The type of connecting medium used: bolted connections, welded connections, boltedwelded connections riveted connections.
The type of internal forces the connections are expected to transmit: shear (Type PR,
semi-rigid, simple) connections, moment (Type FR, rigid) connections.
The type of structural elements that made up the connections: single-plate angle
connections, double web angle connections, top and seated angle connections, seated
beam connections, etc.
The type of members the connections are joining: beam-to-beam connections (beam
splices), column-to-column connections (column splices), beam-to-column connections,
hanger connections.
To design a connection properly, a designer must have a through understanding of the behavior
of the joint under loads. Different modes of failure can occur depending on the geometry of the
connection and the relative strengths and stiffness of the various components of the connection.
To ensure that the connection can carry the applied loads, a designer must check for all limit
states pertinent to each component of the connection and for the connection as a whole.
Connections may be designed by distributing the internal forces and moments in a realistic
manner, bearing in mind the relative stiffness of elements that make up the connection. The
internal forces and moments must be in equilibrium with the applied forces and moments. Each
element participating in the assumed load paths should be capable of resisting the forces
assumed in the analysis and at the implied deformation within the elements deformation
capacity.
Where a connection is subject to impact, vibration, or frequent reversal of significant stress,
welding is to be the preferred method of joining.
Ease of fabrication and erection are factors to be considered in the design of all joints and
splices. Attention should be paid to:
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Attention should also be paid to the requirements for subsequent inspection and maintenance.
Members meeting at a joint should normally be arranged with their centroidal axes intersecting
at a point. Where there is eccentricity at intersections, the members and connections should be
designed to accommodate the resulting moments. For bolted angles, the setting out lines of the
bolts may be adopted instead of the centroidal axes.
TYPES OF JOINTS
The types of joints in structural connections depend on many design considerations, including the
size and shape of the members coming into the joint, the type of loading, the amount of joint
area available for connection, and the relative
costs for various types of connections. There
are five basic types of connections although
many variations and combinations are found in
practice. The five basic types are the butt,
lap, tee, corner, and edge joints, as shown in
Fig. 7.1.
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Tee Joints are used to fabricate built up sections such as tees, H-shapes, plate girders, bearing
stiffeners, hangers, brackets, and in general, pieces framing in at right angles. This type of
joint is especially useful in that it permits sections to be built up of flat plates which can be
joined by either fillet or groove welds.
Corner Joints are used principally to form built-up rectangular box sections such as used for
columns and for beams required to resist high torsional forces.
Edge Joints are generally not structural but are most frequently used to keep two or more
plates in a given plane or to maintain initial alignment.
The variations and combinations of the five basic types of joints discussed so far are virtually
infinite. Since there is usually more than one way to connect one structural member to another,
the designer is left with the decision for selecting the best joint (or combination of joints) in
each given situation.
BOLTS AND BOLTED CONNECTIONS
A bolt a metal made pin made generally of mild steel. At its one end, there is head and the shank
is threaded to take the nut at the other end. Structural
bolts are usually with square heads and the nuts can be
either square or hexagonal. A typical bolt is shown in Fig.
7.3.
Bolted connections are connections whose components
are fastened together primarily by bolts. The strength
of a connection is to be taken as the lesser of the
strength of the connected parts or that of the
fasteners. To get the maximum strength of a bolted
connection, the connected parts should be tightly
clamped between the bolt head and the nut. Nuts should
Fig. 7.3 Bolt assembly
be locked in position by some locking devices so that they
may not become loose due to shock, etc., or at least the top of the thread should be burred
when the must is no. Under the bolt head and the nut steel, washers should be used to prevent
the bearing of the bolt against the surface of the connected members. Washers should be of
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such a thickness that the thread is clear of the hole in the plate. The shanks also should project
beyond the nuts by at least one full thread.
Depending on the direction and line of action of the loads relative to the orientation and location
of the bolts may be loaded in tension, shear, or a combination of tension and shear. Typical
bolted connections are shown in Fig. 7.4.
