Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2001, 15(4), 420425

q 2001 National Strength & Conditioning Association

Effect of Maximal Aerobic Power on Match

Performance in Elite Soccer Referees
CARLO CASTAGNA

AND

STEFANO DOTTAVIO

Italian Soccer Federation (FIGC) and Italian Referees Association (AIA), Rome, Italy.

ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to verify whether referees maximal aerobic power could influence competitive match exercise intensity. Eight elite-level referees (mean 6 SD age, 37.6
6 3.4 years) were each observed during 2 Serie A matches
(n 5 16), and the mean of each match activity was used for
analysis. Match activities were monitored with encoderequipped cameras. VO2max was assessed under field conditions with a portable device during a progressive multistage protocol. The VO2max of each subject was expressed
in absolute terms (V O2maxab, Lmin21), relative terms
(VO2maxrel, mlkg21min21), and independent from body
mass (VO2maxind, mlkg20.75min21). Significance was set at p
# 0.05 for all measurements. Total distance covered during
the match correlated significantly with VO2maxind (r 5 0.77)
and VO2maxab (r 5 0.87). VO2maxind, VO2maxrel, and VO2maxab
correlated negatively (p , 0.05) with the time spent standing
still during the match (r 5 20.90, 20.85, and 20.86, respectively, p , 0.05). During the first half of the match, referees
with higher levels of VO2maxrel (r 5 0.93, p , 0.05) and
VO2maxind (r 5 0.90, p , 0.05) were able to cover more distance at medium intensity. In the second half of the match,
medium-intensity distance and low-intensity time correlated
significantly (p , 0.05) with VO2maxab (r 5 0.76) and
VO2maxrel (r 5 0.75), respectively. The results demonstrate
the positive influence of VO2max in determining both the
total amount of distance covered and the exercise intensity
during a game. Higher levels of VO2max may provide referees the opportunity to be more active and therefore closer
to the action on the field during the game.

Key Words: association football, maximal oxygen uptake, match analysis

Reference Data: Castagna, C., and S. DOttavio. Effect
of maximal aerobic power on match performance in
elite soccer referees. J. Strength Cond. Res. 15(4):420425.
2001.

Introduction

ecent studies have shown that refereeing is an exercise mode that relies mostly on the aerobic pathway (7). Corroboration comes from the finding that
during friendly matches, officials exercise at intensities
420

O2max (7). Furtherthat elicit approximately 68% of V

more, during first-division matches, elite-level Italian
soccer referees have been reported to attain, on average, 88% of maximal heart rate (9). This figure is similar to that previously reported in the international literature for elite-level soccer players (4, 21).
Investigators have shown that individual levels of
O2max positively affect the exercise intensity of proV
fessional soccer players (5, 25, 27). To our knowledge,
no research has been carried out to determine possible
influences of the individual level of VO2max on match
activities of elite-level soccer referees. Thus, the aim of
this study was to verify if referees maximal aerobic
power could influence match performance during
highly competitive games. The information gained
about the possible effect of VO2max levels on match
performance, defined as the distance covered and the
time spent in the exercise categories here considered,
can be used to develop specific training drills to enhance aerobic fitness.

Methods
Approach to the Problem and Experimental Design
Previous studies have examined the effect of maximal
oxygen uptake on match performance in elite soccer
players (4, 5, 25, 27). In those studies, the influences of
players cardiorespiratory fitness on the physical expressions of the game were reported as correlations (r
values) between distances covered during the match in
a series of arbitrarily defined match categories and
O2max values. Compared with players, the
players V
analysis of the global distance covered by soccer referees is particularly useful because referees, during
the course of the match, do not experience physical
contact or perform other categories of activity that are
not taken into account in the distance covered (e.g.,
tackling, heading, kicking, getting up from the
ground, etc.) (3). Thus, distances and times spent in
match activities may be considered as valid variables
of the physical involvement of the referees during the
O2max and match coverage
match. Furthermore, V
seem to be role dependent among soccer players;

