The Crusades

Contents
1

Crusades

1.1

Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.1

First Crusade (10961099) and immediate aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.2

12th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.3

13th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.4

14th and 15th centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

Crusader states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5

Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6

Military orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7

Society and gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8

Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

1.9

Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.11 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.13 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

1.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

1.14.1 Introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

1.14.2 Specialised studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

1.14.3 Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

1.14.4 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

1.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

Military order (monastic society)

19

2.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2.2

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2.3

List of military orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2.3.1

International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

2.3.2

National . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

2.3.3

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

Modern development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

2.4

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CONTENTS
2.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

2.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

2.7

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

Siege of Constantinople (1203)

23

3.1

The siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

3.2

After the 1203 siege

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

3.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

3.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

3.5

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

Siege of Constantinople (1204)

25

4.1

Before the siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

4.2

Siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

4.3

Capture of the city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

4.4

Sack of Constantinople . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

4.5

Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

4.6

Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

4.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

4.8

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

4.9

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

Siege of Constantinople (1235)

29

5.1

Prelude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

5.2

The siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

5.3

Afterwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

5.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

5.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

5.6

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

Siege of Belgrade (1456)

30

6.1

Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

6.2

Siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

6.3

Battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

6.4

Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

6.5

Noon Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

6.6

Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

6.7

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

6.8

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

6.8.1

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

6.9.1

Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

6.9.2

Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

6.9

CONTENTS
6.9.3

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Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

Chapter 1

Crusades
This article is about the medieval religious military campaigns. For other uses, see Crusades (disambiguation).
Crusaders redirects here. For other uses, see Crusaders
(disambiguation).
The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned

ilarly, some of the hundreds of thousands of people who

became crusaders by taking a public vow and receiving
plenary indulgences from the church were peasants hoping for Apotheosis at Jerusalem, or forgiveness from God
for all their sins. Others, historians argue, participated to
satisfy feudal obligations, gain glory and honour, or nd
opportunities for economic and political gain. Regardless
of the motivation, the response to Urbans preaching by
people of many dierent classes across Western Europe
established the precedent for later crusades.

Dierent perspectives of the actions carried out, at least

nominally, under Papal authority during the crusades
have polarised historians. To some their behaviour was
incongruous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy and the crusades, in one case to the
extent that the Pope excommunicated crusaders.[1] Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders
retained control of much captured territory rather than
Louis VII of France in a battle of the Second Crusade (illustration returning it to the Byzantines. The Peoples Crusade inof William of Tyre's Histoire d'Outremer, 1337)
cluded the Rhineland massacres: the murder of thousands
of Jews. Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth
by the Latin Church between the 11th and 16th centuries, Crusade, rendering the reunication of Christendom imespecially the campaigns in the Eastern Mediterranean possible.
with the aim of capturing Jerusalem from Islamic rule.
Crusades were also fought for many other reasons such The crusades had a profound impact on Western civilas to recapture Christian territory or defend Christians in isation: they reopened the Mediterranean to commerce
non-Christian lands, resolve conict among rival Roman and travel (enabling Genoa and Venice to ourish); conCatholic groups, gain political or territorial advantage, or solidated the collective identity of the Latin Church unto combat paganism and heresy. The term crusade itself der papal leadership; and were a wellspring for accounts
is modern, and has in more recent times been extended of heroism, chivalry and piety. These tales consequently
to include religiously motivated Christian military cam- galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature.
The crusades also reinforced the connection between
paigns in the Late Middle Ages.
Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism.
The First Crusade arose after a call to arms in a 1095 sermon by Pope Urban II. Urban urged military support for
the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor, Alexios I, who
needed reinforcements for his conict with westward mi- 1.1 Terminology
grating Turks in Anatolia. Although one of Urbans stated
aims was to guarantee pilgrims access to the holy sites in Further information: Historiography of the Crusades
the Holy Land that were under Muslim control, scholars The term crusade is derived from a Middle Latin cruxdisagree whether this was the primary motivation for Ur- ata, cruciata. The adjective cruciatus had been used in
ban or for the majority of those who heeded his call. Ur- the sense of marked with a cross from the 12th century;
bans wider strategy may have been to unite the Eastern cruciatus (also cruxatus, croxatus, crucesignatus) was used
and Western branches of Christendom, which had been of crusaders by the mid 13th century, from their pracdivided since their split in the EastWest Schism of 1054, tice of attaching a cloth cross symbol to their clothing.
and establish himself as head of the unied Church. Sim- Use of cruxata (cruciata) for crusade, military expe1

CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
paign, as can the Eight Crusade and Ninth Crusade led by
Louis IX.[5]
Usage of the term crusade may dier depending on the
author. Constable (2001) describes four dierent perspectives among scholars:
Traditionalists restrict their denition of crusades to
the Christian campaigns in the Holy Land, either
to assist the Christians there or to liberate Jerusalem
and the Holy Sepulcher, during 10951291.[6]

Madrid Skylitzes illuminated manuscript depicting Byzantine

Greeks punishing ninth-century Cretan Saracens

Pluralists use the term crusade of any campaign

explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope.[7] This
reects the view of the Roman Catholic Church
(including medieval contemporaries such as Saint
Bernard of Clairvaux) that every military campaign
given Papal sanction is equally valid as a crusade,
regardless of its cause, justication, or geographic
location. This broad denition subsumes attacks on
paganism and heresy, such as the Albigensian Crusade, the Northern Crusades and the Hussite Wars,
and wars for political or territorial advantage, such
as the Aragonese Crusade in Sicily, a crusade declared by Pope Innocent III against Markward of
Anweiler in 1202,[8] one against the Stedingers, several (declared by several popes) against Emperor
Frederick II and his sons,[9] two crusades against opponents of King Henry III of England,[10] and the
Christian re-conquest of Iberia.[11]
Generalists see crusades as any and all holy wars connected with the Latin Church and fought in defence
of their faith.
Popularists[upper-alpha 1] limit the crusades to
only those that were characterised by popular
groundswells of religious fervour that is, only the
First Crusade and perhaps the Peoples Crusade.[12]

Map of the Eastern Mediterranean in 1135, showing crusaderheld and neighbouring territories

dition against enemies of the church is in use by the

1280s.[2] The French form croisade and Spanish cruzada
are recorded by the 16th century.
The French form of the word rst appears in its
historiographical sense in the 17th century[3] and it was
adopted into English and German in the 18th century.[4]
The Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted
as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 109599 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. This
convention is used by Charles Mills in his History of the
Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy
Land (1820), and is often retained for convenience, even
though it is somewhat arbitrary: The Fifth and Sixth Crusades led by Frederick II may be considered a single cam-

1.2 Background
Main articles: Muslim conquests, Great Seljuk Empire,
ByzantineSeljuk wars, ArabByzantine wars, Council
of Clermont, and Reconquista
In the seventh and eighth centuries, Islam was introduced in the Arabian Peninsula by the Islamic prophet
Muhammad and a newly unied polity. This led to a
rapid expansion of Arab power, the inuence of which
stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across
Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern
Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees.[13][14][15]
Tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the
Arabs and the Christian states of Europe waxed and
waned. For example, the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim biAmr Allah destroyed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
but his successor allowed the Byzantine Empire to rebuild
it.[16] Pilgrimages by Catholics to sacred sites were permitted, resident Christians were given certain legal rights

1.3. HISTORY

Expansion of the Islamic Caliphate, 622750.

Expansion under Muhammad, 622632
Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632661
Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661750

and protections under Dhimmi status, and interfaith marriages were not uncommon.[17] Cultures and creeds coexisted and competed, but the frontier conditions became increasingly inhospitable to Catholic pilgrims and
merchants.[18]

3
pacy attempted to increase its power and inuence. Beginning around 1075 and continuing during the First Crusade, the Investiture Controversy was a power struggle between Church and state in medieval Europe over whether
the Catholic Church or the Holy Roman Empire held the
right to appoint church ocials and other clerics.[23][24]
Antipope Clement III was an alternative pope for most
of this period, and Pope Urban spent much of his early
ponticate in exile from Rome. In this the papacy began to assert its independence from secular rulers, marshalling arguments for the proper use of armed force by
Catholics. The result was intense piety, an interest in religious aairs, and religious propaganda advocating a just
war to reclaim Palestine from the Muslims. The majority view was that non-Christians could not be forced to
accept Christian baptism or be physically assaulted for
having a dierent faith, although a minority believed that
vengeance and forcible conversion were justied for the
denial of Christian faith and government.[25] Participation in such a war was seen as a form of penance which
could counterbalance sin.[26]
The status quo was disrupted by the western migrating Turks. In 1071 they defeated the Byzantine army
at the Battle of Manzikert and the rapidly expanding
Great Seljuk Empire gained nearly all of Anatolia while
the empire descended into frequent civil wars.[27] One
year later the Turks wrested control of Palestine from
the Fatimids.[28] The disruption of pilgrimages by the
Seljuk Turks prompted support for the crusades in Western Europe.[29]

1.3 History
1.3.1 First Crusade (10961099) and immediate aftermath
Main articles: First Crusade, Peoples Crusade, Siege of
Jerusalem (1099), Crusade of 1101, Norwegian Crusade,
and Bohemond I of Antioch Wars between Antioch and
The Reconquista (recapture of the Iberian Peninsula from
the Byzantine Empire
the Muslims) began during the 8th century, reaching its
See also: Persecution of Jews in the First Crusade
turning point in 1085 when Alfonso VI of Len and
In 1095 at the Council of Piacenza, Byzantine Emperor
Castile retook Toledo from Muslim rule.[19] The Byzantine Empire also regained territory at the end of the 10th
century, with Basil II spending most of his half-century
reign in conquest. In Northern Europe, the Germans used
crusading as a method to expand Christianity and their
1071
territories at the expense of the non-Christian Slavs,[20]
1040
and Sicily was conquered by Norman adventurer Roger
De Hauteville in 1091.[21]
A battle of the Reconquista from the Cantigas de Santa Maria

Europe in this period was immersed in power struggles on

many dierent fronts. In 1054, centuries of attempts by
the Latin Church to assert supremacy over the Patriarchs
of the Eastern Empire led to a permanent division in the
Christian church called the EastWest Schism.[22] Following the Gregorian Reform an assertive, reformist pa- The Great Seljuk Empire at its greatest extent (1092)

CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

fully rallied the crusader army and defeated Kerbogha.[46]

Bohemond then kept control of the city, despite his
pledge that he would provide aid to Alexios.[47] The remaining crusader army marched south along the coast
reaching Jerusalem with only a fraction of their original
forces.[48] The Jewish and Muslim inhabitants fought together to defend Jerusalem, but the crusaders entered the
city on 15 July 1099. They proceeded to massacre the
inhabitants and pillage the city.[49] In his Historia FranAlmost immediately thereafter Peter the Hermit began corum qui ceperunt Iherusalem, Raymond D'Aguilers exalted actions which would be considered atrocities from
preaching to thousands of mostly poor Christians, whom
[50]
he led out of Europe in what became known as the a modern viewpoint.
Peoples Crusade.[32] Peter had with him a letter he As a result of the First Crusade, four primary crusader
claimed had fallen from heaven instructing Christians to states were created: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the
seize Jerusalem in anticipation of the apocalypse.[33] In County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the
addition to the motivations of the landed classes, aca- County of Tripoli.[51] On a popular level, the First Crudemic Norman Cohn has identied a "messianism of sade unleashed a wave of impassioned, pious Catholic
the poor inspired by an expected mass apotheosis at fury which was expressed in the massacres of Jews that
Jerusalem.[34] In Germany the Crusaders massacred Jew- accompanied the crusades[52] and the violent treatment
ish communities. The Rhineland massacres were the rst of the "schismatic" Orthodox Christians of the east.[53] A
major outbreak of European Antisemitism.[35] In Speyer, second, less successful crusade known as the Crusade of
Worms, Mainz and Cologne the range of anti-Jewish ac- 1101 followed in which Turks led by Kilij Arslan defeated
tivity was broad, extending from limited, spontaneous the crusaders in three separate battles.[54]
violence to full-scale military attacks.[36] Despite Alexios advice to await the nobles, the Peoples Crusade advanced to Nicaea and fell to a Turkish ambush at the 1.3.2 12th century
Battle of Civetot, from which only about 3,000 crusaders
Main articles: Second Crusade, Wendish Crusade, Third
escaped.[37]
Crusade, and German Crusade
Under the papacies of Calixtus II, Honorius II, Eugenius
Alexios I Komnenos requested military aid from Pope
Urban II to ght the Turks, probably in the form of mercenary reinforcements. It is also likely he exaggerated
the danger facing the Eastern Empire while making his
appeal.[30] At the Council of Clermont later that year, Urban raised the issue again and preached for a crusade.
Historian Paul Everett Pierson asserts that Urban also
hoped that aiding the Eastern Church would lead to its
reunion with the Western under his leadership.[31]

Route of the First Crusade through Asia

Both Philip I, king of France and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor were in conict with Urban and did not
participate; the noble armies embarked in August and
September 1096 divided into four separate parts.[38] The
armies travelled eastward by land to Byzantium where
they received a welcome from the Emperor.[39][40][41]
The combined force including non-combatants may have
contained as many as 100,000 people.[42] The army,
mostly French and Norman knights under baronial leadership, pledged to restore lost territories to the empire and
marched south through Anatolia.[43][44][45] The crusaders
besieged Antioch, massacring the inhabitants and pillaging the city. They were immediately besieged by a large
army led by Kerbogha. Bohemond of Taranto success-

