The framework of industrial building and related structures like crane girders, platforms,
etc.
Railway, highway, pedestrian and other large- and small-span bridges.
Very tall multi-story buildings, exhibition pavilions, roofs, floors, domes, sports-facility
Sheds, as well as building components such as staircases, fire-escape facilities, etc
Special-purpose buildings such as airport terminals and railway stations, aircraft hangars,
shipyards, railway platforms
Special structures. such as, for example, power transmission pylons, television and radio
as well as telecommunication towers, headwork for mines, underground tunnels, oil
derricks, hydraulic engineering works such as dam gates and spillway structures, cranes,
etc
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Special purpose buildings such as airport terminals, railway stations, exhibition pavilions,
conference halls, aircraft hangars, shipyards, railway platforms, in which large space should
be covered with out obstruction of columns, are constructed from structural steels trusses
(see Fig. 1.2 and Fig. 1.3).
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Cross section
Fig. 1.3 Aircraft Maintenance Hangars
Steel is a preferred choice when it comes to industrial structures as it also provides large
column-free space with fewer framing elements. Fig. 1.4 shows the model of such an
industrial building facility making use of steel framing.
Another area where steel and timber find their use is in bridge construction. There are
various kinds of bridges where structural steel can be used effectively and efficiently. in
suspension- and cable-stayed bridges, steel plays a predominant role at least as the cabling
system. Some of the main types of steel bridges are plate girder bridges, truss arch
bridges, cable stayed and suspension bridges (see Fig. 1.5).
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c) Cable-stayed Bridge
d) Suspension Bridge
Fig. 1.5 Use of Steel in Bridge Construction
Several industries and communication facilities call for towers for a variety of purposes.
Steel towers are used for types of towers including microwave transmission for
communications, radio transmission, television transmission, satellite reception, air traffic
controls, flood light stands such as in stadiums and large fly-over intersections, power
transmission lines, metrological measurements, tower-test. Set ups, derricks and crawler
cranes, oil drilling masts both in-land and off-shore facilities, and overhead water tanks,
among others. Figs. 1.6 show the various tower-related application of steel
A number of temporary structures and shed facilities for car parks, gasoline stations,
storage facilities can also be constructed from steel. One such facility is shown in Fig. 1.7
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Fig. 1.7 Use of Steel Members and Panels for Gasoline Station
The corrosive nature of sea water calls for special kind of construction materials for
building off-shore oil and gas facilities. Specially treated steel responds to these
requirements better than most other possible construction materials (see Fig. 1.8).
Specially treated steel finds its wide application in petrochemical industries where chemical
attack and temperature effects could be treated at their highest. Steel structures in
theses industries can form part of the facilities themselves or structural framing for the
housing structures (see Fig. 1.9).
Most industrial buildings need to be provided with handling and hoisting equipment. There
are variety of such equipment used the factories and nearly all of them are built up from
structural steel. Some of the common types are cranes on gantry girders (overhead cranes),
chain pulley blocks, fork lift, derrick cranes, conveyor belts; rope ways, assembly lines,
among others. A typical overhead crane with gantry girders is shown in Fig. 1.10.
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Roof trusses of stadiums and sport facilities are usually made of either cantilever (freestanding) or cable-stayed structural steels (see Fig. 1.11)
Concrete construction requires some kind of temporary support during construction up until
when the concrete has set and attained the necessary strength to support itself. In this
scenario, scaffolding and formworks, that can be built up from steel members can be used
effectively and efficiently (see Fig. 1.12).
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Bracing systems are usually made from structural steel and they provide lateral stability
for a building by resisting winds and earthquakes (see Fig. 1.13).
Steel is also used in composite construction with concrete as shown in Fig. 1.14. This
construction practice improves the fire-resistance property and prevents corrosion of steel
in addition to improving the load-resisting capacity of the resulting structural members.
The ability to resist high loads with a comparatively small size and light weight of
members. Thus for the same strength, steel members are smaller in size and lighter
in weight, as compared to members made of other materials (except for some high
strength aluminum alloys).
Due to its high density, steel is completely non-porous.
The possibility of industrializing the construction work by the use of prefabricated members and mechanized erection at the construction site.