VO2max and Match Performance in Soccer Refereeing

therefore, is difficult to draw conclusions about the ef O2max on match performance in referees
fects of V
based on the experiments performed using soccer
players. In this study, only official first-division matches were observed, as soccer match intensity has been
demonstrated to be competition-level dependent (4,
13). In light of the previously noted rationale, the in O2max were plotted against disdividual levels of V
tances and times spent in a series of arbitrarily defined
O2max on the
match categories to assess the effect of V
physical stress imposed on elite referees during competitive matches.
It is a common belief among individuals assessing
Italian referees that those referees who are closer to
the action cover more distance during the match than
their counterparts who are more distant from the action. Being closer to the action probably enables referees to be more reliable with regard to the judgments
that they make and lessens the likelihood that they will
commit mistakes. Furthermore, international governing bodies such as Federation Iternationale de Football
Association (FIFA) and Union Europeen de Football
Association (UEFA) consider good aerobic fitness as a
requirement for good refereeing (12).
Subjects
Subjects (N 5 8) were all experienced elite-level referees enrolled in the Commissione Arbitri Nazionali
(CAN) and thus officiating in the Serie A and B Italian
championships. Each referee who took part in this
study had no less than 20 years of officiating experience, of which 5 years were spent at the first-division
level (Serie A B). Three of the officials were international-level referees. The referees were at the moment
of the study in good health and following a supervised
physical training program that we had implemented.
Written consent from all referees was obtained before
the study, after they were given a detailed explanation
as to the nature of the research.
In this study, each referee was observed during 2
regular season first division matches (Serie A). A total
of 16 matches were examined during the course of the
19921993 and 19931994 competitive seasons. The
mean 6 SD age, height, and weight of the referees
were 37.6 6 3.4 years (range, 3141 years); 182.9 6 4.5
cm (range, 179190 cm); and 77.6 6 7 kg (range, 69
90 kg), respectively.
Match Analysis
Referees were observed during the whole match by
means of 2 cameras (Play Controller, Phromos, Italy),
each attached to a tripod, that were equipped with encoders according to the procedure used by Ohashi et
al (18). The cameras were set approximately 10 m
away from one of the sidelines of the football pitch.
Signals of angles obtained by the encoders were sequentially converted into digital data and recorded on
a floppy disc for postmatch analysis (18).

421

From the stored data, the distances covered and the

time spent in each of the match categories were obtained with customized software.
Analysis of match activities was carried out taking
into account 11 categories of activities:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Standing
Walking forward
Low-intensity running (,13 km per hour)
Medium-intensity running (13.118 km per hour)
High-intensity running (18.124 km per hour)
Maximal speed running (24 km per hour);
Walking backward
Running backward
Running sideward
High-intensity activity (HIA, the sum of the activities performed at speed .18.1 km per hour)
11. Unorthodox directional modes distance (the sum
of backward running and inside-ward running, as
described by Reilly and Bowen [22])
The validity and reliability of the method used for
measuring the distances have been reported elsewhere
(10).
We performed z-tests for each of the 11 match categories to verify that the 16-match sample data could
be considered as representative of data in a database
of 96 serie A matches collected and previously analyzed (11).
O2max Assessment
V
Testing Protocol. Participants (N 5 8) were evaluated for
O2max with a progressive multistage protocol conV
ducted under field conditions with K2 technology (K2,
Cosmed, Rome, Italy).
The subjects performed the test running on an athletic track marked with cones every 20 m. After a brief
warm-up carried out on an individual basis, subjects
ran at 8 km per hour for 2 minutes. Thereafter, the
speed was increased every 2 minutes by 2 km per hour
until exhaustion. The pace was set with the help of an
audio player broadcasting prerecorded beeps of an audiocassette. The beep indicated the moment when the
subjects had to pass near a cone to maintain a constant
speed.
Physiologic Measurements. During the tests (N 5 8),
expired air was analyzed with a portable telemetry
system (K2). This system allows the measurement of
oxygen uptake and ventilation. During the test, the K2
system was strapped to each referee with a chest harness. Expired gases were analyzed every 15 seconds,
and the data were transmitted telemetrically to the K2
receiving unit. Before each test, the K2 system was calibrated according to the manufacturers instructions.
The K2 system has previously been described and validated (16).
The highest oxygen-uptake level attained was con O2max). Maxisidered the maximal oxygen uptake (V

422 Castagna and DOttavio

mal oxygen uptake was expressed in absolute terms

(V O 2 max ab , Lmin 21 ), relative terms (V O 2 max rel ,
mlkg21min21), and independent from body mass
(VO2maxind, mlkg20.75min21) (6, 29).
O2max assessment was performed within 2
Each V
weeks of the observed competitions.
Validity and Reliability of the Test Protocol
The test protocol was a modified version of the Montreal Track Test (15), with the same stage duration but
faster speed increments to reduce test time. Subjects
who are tested with this protocol usually become exhausted with 1012 minutes of exercise. Validity studies performed before the commencement of this research revealed that test results did not differ from
laboratory results (n 5 18, p . 0.05). Reliability analysis showed a 0.93 intraclass R (p , 0.01). Field tests
were used because referees felt more motivated under
field conditions than under laboratory conditions, thus
producing more reliable results.