Miniature of the Siege of Tyre of 1124 (BNF Fr 2630, ca. 1229)

III and Innocent II smaller scale crusading continued

around the Crusader States in the early 12th century.
There were campaigns by Fulk V of Anjou between
1120 and 1129, the Venetians in 112224, Conrad
III of Germany in 1124 and the Knights Templar
were established.[55] The period saw the innovation of
granting indulgences to those who opposed papal ene-

1.3. HISTORY

5
of Wittelsbach, Archbishop of Mainz the army captured
the cities of Sidon and Beirut but after Henry died, most
of the crusaders returned to Germany.[74]

1.3.3 13th century

Crusades in Northern Europe
Detail of a miniature of King Philip II of France arriving in the
Holy Land (mid 14th century)

Main articles: Northern Crusades, Livonian Crusade, and

Prussian Crusade
Crusading became increasingly widespread in terms of

mies that marked the beginning of politically motivated

crusades.[56] The loss of Aleppo in 1128 and Edessa
(Urfa) in 1144 to Imad ad-Din Zengi, governor of Mosul
led to preaching for what subsequently became known
as the Second Crusade.[57][58][59] King Louis VII and
Conrad III led armies from France and Germany to
Jerusalem and also Damascus without winning any major
victories.[60] Bernard of Clairvaux, who had encouraged
the Second Crusade in his preaching, was upset with the
violence and slaughter directed towards the Jewish population of the Rhineland.[61]
In the Iberian Peninsula crusaders continued to make
gains with the king of Portugal, Afonso I, retaking Lisbon and Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona conquering
the city of Tortosa[62][63] In Northern Europe the Saxons
and Danes fought against Wends in the Wendish Crusade,[64] although no ocial papal bulls were issued authorising new crusades.[65] The Wends were nally defeated in 1162.[66]
In 1187 Saladin united the enemies of the Crusader
States, was victorious at the Battle of Hattin and retook
Jerusalem.[67][68] According to Benedict of Peterborough, Pope Urban III died of deep sadness on 19 October 1187 on hearing of the defeat.[69] His successor, Pope
Gregory VIII, issued a papal bull named Audita tremendi
that proposed a further crusade later numbered the third
to recapture Jerusalem. Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor died en route to Jerusalem, drowning in the Saleph
River, and few of his men reached the Holy Land.[70]
Richard I of England conquered the island of Cyprus
from the Byzantines in 1191 in response to his sister
being taken prisoner by the islands ruler, Isaac Komnenos.[71] Richard then quarrelled with Philip II of France
and Philip returned to France, leaving most of his forces
behind. He then recaptured Acre after a long siege, travelled south along the Mediterranean coast, defeated the
Muslims near Arsuf and recaptured the port city of Jaa.
Within sight of Jerusalem supply shortages forced them
to retreat without taking the city.[72] A treaty was negotiated that allowed unarmed Catholics to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem and permitted merchants to trade.[73]
Richard left, never to return, but Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor initiated the German Crusade to full the
promises made by his father, Frederick. Led by Conrad

Nineteenth-century depiction of two Livonian Knights

geography and objectives during the 13th century. In

Northern Europe the Catholic church continued to battle peoples whom they considered as pagans; Popes such
as Celestine III, Innocent III, Honorius III and Gregory
IX preached crusade against the Livonians, Prussians and
Russia.[75][76]
When Pope Celestine III called for a crusade against
Northern European pagans in 1193, Bishop Berthold of
Hanover led a large army to defeat and his death in
1198. In response to the defeat, Pope Innocent III issued a papal bull declaring a crusade against the mostly
pagan Livonians,[75] who were conquered and converted
between 1202 and 1209.[77]
In the early 13th century Pope Honorius III declared
a crusade against the Prussians.[76] Albert of Riga established Riga as the seat of the Bishopric of Riga and
formed the Livonian Brothers of the Sword to convert the pagans to Catholicism and protect German
commerce.[77] Konrad of Masovia gave Chelmno to the
Teutonic Knights in 1226 as a base for crusade.[78] The
Livonian Knights were defeated by the Lithuanians so

CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

Pope Gregory IX merged the remainder of the order into

the Teutonic Order as the Livonian Order.[79] By the middle of the century the Teutonic Knights completed their
conquest of the Old Prussians and went on to conquer and
convert the Lithuanians in the subsequent decades.[80]
The order was less successful in the Northern Crusades
against Orthodox Russia, the Pskov Republic and the
Novgorod Republic. In 1240 the Novgorod army defeated the Swedes in the Battle of the Neva, and two years
later they defeated the Livonian Order in the Battle on the Pope Innocent III excommunicating the Albigensians (left), and
an Albigensian massacre by crusaders
Ice.[81]

Fourth Crusade & aftermath

Fourth Crusade, Latin Empire,
Main articles:
Frankokratia, Siege of Constantinople (1203), Siege of
Constantinople (1204), Battle of Adrianople (1205), and
Siege of Zara
Innocent III also began preaching what became the
Fourth Crusade in 1200, primarily in France, but also
in England and Germany.[82] The Fourth Crusade never
came to within 1,000 miles of its objective of Jerusalem,
instead conquering Byzantium twice before being routed
by the Bulgars at Adrianople. After gathering in Venice
the crusade was used by Doge Enrico Dandolo and Philip
of Swabia to further their secular ambitions. Dandolos
aim was expand Venices power in the Eastern Mediterranean and Philip intended to restore his exiled nephew,
Alexios IV Angelos, to the throne of Byzantium.[83] The
crusaders were unable to pay the Venetians for a eet
when too few knights arrived in Venice, so they agreed to
divert to Constantinople and share what could be looted
as payment. As collateral the crusaders seized the Christian city of Zara; Innocent was appalled, and excommunicated them.[1] After the initial success in taking
Byzantium, the original purpose of the campaign was defeated by the assassination of Alexios IV Angelos. In response the crusaders sacked the city, pillaged churches,
and killed many citizens. The victors then divided the
empire into Latin efs and Venetian colonies, resulting in
two Roman Empires in the East: a Latin Empire of the
Straits and an Empire of Nicea. In the long run, the sole
beneciary was Venice.[84]

Crusades in the Western Mediterranean

Main article: Albigensian Crusade
Innocent III launched the rst crusade against heretics,[85]
the Albigensian Crusade, against the Cathars in France
and the County of Toulouse. Over the early decades
of the century the Cathars were driven underground
while the French monarchy asserted control over the
region.[86] Andrew II of Hungary waged the Bosnian Crusade against the Bosnian church that was theologically
Catholic but in long term schism with the Roman Catholic

Church.[87] The conict only ended with the Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241. In the Iberian peninsula Crusader privileges were given to those aiding the Templars,
Hospitallers and the Iberian orders that merged with the
Order of Calatrava and the Order of Santiago. The papacy declared frequent Iberian crusades and from 1212
to 1265, and the Christian kingdoms drove the Muslims
back to the Emirate of Granada, which held out until
1492 when the Muslims and Jews were expelled from the
peninsula.[88]
Further Eastern Crusades
Main articles: Fifth Crusade, Sixth Crusade, Bosnian
Crusade, and Barons Crusade
Crusading resumed against Saladins Ayyubid succes-

Frederick II (left) meets al-Kamil (right) in a manuscript illumination from Giovanni Villani's Nuova Cronica

sors in Egypt and Syria in 1217, following Innocent IIIs

Fourth Council of the Lateran. Led by Andrew II and
Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, forces drawn mainly from
Hungary, Germany, Flanders, and Frisia achieved little. Leopold and John of Brienne besieged and captured
Damietta but an invasion further into Egypt was compelled to surrender.[89][90] Damietta was returned and an
eight-year truce agreed.[91] Emperor Frederick II, who
had been excommunicated for breaking his vow to crusade, nally arrived at Acre in 1228.[92][93] A peace treaty
was agreed giving Latin Christians most of Jerusalem and

1.3. HISTORY
a strip of territory from Acre, while the Muslims controlled their sacred areas. In return, an alliance was made
with Al-Kamil, Sultan of Egypt, against all of his enemies of whatever religion.[94] After the truce expired,
further campaigns were led by Theobald I of Navarre,
Peter of Dreux and Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy. Defeated at Gaza, Theobald agreed treaties with Damascus
and Egypt that returned territory to the crusader states.
He returned to Europe in 1240 but Richard of Cornwall arrived in Acre a few weeks later and completed the
enforcement.[95]
In 1244 a band of Khwarezmian mercenaries travelling to
Egypt captured Jerusalem en-route and defeated a combined Christian and Syrian army at the La Forbie.[96] In
response Louis IX of France organised a crusade to attack Egypt, arriving in 1249.[97] This was not a success.
Louis was defeated at Mansura and captured as he retreated back to Damietta.[98] Another truce was agreed
for a ten-year period and Louis was ransomed. Louis remained in Syria until 1254 to consolidate the Crusader
states.[99] From 1265 to 1271, Baibars drove the Franks
to a few small coastal outposts.[100]

7
cantly weakened the kingdom with most fortied buildings in Acre destroyed. According to contemporary reports 20,000 men died in the conict. Genoa nally regained its quarter in Acre in 1288.[105]
The French, led by Louis IXs brother Charles of Anjou, similarly sought to expand their inuence. In 1266,
he seized Sicily, parts of the eastern Adriatic, Corfu,
Butrinto, Avlona, and Suboto. He attempted to gain
Byzantium politically through the Treaty of Viterbo. The
heirs of Baldwin II of Constantinople and William II
Villehardouin married Charles children. If there were
no ospring Charles would receive the empire and principality. Charles executed Conradin, great-grandson of
Isabella I of Jerusalem and principal pretender to the
throne of Jerusalem, when he seized Sicily from the
Holy Roman Empire. When he purchased the rights to
Jerusalem from Maria of Antioch, the surviving grandchild of Queen Isabella, he created a claim to rival that
of Isabellas great grandson, Hugh III of Cyprus. Charles
planned crusade to restore the Latin Empire alarmed
Michael VIII Palailogos. He delayed Charles by beginning negotiations with Pope Gregory X for union of the
Greek and the Latin churches with Charles and Philip of
Courtenay compelled to form a truce with Byzantium.
Michael also provided Genoa with funds to encourage revolt in Charles northern Italian territories.[106]

Conquest of the Eastern Orthodox city of Constantinople by the

Crusaders in 1204

Crusading Division
Main articles: Seventh Crusade, War of Saint Sabas,
Eighth Crusade, Ninth Crusade, and Sicilian Vespers
The Crusader states were not unied and various powers competed for inuence. In 1256 Genoa and Venice
went to war over territory in Acre and Tyre.[101] Venice
conquered the disputed territory but was unable to expel the Genoese. Two factions embarked on a 14-month
siege: on one side was Genoa, Philip of Monfort, John of
Arsuf and the Knights Hospitaller; the other was Venice,
the Count of Jaa and the Knights Templar.[102] After the
Genoese were expelled in 1261, Pope Urban IV brokered
a peace to support the defence against the Mongols.[103]
Conict resumed in 1264 with the Genoese now supported by Michael VIII Palaiologos, Emperor of Nicaea
the Egyptian sultan Baibars.[104] Both sides used Muslim soldiers, particularly Turcopoles. The war signi-

The city of Acre fell in 1291 and its Latin Christian population
was killed or enslaved

In 1270, Charles turned his brother King Louis IXs last

crusade to his own advantage, persuading Louis to ignore his advisers and direct the Eighth Crusade against
Charles rebel Arab vassals in Tunis. Louis army was
devastated by disease in the hot-summer Mediterranean
climate, and Louis himself died at Tunis on 25 August.
This ended the last signicant attempt to take the Holy
Land.[107]
The 1281 election of a French pope, Martin IV, brought
the full power of the papacy into line behind Charles.

CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

He prepared to launch a crusade with 400 ships carrying

27,000 mounted knights against Constantinople. But the
eet was destroyed in an uprising fomented by Michael
VIII Palailogos and Peter III of Aragon. Peter was proclaimed king, and the House of Charles of Anjou was
exiled from Sicily. Martin excommunicated Peter and
called for a crusade against Aragon before Charles died in
1285, allowing Henry II of Cyprus to reclaim Jerusalem.
Charles had spent his life trying to amass a Mediterranean
empire, and he and Louis saw themselves as Gods instruments to uphold the papacy.[108]
One factor in the crusaders decline was the disunity and
conict among Latin Christian interests in the eastern
Mediterranean. Martin compromised the papacy by supporting Charles of Anjou, and tarnished its spiritual lustre with botched secular crusades against Sicily and
Aragon. The collapse of the papacys moral authority
and the rise of nationalism rang the death knell for crusading, ultimately leading to the Avignon Papacy and the
Western Schism. The mainland Crusader states of the
outremer were extinguished with the fall of Tripoli in
1289 and Acre in 1291.[109] Most remaining Latin Christians left for destinations in the Frankokratia or were
killed or enslaved.[110]
Battle between Hussites and crusaders; Jena Codex, 15th century

1.3.4

14th and 15th centuries

agreed on many doctrinal points, to unite to drive out the

Main article: Ottoman Wars in Europe
invaders. The wars ended in 1436 with the ratication of
Further information: Crusade of Nicopolis, Crusade of the compromise Compacts of Basel by the Church and
Varna, Hussite Wars, and Siege of Belgrade (1456)
the Hussites.[114]
Minor crusading eorts lingered into the 14th century;
Peter I of Cyprus captured and sacked Alexandria in
1365 in what became known as the Alexandrian Crusade;
his motivation was as much commercial as religious.[111]
Louis II led the 1390 Barbary Crusade against Muslim
pirates in North Africa; after a ten-week siege, the crusaders signed a ten-year truce.[112]
Several crusades were launched during the 14th and
15th centuries to counter the expansion of the Ottoman
Empire. The rst, in 1396, was led by Sigismund
of Luxemburg, king of Hungary; many French nobles
joined Sigismunds forces, including the crusades military leader, John the Fearless (son of the Duke of Burgundy). Sigismund advised the crusaders to focus on defence when they reached the Danube, but they besieged
the city of Nicopolis. The Ottomans defeated them in
the Battle of Nicopolis on 25 September, capturing 3,000
prisoners.[113]
The Hussite Wars, also known as the Hussite Crusade,
involved military action against the Bohemian Reformation in the Kingdom of Bohemia and the followers of
early Czech church reformer Jan Hus, who was burned
at the stake in 1415. Crusades were declared ve times
during that period: in 1420, 1421, 1422, 1427, and 1431.
These expeditions forced the Hussite forces, who dis-

Polish-Hungarian King Wadysaw Warneczyk invaded

the recently conquered Ottoman territory, reaching Belgrade in January 1444; a negotiated truce was repudiated
by Sultan Murad II within days of its ratication. Further eorts by the crusaders ended in the Battle of Varna
on 10 November, a decisive Ottoman victory which led to
the withdrawal of the crusaders. This withdrawal, following the last Western attempt to aid the Byzantine Empire,
led to the 1453 fall of Constantinople. John Hunyadi and
Giovanni da Capistrano organised a 1456 crusade to lift
the Ottomon siege of Belgrade.[115] In April 1487, Pope
Innocent VIII called for a crusade against the Waldensians
of Savoy, the Piedmont, and the Dauphin in southern
France and northern Italy. The only eorts undertaken
were in the Dauphin, resulting in little change.[116]

1.4 Crusader states

Main article: Crusader states
The First Crusade established the rst four crusader
states in the Eastern Mediterranean: the County of
Edessa (10981149), the Principality of Antioch (1098
1268), the Kingdom of Jerusalem (10991291), and the
County of Tripoli (1104Tripoli was not conquered until 1109to 1289). The Armenian Kingdom of Cili-

1.6. MILITARY ORDERS

9
ditional sources of income. The popes ordered that collection boxes be placed in churches and, beginning in the
mid-twelfth century, granted indulgences in exchange for
donations and bequests.[120]

1.6 Military orders

Main article: Military order (monastic society)
The Latin and Byzantine Empires in 1205

cia originated before the Crusades, but it received kingdom status from Pope Innocent III and later became fully
Westernised by the House of Lusignan. According to historian Jonathan Riley-Smith, these states were the rst examples of Europe overseas. They are generally known
as outremer, from the French outre-mer (overseas in
English).[117]
The Fourth Crusade established a Latin Empire in the
east and allowed the partition of Byzantine territory
by its participants. The Latin emperor controlled onefourth of the Byzantine territory, Venice three-eighths
(including three-eighths of the city of Constantinople),
and the remainder was divided among the other crusade leaders. This began the period of Greek history
known as Frankokratia or Latinokratia (Frankish [or
Latin] rule), when Catholic Western European nobles
primarily from France and Italyestablished states on
former Byzantine territory and ruled over the Orthodox
Byzantine Greeks.[118][upper-alpha 2]

1.5 Finance

The military orders, especially the Knights Hospitallers

and the Knights Templars, played a major role in providing support for the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and the
other Crusader states, providing decisive forces of highly
trained and motivated soldiers at critical moments.[121]
The Hospitallers and the Templars became international
organisations with depots beyond the Levant, spreading
across Europe. The Teutonic Knights and the Livonian
Brothers of the Sword focused on the Baltic. The Order
of Santiago, Order of Calatrava, Order of Alcntara, and
Order of Montesa concentrated on the Iberian Peninsula
and its Reconquista.
The Knights Hospitallers (Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem) had been founded
in Jerusalem before the First Crusade but greatly enlarged its mission once the Crusades began.[122] After
the fall of Acre they relocated to Cyprus, conquering
and ruling Rhodes (13091522) and Malta (15301798).
The Poor Knights of Christ and its Temple of Solomon
were founded in 1118 to protect pilgrims en route to
Jerusalem. They became wealthy and powerful through
banking and real estate. In 1322 the king of France
suppressed the Knights Templar, ostensibly for sodomy,
magic and heresy, but probably for nancial and political
reasons.[123] Regional remains of the order was merged
with the Knights Hospitallers and other military orders.
Other than that, original medieval military orders persists until this day, in modern organisations with modied
charters.

1.7 Society and gender

Christian dirham with Arabic inscriptions (12161241)

Crusades were expensive; as the number of wars increased, their costs escalated. Pope Urban II called upon
the rich to help First Crusade lords such as Duke Robert
of Normandy and Count Raymond of St. Gilles, who subsidised knights in their armies. The total cost to King
Louis IX of France of the 128485 crusades was estimated at six times the kings annual income. Rulers demanded subsidies from their subjects,[119] and alms and
bequests prompted by the conquest of Palestine were ad-

Main article: Women in the Crusades

Women were intimately connected to the Crusades; they
aided in recruitment, took over the crusaders responsibilities in their absence, and provided nancial and moral
support.[124][125] Historians contend that the most signicant role played by women in the West was in maintaining
the status quo.[126] Landholders left for the Holy Land,
leaving control of their estates to regents who were often wives or mothers. Since the Church recognised that
risk to families and estates might discourage crusaders,
special papal protection was a crusading privilege.[127]
Some aristocratic women participated in crusades, such
as Eleanor of Aquitaine (who joined her husband, Louis

10

CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
whom tried to reach the Holy Land and others who never
intended to do so.[132][133][134][135]
Three crusading eorts were made by peasants during the mid-1250s and the early 14th century. The
rst, the Shepherds Crusade of 1251, was preached
in northern France. After a meeting with Blanche of
Castile, it became disorganised and was disbanded by
the government.[136] The second, in 1309, occurred in
England, northeastern France, and Germany; as many
as 30,000 peasants arrived at Avignon before it was
disbanded.[137] The third, in 1320, became a series of attacks on clergy and Jews and was forcibly suppressed.[138]
This crusade is primarily seen as a revolt against the
French monarchy. The Jews had been allowed to return
to France, after being expelled in 1306; any debts owed
to the Jews before their expulsion were collected by the
monarchy.[139]

1.8 Legacy
Further information: Islamic contributions to Medieval
Europe,
Protestantism and Islam, Reception of Islam in
Illustration of the Childrens Crusade by Gustave Dor, 1892
Early Modern Europe, and Latin translations of the 12th
century
VII).[128] Non-aristocratic women also served in posi- According to Jonathan Riley-Smith the kingdom of
tions such as washerwomen.[126] When Christian women
fought in battle (counter to assumptions about feminine
nature), their role was more controversial; accounts of female warriors were primarily recorded by Muslim historians, who portrayed these women as barbarous and ungodly characters.[129] James Illston concludes:
despite theories and laws which excluded
women from war, women could and did make
eective military leaders, fulll important support roles, and become the victims of wartime
aggression and violence. The importance of
womens roles may have been noted rarely
in contemporary writings and intellectual debates, but this lack of recognition does not take
away from the fact that women in Western European society were integral to the planning,
execution, and impact of war.[130]
The Childrens Crusade was said to have been a Catholic
movement in France and Germany in 1212 that tried to
reach the Holy Land. The traditional narrative is probably
conated from some factual and mythical notions of the
period including visions by a French or German boy, an
intention to peacefully convert Muslims in the Holy Land
to Christianity, a band of several thousand youths set out
for Italy, and children being sold into slavery.[131] A study
published in 1977 casts doubt on the existence of these
events, and many historians came to believe that they
were not (or not primarily) children but multiple bands
of wandering poor in Germany and France, some of

Twentieth-century depiction of a victorious Saladin

Jerusalem was the rst experiment in European colonialism creating a 'Europe Overseas or Outremer.[83]
The raising, transportation and supply of large armies
led to ourishing trade between Europe and the outremer. The Italian city states of Genoa and Venice ourished, creating protable trading colonies in the eastern
Mediterranean.[140] This trade was sustained through the
middle Byzantine and Ottoman eras and the communities were often assimilated to be known as Levantines or
Franco-Levantines.[upper-alpha 3][142]
The Crusades consolidated the papal leadership of the
Latin Church, reinforcing the link between Western
Christendom, feudalism and militarism manifesting itself
in the habituating of the clergy to violence.[83] This led to

1.9. HISTORIOGRAPHY

11

the legitimisation of seizing land and possessions from 1.9 Historiography

pagans on religious grounds and was debated through to
the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries.[143] Further information: Historiography of the Crusades
In addition the growth of the system of indulgences Five major sources of information exist on the Council
later was a catalyst for the Protestant Reformation in the
early 16th century.[144] The crusades also had a role in
the creation and institutionalisation of the military and
Dominican orders as well as the Medieval Inquisition.[145]

Battle on the Ice anniversary, 750 years. Miniature sheet of

Russia, 1992

This assertiveness and the behaviour of the crusaders appalled the Greeks and Muslims providing a lasting barrier
between the Latin world and both the Islamic and Orthodox religions. This made the reunication of the Christian church impossible and created a perception of the
Westerners of being both aggressors and losers.[83]
Helen Nicholson argues that the increased contact between cultures the Crusades instigated improved the perception of Islamic culture.[146] Alongside contact in Sicily
and Spain the crusades led to knowledge exchange with
Christians learning new ideas from the Muslims in literature and hygiene. The Muslims also had classical Greek
and Roman texts in their libraries, allowing Europe to
rediscover pre-Christian philosophy.[147] In contrast the
Muslim world took little from the Crusaders beyond military tactics and did not take any real interest in European
culture until the 16th century. Indeed, the Crusades were
of little interest to the Muslim world: there was no history
of the crusades translated into Arabic until 1865 and no
published work by a Muslim until 1899.[148]

Illumination from the Livre des Passages d'Outre-mer (c. 1490)

of Urban II at the Council of Clermont (from the Bibliothque
Nationale)

of Clermont that led to the First Crusade: the anonymous Gesta Francorum (The Deeds of the Franks,
dated about 110001); Fulcher of Chartres, who attended the council; Robert the Monk, who may have
been present, and the absent Baldric, archbishop of Dol
and Guibert de Nogent. These retrospective accounts
dier greatly.[149] In his 110607 Historia Iherosolimitana, Robert the Monk wrote that Urban asked western
Roman Catholic Christians to aid the Orthodox Byzantine Empire because "Deus vult" (God wills it) and
promised absolution to participants; according to other
sources, the pope promised an indulgence. In these accounts, Urban emphasises reconquering the Holy Land
more than aiding the emperor and lists gruesome offences allegedly committed by Muslims. Urban wrote to
those waiting in Flanders" that the Turks, in addition to
ravaging the churches of God in the eastern regions,
seized the Holy City of Christ, embellished by his passion and resurrectionand blasphemy to say ithave
sold her and her churches into abominable slavery. Although the pope did not explicitly call for the reconquest
of Jerusalem, he called for military liberation of the
Eastern Churches.[150] After the 1291 fall of Acre, European support for the Crusades continued despite criticism
by contemporaries, such as Roger Bacon, who believed
them ineective: Those who survive, together with their
children, are more and more embittered against the Christian faith.[151]

Jonathan Riley-Smith considers that much of the popular

understanding of the crusades derives from the novels of
Walter Scott and the French histories by Joseph Franois
Michaud. The crusades provided an enormous amount
of source material, stories of heroism and interest that During the 16th-century Reformation and Counterunderpinned growth in medieval literature, romance and Reformation, Western historians saw the crusades
through the lens of their own religious beliefs. Protestants
philosophy.[83]