For bolts subjected to shear forces, the design shear strength of the bolts also depends on
whether or not the treads of the bolts are excluded from the shear planes.
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R1 R2
R
... 6
d
d2
d6
(b)
R2
R1d1
;
d1
R2
R2d 2
;
d2
...,
R6
R6d 6
d6
Rd
R d2
R d2
M 1 1 2 2 ... 6 6
d1
d2
d6
R
1 d12 d 22 ... d 62
d1
R
1 d2
d1
Md1
2
d
R1
R2
Md2
;
2
d
R3
Md3
; ...,
2
d
R6
Md6
2
d
Or in general,
Md
2
d
(d)
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Which gives the force R on the fastener at a distance D from the centre of rotation.
It is usually convenient to work with the horizontal and vertical components of R, Rx and Ry,
respectively, obtained when the horizontal and vertical components of d, x and y, respectively
are used in equation (d)
From Fig.
Rx
y
x
and R y
d
d
(e)
Rx
My
Mx
and R y
2
2
d
d
(f)
Rx
My
Mx
and R y
2
2
2
x y
x y
2
By taking the vector sum of Rx and R y, the total force R on the fastener becomes
R Rx2 Ry2
To compute the total force on a fastener in an eccentric shear connection such as shown in Fig.
4.12.2a, the direct shear force Rv is
Rv
P
N
4.6
5.6
6.5
6.8
8.8
10.9
fyb (MPa)
fub (MPa)
240
400
300
500
300
600
480
600
640
800
900
1000
The design yield stress fyb can be derived from the grade by multiplying the first number by the
second number times 10. The design ultimate stress fub is the first number times 100 (stresses
in MPa).
Bolts of grade 8.8 are used most frequently.
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Bolt Holes
Holes can be formed by drilling or punching. The maximum clearance is standard holes are:
1mm for M12 and M14 bolts
2mm for M16 to M24 bolts
3mm for M27 and larger bolts
Bolt holes made in the connected parts may be standard-sized, oversized, short-slotted, or longslotted. Table 7.2 gives the maximum hole dimension for ordinary construction usage per EBCS
3, 1995.
Standard holes can be used for both bearing-type and slip-critical connections. Oversized
holes are to be used only for slip-critical connections. Short-slotted and long-slotted holes can
be used for both bearing-type and slip-critical connections, provided that, when such holes are
used for bearing, the direction of the slot is transverse to the direction of loading.
Table 7.2. Maximum dimension of holes (EBCS 3 1995)
Bolt shank
Clearance hole
Oversize
Short slotted
diameter
diameter [mm]
hole
hole dimensions
[mm]
diameter
[mm]
[mm]
d 14
d+1
d+4
d+1
d+4
14< d 22
d+2
d+5
d+2
d+4
d = 24
d+2
d+6
d+2
d+8
d 27
d+3
d+8
d+3
d+ 10
Long slotted
hole dimensions
[mm]
d+1
d+2
d+2
d+3
2.5d
2.5d
2.5d
2.5d
Spacing Requirements
The positioning of holes for bolts should be such as to
prevent corrosion and local buckling and to facilitate the
installation of the bolts.
The positioning of the holes shall also be in conformity
with the limits of validity for the rules used to determine
the design resistances of the bolts with reference to
EBCS 3.
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1.5d0. respectively, where d0 is the nominal bolt diameter. Note that the end distance may need to be
larger than this to provide adequate bearing resistance.
Table 7.3. Provides a summary of edge and end distances as well as spacing requirements for bolt holes.
The maximum value of the end or edge distance should be restricted to the larger of 12t or 150mm, where
t is the thickness of the thinner outer ply.