Figure 1. Average distances covered in the match activity

categories during the game (average of 16 serie A
matches).

Statistical Analyses
The data are presented as means 6 SDs. Comparisons
between values for match activities were performed
using the t-test for matched pairs (28). We also performed z-tests comparing the sample means (16
matches) with those of a database of 96 serie A matches previously collected. Relationships between variables were analyzed using Pearson correlation coefficients (r). The a level of significance was set at 5% (p
# 0.05) a priori.

Results
z Score Analysis
Results showed that the mean value of the 11 match
categories could be considered as if randomly drawn
from the 96 matches previously collected and analyzed
(p . 0.05) (11).
Times and Distances for Individual Activity Categories
Whole Match Activity. During an average soccer match,
the referee stood still for 775 6 161 seconds. This represents 14% of the total time played (5,682 6 60 seconds).
The mean total distance covered over the period of
a whole match (;95 minutes) was 11,584 6 1,017 m,
ranging from 10,054 to 12,792 m. The mean distances
covered walking forward and backward were 975 6
146 m and 51 6 31 m, respectively. The mean distances covered by the referees in low-, medium-, and
high-intensity running were 4,840 6 700 m, 2,744 6
370 m, and 1,436 6 449 m, respectively. Runs at maximal speed amounted to 477 6 141 m. In unorthodox
directional modes (22) consisting of backward and
sideward running, the referees covered 966 6 530 m
and 94 6 82 m, respectively (Figure 1).

Figure 2. Differences in activities between the first and

second halves of the match (average of 16 serie A matches).
** p # 0.05.

To highlight the high-intensity activity performed

during the match, the high-speed and maximal speed
runs were grouped to constitute the HIA category. In
that category, referees covered 1,913 6 821 m, or 16%
of the whole match distance.
Differences in Activity Between the First and Second
Halves of Matches. The mean total distance covered during the first and second halves of matches amounted
respectively to 5,977 6 468 m and 5,606 6 584 m (Figure 2). The observed decrease in distance covered (6%)
was significant (p , 0.05).
During the first and the second halves, respectively, referees ran at low intensity for 2,434 6 375 m and
2,406 6 363 m (p . 0.05). In the high-intensity running
category, 717 6 222 m and 719 6 238 m were covered
by the referees during the first and second halves, respectively (p . 0.05). Moreover, no differences (p .
0.05) were found between the distances covered during the first and the second halves in the mediumintensity running category (1,450 6 211 m vs. 1,295 6
223 m, p . 0.05), in the walking forward category (470
6 78 m vs. 505 6 79 m, p . 0.05, Figure 2), and in

VO2max and Match Performance in Soccer Refereeing

423

Table 1. Correlations (r) of aerobic power with activities during the whole match. Times and distances were determined by
motion analysis.

Variable

Standing time

VO2maxrel
VO2maxab
VO2maxind

20.85*
20.86*
.0.90*

Walking
forward time

Mediumintensity
time

Walking
forward distance

0.89*
0.83*
0.91*

20.81*

20.71*

Mediumintensity
distance

Total distance

0.89*
0.84*
0.92*

0.87*
0.77*

rel 5 relative; ab 5 absolute; ind 5 independent from body weight.

* p # 0.05.

Table 2. Correlations (r) of aerobic power with activities during the first and second halves of the match. Times and distances
were determined by motion analysis.
First half

Variable
VO2maxrel
VO2maxab
VO2maxind

Mediumintensity
time
0.93*
0.90*

Walking
forward
time
20.74*

Mediumintensity
distance

Second half
Total
distance

Standing
time

0.79*
0.74*

20.86*
20.74*
20.85*

0.93*
0.91*

Mediumintensity
time

Lowintensity
time

0.74*

0.75*

Mediumintensity
distance
0.76*

0.77*

Total
distance
0.88*
0.76*

rel 5 relative; ab 5 absolute; ind 5 independent from body weight.