12

CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

saw them as a manifestation of the evils of the papacy,

and Catholics viewed them as forces for good.[152]
Eighteenth-century Enlightenment historians tended to
view the Middle Ages in general, and the crusades in
particular, as the eorts of barbarian cultures driven by
fanaticism.[153] These scholars expressed moral outrage at
the conduct of the crusaders and criticised the crusades
misdirectionthat of the Fourth in particular, which attacked a Christian power (the Byzantine Empire) instead
of Islam. The Fourth Crusade had resulted in the sacking
of Constantinople, eectively ending any chance of reconciling the EastWest Schism and leading to the fall of
the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans. In The History
of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Edward
Gibbon wrote that the crusaders eorts could have been
more protably directed towards improving their own
countries.[5] By the early Romantic period in the 19th
century, that harsh view of the Crusades and their era had
softened;[154] scholarship later in the century emphasised
specialisation and detail.[155]
The 20th century produced three important histories of
the crusades: by Steven Runciman, Rene Grousset and a
multi-author work edited by K. M. Stetton.[156] Historians in this period often echoed Enlightenment-era criticism: Runciman wrote during the 1950s, High ideals were besmirched by cruelty and greed ... the Holy
War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in
the name of God.[118] According to Norman Davies,
the crusades contradicted the Peace and Truce of God
supported by Urban and reinforced the connection between Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism.
The formation of military religious orders scandalised
the Orthodox Byzantines, and crusaders pillaged countries they crossed on their journey east. Violating their
oath to restore land to the Byzantines, they often kept
the land for themselves.[157][158] David Nicolle called
the Fourth Crusade controversial in its betrayal of
Byzantium.[159] Similarly, Norman Housley viewed the
persecution of Jews in the First Crusadea pogrom in
the Rhineland and the massacre of thousands of Jews
in Central Europeas part of the long history of antiSemitism in Europe.[160]

1.10 See also

Crusade cycle - Old French cycle of epic poems concerning the First Crusade
List of principal Crusaders
Minor Crusades
Alexandrian Crusade (1365)
Savoyard Crusade (136667)

History of the Jews and the Crusades

Jihad and jihadism
Miles Christianus, lit. Christian soldier - Christian
concept of a soldier of Christ
Milkhemet Mitzvah - Hebrew Bible concept of righteous, religiously ordained war
Religious war

1.11 Footnotes
[1] Constable did not use this term; see Nicholson 2004, p. x
[2] The Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae is a valuable
record of early-13th-century Byzantine administrative divisions (episkepsis) and family estates.
[3] (Frankolevantini; French Levantins, Italian Levantini,
Greek , and Turkish Levantenler or
Tatlsu Frenk leri). The term Levantine was used pejoratively for inhabitants of mixed Arab and European
descent and for Europeans who adopted local dress and
customs.[141]

1.12 References
[1] Lock 2006, pp. 158159
[2] The main meaning of cruciatus is tormented (participle of crucio); the meaning marked by a cross and
crusader; crusade is often spelled with x in Middle
Latin. Mittellateinisches Wrterbuch vol. 2 (1999), s.v.
cruciatus: Annales Ianuenses. II p. 124,16 rex Aragonensis cum maxima multitudine militum et peditum et cum
multis croxatis ... Yspaniam intraverunt. Annales Placentini Gibellini a. 1270 p. 549,41 facta pactione cum rege
Tunicano et gente Saracena et vendita cruxata pro peccunia. a. 1284 p. 579, 19 ordinavit et statuit papa magnam
cruxatam per christianos, ita quod generaliter predicatur
... ubique magna cruxata contra eum (sc. regem Aragonensem). Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange, Glossarium
mediae et inmae latinitatis, d. augm., Niort : L. Favre,
18831887, t. 2, col. 629a, s.v. "Cruciat" (Expeditiones
sacr contra Saracenos et Hreticos, quod, qui iis sese adjungerent, Crucis signum in vestibus deferrent) references
the use of the Latin term in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Occurrit non semel apud Will. Thorn. et apud Ericum Upsaliensem lib. 3. Hist. Suecor. ann. 1292. ubi Loccenius,
nescio quam historiam de Cruce Christi somniat
[3] L'Histoire des Croisades by Archange de Clermont OFM
in Trait du Calvaire de Hirusalem et de Dauphin, Lyon
(1638).

List of Crusader castles

[4] Lock 2006, p. 258. The rst recorded use of the term in
English was by William Shenstone in 1757.Hindley 2004,
pp. 23

Art of the Crusades

[5] Davies 1997, p. 358

1.12. REFERENCES

13

[6] Constable 2001, p. 12

[44] Asbridge 2011, p. 46

[7] Riley-Smith 2009, p. 27

[45] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 3236

[8] Lock 2006, pp. 255256

[46] Tyerman 2006, pp. 143146

[9] Lock 2006, pp. 172180

[47] Mayer 1988, pp. 6061

[10] Lock 2006, p. 167

[48] Tyerman 2006, pp. 146153

[11] Davies 1997, pp. 362364

[49] Tyerman 2006, pp. 156158

[12] Constable 2001, pp. 12&ndas;15

[50] Sinclair 1995, pp. 5556

[13] Wickham 2009, p. 280

[51] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 5051

[14] Lock 2006, p. 4

[52] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 2324

[15] Hindley 2004, p. 14

[53] Tyerman 2006, pp. 192194

[16] Pringle 1999, p. 157

[54] Housley 2006, p. 42

[17] Findley 2005, p. 73

[55] Lock 2006, pp. 144145

[18] Hindley 2004, pp. 1516

[56] Lock 2006, pp. 146147

[19] Bull 1999, pp. 1819

[57] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 104105

[20] Housley 2006, p. 31

[58] Lock 2006, p. 144

[21] Mayer 1988, pp. 1718

[59] Hindley 2004, pp. 7174

[22] Mayer 1988, pp. 23

[60] Hindley 2004, pp. 7785

[23] Rubenstein 2011, p. 18

[61] Hindley 2004, p. 77

[24] Cantor 1958, pp. 89

[62] Hindley 2004, pp. 7577

[25] Riley-Smith 2009, pp. 1011

[63] Villegas-Aristizabal 2009, pp. 63129

[26] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 810

[64] Lock 2006, p. 148

[27] Asbridge 2011, p. 97

[65] Lock 2006, p. 213

[28] Hindley 2004, p. 15

[66] Lock 2006, pp. 5556

[29] Tolan, Veinstein & Henry 2013, p. 37

[67] Holt 1983, pp. 235239

[30] Mayer 1988, pp. 67

[68] Asbridge 2011, pp. 343357

[31] Pierson 2009, p. 103

[69] Asbridge 2011, p. 367

[32] Hindley 2004, pp. 2021

[70] Tyerman 2007, pp. 3536

[33] Slack 2013, pp. 228230

[71] Flori 1999, p. 132

[34] Cohn 1970, pp. 61, 64

[72] Lock 2006, pp. 151154

[35] Slack 2013, pp. 108109

[73] Asbridge 2011, pp. 512513

[36] Chazan 1996, p. 60

[74] Lock 2006, p. 155

[37] Hindley 2004, p. 23

[75] Lock 2006, p. 82

[38] Hindley 2004, pp. 2526

[76] Lock 2006, p. 92

[39] Tyerman 2006, pp. 106110

[77] Lock 2006, p. 84

[40] Hindley 2004, pp. 2730

[78] Lock 2006, p. 96

[41] Lock 2006, pp. 2021

[79] Lock 2006, p. 103

[42] Hindley 2004, pp. 3031

[80] Lock 2006, pp. 221222

[43] Asbridge 2011, pp. 5052

[81] Lock 2006, pp. 104, 221

14

CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

[82] Tyerman 2006, pp. 502508

[118] Runciman 1951, p. 480

[83] Davies 1997, pp. 359360

[119] Riley-Smith 2009, pp. 4344

[84] Davies 1997, p. 360

[120] Riley-Smith 2009, p. 44

[85] Riley-Smith 1999, p. 4

[121] Andrea 2003, pp. 21315

[86] Lock 2006, pp. 163165

[122] Nicholson 2001

[87] Lock 2006, pp. 172173

[123] Davies 1997, p. 359

[88] Lock 2006, p. 211

[124] Hodgson 2007, pp. 3944

[89] Lock 2006, pp. 168169

[125] Maier 2004, pp. 6182

[90] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 179180

[126] EdingtonLambert 2002, p. 98

[91] Hindley 2004, pp. 561562

[127] Hodgson 2007, pp. 110112

[92] Lock 2006, p. 169

[128] Owen 1993, p. 22

[93] Asbridge 2011, pp. 566568

[129] Nicholson 1997, p. 337

[94] Asbridge 2011, p. 569

[130] James Michael Illston, "'An Entirely Masculine Activity'?

Women and War in the High and Late Middle Ages Reconsidered, (Thesis, Department of History, University
of Canterbury, 2009) p. 110.

[95] Lock 2006, pp. 173174

[96] Asbridge 2011, pp. 574576
[97] Tyerman 2006, pp. 770775
[98] Hindley 2004, pp. 194195
[99] Lock 2006, p. 178

[131] Zacour 1969, pp. 325342

[132] Raedts 1977, pp. 279323
[133] Russell, Oswald, Childrens Crusade, Dictionary of the
Middle Ages , 1989

[100] Tyerman 2006, pp. 816817

[134] Bridge 1980

[101] Marshall 1994, p. 39

[135] Miccoli 1961, pp. 407443

[102] Marshall 1994, p. 10

[136] Lock 2006, p. 179

[103] Riley-Smith 1973, p. 37

[137] Lock 2006, pp. 187188

[104] Marshall 1994, p. 59

[138] Lock 2006, p. 190

[105] Marshall 1994, p. 41

[139] Tuchman 2011, p. 41

[106] Baldwin 2014

[140] Housley 2006, pp. 152154

[107] Strayer 1969, p. 487

[141] Levantine. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford

University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK
public library membership required.)

[108] Setton 1985, p. 201

[109] Lock 2006, p. 122

[142] Krey 2012, pp. 280281

[110] Tyerman 2006, pp. 820822

[143] Housley 2006, pp. 146147

[111] Lock 2006, pp. 195196

[144] Housley 2006, pp. 147149

[112] Lock 2006, p. 199

[145] Strayer 1992, p. 143

[113] Lock 2006, p. 200

[146] Nicholson 2004, p. 96

[114] Lock 2006, pp. 201202

[147] Nicholson 2004, pp. 9394

[115] Lock 2006, pp. 202203

[148] Nicholson 2004, p. 95

[116] Lock 2006, p. 204

[149] Strack 2012, pp. 3045

[117] Outremer. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford [150] Riley-Smith & Riley-Smith 1981, p. 38
University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK
public library membership required.)
[151] Rose 2009, p. 72

1.13. BIBLIOGRAPHY

[152] Lock 2006, p. 257

[153] Lock 2006, p. 259
[154] Lock 2006, p. 261
[155] Lock 2006, p. 266
[156] Lock 2006, p. 269
[157] Kolbaba 2000, p. 49
[158] Vasilev 1952, p. 408
[159] Nicolle 2011, p. 5
[160] Housley 2006, pp. 161163

1.13 Bibliography
Andrea, Alfred J. (2003). Encyclopedia of the Crusades. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-316593. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Asbridge, Thomas (2011). The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land.
Ecco. ISBN 978-0-06-078729-5.

15
Findley, Carter Vaughan (2005). The Turks in
World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-516770-8.
Flori, Jean (1999), Richard Coeur de Lion: le
roi-chevalier (in French), Paris: Biographie Payot,
ISBN 978-2-228-89272-8
Hindley, Georey (2004). The Crusades: Islam and
Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy.
Carrol & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1344-5.
Hodgson, Natasha (2007). Women, Crusading and
the Holy Land in Historical Narrative. Boydell.
Holt, P. M. (1983).
Saladin and His Admirers: A Biographical Reassessment.
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
46 (2): 235
239. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00078824. JSTOR
615389.
Housley, Norman (2006). Contesting the Crusades.
Blackwell Publishing. ASIN 1405111895. ISBN 14051-1189-5.

Baldwin, Philip B. (2014). 'Pope Gregory X and

the crusades. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. ISBN 9781-84383-916-3.

Kahf, Mohja (1999). Western Representations of

the Muslim Women: From Termagant to Odalisque.
University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-743373.

Bridge, Antony (1980). The Crusades. London:

Granada Publishing. ISBN 0-531-09872-9.

Kolbaba, T. M. (2000). The Byzantine Lists: Errors

of the Latins. University of Illinois.

Bull, Marcus (1999). Origins. In Riley-Smith,

Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280312-3.

Krey, August C. (2012). The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eye-Witnesses and Participants. Arx Publishing. ISBN 978-1-935228-08-0.

Cantor, Norman F (1958). Church. Kingship, and

Lay Investiture in England: 10891135. Princeton
University Press..

Lock, Peter (2006). Routledge Companion to the

Crusades. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-39312-4.

Chazan, Robert (1996). European Jewry and the

First Crusade. U. of California Press. p. 60. ISBN
978-0-520-91776-7. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Cohn, Norman (1970). The pursuit of the Millennium.
Constable, Giles (2001). The Historiography of the
Crusades. In Laiou, Angeliki E.; Mottahedeh, Roy
P. The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium
and the Muslim World. Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 122.
ISBN 978-0-88402-277-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Daniel, Norman (1979). The Arabs and Mediaeval
Europe. Longman Group Limited. ISBN 0-58278088-8.
Davies, Norman (1997). Europe A History. Pimlico. ISBN 0-7126-6633-8.
Edington, Susan B.; Lambert, Sarah (2002). Gendering the Crusades. Columbia University Press.

Maier, Christoph T. (March 2004). The roles

of women in the crusade movement: a survey.
Journal of medieval history. 30 (1): 6182.
doi:10.1016/j.jmedhist.2003.12.003.
Marshall, Christopher (1994). Warfare in the Latin
East, 11921291. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-47742-0.
Mayer, Hans Eberhard (1988). The Crusades (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19873097-7.
Miccoli, Giovanni (1961). La crociata dei fancifulli. Studi medievali. Third Series.
Nicholson, Helen (1997). Women on the Third
Crusade. Journal of Medieval History. 23 (4): 335.
doi:10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00013-4.
Nicholson, Helen J. (2001). The Knights Hospitaller.
Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-0-85115-845-7. Retrieved 2016-10-04.