A very long service life, provided care is taken
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Thus, structural steel is the preferred choice for speed of erection, value and quality
The principal drawback of steel members is their susceptibility to corrosion, which
necessitates their painting or the use of other methods for their protection. The second
drawback of steel is its low fire resistance. At high temperatures steel loses most of its
strength, leading to excessive deformation or failure
1.2 Design Philosophy and design Formats
Engineered structures are of such variety that they defy any attempt to enumerate them
except in a general way. The countless problems which arise in their design have prompted
engineers to specialize in the design of particular structures or groups of related
structures, such as, for examples steel structures or timber structures for bridges,
buildings, towers, etc
Design Procedure
There are a number of phases in a design process - from inception to detailing and quantity
estimation.
Functional Planning/Design
The first and often the most difficult problem in design is the development of a plan that
will enable the structure to fulfill effectively the purpose for which it is to be built. If the
structure is a building, for example, the designer must create a plan which is adapted to the
site; which provides a suitable arrangement of rooms, corridors, stairways, elevator, etc.;
which will be aesthetically acceptable and which can be built at a price the client is
prepared to pay. This phase of design, sometimes called functional planning.
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Strength pertains to the general integrity and safety of the structure under extreme load
conditions. The structure is expected to withstand occasional overloads without severe
distress and damage during its lifetime.
Economy concerns the overall material and labor costs required for the design, fabrication,
erection, and maintenance processes of the structure.
A structure should be designed and fabricated to fulfill the following conditions:
Remain fit for use during its intended life
Sustain the loads, which may occur during construction, installation and usage
Localize damage due to accidental overloads.
Have adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs.
The above requirements can be satisfied by using suitable materials, appropriate design and
detailing and specifying quality control procedures for construction and, if necessary, for
maintenance program.
Design Formats
The design of steel structures may be controlled by several criteria described as limits of
structural usefulness ". They are as follows:
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One or more of these conditions must form the basis for any rational design procedure and
their consideration enters into the subject matters to be presented in the subsequentsections for the design of several types of members and structural components.
As a result of the various design criteria, three major design methods and formats have
evolved in practice. At present, steel design can be performed in accordance with one of the
following three formats worldwide.
Al1owable Stress Design (ASD)
In the allowable stress design (ASD), a member is selected such that under expected loads,
known as service or working loads, the stress will not exceed one of the previously
described limits of usefulness. It is performed by specifying expected working design loads
and allowable stresses. The factor of safety is inherent, but usual1y not stated. Also, the
limit of usefulness is usual1y undesignated
This design methodology has been in use for decades for steel design of buildings and
bridges. It continues to enjoy popularity among structural engineers engaged in steel
building design. In allowable stress (or working stress) design, member stresses computed
under the action of service (or working) loads are compared to some pre-designated
stresses, called allowable stresses. The allowable stresses are usually expressed as a
function of the yield stress (fy) or tensile stress (fu) of the material. To account for
overload, under-strength, and approximations used in structural analysis, a factor of safety
is applied to reduce the nominal resistance of the structural member to a fraction of its
tangible capacity.
In so far as the method of analysis is concerned, allowable stress design is based on elastic
analysis to obtain the structural responses such as moments, shear and axial forces that a
member must be designed to carry.
The general formula for an allowable stress design has the form:
Rn m
Qi
Fs i 1
Where: Rn = nominal resistance of the structural component expressed in units of stress
Qi = service or working stress computed from the applied working load type i.
i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)
m = number of load types considered in the design
Rn
allowable stress of structural component
Fs
Plastic Design
Plastic design makes use of the fact that steel sections have reserved strength beyond the
first yield condition, When a section is under flexure, yielding of the cross section occurs in
a progressive manner, commencing with the fibers farthest away from the neutral axis and
ending with the fibers nearest the neutral axis. This phenomenon of progressive yielding
referred to as plastification, means that the cross section does not fail at first yield. The
additional moment that a cross section can carry in excess of the moment that corresponds
to first yield varies depending on the shape of the cross section. To quantify such reserved
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capacity, a quantity called shape factor, defined as the ratio of the plastic moment (moment
that causes the entire cross section to yield, resulting in the formation of a plastic hinge)
to the yield moment (moment that causes yielding of the extreme fibers only) is used.
