Angelyka Cabalo

2APH

AnaPhy Lab

Exercise 24 ENDOCRINE STRUCTURE AND

FUNCTION
Endocrine System
- composed of glands that release
hormones into the bloodstream
- hormones help maintain homeostasis
- major glands : pineal gland,
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid
gland, parathyroid glands, thymus
gland, adrenal gland, pancreas,
ovaries and testes
Exercise 25 COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT
Blood
- flows and circulates w/in
cardiovascular system
- connective tissue, mesenchymal in
origin
- has liquid matrix
serum clotted blood; w/o
fibrinogen
plasma unclotted blood
Blood Tests
- for clinical evaluation of patients
- blood samples are collected
Hemacytometer
- counting the cellular elements of the
blood (RBC,WBC & platelets)
counting chamber
Neubauer improved counting
chamber
~ heavy, colorless glass
~ has 3 parallel platforms
separated by moats
~ central platform : 0.1mm
lower
~ 3x3mm / 9 mm2
~ 4 corner 2o square
(W1,2,3,4) is for WBC
count (16 3o squares)
~ central 2o square
(R1,2,3,4,5) is for RBC (25
3o squares)
~ ordinary cover slip has
uneven surface so it
cannot be used
WBC pipette
RBC pipette
Hematocrit
- volume of packed red cells after
centrifugation of blood samples

packed cell volume (PCV)

simplest & most accurate
more useful than RBC count
measure of the proportion of red cells
to plasma in peripheral blood
- % of erythrocytes in whole blood
Male
47 +/- 7 volume %
Female
42 +/- 5 volume %
At birth
56 +/- volume %
Increase Polycythemia, shock & severe
d in
dehydration
Decreas
Leukemia, anema,
ed in
hyperthyroidism & cirrhosis
Adams Micromethod
- capillary tube filled w/ blood
- cover with sealing clay
- microhematocrit centrifuge
- 10,000 rpm for 4-5 mins
- microhematocrit reader
Hemoglobin
- pigment in RBC that has affinity to O2
- blood : the darker color, the more
hemoglobin
Male
14-16.5 g / 100 mL
Female
12-15 g / 100 mL
Increase High altitudes, obstructive
d in
pulmonary disease, CHF &
polycythemia
Decreas Severe hemorrhage, anemia,
ed in
hyperthyroidism & liver cirrhosis
Acid-Hematin Method
- a. 0.01N HCl : 2 mark : Sahlis tube
- b. 0.02 mL blood : Sahlis pipette
- combine a + b
- adding distilled H2O until the mixture
matches the color of the comparator
block
WBC Count
- no. of WBC in 1 mm3 of blood
- its good diluting fluid is :
hypotonic solution
easily prepared
cheap
readily available
a good preservative
- Blood : 0.5 mark WBC pipette
- Diluting fluid : 11 mark
- 1:20 or 1/20 dilution
- discard first 2-3 drops
- by capillary action : fill the counting
chamber
- angle of pipette : 30-35 degrees
- overcharging : fluid on the moats

undercharging : failure to cover entire

ruled area
- air bubbles = moisture or dirt
- use LPO
RBC Count
- no. of RBC in 1 mm3 of blood
- good diluting fluid :
isotonic solution
has high sp gr
easy to prepare
cheap
good preservative
has buffer action
does not initiate growth of
molds
- blood : 0.5 mark RBC pipette
- diluting fluid : 101 mark
- 1:200 or 1/200 dilution
- discard first 5-6 drops
- by capillary action
- angle of pipette : 30-35 degrees
- HPO for actual counting
Differential White Blood Cell Count
Granulocytes
Eosinophils
2-4 %
Allergic
reactions
Basophils
0.5-1 % Chronic
infections
Neutrophils
60-70
Acute
%
infections
Aggranulocyt
es
Lymphocytes
20-25 % Antibody
reactions
Monocytes
3-8 %
Chronic
infections
Slide
-

Method
50o angle of another slide
stain the smeared blood
zigzag way of counting

Exercise 26 THE BLOOD GROUPS

Antigens
- on surface of RBC
- agglutinogens
- inherited
Antibodies
- in the plasma
- agglutinins
ABO Grouping
- Anti-A antiserum (blue)
- Anti-B antiserum (yellow)
Rh Grouping
- Anti-D antiserum (colorless)

ABO group
A
B
AB
O
Rh group
Positive

Anti-A
+
+
-

Anti-B
+
+
-

Ab A
+
+

Ab B
+
+

w/

natio

negative

w/o

agglut
i
agglut
i

natio

Exercise 27 COAGULATION TIME

Clotting
- important in arresting hemorrhage
- 3-6 mins
Clot
Drop
-

plugs the opening of the wound

/ Slide Method
30 sec interval
from the moment the blood drops to
the slide until the formation of the
fibrin thread