Table 7.3. Maximum dimension of holes (EBCS 3 1995)
e1 = 1.2d0
Structural component
protected against
Max
wetting and corrosion
p1 = 14t 200 mm
e1 = 12t 150 mm
All other cases
Edge and end distance in the direction perpendicular
Hole spacing in the direction
to the loading
perpendicular to the loading
e2 = 1.5d0
p2 = 3.0d0
Min
Limiting bolt shear
Limiting bolt shear
e2 = 1.2d0
P2 = 2.4d0
capacity reduced
capacity reduced
E2 = 40mm +4t
Max
P2 = 14t 200 mm
e2 = 12t 150mm
Note: values in this table have been slightly modified to reflect recent changes in Eurocode 3.
e1 = 40mm + 4t
A minimum center-to-center bolt spacing of 2.2d0 in the direction of stress, p1, is recommended.
The corresponding recommended minimum spacing, p2, normal to the direction of stress is 3d0.
The maximum spacing of bolts in any direction should be such that local compressive buckling of
outstand elements can be prevented.
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Connected Parts.
Bearing Resistance.
The bearing resistance of each ply in a connection may be determined by summing the
resistance, Fbp,Rd, obtained at all bolt locations.
Fbb. Rd
d t f bp , d
1 t fbp .d
e1
2
mb
Mb
(7.1)
Where:
d = the nominal diameter of bolt
t = the thickness of the connected ply, or if the bolts countersunk, the thickness if the
ply minus half of the depth of countersinking.
fbp.d = the design bearing strength of the connected parts = 0.8 (fu + fy)
in which fu = the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength of the connected part
fy = the specified minimum yield strength of the connected part
e1 = the edge distance
Tension Capacity
The tensile capacity of the connected part subject to collinear forces should be based on the
lesser of:
The ultimate resistance of the net section which may be taken as:
N u. Rd
0.9k r An f u
M 2
mL 1.25
(7.2)
Where:
Kr = 1.09r + 3rd/c
r = the force transmitted by the bolt or bolts at the section considered, divided by the
tension force in the member at that section
d = nominal bolt diameter
c = spacing of bolts perpendicular to line of stress. In the case of a single bolt, s = width
of shear of plate
N p1. RT
A fy
(7.3)
M0
If ductile behavior is required then the plastic resistance must be less than the net section
ultimate resistance.
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Veff , Rd
0.6 x f y x Av.eff
M0
(7.4)
Where
M0 = 1.1. = partial safety factor
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of steel
Av,eff = effective shear area subject to block shear.
The effective shear area Av.eff for block shear (Art.6.2.3.2, EBCS 3 1995) is determined from:
Av.eff = t (Lv + L1 + L2 nd0)
(7.5)
Net Areas
The area of the bolt to be used in calculations in tension should be taken as the tensile stress
area as defined in the appropriate standard.
For bolts in shear, the greater shank area may be used if it can be guaranteed that the
threaded portion will be excluded from the shear plane: consideration should be given to the
possibility that bolts may be inserted from either direction. If no such guarantee can be given
the tensile stress area should be assumed.
Bearing
The bearing resistance of the bolt may be determined as:
Fbb. Rd
Where
2.5 f bb d t
Mb
(7.6)
Shear Capacity
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Shear connections are connections designed to resist shear force only. These connections are
not expected to provide appreciable moment restraint to the connection members
Bolts designed to resist a factored shear force Fv,sd, calculated using appropriate load
combinations, must satisfy the condition:
Fv,sd Fv,Rd
(7.7)
The shear fore to carried per each plane of a bolt is Fv,sd = Fsd/m, where Fsd is the total shear
force to be transmitted through the joint and m is the number of shearing surfaces.
The shear capacity of a bolt is dependent on the number of shear planes and their position along
the bolt. For each shear plane the shear resistance in the absence of tension can be determined
as follows:
a.