For an indeterminate structure, failure of the structure will not occur after the formation
of a plastic hinge. After complete yielding of a cross section, force (or, more precisely,
moment) redistribution will occur, in which the unfailed portion of the structure continues
to carry any additional loadings. Failure will occur only when enough cross sections have
yielded to render the structure unstable, resulting in the formation of a plastic collapse
mechanism.
In plastic design the factor of safety is applied to the applied loads to obtain factored
loads. A design is said to have satisfied the strength criterion if the load effects (i.e.,
forces, shears, and moments) computed using these factored loads do not exceed the
nominal plastic strength of the structural component. Plastic design has the form:
m
Rn Qni
i 1
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the determination of load magnitudes. In general, a lower load factor is used for a load that is more
predictable and a higher load factor is used for a load that is less predictable.
Mathematically it can be expressed as:
Rn
li Qi
i 1
Where:
Rn
design strength
li Qi
i 1
Specifications and codes provide the values of pertaining to different loads and also outline the load
combinations to be used on the right-hand side of the above equation. For a safe design, all load
combinations should be investigated, and the design is based on the worst-case scenario.
Although, allowable stress design has been used for decades, the world wide trend is to ward the limit
state approach to design. The national building codes, both EBCS 3 1995 far steel and EBCS 5 1995
far timber structures are also based on the concepts of the limit state design. In view of this trend
and in cognizance of the likelihood that limit state design/LRFD will be the mainstream design method
henceforth, only limit state/LRFD provisions will be covered in this coursework. So, interested
readers on others are advised to refer to relevant literature.
1.3 Materials
Steel is one of the mast important structural materials. Properties of particular importance in
structural usage are high strength compare to any other available material, and ductility (i.e., its
ability to deform substantially in either tension or compression before failure). The most important
structural properties of steel are yield strength and ultimate strength, modulus of elasticity, shear
modulus, Poissons ratio, coefficient of thermal expansion, and its density.
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Elastic region
In this region the stress is proportional to the strain, and Hooke's law applies. The constant
of proportionality is the modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus, E. The modulus of
elasticity for steel has values ranging from 190 - 210 GPa. The modulus of elasticity does
not vary appreciably for the different grades of steel used in construction, and a value of
200 GPa is often used for design. The elastic region ends when the stress reaches h" the
yield stress. For stress below 1; no. plastic, or permanent, deformation will occur in the
steel section. Table 1.1 gives the yield point and the ultimate strength of several grades of
steel, classified according to ASTM designation, and of interest to the structural designer.
Inelastic Region
In this region the steel section deforms plastically under a constant stress, fy- The extent
of this deformation differs for different steel grades. Generally, the ductility (the ability
of a material to undergo plastic deformation prior to fracture) decreases with increasing
steel strength. Ductility is a very important attribute of steel. The ability of structural
steel to deform considerably before failure by fracture allows the structure to undergo
force redistribution when yielding occurs, and it enhances the energy absorption
characteristic of the structure
Strain-Hardening Region
In this region deformation is accompanied by an increase in stress. The peak point of the
engineering stress-strain curve is the ultimate stress, fu. fu is the largest stress the
material can attain under uniaxial condition. In a uniaxial tension test, the specimen
experiences non-uniform plastic deformation (necking) once the stress reaches fu. Beyond fu
deformation proceeds at a rapid rate and equilibrium can be maintained only by a reduction
in the applied load. For design purposes, fu is often regarded as the stress at which failure
is imminent.
Poissons Ratio
Poissons ratio, , is the absolute value of the ratio of the transverse strain to longitudinal
strain under axial load. In the idealized elastic range Poissons ratio for structural steels is
approximately 0.3 while in the plastic range it is about 0.5.
Sear modulus
Shear modulus, G, is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. The shear modulus, G, is
presumed to be constant (= 80 GPa ) for all structural steels.
Thermal expansion
The design of structures to serve under atmospheric temperature rarely involves concern
about high temperature behavior. Knowledge of such behavior is desirable when specifying
welding procedures, and when concerned with the effects of fire as the modulus of
elasticity, yield strength and tensile strength all reduces with increase in temperature. The
coefficient of thermal expansion, , for structural steel is 12 x 10-6 per oc.
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Fatigue
Fatigue failure can occur in members or structures subjected to fluctuating loads such as
crane girders, bridges and offshore structures. Failure occurs through progressive growth
of a crack that starts at a fault and the failure load may be well below its static value.