Exercise 28 BLEEDING TIME

Bleeding time
- refers to the time it takes for a
puncture wound to stop bleeding
- 1-3 mins
- depends upon the depth of the wound
and degree of hyperemia in the finger
Dukes Method
- first drop of blood blotted on a filter
paper
- rough surfaces shorten bleeding time
- appearance of first drop to the time
bleeding stops
Exercise 29 HYPEREMIA OR CONGESTION
Hyperemia / Congestion
- increase of blood flow or an excess
flow of blood in the vessel in a certain
area of the body
Active Hyperemia
- increased blood flow to a specific
area / dilation of blood vessels
Passive Hyperemia
- slowing down of venous return
Exercise 30 CAPILLARY RESISTANCE TEST
Capillary resistance test

measures the ability of the capillary

walls to resist pressure
- arm : 100 mmHg
Thrombocytopenic Purpura
- capillaries will rupture at this pressure
Petechiae / Hemorrhages
- tiny spots
Tourniquet / Rumpel-Leede / Hess Test
No of petechiae
Grade
0-10
1+
11-20
2+
21-50
3+
51 and above
4+
Exercise 31 ANATOMY OF THE HEART
Pericardium
- membrane that surrounds and
protects the heart
Fibrous Pericardium
~ Tough, dense and
inelastic connective
tissue
~ Prevents the
overstretching of the
heart
Serous Pericardium
~ Thinner, more delicate
~ Forms a double layer
around the heart
Parietal layer
Visceral layer
Pericardial space (w/
pericardial fluid) reduces
friction
Heart
- muscular pump
- w/ four chambers (right & left atria &
ventricle)
- contracts continuously
- exhibits auto-rhythmicity
- 5 in long, 3.5 in wide and 2.5 in thick
- female : 250 g while male : 300 g
- rests in the mediastinum and
diaphragm
Apex
- pointed end
Base
- broad opposite end
Musculi Pectinati
- myocardial ridges in right atrium
Interatrial Septum
- separates the atria

Foramen Ovale : hole in infants

blood bypass the lungs and pass from
right to left atrium (Foramen Ovalis)
Trabeculae Carneae
- muscle ridges in ventricles
Interventricular Septum
- separates the ventricles
Chordae Tendineae
- string-like
- attached to papillary muscles
- connected to atrioventricular valves
tricuspid valve (right)
bicuspid/mitral valve (left)
AV and Semilunar Valves
- prevents reflux or backflow of blood
-

Exercise 32 PULSE RATE IN HUMANS

Pulse
- alternate constriction and dilation of
an artery
- all arteries have a pulse
- readily palpable at the wrist (radial
artery)
- number of beats per minute
- 4 beats for every respiration
Exercise 33 HEART SOUNDS IN HUMANS
Auscultation
- process of listening to the sounds w/in
the body
- using stethoscope
Heart Sound
- result of turbulence caused by closure
of the heart valves
One heartbeat = lub dub
Exercise 34 CARDIAC CYCLE IN HUMANS
Cardiac cycle
- 1 Heartbeat = 1 cardiac cycle
- atrial and ventricular systole
(contraction) and diastole (relaxation)
- 60 sec / pulse or heart rate
Heart rate
- number of beats per minute
- not necessarily equal to pulse rate
Systole = 0.04 seconds
Exercise 36 BLOOD PRESSURE
Heartbeat
- forces blood into the aorta
Systolic pressure
- peak pressure obtained during cardiac
cycle

measure of the force of myocardial

contraction
Diastolic pressure
- lowest pressure reach just before the
next beat
- measure of the peripheral resistance +
elastic recoil of blood vessels
Sphygmomanometry
- measure arterial blood pressure
- sphygmomanometer
Palpation Method
- palpate the pulse at the radial artery
Auscultation Method
- on antecubital fossa in the brachial
artery region
Exercise 37 ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
Respiratory System
- composed of the nose, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs
- upper and lower respiratory system
- composed of tubes and cavities that
interconnect outside and w/in the
lungs and respiratory portion
Otorhinolaryngology
- branch of medicine that deals w/ the
diagnosis and treatment of disorders
associated w/ nose, ears and throat
Pulmonology
- concerned w/ diseases associated w/
the lungs
Exercise 38 PULMONARY VOLUMES AND
CAPACITIES
Spirometry
- lab procedure
- determines the strength of the lungs
- tool to diagnose the nature of
respiratory defects
- aid in the selection of the most
specific and effective therapy for diff.
respiratory disorders
Respiratory cycle
- 2 phases : inhalation & exhalation
Ventilation
- movement of air into & out of the
respiratory tract
- critical for normal body functions
Spirometer
- instrument used to measure volume of
air that moves into & out of the lungs
Wet Spirometer