* p # 0.05.

the walking backward category (28 6 19 m and 22 6

12 m, p . 0.05).
The referees ran at maximal speed (.24 km per
hour) distances totaling 251 6 241 m and 226 6 203
m during the course of the first and second halves,
respectively (p . 0.05).
Running backward and sideward, referees covered
less distance during the second half (568 6 334 m vs.
398 6 203 m, p , 0.01 and 59 6 31 m vs. 35 6 26 m,
p , 0.05, respectively).
Referees stood still in the course of the first half
for 347 6 94 seconds. The time standing still in the
second half amounted to 428 6 122 seconds. Those
values represented 12% and 15% of the total playing
time for the first and second halves, respectively (p .
0.05).
The first and second halves lasted respectively
2,842 6 49 seconds and 2,839 6 45 seconds. The difference was not significant (p . 0.05).
During the first and second halves, the HIA category (high-speed and maximal speed runs grouped)
totaled 969 6 424 m and 944 6 408 m, respectively.
The difference was not significant (p . 0.05).
Maximal Aerobic Power vs. Match Activities
O2max Values. Mean maximal oxygen uptake
Referees V
expressed in absolute terms, relative terms, and independent from body weight were, respectively, 3.75 6

0.54 Lmin21, 49.30 6 8.0 mlkg21min21, and 143.90 6

22.33 mlkg20.75min21.
O2max Values for Whole Match Activities. IndepenV
O2max
dent from body weight, relative, and absolute V
were negatively correlated with the time spent standing still during the match (respective r values, 20.90,
20.85, and 20.86, p , 0.05) (Table 1). Absolute
O2max was negatively correlated with the distance
V
covered walking forward (r 5 20.71, p , 0.05). Medium-intensity running distance correlated signifi O2maxab, VO2maxrel, and VO2maxind. Pearcantly with V
son correlation coefficients were 0.84, 0.89, and 0.92,
respectively (p , 0.05). The total distance covered dur O2maxind
ing the match correlated significantly with V
(r 5 0.77, p , 0.05) and VO2maxab (r 5 0.87, p , 0.05).
O2max Values for Activities in the First and Second
V
Halves of Matches. Referees with higher absolute
O2max walked less during the course of the first half
V
(r 5 20.74, p , 0.05) (Table 2). Moreover, during the
O2maxrel and
first half, those referees with higher V
VO2maxind were able to cover more distance with medium-intensity running (r 5 0.93 and 0.90, respectively, p , 0.05). Furthermore, first-half total distance cor O2maxind and VO2maxab (r
related significantly with V
5 0.74 and 0.79, respectively, p , 0.05).
In the second half, more time spent in low-intensity
activity and more distance covered with medium-in-

424 Castagna and DOttavio

tensity running was totaled by those referees who possessed higher relative oxygen uptake (r 5 0.75, p ,
0.05) and absolute maximal oxygen uptake (r 5 0.76,
p , 0.05), respectively. Possession of higher VO2maxab,
O2maxrel, or VO2maxind enabled referees to stand still
V
less than their less fit counterparts during the second
half of matches (respective r values, 20.74, 20.86, and
20.85, p , 0.05). Furthermore, a higher VO2maxab and
O2maxind favored the fitter referees in covering more
V
distance during the course of the second half of matches (respective r values, 0.88 and 0.76, p , 0.05).