16
Nicholson, Helen (2004). The Crusades. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-326851.
Nicolle, David (2011). The Fourth Crusade 1202
04: The Betrayal of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing.
Owen, Roy Douglas Davis (1993). Eleanor of
Aquitaine: Queen and Legend. Blackwell Publishing.
Pierson, Paul Everett (2009). The Dynamics of
Christian Mission: History Through a Missiological
Perspective. WCIU Press. ISBN 978-0-86585-0064. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Pringle, Denys (1999). Architecture in Latin East.
In Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of
the Crusades. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19280312-3.

CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
Setton, Kenneth M. (1985). A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East.
University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-091449.
Sinclair, Andrew (1995). Jerusalem: The Endless
Crusade. Crown Publishers.
Slack, Corliss K (2013). Historical Dictionary of
the Crusades. Scarecrow Press. pp. 10809. ISBN
978-0-8108-7831-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Strack, Georg (2012). The Sermon of Urban II
in Clermont and the Tradition of Papal Oratory
(PDF). Medieval Sermon Studies. 56 (30#1): 30
45. doi:10.1179/1366069112Z.0000000002.
Strayer, Joseph R. (1969). The Crusades of Louis
IX. In Wol, R. L.; Hazard, H. W. The Later Crusades, 11891311. pp. 487521. Retrieved 201610-04.

Raedts, P. (1977). The Childrens Crusade of

1213. Journal of Medieval History. 3 (4): 279.
doi:10.1016/0304-4181(77)90026-4.

Strayer, Joseph Reese (1992). The Albigensian Crusades. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-47206476-2.

Retso, Jan (2003).

The Arabs in Antiquity:
Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads.
Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-1679-1.

Tolan, John Victor (2002). Saracens: Islam in the

Medieval European Imagination. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12333-4.

Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1973). The Feudal Nobility

and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, 11741277. Archon
Books. ISBN 978-0-208-01348-4.

Tolan, John; Veinstein, Gilles; Henry, Laurens

(2013). Europe and the Islamic World: A History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-69114705-5.

Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1999).

Riley-Smith,
Jonathan, ed. The Crusading Movement and Historians. The Oxford History of the Crusades. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-280312-3.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2005). The Crusades: A
Short History (Second ed.). Yale University Press.
ISBN 0-300-10128-7.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2009). What Were the Crusades?. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-23022069-0.
Riley-Smith, Louise; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1981).
The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 10951274. Documents of Medieval History. 4. E. Arnold. ISBN
0-7131-6348-8.
Rose, Karen (2009). The Order of the Knights Templar.
Rubenstein, Jay (2011). Armies of Heaven: The
First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse. Basic
Books. ISBN 0-465-01929-3.
Runciman, Steven (1951). A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades
(reprinted 1987 ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Tuchman, Barbara W. (2011). A Distant Mirror:

The Calamitous 14th Century. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-79369-0.
Tyerman, Christopher (2006). Gods War: A New
History of the Crusades. Belknap Press. ISBN 9780-674-02387-1.
Tyerman, Christopher (2007). The Crusades. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 111. ISBN
978-1-4027-6891-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Vasilev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1952). History
of the Byzantine Empire: 3241453. University of
Wisconsin Press.
Villegas-Aristizabal, L (2009). Anglo-Norman involvement in the conquest of Tortosa and Settlement
of Tortosa, 11481180. Crusades (8): 63129.
Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome:
Illuminating the Dark Ages 4001000. Penguin
Books. ISBN 978-0-14-311742-1.
Zacour, Norman P. (1969). The Childrens Crusade. In Wol, R. L.; Hazard, H. W. The Later
Crusades, 11891311. pp. 325342. Retrieved
2016-10-04.

1.14. FURTHER READING

1.14 Further reading

1.14.1

Introductions

Andrea, Alfred J. (2003). Encyclopedia of the Crusades. ISBN 0-313-31659-7. OCLC 52030565.
Asbridge, Thomas (2005). The First Crusade: A
New History: The Roots of Conict between Christianity and Islam. ISBN 0-19-518905-1.
Cobb, Paul M. The Race for Paradise: An Islamic
History of the Crusades (Oxford University Press,
2014)
France, John (1999). Western Warfare in the Age
of the Crusades, 10001300. ISBN 0-8014-8607-6.
OCLC 40179990.
Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives. (2000)
Holt, P.M. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East
from the Eleventh Century to 1517. (2nd ed. 2014)

17
Edbury, Peter, and Jonathan Phillips, eds. The Experience of Crusading Volume 2, Dening the Crusader Kingdom. (2003)
Florean, Dana. East Meets West: Cultural Confrontation and Exchange after the First Crusade.
Language & Intercultural Communication, 2007,
Vol. 7 Issue 2, pp. 144151
Folda, Jaroslav. Crusader Art in the Holy Land,
From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre (2005)
France, John. Victory in the East: A Military History
of the First Crusade (1996)
Harris, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades,
Bloomsbury, 2nd ed. (2014) ISBN 978-1-78093767-0
Hillenbrand, Car. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (1999)
Housley, Norman. The Later Crusades, 12741580:
From Lyons to Alcazar (1992)

Jotischky, Andrew. The Crusades: a beginners

guide (Oneworld Publications, 2015)

James, Douglas. Christians and the First Crusade.

History Review (Dec 2005), Issue 53

Madden, Thomas F. The Concise History of the Crusades (Rowman & Littleeld, 2014)

Kagay, Donald J., and L. J. Andrew Villalon, eds.

Crusaders, Condottieri, and Cannon: Medieval Warfare in Societies around the Mediterranean. (2003)

Murray, Alan V., ed. The Crusades to the Holy

Land: The Essential Reference Guide (ABC-CLIO,
2015)

Maalouf, Amin.
(1989)

Phillips, Jonathan. Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades (2010)

Madden, Thomas F. et al., eds. Crusades Medieval

Worlds in Conict (2010)

Phillips, Jonathan. The Crusades, 10951204 (2nd

ed. Routledge, 2014)

Nicolle, David (2007). Crusader Warfare Volume

II: Muslims, Mongols and the Struggle against the
Crusades.

Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. The Atlas of the Crusades (1991)

Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades, Christianity,
and Islam (2011)
Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The crusades: A history
(Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014)

1.14.2

Specialised studies

Boas, Adrian J. Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape, and Art in the Holy City
under Frankish Rule (2001)
Bull, Marcus, and Norman Housley, eds. The Experience of Crusading Volume 1, Western Approaches.
(2003)
Dickson, Gary (2008). The Childrens Crusade:
Medieval History, Modern Mythistory. Palgrave
Macmillan.

Crusades Through Arab Eyes

Nicolle, David (2003). The First Crusade 106699:

Conquest of the Holy Land. Campaign. Osprey.
ISBN 1-84176-515-5.
Peters, Edward. Christian Society and the Crusades,
11981229 (1971)
Powell, James M. Anatomy of a Crusade, 1213
1221, (1986)
Queller, Donald E., and Thomas F. Madden. The
Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople
(2nd ed. 1999)
Riley-Smith, Jonathan.The First Crusade and the
Idea of Crusading. (1986)
Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades: Volume 2, The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish
East (1952) vol 2 online free; A History of the Crusades: Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later
Crusades (1954); the classic 20th century history

18

CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

Setton, Kenneth ed., A History of the Crusades.

(19691989), the standard scholarly history in six
volumes, published by the University of Wisconsin
Press
Includes: The rst hundred years (2nd ed.
1969); The later Crusades, 11891311 (1969);
The fourteenth and fteenth centuries (1975);
The art and architecture of the crusader states
(1977); The impact of the Crusades on the Near
East (1985); The impact of the Crusades on Europe (1989)
Smail, R. C. Crusaders Castles of the Twelfth Century Cambridge Historical Journal Vol. 10, No. 2.
(1951), pp. 133149.
Stark, Rodney. Gods Battalions: The Case for the
Crusades (2010)
Tyerman, Christopher. England and the Crusades,
10951588. (1988)

1.14.3

Historiography

Constable, Giles. The Historiography of the Crusades in Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. The Crusades from
the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World
(2001) Extract online.
Illston, James Michael. 'An Entirely Masculine Activity'? Women and War in the High and Late Middle
Ages Reconsidered (MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2009) full text online
Madden, Thomas F., ed. The Crusades: The Essential Readings (2002)
Powell, James M. The Crusades in Recent Research, The Catholic Historical Review (2009)
95#2 pp. 31319 in Project MUSE
Rubenstein, Jay. In Search of a New Crusade: A
Review Essay, Historically Speaking (2011) 12#2
pp. 2527 in Project MUSE
von Gttner-Sporzyski, Darius. Recent Issues
in Polish Historiography of the Crusades in Judi
Upton-Ward, The Military Orders: Volume 4, On
Land and by Sea (2008) available on Researchgate,
available on Academia.edu

1.14.4

Primary sources

Barber, Malcolm, Bate, Keith (2010). Letters from

the East: Crusaders, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th
13th Centuries (Crusade Texts in Translation Volume 18, Ashgate Publishing Ltd)

Bird, Jessalynn, et al. eds. Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation from Innocent III to the Fall of Acre, 11871291 (2013)
excerpts
Housley, Norman, ed. Documents on the Later Crusades, 12741580 (1996)
Shaw, M. R. B. ed.Chronicles of the Crusades (1963)
Villehardouin, Georey, and Jean de Joinville.
Chronicles of the Crusades ed. by Sir Frank Marzials
(2007)

1.15 External links

"Crusades". Encyclopdia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.).
1911.
a virtual college course through Boise State University ed. by E. L. Knox
Crusades: A Guide to Online Resources, Paul Crawford, 1999
The Society for the Study of the Crusades and the
Latin Eastan international organization of professional Crusade scholars
De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military
Historycontains articles and primary sources related to the Crusades
Real Crusades History a website about the Crusades

Chapter 2

Military order (monastic society)

This article is about the medieval Catholic chivalric military orders. For modern military orders of merit, see
Military orders, awards and decorations.
A military order (Latin: Militaris ordinis) is a

Reconquista of the main towns (per year) (in Spanish).

Indications of presence of military orders associated with the

Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Holy Land during the Crusades
(in German).

chivalric order with military purpose originally established as Catholic religious societies during the medieval
Crusades for protection of Christians against violent
persecution of the Islamic conquests (623) in the Holy
Land and the Iberian Peninsula, as well as by Baltic paganism in Eastern Europe.

Extent of the Teutonic Order in 1410.

such, it was in the military orders that the Medieval concept of chivalry reached its apogee in an exceptionate fusion under exceptionate circumstances of military discipline and Christian virtues.

Prominent examples include the Knights Hospitaller, and

Most members, often titled Knights, were and still are the Knights Templar in[1]Outremer, as well as the Teutonic
laymen, and not prelates, yet cooperating with the clergy, Knights in the Baltics.
sometimes even taking religious vows such as poverty, Many military orders were suppressed by the Holy See in
chastity, and obedience, according to monastic ideals. As Rome around the end of the Middle Ages, with few new
19

20
recognised establishments afterwards. However, some
persisted longer in its original functions, only later evolving into purely honoric and/or ceremonial chivalric orders with charitable aims in modern times, such as the
Sovereign Military Order of Malta and the Order of the
Holy Sepulchre, both Papal orders of knighthood conferred still today. Notably, the Teutonic Order became
exclusively monastic except a limited associated confraternity of honorary Knights.
Today a Western cultural heritage and legacy, besides
those ocially recognised by the Holy See, parallel honoric institutions of unilateral Catholic adherence exist
in continuous or revived forms among a few current and
former European royal houses.
These traditions in turn eventually inuenced honoric
orders of modern states today, including that of secular republics, such as orders of merit, and other parts of
honour systems and phaleristics.

CHAPTER 2. MILITARY ORDER (MONASTIC SOCIETY)

them, like the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights of
Saint Thomas, also had charitable purposes and cared for
the sick and poor. However, they were not purely male
institutions, as nuns could attach themselves as convents
of the orders. One signicant feature of the military orders is that clerical brothers could be, and indeed often
were, subordinate to non-ordained brethren.
In 1818, the orientalist Joseph von Hammer compared
the Catholic military orders, in particular the Knights
Templar, with certain Islamic models such as the Shia
Islamic sect of Assassins. In 1820, Jos Antonio Conde
suggested they were modeled on the ribat, a fortied religious institution which brought together a religious or
hospital way of life with ghting the enemies of Islam.
However popular such views may have become, others
have criticised this view, suggesting there were no such
ribats around the Outremer until after the military orders
had been founded.