inverted drum in a tank of water

suspended from a pulley &
counterbalanced by a weight
- w/ a corrugated tube
Spirogram
- record of pulmonary volumes using
spirometer
Tidal
Amt. of air during
500
Volume / Air
normal respiration
mL
(TV)
Inspiratory
Max. vol. of air that
3,10
Reserve
can be inhaled
0 mL
Volume (IRV)
(normal inhalation)
Expiratory
Vol. of air that can
1,20
Reserve
be exhaled
0 mL
Volume (ERV) forcefully (normal
inhalation)
Residual
Vol. of air that
1,20
Volume (RV)
remains in the lungs 0 mL
after a most forceful
exhalation

Inspiratory
Capacity (IC)
Functional
Residual
Capacity
(FRC)
Vital Capacity
(VC)
Total Lung
Capacity
(TLC)

Cannot be
measured by
spirometry
TV + IRV
RV + ERV

IRV + TV + ERV
TV + RV + IRV +
ERV

3,60
0 mL
2,40
0 mL
4,80
0 mL
6,00
0 mL

Residual Volume
Gender
Age Equation (in L)
Male/Fe
<1 (0.020 x height in inches)
male
9
0.91092
Female
19- (0.0813 x ht in) + 0.009 x
99
age in yrs (3.9)
Male
19- (0.0686 x ht in) + (0.017
99
x age in yrs (3.45)
Exercise 39 BREATH-HOLDING TIME
Hyperventilation
- fast, deep breathing
- brought by anxiety attacks

may lead to brief periods of apnea or

cessation of breathing
- build-up of CO2 in blood
- may experience dizziness or may faint
(alkalosis constrict cerebral blood
vessels)
- breathe into a paper bag
Hypoventilation
- slow, shallow breathing
Carbonic Acid
- greatly increases during
hypoventilation
- decreases in hyperventilation
Acidosis / Alkalosis
- result of affected buffering ability of
the blood
Cyanosis
- breathing stops for an extended period
of time
- insufficient oxygen in the blood
Exercise 40 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION
Digestive System
- organs of gastrointestinal Tract (GI
tract)
mouth
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestine ( duodenum,
jejunum, ileum)
large intestine
colon
anus
and accessory structures
teeth
tongue
salivary glands
liver
gallbladder
pancreas
- for ingestion of food, secretion of
digestive juices, mixing, digestion,
absorption and elimination of waste
products
Digestion
- mechanical and chemical digestion of
food
Mechanical Digestion
- starts when mouth does the
perfunctory functions of chewing &
masticating

segmentation contractions : churning

of food by smooth muscle movements
Chemical Digestion
- enzymes break down macromolecules
of carbs, lipids & proteins
~ Amylase -- digests starch
~ Lipase digests lipids
~ Pepsin digests proteins
Digestion of Starch by Amylase
- Loefflers test tubes
- 37oC water bath
Determination of the Amt of Starch
- spot place
- lugols iodine solution
Brown or other color
Light blue
+
Medium blue
++
Dark blue
+++
Black
++++
Determination of Sugar
- Benedicts reagent
- Hot water for 3 mins
Blue
Green
+
Yellow
++
Orange
+++
Red
++++
Exercise 41 EXCRETORY SYSTEM
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Excretory System
- kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder &
urethra
Urine
- forms in the kidney
- flows through the ureters
- temporarily stored in the urinary
bladder
- eliminated through the urethra
Kidneys
- bean-shaped retroperitoneal organs
- found between T12 and L3
~ Renal Hilus vertical fissure in
the concave surface
~ Renal Fascia attaches the
kidney to the abdominal wall
~ Renal Capsule covers the
outer surface of the kidney
~ Adipose Capsule padding &
protection
- has 3 main regions
Renal Cortex smooth area
which extends as the renal

column in bet. renal pyramids

(cone-shaped; deep in renal
medulla; apex points into renal
sinus as renal papilla)
Renal Medulla
Renal Sinus contains the minor
calyces, drain into major
calyces which drain into renal
pelvis ; expansion of ureter
Ureter
- measures 25-30cm long
Urinary Bladder
- hollow, pear shaped organ
- collection & disposal of urine
- male : anterior to rectum, posterior to
symphysis pubis

female : anterior to vagina, posterior

to pubic symphysis, inferior to uterus
Urethra
- carries urine from bladder
- process of micturition
- female : 4cm
- male : 15-20cm
- prostatic (along prostate gland),
membranous (bet. prostate & penis) &
spongy (along penis)
Urine
- formed by 1 million nephrons
- removal of nitrogenous waste products
of metabolism
- urinalysis (study of physical, chemical
& microscopic characteristics)