Discussion
During a match, the first assignment of the referee is
to regulate the behavior of soccer participants by implementing the rules of play. This activity is very often
superimposed on a relatively high level of physiologic
stress, as the referee is expected to keep up with play
irrespective of the tempo of the game. In this and in
other studies, it has been reported that elite-level referees cover during an average match a distance similar
to that totaled by an average competitive level
matched outfield soccer player. In fact, the match analysis performed in the present study revealed average
match coverage of 11,584 6 1,017 m, ranging from
10,054 to 12,792 m. With methodologies similar to
those used in the present study, Ohashi et al. (19) reported a mean total distance of 11,529 m for Japanese
soccer players. With methodologies that differ from
the one used in our study, other authors have reported
total match distances for soccer players ranging from
8,680 to 11,527 m (5, 6, 13, 20, 24, 26, 27, 30). Catterall
et al. (8) and Asami et al. (2) reported match distances
for soccer referees of 9,438 6 707 m (n 5 13) and
10,168 6 756 m (n 5 10), respectively. Asami et al. (2)
also reported a mean match distance of 9,736 6 1,077
m for 7 international-level soccer referees. Recently,
Harley et al. (17) reported total match coverage of
7,496 6 1,122 m for county leaguelevel soccer referees. This figure is quite different from that reported
here and elsewhere (2, 811) for higher-level referees.
Such findings are probably due to differences in the
competitive level of the games and/or fitness and/or
skill level of the referees studied. Furthermore, Harley
et al. (17) found a strong and significant correlation (r
5 0.80) between distance covered and mean assessment score for positioning, suggesting that the overall
match mobility of the referee is important for attaining
the correct position at the correct time.
In this study, first- and second-half total distances
differed (6%, p , 0.05). This pattern is comparable to
that noted for soccer players (5, 13, 20, 24, 26, 27), who
show a significant decrease in total distance covered
for the second half of the match. However, other studies of soccer referees performances have yielded conflicting results (2). Catterall et al. (8) reported a 5.5%

decrease, which was significant (p , 0.05, n 5 13). In

referees officiating at county leaguelevel matches,
Harley et al. (17) reported a significant decrease of
13.4% (p , 0.01) in total distance covered during the
second half. Conversely, the research carried out by
Asami et al. (2) showed no significant decrease in the
total distance covered during the second half of matches.
A high fitness level in referees is considered to be
necessary for coping with the physical stress imposed
by the soccer match (12). Furthermore, it is common
sense that the fitter the referee is, the closer he/she
could be to the action on the field. The results reported
in this study showed that maximal aerobic power positively influenced the match activity of elite referees.
This influence is particularly clear for those activities
that are performed from low to medium intensity. Important relationships were also found between maximal aerobic power and several activities performed
during the second half. Those findings highlight the
O2max may exert on limiting the apinfluence that V
pearance of fatigue during the last stage of the match,
enabling referees to be more active in the crucial phases of the match (1, 14, 21). However, in the present
study, the aerobic power level did not show any influence on the amount of distance covered at HIA by the
referees. It could be speculated that other variables related to work capacity, which were not addressed in
this study, could have influenced the level of activity
performed at speeds faster than 18 km per hour. It is
likely that the observed constancy of the HIA during
the course of the game is evidence of a sort of sparing
behavior on the referees part. This means that during
the course of the second half of the match, the referee
limited his general activity, nevertheless fulfilling the
game assignments. Possibly, experienced referees tend
to spare energies during the second half in order to
be ready to perform HIA when necessary (9).
In this study, the referees who possessed a higher
O2max were shown to be more active during the
V
course of the second half compared with their less fit
counterparts. This is supported by the finding that
during the course of the second half, the more aerobically fit referees spent less time standing still and
covered more total distance. As a result, the referee
might be closer to the actions on the field and might
possibly experience less difficulty in making crucial
decisions (17).

Practical Applications
Previous research has shown that elite-level refereeing
(Serie A, Italian First Division Soccer Championship)
O2max and 88% of
elicits the attainment of 68% of V
maximal heart rate (7, 9 10). Those findings, together
with the finding of low blood lactate concentrations
during matches (7), demonstrate the aerobic nature of

VO2max and Match Performance in Soccer Refereeing

elite-level refereeing. The results of the present study

show the importance of a well-developed maximal aerobic power in elite-level soccer referees.
The aerobic fitness of referees may be an important
determinant of both the amount of distance covered
and the exercise intensity of the referee during a
match. In light of the results of this study, high levels
O2max might provide referees the opportunity to
of V
be more active and therefore closer to the action during the game, compared with less well-trained counterparts. Thus, soccer referees fitness training should
emphasize maximal aerobic power development, possibly through the use of drills that mimic the specific
exercise intensity and movements that the official performs during the match.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

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Acknowledgments
We are greatly indebted by the kind availability of Marcello
Faina, M.D., and his superb staff from the Institute of Sport
Science of Rome for performing and collecting the
physiologic measurements. We wish to thank Dr. Grant Abt
from St. Martins College, UK, for his help in reviewing the
manuscript.