Moreover, it inspired many subsequent modern era sec- Yet, the innovation of the role and function of the military
ular Western cultural phenonomens, such as fraternities, orders has sometimes been obscured by the concentration
on their military exploits in the Holy Land, Prussia, and
or brotherhoods, such as the Freemasonry.
the Baltics. In fact, they had extensive holdings and sta
throughout Western Europe. The majority were laymen.
They provided a conduit for cultural and technical innova2.1 History
tion, for example the introduction of fulling into England
by the Knights Hospitaller, or the banking facilities of the
Already in 1053, for the Battle of Civitate the Knights of Knights Templars.
Saint Peter (Milites Sancti Petri) was founded as a militia Because of the necessity to have a standing army, the milby Pope Leo IX to counter the Normans.[2]
itary orders were founded, being adopted as the fourth
The larger threat that would denitively establish the tra- monastic religious vows.
dition, however, came from the east. In response to the
Islamic conquests of the former Byzantine Empire and
Christianity in the Holy Land, numerous Catholic military orders were set up following the First Crusade. The
founding of such orders suited the Catholic churchs plan
of channelising the devotion of the European nobility,
and also complemented the Peace and Truce of God.[1]
The foundation of the Knights Templar in 1118 provided
the rst in a series of tightly organised military forces
for the purpose of ghting invading Islamic conquests in 2.3 List of military orders
the Holy Land and in the Iberian Peninsula see the
Reconquista as well as Islamic invaders and pagan
tribes in Eastern Europe.
These are military orders listed chronologically accordThe rst secularised military order was the Order of Saint ing to their dates of foundation and extinction, sometimes
George, founded in 1326 by the King Charles I of Hun- approximate due to scarce sources, and/or repeated supgary, on which he made all the Hungarian nobility swear pressions by Papal or royal authourities. Their militariloyalty to him. The next secular order which is known sation may vary from case to case, the foundation of an
to appear was the Order of the "Knights of the Band", order, its ecclesiastical approval, and occurring on dierfounded in 1332 by the King Alfonso XI of Castile. Both ent times and for dierent purposes. Presently active inorders existed only for about a century.[3]
stitutions are listed in consideration with their legitimacy
according to the International Commission on Orders of
Chivalry.

2.2 Purpose

They are divided into international and national according

to their adherence, mission, and enrolment, disregarding
The original features of the military orders were the com- the extent of eventual gradual geographical distribution
bination of religious and military ways of life. Some of outside of their region of concern.

2.4. MODERN DEVELOPMENT

21

2.3.1

International

2.4 Modern development

2.3.2

National

2.3.3

Other

A few of the institutions survived into honoric and/or

charitable organisations, including the papal orders of
knighthood.

While other contemporary Catholic societies may share

Chivalric and/or military orders that could qualify de- some military organisational features and ideology, such
pending on denition.
as the Society of Jesus (1540),[30] they dier from the
medieval military orders in absence of military purposes
Confraternity of Belchite, experimental confrater- or potential.

nity of knights founded in 1122 by King Alfonso the As for several national, state and even dynastic miliBattler of Aragon
tary orders of merit, such as the Dutch Military Order
of William and the Austrian Military Order of Maria
Order of Saint Blaise, founded in the 12th century Theresa, they are not military orders other than nomiin Armenia to defend the country against the attacks nally.
of the Muslims
Echoing the medieval institutions, however, it is possible for modern orders to be founded explicitly as a milOrder of Saint George (Kingdom of Hungary), itary order, for instance the Military Order of Loyalty
worlds rst secular chivalric order founded in 1326 (Spanish: Orden Militar de la Constancia), founded in
by King Charles I of Hungary
1946 by the Spanish protectorate in Morocco. Awarded
to both Spanish and Moroccan military ocers and
Knights of the Band, early honoric military order soldiers, the single-class order was abolished in 1956.
founded c. 1330 by King Alfonso XI of Castile
In contrast, inspired by the legacy of the original miliOrder of the Most Holy Annunciation, military or- tary orders, besides legitimate chivalric orders, in addider founded in 1350 by Duke Amadeus VI, Count tion, vast modern imitations ourish, referred to as "selfof Savoy, the rst called the Order of the True styled orders".
Lovers Knots in memory of a bracelet of hair presented to the founder by a lady, but upon the election of Amadeus VIII to the ponticate in 1439, it
changed its name for that of the Annunciation of angel Gabriel

Order of the Dove, short-lived (one year) and controversial order founded in 1379 by King Juan I of
Castile
Order of Saint Anthony (Bavaria), Bavarian military
order founded in 1382 by Duke Albert I, Duke of
Bavaria
Military Order of Cross-bearers with the Red Star
on a Blue Field, hospitaller and/military order active
from the 12th century until suppressed in 1656 by
Pope Alexander VII.
Order of Saint Hubert, early honoric military order
founded in 1444 or 1445 by Gerhard VII, Duke of
Jlich-Berg
Blood of Jesus Christ (military order), founded in
Mantua, Italy, by Vincenzo I Gonzaga, Duke of
Mantua, approved on 25 May 1608 by Pope Paul
V
Order of the Knights of Concrdia, founded in 1246
by King Ferdinand III of Castile

2.5 See also

Spanish knights orders
Chivalric order
Order (honour)

2.6 References
[1] Crawford, Paul (1996). The Military Orders: Introduction. The ORB: On-line Reference Book for Medieval
Studies. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014.
[2] Template:Ref-Demurger-Templiers
[3] Michael Jones ed., The New Cambridge Medieval History,
vol. 6: c. 1300 - c. 1415, (Cambridge, 1998), p. 209.
[4] Beyond the Craft by Keith B Jackson, published 1980 by
Lewis Masonic (Terminal House, Shepperton, Middlesex,
TW17 8AS, England), and subsequent later revised editions. Current (5th) edition (2005) is ISBN 0-85318-2485.
[5] The Orders of Saint John Joint Declaration dated 14 October 1987.
[6] Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem.
Retrieved 24 January 2015.

22

[7] Robert Ferguson (26 August 2011). The Knights Templar

and Scotland. History Press Limited. p. 39. ISBN 9780-7524-6977-5.
[8] Jochen Burgtorf; Paul F. Crawford; Helen J. Nicholson
(28 June 2013). The Debate on the Trial of the Templars
(13071314). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 298. ISBN
978-1-4094-8102-7.
[9] Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Order of the Knights
of Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
[10] Matthew Anthony Fitzsimons; Jean Bcarud (1969). The
Catholic Church today: Western Europe. University of
Notre Dame Press. p. 159.
[11] Helen J. Nicholson (1 January 2004). The Crusades.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-31332685-1.
[12] Jos Vicente de Bragana, The Military Order of Christ
and the Papal Croce di Cristo

CHAPTER 2. MILITARY ORDER (MONASTIC SOCIETY)

[22] Orders of the Holy Ghost - Catholic Encyclopedia article

[23] Besse, Jean. Bethlehemites. The Catholic Encyclopedia
Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 23
Jun. 2015
[24] Trollope, Thomas Anthony. An encyclopdia ecclesiastica, 1834
[25] Pasquale Villari, '"The Medici (1911). Hugh Chisolm,
ed. The Encyclopaedia Britannica: a dictionary of arts,
sciences, literature and general information, Volume 18 (11
ed.). New York: Encyclopaedia Britannica. p. 36.
[26] Woodhouse, Frederick Charles (1879). The military religious orders of the Middle Ages: the Hospitallers, the Templars, the Teutonic knights, and others. With an appendix
of other orders of knighthood: legendary, honorary, and
modern. New York: Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge. p. 338. The members followed the rule of St
Benedict and the Popes granted them the same privileges
as those enjoyed by the Knights Hospitallers

[15] Noonan, Jr., James-Charles (1996). The Church Visible:

The Ceremonial Life and Protocol of the Roman Catholic
Church. Viking. p. 196. ISBN 0-670-86745-4.

[27] Carmichael, Montgomery (1901). In Tuscany: Tuscan

Towns, Tuscan Types and the Tuscan Tongue. New York:
E P Dutton. p. 173. The Order was swept away by the
French Revolution but was revived again in a modied
form in 1817. The Italian Revolution once more swept
it away beyond hope of revival on 16 November 1859 and
its Church and property became the property of the State.
Alas that modern Italy should not be a little more tender
of the memories of her past glories.

[16] Moeller, Charles. The Military Orders. The Catholic

Encyclopedia Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1911. 22 Jun. 2015

[28] Bernardini, Rodolfo (1990). Il Sacro Militare Ordine di

Santo Stefano Papa e Martire (in Italian). Pisa: Familiare
della Casa Asburgo Lorena.

[17] Anderson, James (1732). Royal genealogies: or, The

genealogical tables of emperors, kings and princes, from
Adam to these times; in two parts. London: James Bettenham. pp. ix. Retrieved 9 December 2011. St Michaels
Wing in Portugal founded by the said King Alphonse 1165
or 1171 after his obtaining a notable Victory over Moors
and Alberto King of Seville in which Battle MICHAEL
the Arch Angel is said to appear on the right Side of
Alphonse and ght against them. This Order is now out
of use. (1732)

[29] Cardinale, Hyginus Eugene (1983). Orders of knighthood

awards and the Holy See. Gerrards Cross: Van Duren. p.
157. ISBN 978-0-905715-13-1.

[13] Martin, pp. 140142.

[14] Note of Clarication from the Secretariat of State.
news.va. Pontical Council for Social Communication.
16 October 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2012. Vatican
City,(VIS)-

[18] Almeida, Gomes Abrunhosa Marques de and Manuel ngelo (2007). Precedentes histrico-tericos dos regionalismos dos Aores e da Galiza. Santiago de Compostela:
Univ Santiago de Compostela. p. 187.
[19] Cheke, Marcus (1969). Carlota Joaquina, queen of Portugal. (Reprinted. ed.). Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-8369-5040-3.
[20] Jenks, George C (1911). Monarchs in Exile, The Bookman vol. 32. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co. p. 273.
[21] Sainty, Guy Stair (2006-11-22). Royal Order of Saint
Michael of the Wing. rec.heraldry. Retrieved 2011-0121. While the Duke of Braganza is the unquestioned heir
and successor of Dom Miguel, the institution of the Royal
Brotherhood of St Michael of the Wing is better seen as
a modern memorial revival of the original institution than
any kind of continuation of the Miguelist award.

[30] Harro Hp (2004), Jesuit Political Thought: The Society

of Jesus and the State, c. 15401630, Cambridge; p. 25

2.7 Further reading

Military Orders in Catholic Encyclopedia (1911)
Nicholson, Helen J. The Knights Hospitaller (2001).
Riley-Smith, Jonathan. Hospitallers: The History of
the Order of St John (1999).
Morten, Nicholas Edward. The Teutonic Knights in
the Holy Land 1190-1291 (Woodbridge: Boydell
Press, 2009)
Burman, Edward (1988). The Templars: Knights of
God. Inner Traditions/Bear.
Forey, Alan John. The Military Orders: From the
Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries. *(Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1992)

Chapter 3

Siege of Constantinople (1203)

For other sieges of the city, see list of sieges of Con- 20,000 people homeless.[7][8]
stantinople.
Alexius III nally took oensive action, and led 17 divisions from the St. Romanus Gate, vastly outnumbering
The Siege of Constantinople in 1203 was a Crusader the Crusaders. Alexius IIIs army of about 8,500 men
siege of the capital of the Byzantine Empire, in support of faced the Crusaders 7 divisions (about 3,500 men), but
the deposed emperor Isaac II Angelos and his son Alexios his courage failed, and the Byzantine army returned to the
IV Angelos. It marked the main outcome of the Fourth city without a ght.[9]
Crusade.
On 18 July 1203 the Crusaders launched an assault on the
city, and Alexios III immediately ed into Thrace. The
next morning, the Crusaders were surprised to nd that
the citizens had released Isaac II from prison and pro3.1 The siege
claimed him emperor, despite the fact that he had been
blinded to make him ineligible to rule. The Crusaders
To take the city by force, the Crusaders rst needed forced Isaac II to proclaim his son Alexios IV co-emperor
to cross the Bosphorus. About 200 ships, horse trans- on 1 August, eectively ending the siege.
ports and galleys would undertake to deliver the crusading army across the narrow strait, where Alexius III had
lined up the Byzantine army in battle formation along
the shore, north of the suburb of Galata. The Crusaders 3.2 After the 1203 siege
knights charged straight out of the horse transports, and
the Byzantine army ed south. The Crusaders followed Following the end of the rst siege of Constantinople in
south, and attacked the Tower of Galata, which held one 1203, on 1 August 1203, the pro-Crusader Alexios Anend of the chain that blocked access to the Golden Horn. gelos was crowned Emperor Alexios IV of the Byzantine
As they laid siege to the Tower, the Greeks counterat- Empire, who then tried to stabilize the city. But riots
tacked with some initial success. However, when the Cru- between anti-Crusader Greeks and pro-Crusader Latins
saders rallied and the Greeks retreated to the Tower, the broke out later that month and lasted until November,
Crusaders were able to follow the soldiers through the during which most of the populace began to turn against
Gate, and the Tower surrendered.[5] The Golden Horn Emperor Alexios IV.
now lay open to the Crusaders, and the Venetian eet en- On 25 January 1204, the death of co-Emperor Isaac II
tered.
set o rioting in Constantinople in which the people deOn 11 July the Crusaders took positions opposite the
Blachernae palace on the northwest corner of the city.
Alexios IV was paraded outside the walls, but the citizens were apathetic, as Alexios III, though a usurper and
illegitimate in the eyes of the westerners, was an acceptable emperor for the Byzantine citizens. The siege began
in earnest on 17 July, with four divisions attacking the
land walls, while the Venetian eet attacked the sea walls
from the Golden Horn. The Venetians took a section of
the wall of about 25 towers, while the Varangian guard
held o the Crusaders[6] on the land wall. The Varangians
shifted to meet the new threat, and the Venetians retreated
under the screen of re. The re lasted for 3 days and
destroyed about 440 acres (1.8 km2 ) of the city, leaving

posed Alexios IV, who turned to the Crusaders for help

but was imprisoned by the imperial chamberlain, Alexios Doukas, who declared himself Emperor Alexios V on
5 February. Emperor Alexios V then attempted to negotiate with the Crusaders for a withdrawal from Byzantine territory, but they refused to abandon their old treaty
with Alexios IV. When Alexios V ordered Alexios IVs
execution on 8 February, the Crusaders declared war
on Alexios V. In March 1204, the Crusader and Venetian leadership decided on the outright conquest of Constantinople, and drew up a formal agreement to divide
the Byzantine Empire between them. By the end of
that month, the combined Crusader armies had begun
the 1204 Siege of Constantinople as Emperor Alexios V

23

24

CHAPTER 3. SIEGE OF CONSTANTINOPLE (1203)

began to strengthen the citys defences while conducting

more active operations outside the city. [10]

3.3 See also

Siege of Constantinople (1204)
Siege of Constantinople (1235)

3.4 References
[1] S. Blondal, The Varangians of Byzantium, 164
[2] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 159
[3] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 269
[4] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 106
[5] Sack of Constantinople, 1204. Agiasoa.com. Retrieved 2008-12-30.
[6] The Fourth Crusade and the Fall of Constantinople.
Geocities.com. Archived from the original on 2009-0808. Retrieved 2008-12-30.
[7] J. Phillip The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 208-209
[8] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 176
[9] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 177
[10] David Nicolle, The Fourth Crusade 1202-04; The betrayal
of Byzantium. Osprey Campaign Series #237. Osprey
Publishing.

