under the tail of either of the


conditional distributions p(z|s1) or p(z|s2) and is given by:
Pe =

p ( z | s2 ) dz

1
1 z a2
0 2 exp 2 0 dz
0

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

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1
1 z a2
Pe
0 2 exp 2 0 dz
0

( z a2 )
Substituting u =

( a1 a2 )
2 0

u2
1
exp du
2
2

The above equation cannot be evaluated in closed form (Need to use


tables of Q-function). Therefore,

a1 a2
Pe = Q

x2
1
Q( x)
exp
x 2
2
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

The Q-function can be


approximated by this expression
(provided x is large)
24

Table for computing of Q-Functions

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

25

Problem
Assume that in a binary digital communication system, the
signal component out of the correlator receiver is ai( T) = +1
or 1 V with equal probability. If the Gaussian noise at the
correlator output has unit variance, find the probability of a
bit error.

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

26

Problem
Bipolar pulse signals, si(t) (i = 1, 2), of amplitude 1 V are
received in the presence of AWGN that has a variance of
0.1 V2.Determine the optimum (minimum probability
of error) detection threshold, 0, for matched filter
detection if the a priori probabilities are:
(a) P(s1) = 0.5;
(b) P(s1) = 0.7;
(c) P(s1) = 0.2;
(d) Explain the effect of the a priori probabilities on the
value of 0

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

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(Assuming that the linear filter is simple integrator)

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

28

(b) Using likelihood ratio test (LRT) [See derivation of slides # 10-14]
H1
z (a1 a2 ) (a a ) > P( s2 )
exp

2
2
2

0
0

< P( s1 )
H2
2
1

2
2

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Since

a12 = a22

29

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

30

Problem
A binary communication system transmits signals si(t) (i =
1, 2). The receiver test statistic z(T) = ai+ n0, where the
signal component ai is either a1 = +1 or a2 = 1 and the
noise component n0 is uniformly distributed, yielding the
conditional density functions p(z|si) given by

and

find the probability of a bit error Pe for the case of equally


likely signaling and the use of an optimum decision
threshold.
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

31

Solution

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

32

Error Performance of One Dimensional Signals


One Dimensional Signal Constellation (PAM Singals)

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

33

Constellation Diagram
Is a method of representing the symbol states of modulated bandpass
signals in terms of their amplitude and phase
In other words, it is a geometric representation of signals
There are three types of binary signals:
Antipodal
Two signals are said to be antipodal if one signal is the negative
of the other
s1 (t ) = s0 (t )
The signal have equal energy with signal point on the real line

ON-OFF
Are one dimensional signals either ON or OFF with signaling
points falling on the real line

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

34

With OOK (On-Off Keying), there are just 2 symbol states to map onto
the constellation space
a(t) = 0 (no carrier amplitude, giving a point at the origin)
a(t) = A cos wct (giving a point on the positive horizontal axis at a
distance A from the origin)

Orthogonal
Requires a two dimensional geometric representation since there are
two linearly independent functions s1(t) and s0(t)
Typically, the horizontal axis is taken as a
reference for symbols that are Inphase
with the carrier cos wct, and the vertical
axis represents the Quadrature carrier
component, sin wct
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

35

Error Probability of Binary Signals


Recall:

a1 a0
Pe = Q

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

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Recall

a1 a0
Pe = Q

Where we have replaced a2 by a0.

To minimize Pe, we need to maximize:

a1 a0

or

(a1 a0 ) 2

20

Where

We have

(a1 a0 ) 2
=
2

Ed
2 Ed
=
N0 / 2 N0

Therefore,

a1 a0 1 (a1 a0 ) 2 1 2 Ed
=
=
=
2
2 0
2
2 N0
0
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Ed
2 N0
37

The probability of bit error is given by:

Ed
Pe = Q
2 N0

(3.63)

Ed = [s1 (t ) s0 (t )] dt
2

= [s1 (t )] dt + [s0 (t )] dt 2 [s1 (t ) s0 (t )]


T

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

38

The probability of bit error for antipodal signals:

2 Eb
Pe = Q
N0

The probability of bit error for orthogonal signals:

Eb
Pe = Q

N0

The probability of bit error for unipolar signals:

Eb
Pe = Q
2 N0

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

39

Bipolar signals require a factor of 2 increase in energy compared to


orthogonal signals
Since 10log102 = 3 dB, we say that bipolar signaling offers a 3 dB better
performance than orthogonal signaling

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

40

Comparing BER Performance

For Eb / N 0 = 10dB
PB ,orthogonal = 9.2 x10 2
PB ,antipodal = 7.8x10 4

For the same received signal to noise ratio, antipodal provides lower bit
error rate than orthogonal
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

41

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

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The probability of bit error for antipodal signals:

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

2 Eb
PB = Q
N0

43

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