Fv. Rd f v.d A
0.6 f ub . A
(7.8a)
Mb
Fv. Rd f v. d As
0.6 f ub As
(7.8b)
Mb
0.87 f yb Mb
Tensile Capacity
If a tensile force is applied to the connection such that the direction of load is parallel to the
longitudinal axes of the bolts, the bolts will be subjected to tension. A typical application in
which bolts are subjected to such type of actions is in bolted hanger-type connections. Bolts
designed to resists externally applied factored tensile load Ft,sd, calculated using appropriated
load combinations, must satisfy the condition:
Ft,Sd Ft,Rd
(7.9a)
Where
Ft,Rd = design tension strength of the bolt
f td As
0.70 f ub Aeff
Mb 1.25
(7.9b)
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0.70 f ub
Mb
1.0 f yb
Mb
in which fub = the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength of the fastener
fvb = the specified minimum yield strength of the fastener
Fv , Sd
Fv. Rd
Ft .Sd
1.0
1.4 Ft . Rd
(7.10)
Where Fv,Rd and Ft.Rd may be taken from Eqs. (7.8) and (7.9), respectively.
Welds and Welded Connections
Welded connections are connections whose components are joined together primarily by welds.
Types of welded connections
The four basic types of welds are the butt, fillet, slot, and plug welds. In welded construction
for buildings approximately 80% of the welds are fillet welds and 15% are butt welds. The
remaining 5% are plug, slot and spot welds.
Each basic type of weld has specific advantages which determines the extent of its usage. The
four basic types of welds and their variations constitute virtually all of the structural welds
found in common practice.
Butte Welds
The principal use of butt welds is to connect structural members which are aligned in the same
plane. Since butt welds must transmit the entire load at a particular joint they usually must have
at least as good structural properties as the members which they connect; in which case they
may be reffered to as full penetration welds. There are many variations of butt welds and each
is classified according to its particular shape. Each type of butt weld requires a specific edge
preparation and is named accordingly.
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Fillet Welds
A fillet weld is a weld of approximately triangular
cross-section applied to the surface profile of the
plates. Fillet welds owing to their overall economy, ease
of fabricating, and adaptability are the most widely
used of all the basic welds. Fillet welds offer great
flexibility to the designer since they are adaptable to a
large variety of connections, a few of which were shown
in Fig. 7.9. They generally require less precision in the
fitting up since the plates being joined can be moved
about more than butt welds that may require specific
gaps or critical alignment.
This is particularly advantageous to welding in the field
or in realigning members or connections that were
fabricated within accepted tolerance but which may not
fit as accurately as desired. In addition, the edges of
pieces being joined seldom need special preparation
Fig. 7.9 Fillet welds
such as beveling or squaring since the edge conditions
resulting from the usual flame cutting or from shear cutting procedures are generally adequate.
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The following parameters shall be checked for the suitability of a welded connection:
Minimum size of leg
Maximum size of leg
Minimum length of weld
End returns
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The two equations can be used to solve for L1 and L2. If end returns are used, the added
strength of the end returns should also be included in the calculations. Generally the design of
welds are done as per Art. 6.5, EBCS 3 1995.
Connections in Multi-story Buildings
Steel frame buildings consist of a number of different types of structural elements, each of
which has to be properly attached to the neighboring parts of the structure. This will involve the
use of several forms of connection. The main classes of connection are: beam-to-column
connections, beam-to-beam connections and connections between different members in trusses,
Splicing of columns are normally at every two or three storeys, column bases, connections to
concrete cores and connections with walls, floors and roofs.
Types of Connections
For buildings designed to resist essentially static loading, including wind loads, it will normally be
sufficient to design connections to resist forces that primarily act in one direction only.
However, in seismic zones large load reversals may occur. This load reversal will normally require
a different approach to the design of the load-resisting structure, leading to different forms of
connection.
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For multi-storey buildings the connections between the main structural elements may
conveniently be classified as:
Beam-to-beam connections
Beam-to-column connections
Column splices
Column bases
Bracing connections.
They are as shown in the following Figures
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______________________________
ADDITIONAL READING
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