3.5 External links

The Latin Occupation in the Greek Lands - The Latin
Empire, from the Foundation of the Hellenic World
Coordinates:
28.9769E

410100N 285837E / 41.0167N

Chapter 4

Siege of Constantinople (1204)

For other sieges of the city, see list of sieges of Constantinople.
The Sack of Constantinople or Siege of Constantinople occurred in 1204 and marked the end of the Fourth
Crusade. Mutinous Crusader armies captured, looted,
and destroyed parts of Constantinople, the capital of the
Byzantine Empire. After the capture, the Latin Empire
was created and Baldwin of Flanders was crowned Emperor Baldwin I of Constantinople in the Hagia Sophia.
After the citys sacking, a number of territories of the
Empire went under the control of the Crusaders. Others
formed independent states under Byzantine aristocracy,
one of them being the Empire of Nicaea, which recaptured Constantinople in 1261 proclaiming the reinstatement of the Empire. However, the weakened state would
never return to its former territorial or economic status,
and would eventually see all its territories in Anatolia and
Southeastern Europe conquered by a rising Ottoman Sultanate, who carried out the 1453 Siege of Constantinople.
For this reason, the events of 1204 are sometimes seen as
marking the nal stage of the Byzantine Empires decline.

4.1 Before the siege

The Massacre of the Latins (Italian: Massacro dei Latini; Greek: ), a large-scale massacre of the Roman Catholic or Latin inhabitants of
Constantinople by the Eastern Orthodox population of
the city in May 1182,[5][6] had a dramatic eect on
the schism between the Western and Eastern Christian
churches.[7] The massacre also further worsened the image of the Byzantines in the eyes of the Western powers, and, although regular trade agreements were soon resumed between Byzantium and Latin states, the underlying hostility would remain, leaving many westerners seeking some form of revenge.

Map showing Constantinople and its walls during the Byzantine

era

that month and lasted until November, during which most

of the populace began to turn against Emperor Alexios
IV.
On 25 January 1204, the death of co-Emperor Isaac II
set o rioting in Constantinople in which the people deposed Alexios IV, who turned to the Crusaders for help
but was imprisoned by the imperial chamberlain, Alexios Doukas, who declared himself Emperor on 5 February. Emperor Alexios V then attempted to negotiate with
the Crusaders for a withdrawal from Byzantine territory,
but they refused to abandon their old treaty with Alexios IV. When Alexios V ordered Alexios IVs execution
on 8 February, the Crusaders declared war on Alexios
V. In March 1204, the Crusader and Venetian leadership
decided on the outright conquest of Constantinople, and
drew up a formal agreement to divide the Byzantine Empire between them.

Following the siege of Constantinople in 1203, on 1 4.2 Siege

August 1203, the pro-Crusader Alexios Angelos was
crowned Emperor Alexios IV of the Byzantine Empire, By the end of March, the combined Crusader armies were
who then tried to pacify the city. But riots between anti- besieging Constantinople as Emperor Alexios V began to
Crusader Greeks and pro-Crusader Latins broke out later strengthen the citys defences while conducting more ac25

26

CHAPTER 4. SIEGE OF CONSTANTINOPLE (1204)

tive operations outside the city. By the rst week of April,

the Crusaders had begun their siege from their encampment in the town of Galata across the Golden Horn from
Constantinople.[8]
On 9 April 1204, the Crusader and Venetian forces began
an assault on the Golden Horn fortications by crossing
the waterway to the northwest wall of the city, but, because of bad weather, the assault forces were driven back
when the troops that landed came under heavy archery
re in open ground between Constantinoples fortications and the shore.[8]

4.3 Capture of the city

The Horses of Saint Mark displayed on the facade of St Marks

Basilica in Venice

and medieval Roman and Greek works were either stolen

or destroyed. The famous bronze horses from the
Hippodrome were sent back to adorn the faade of St
Marks Basilica in Venice, where they remain. As well
as being stolen, works of immeasurable artistic value
were destroyed merely for their material value. One
of the most precious works to suer such a fate was a
large bronze statue of Hercules, created by the legendary
Lysippos, court sculptor of Alexander the Great. Like so
many other priceless artworks made of bronze, the statue
was melted down for its content by the Crusaders. The
great Library of Constantinople was destroyed as well.[9]

The siege of Constantinople in 1204, by Palma il Giovane.

Despite their oaths and the threat of excommunication,

the Crusaders systematically violated the citys holy sanctuaries, destroying or stealing all they could lay hands on;
nothing was spared, not even the tombs of the emperors
inside the St Apostles church. The civilian population
of Constantinople were subject to the Crusaders ruthless
lust for spoils and glory; thousands of them were killed in
cold blood. Women, even nuns, were raped by the Crusader army, which also sacked churches, monasteries and
convents. The very altars of these churches were smashed
and torn to pieces for their gold and marble by the warriors who had sworn to ght in service of the Pope without question. Although the Venetians engaged in looting too, their actions were far more restrained. Doge
Dandolo still appeared to have far more control over his
men. Rather than wantonly destroying all around like
their comrades, the Venetians stole religious relics and
works of art, which they would later take to Venice to
adorn their own churches.

On 12 April 1204 weather conditions nally favoured the

Crusaders as the weather cleared and a second assault on
the city was ordered. A strong north wind aided the Venetian ships near the Golden Horn to come close to the city
wall, which enabled the attackers to seize some of the
towers along the wall. After a short battle approximately
70 Crusaders managed to enter the city. Some Crusaders
were eventually able to knock holes in the walls large
enough for a few knights at a time to crawl through; the
Venetians were also successful at scaling the walls from
the sea, although there was extremely bloody ghting with
the Varangians. The Crusaders captured the Blachernae
section of the city in the northwest and used it as a base to
attack the rest of the city, but while attempting to defend
themselves with a wall of re they ended up burning down
It was said that the total amount looted from Constantinoeven more of the city. Emperor Alexios V ed from the
ple was about 900,000 silver marks, or 600,000 troy
city that night through the Polyandriou (Rhegium) Gate
pounds. The Venetians received 150,000 silver marks
and escaped into the countryside to the west.
that was their due and the Crusaders received 50,000 silver marks. A further 100,000 silver marks were divided
evenly between the Crusaders and Venetians. The re4.4 Sack of Constantinople
maining 500,000 silver marks were secretly kept back
by many Crusader knights. Meanwhile, Latin residents
The Crusaders looted, terrorized, and vandalized Con- of Constantinople exacted their own retribution for the
stantinople for three days, during which many ancient Massacre of the Latins of 1182.[10]

4.6. LEGACY

4.5 Aftermath
According to a prearranged treaty the empire was apportioned between Venice and the crusades leaders, and the
Latin Empire of Constantinople was established. Boniface was not elected as the new emperor, although the
citizens seemed to consider him as such; the Venetians
thought he had too many connections with the former empire because of his brother, Renier of Montferrat, who
had been married to Maria Comnena, empress in the
1170s and 80s. Instead they placed Baldwin of Flanders
on the throne. He was crowned Emperor in the Hagia
Sophia as Baldwin I of Constantinople.[11][12] Boniface
went on to found the Kingdom of Thessalonica,[13] a vassal state of the new Latin Empire. The Venetians also
founded the Duchy of the Archipelago in the Aegean Sea.
Most of the Byzantine aristocracy ed the city. Amongst
the ordinary people of the former empire there was no
sympathy for the Byzantine elite, who were seen as having ruled the empire with increasing incompetence.[14]
The contemporary Byzantine historian and eye-witness
Nicetas Choniates closed his account of the fall of the
city with the following description of a column of aristocratic refugees, including the Patriarch, making their way
to Selymbria:

The peasants and common ri-ra jeered

at those of us from Byzantium and were
thick-headed enough to call our miserable
poverty and nakedness equality...Many were
only too happy to accept this outrage, saying
Blessed be the Lord that we have grown
rich, and buying up for next to nothing the
property that their fellow-countrymen were
forced to oer for sale, for they had not yet
had much to do with the beef-eating Latins
and they did not know that they served a wine
as pure and unmixed as unadulterated bile, nor
that they would treat the Byzantines with utter
contempt.[14]
Nicetas Choniates

27

4.6 Legacy
Eight hundred years after the Fourth Crusade, Pope John
Paul II twice expressed sorrow for the events of the Fourth
Crusade. In 2001 he wrote to Christodoulos, Archbishop
of Athens, saying, It is tragic that the assailants, who
set out to secure free access for Christians to the Holy
Land, turned against their brothers in the faith. The fact
that they were Latin Christians lls Catholics with deep
regret.[15] In 2004, while Bartholomew I, Patriarch of
Constantinople, was visiting the Vatican, John Paul II
asked, How can we not share, at a distance of eight
centuries, the pain and disgust?"[16] This has been regarded as an apology to the Greek Orthodox Church for
the slaughter perpetrated by the warriors of the Fourth
Crusade.[17]
In April 2004, in a speech on the 800th anniversary of the
capture of the city, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I
formally accepted the apology. The spirit of reconciliation is stronger than hatred, he said during a liturgy attended by Roman Catholic Archbishop Philippe Barbarin
of Lyon, France. We receive with gratitude and respect
your cordial gesture for the tragic events of the Fourth
Crusade. It is a fact that a crime was committed here in
the city 800 years ago. Bartholomew said his acceptance
came in the spirit of Pascha. The spirit of reconciliation
of the resurrection... incites us toward reconciliation of
our churches.[18]

4.7 See also

Siege of Constantinople (1203)
Siege of Constantinople (1235)
Fall of Constantinople (1453)
List of sieges

4.8 References
[1] S. Blondal, The Varangians of Byzantium, 164
[2] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 159

Byzantine aristocratic refugees founded their own

successor states, the most notable of these being the
Empire of Nicaea under Theodore Lascaris (a relative of
Alexius III), the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate
of Epirus.
The sack weakened the Byzantine Empire, which allowed neighboring (or neighbouring) groups such as the
Sultanate of Rum, and later the Ottoman Turks, to gain
inuence (see the ByzantineOttoman Wars).

[3] J. Phillips, they were also milarty campaigns The Fourth

Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 269
[4] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 106
[5] The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages:
950-1250. Cambridge University Press. 1986. pp. 506
508. ISBN 978-0-521-26645-1.
[6] Gregory, Timothy (2010). A History of Byzantium.
Wiley-Blackwell. p. 309. ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7.

28

CHAPTER 4. SIEGE OF CONSTANTINOPLE (1204)

[7] Vasiliev, Aleksandr (1958). History of the Byzantine Empire. 2, Volume 2. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 446.
ISBN 978-0-299-80926-3.
[8] David Nicolle, The Fourth Crusade 1202-04; The betrayal
of Byzantium. (2011) Osprey Campaign Series #237. Osprey Publishing.
[9] Preface. Clir.org. Retrieved 30 December 2008.
[10] Jean Richard, The Crusades, c.1071-c.1291, 251
[11] , . . , 1895,
. 359-360
[12] Gerland, . Geschichte des lateinischen Kaiserreiches von
Konstantinopel. 1. Teil: Geschichte des Kaisers Balduin I
und Heinrich. Homburg v. d. Hhe 1905. p. 1-10
[13] The Latin Occupation in the Greek Lands. Fhw.gr. Retrieved 29 December 2008.
[14] Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire 10251204. pp. 327328. ISBN 0 582 29468 1.
[15] In the Footsteps of St Paul: Papal Visit to Greece, Syria
& Malta - Words. Ewtn.com. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
[16] Pope Expresses Sorrow Over Sacking of Constantinople. Atheism.about.com. 30 June 2004. Retrieved 18
May 2009.
[17] Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, intro., xiii).
[18] In Pascha messages, Patriarchs address question of violence. Incommunion.org. Retrieved 18 May 2009.