Welded connections have the greatest effect on the fatigue strength of steel structures.
On the other hand, bolted connections do not reduce the strength under fatigue loading. To
avoid fatigue failure, detail should be such that stress concentrations and abrupt changes
of section are avoided in regions of tensile stress.
Brittle
Structural steel is ductile at temperatures above 10oC, but it becomes more brittle as the
temperature falls, and fracture can occur at low stresses below 0c. To reduce the
likelihood of brittle fracture, it is necessary to take care in the selection of the steel to be
used and to pay special attention to the design detail. Thin plates are more resistant than
thick ones, abrupt changes of section and stress concentration should be avoided. Fillets
welds should not be laid down across tension flanges and intermittent welding should not be
used.
Types of Steel
Structural steels used for construction purposes are generally grouped into several major
classifications according to national and international standards. The American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) classifications are among such widely used standards. The
Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995 also classifies according to their strength.
The following are per the ASTM classification
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EBCS 3, 1995 recognizes three grades of ordinary hot rolled steel as shown in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4 Nominal Values of fy and fu for Various Grades of Structural Steel (EBCS 3, 1995)
Nominal
Grade
Fe 360
Fe 430
Fe 510
Steel
Thickness t (mm)
t 40mm
fy (MPa)
fu (MPa)
235
360
275
430
355
510
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The dimensions and geometric properties of the various hot rolled sections utilized in design
calculation are listed in the tables of manual (see Tables at the back which are obtained
from British Standards).
Structural Fasteners
Every structure is an assemblage of individual parts or members which must be fastened
together, usually at the ends of its members. The two main fastening means are bolting and
welding (with a few and isolated case also riveting and pins). Connections are structural
elements used for joining different members of a framework.
Bolts
Four basic types of bolts are commonly in use; they are designated by ASTM as A307,
A325, A490, and A449
A307 Bolts: These are called unfinished or ordinary bolts and are made from low-carbon
steel. They are furnished in two grades, A and B, the former for the general purposes and
the latter for joints in pipe systems. They are available with several head and nut
configurations, but the hexagonal and square head are most commonly used.
A325 Bolts: The A325 bolt is made of medium carbon steel. It is also used in both hotrolled and cold-formed construction. e are called high-strength bolts. A325 bolts are made
of medium-carbon steel. They are used in both hot-rolled and cold-formed construction.
A490 bolts are made from quenched and tempered alloy steel and thus have higher
strength, than A325 bolts. They are used for general construction purposes.
A449 Bolts: The A449 bolt also of medium carbon steel, is furnished in three ranges of
diameter.
490 Bolts: The A490 bolt is made of alloy steel in one tensile-strength grade.
Table 1.5 Properties of Structural Bolts (ASTM)
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Table 1.6 Nominal Values of Yield Strength fyb and Ultimate Tensile Strength fub for Bolts (EBCS 3, 1995)
Bolt Grade
fyb (MPa)
fub (MPa)
4.6
240
400
4.8
320
400
5.6
300
500
5.8
400
500
6.8
480
600
8.8
640
800
10.9
900
1000
Welding
Welding is the process of joining metal parts by means of heat and pressure, which cause
fusion of the parts (resistance welding), or by heating the metal to the fusion temperature,
with or without the addition of weld metal (fusion welding).
Welds are classified according to their type as groove, fillet, plug, and slot. The detailed
treatment of welding and the electrodes which are used as filler materials are specified in
different standards. The detail will be covered in chapter seven, the design of connections.
Specifications and Building Codes
Then design of steel structures is generally done within the framework of codes giving
specific requirements for materials, structural analysis, member proportioning, etc.
Specification serves as a guide for the engineer to arrive at a safe and acceptable design.
It is also a guarantee to the owner that the resulting structure will comply with basic
standards to ensure safety, utility and economy.
The designer doing steel structures in various disciplines, such as buildings, bridges, etc, will
have to follow closely the relevant design requirements in the appropriate specifications and
design codes as minimum requirements.
The following are some important specifications for concrete structures.
EBSC 1
EBCS 3
EBCS 4
EBCS 8
EC 3
AISC
AWS
AASHTO
BS 5950
AREA
Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Basis of Design and Actions on Structures.
Ethiopian Building Code Standard for the Design of Steel Structures.
Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures.
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