4.9 External links

The Latin Occupation in the Greek Lands - The Latin
Empire, from the Foundation of the Hellenic World
Coordinates:
28.9769E

410100N 285837E / 41.0167N

Chapter 5

Siege of Constantinople (1235)

For other sieges of the city, see list of sieges of Constantinople.
The Siege of Constantinople (1235) was a joint
Bulgarian-Nicaean siege on the capital of the Latin Empire. Latin emperor John of Brienne was besieged by the
Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes and Tsar Ivan
Asen II of Bulgaria. The siege remained unsuccessful.

5.1 Prelude

5.3 Afterwards
By 1247, the Nicaeans had eectively surrounded Constantinople, with only the citys strong walls holding them
at bay, and the Battle of Pelagonia in 1258 signaled the
beginning of the end of Latin predominance in Greece.
Thus, on July 25, 1261, with most of the Latin troops
away on campaign, the Nicaean general Alexios Strategopoulos[4] found an unguarded entrance to the city, and
entered it with his troops, restoring the Byzantine Empire
for his master, Michael VIII Palaiologos.

5.4 See also

After Robert of Courtenay died in 1228, a new regency

under John of Brienne was set up. After the disastrous
Epirote defeat by the Bulgarians at the Battle of Klokotnitsa,[1][2] the Epirote threat to the Latin Empire was removed, only to be replaced by Nicaea, which started acquiring territories in Greece. Emperor John III Doukas
Vatatzes of Nicaea concluded an alliance with Bulgaria,
which in 1235 resulted in joint campaign against the Latin
Empire.

Siege of Constantinople (1203)

Siege of Constantinople (1204)
Siege of Constantinople (1260)

5.5 References
[1] Turnovo inscription of Tsar Ivan Asen II in the Holy 40
Martyrs Church in honour of the victory at Klokotnitsa on
9 March 1230
[2] Battle of Klokonista. badley.info. Retrieved 2008-1229.

5.2 The siege

[3] John III Ducas Vatatzes. NNDB.com. Retrieved 2009-

In 1235, Angelo Sanudo sent a naval squadron for the

05-18.
defense of Constantinople, where the Emperor John of
Brienne was being besieged by John III Doukas Vatatzes, [4] Nicol (1993), p. 34.
Emperor of Nicaea, and Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria. The
joint Bulgarian-Nicaean siege was unsuccessful.[3] The
allies retreated in the autumn because of the incoming 5.6 External links
winter. Ivan Asen II and Vatatzes agreed to continue the
siege in the next year but the Bulgarian Emperor refused
The Latin Occupation in the Greek Lands - The Latin
to send troops. With the death of John of Brienne in 1237
Empire, from the Foundation of the Hellenic World
the Bulgarians broke the treaty with Vatatzes because of
the possibility that Ivan Asen II could become a regent of
Coordinates: 410030N 285830E / 41.0083N
the Latin Empire.
28.9750E
By Angelos further intervention, a truce was signed between the two empires for two years.
29

Chapter 6

Siege of Belgrade (1456)

This article is about the 1456 siege of Belgrade. For cruits were ill-armed, many with only slings and scythes,
other uses, see Siege of Belgrade.
but they were highly motivated. The recruits came under
Hunyadis banner, the core of which consisted of smaller
The Siege of Belgrade, or Battle of Belgrade or Siege bands of seasoned mercenaries and a few groups of minor knights. All in all, Hunyadi managed to build a force
of Nndorfehrvr. occurred from July 422, 1456.
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman of 2530,000 men.
Sultan Mehmed II rallied his resources in order to subjugate the Kingdom of Hungary. His immediate objective was the border fort of the town of Belgrade (in old 6.2 Siege
Hungarian Nndorfehrvr). John Hunyadi, the Voivode
of Transylvania, who had fought many battles against the
Before Hunyadi could assemble his forces, the army of
Turks in the previous two decades, prepared the defenses
Mehmed II (160,000 men in early accounts, 60-70,000
of the fortress.
according to newer research) arrived at Belgrade. The
The siege eventually escalated into a major battle, during siege began on July 4, 1456. Szilgyi could rely on a
which Hunyadi led a sudden counterattack that overran force of only 5,000-7,000 men in the castle. Mehmed
the Ottoman camp, ultimately compelling the wounded set up his siege on the neck of the headland and started
Mehmed II to lift the siege and retreat. The battle had sig- heavily bombarding the citys walls on June 29. He arnicant consequences, as it stabilized the southern fron- rayed his men in three sections: The Rumelian corps had
tiers of the Kingdom of Hungary for more than half a cen- the majority of his 300 cannons, while his eet of 200
tury and thus considerably delaying the Ottoman advance river war vessels had the rest of them. The Rumelians
in Europe.
were arrayed on the right wing and the Anatolian corps
The Pope celebrated the victory as well, as he previously were arrayed on the left. In the middle were the personal
ordered all Catholic kingdoms to pray for the victory of guards of the Sultan, the Janissaries, and his command
the defenders of Belgrade. This led to the noon bell rit- post. The Anatolian corps and the Janissaries were both
ual that is still undertaken in Catholic and old Protestant heavy infantry troops. Mehmed posted his river vessels
churches nowadays. The day of the victory, 22 July, has mainly to the northwest of the city to patrol the marshes
and ensure that the fortress was not reinforced. They also
been a memorial day in Hungary ever since.[10]
kept an eye on the Sava river to the southwest to avoid
the infantry from being outanked by Hunyadis army.
The zone from the Danube eastwards was guarded by the
6.1 Preparations
Sipahi, the Sultans feudal heavy cavalry corps, to avoid
being outanked on the right.
At the end of 1455, John Hunyadi began preparations for When Hunyadi was informed of this, he was in the south
the defence of Belgrade. At his own expense, he provi- of Hungary recruiting additional light cavalry troops for
sioned and armed the fortress with a strong garrison under the army, with which he would intend to lift the siege.
the command of his brother-in-law Mihly Szilgyi and Although relatively few, his fellow nobles were willing to
his own eldest son Lszl. Hunyadi then proceeded to provide manpower, and the peasants were more than willform a relief army and an additional eet of two hundred ing to do so. Cardinal Capistrano had been sent to Huncorvettes. The barons feared Hunyadis growing power gary by the Vatican both to preach against heretics and to
more than the Ottoman threat and left him entirely to his preach a crusade against the Ottomans. Capistrano manown devices.
aged to raise a large, albeit poorly trained and equipped,
An Italian Franciscan friar allied to Hunyadi, Giovanni peasant army, with which he advanced towards Belgrade.
da Capistrano, preached a crusade to attract peasants and Capistrano and Hunyadi traveled together though comlocal countryside landlords to Hunyadis cause. The re- manding the army separately. Both of them had gathered
30

6.3. BATTLE

31

Gothic fresco of the Siege of Belgrade from 1468, in a Church in

Olomouc (Czech Republic). Probably the oldest depiction of the
battle; shows Giovanni da Capistrano and John Hunyadi.

around 40,000-50,000 troops altogether.

The outnumbered defenders relied mainly on the strength
of the formidable castle of Belgrade, which was at the The heroism of Titusz Dugovics
time one of the best engineered in the Balkans. Belgrade had been designated as the capital of the Serbian
to transport his troops and much-needed food into the
Despotate by Stefan Lazarevi 53 years prior.
city. The forts defense was also reinforced.
But Mehmed II was not willing to end the siege and after
a week of heavy bombardment, the walls of the fortress
were breached in several places. On July 21 Mehmed
ordered an all-out assault that began at sundown and continued all night. The besieging army ooded the city and
then started its assault on the fort. As this was the most
crucial moment of the siege, Hunyadi ordered the defenders to throw tarred wood and other ammable material, and then set it are. Soon a wall of ames separated the Janissaries ghting in the city from their fellow
soldiers trying to breach through the gaps into the upper
town. The erce battle between the encircled Janissaries
Fortress of Belgrade as it looked in the Middle Ages. The lower and Szilgyis soldiers inside the upper town was turning
in favour of the Christians, and the Hungarians managed
and upper town with the palace are visible.
to beat o the erce assault from outside the walls. The
The fortress was designed in an elaborate form with three Janissaries remaining inside the city were thus massacred
lines of defense: the inner castle with the palace, a huge while the Ottoman troops trying to breach the upper town
upper town with the main military camps, four gates and suered heavy losses.
a double wall, as well as the lower town with the cathedral in the urban center and a port at the Danube. This
building endeavor was one of the most elaborate military 6.3 Battle
architecture achievements of the Middle Ages. After the
Siege, the Hungarians reinforced the north and eastern The next day something unexpected happened. By some
side with an additional gate and several towers, one of accounts, the peasant crusaders started a spontaneous acwhich, the Nebojsa tower, was designed for artillery pur- tion, and forced Capistrano and Hunyadi to make use of
poses.
the situation. Despite Hunyadis orders to the defenders
On July 14, 1456, Hunyadi arrived to the completely encircled city with his otilla on the Danube, while the
Ottoman navy lay astride the Danube River. He broke the
naval blockade on July 14, sinking three large Ottoman
galleys and capturing four large vessels and 20 smaller
ones. By destroying the Sultans eet, Hunyadi was able

not to try to loot the Ottoman positions, some of the units

crept out from demolished ramparts, took up positions
across from the Ottoman line, and began harassing enemy soldiers. Ottoman Sipahis tried without success to
disperse the harassing force. At once, more defenders
joined those outside the wall. What began as an isolated

32

CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

North wall of the Belgrade Fortress from the 17th century

incident quickly escalated into a full-scale battle.

John of Capistrano at rst tried to order his men back
inside the walls, but soon found himself surrounded by
about 2,000 peasant levymen. He then began leading
them toward the Ottoman lines, crying, The Lord who
made the beginning will take care of the nish!" Capistrano led his crusaders to the Ottoman rear across the
Sava river. At the same time, Hunyadi started a desperate
charge out of the fort to take the cannon positions in the
Ottoman encampment.
Taken by surprise at this strange turn of events and, as
some chroniclers say, seemingly paralyzed by some inexplicable fear, the Ottomans took ight.[11] The Sultans
bodyguard of about 5,000 Janissaries tried desperately to
stop the panic and recapture the camp, but by that time
Hunyadis army had also joined the unplanned battle, and
the Ottoman eorts became hopeless. The Sultan himself advanced into the ght and killed a knight in single combat, but then took an arrow in the thigh and was
rendered unconscious. After the battle, the Hungarian
raiders were ordered to spend the night behind the walls
of the fortress and to be on the alert for a possible renewal
of the battle, but the Ottoman counterattack never came.
Under cover of darkness the Ottomans retreated in haste,
bearing their wounded in 140 wagons. They withdrew to
Constantinople.

6.4 Aftermath
However, the Hungarians paid dearly for this victory.
Plague broke out in the camp, from which John Hunyadi
himself died three weeks later (August 11, 1456). He
was buried in the Cathedral of Gyulafehrvr (now Alba
Iulia), the capital of Transylvania.
As the design of the fortress had proved its merits during the siege, some additional reinforcements were made
by the Hungarians. The weaker eastern walls, where
the Ottomans broke through into the upper town were

Siege of Belgrade (in Hungarian: Nndorfehrvr) 1456. Hnername 1584

reinforced by the Zindan gate and the heavy Neboja

tower. This was the last of the great modications to
the fortress until 1521, when Mehmeds great-grandson
Suleiman eventually captured it.

6.5 Noon Bell

Pope Callixtus III ordered the bells of every European
church to be rung every day at noon, as a call for believers
to pray for the defenders of the city.[12][13] The practice of
the noon bell is traditionally attributed to the international
commemoration of the victory at Belgrade and to the order of Pope Callixtus III, since in many countries (like
England and the Spanish Kingdoms) news of the victory
arrived before the order, and the ringing of the church
bells at noon was thus transformed into a commemoration of the victory.[14][15][16] The Pope didn't withdraw
the order, and Catholic and the older Protestant churches
still ring the noon bell to this day.[13][15][16][17]

6.7. LITERATURE

33

This custom still exists also among Protestant and Orthodox congregations. In the history of Oxford university, the victory was welcomed with the ringing of bells
and great celebrations in England. Hunyadi sent a special
courier, Erasmus Fullar, among others to Oxford with the
news of the victory.[18]

6.6 Legacy

Stone in the Kalemegdan park, in Belgrade, with engraved inscription on the place where Christian forces under command of
John Hunyadi won the battle against the Ottomans in 1456.

Part of Belgrade Fortress from the 17th century

Mehmeds attempts of conquest. There were several reasons of why the Sultan did not directly attack Hungary
and why he gave up the idea of advancing in that direction after his unsuccessful siege of Belgrade. The mishap
at Belgrade indicated that the Empire could not expand
further until Serbia and Bosnia were transformed into a
secure base of operations. Furthermore, the signicant
political and military power of Hungary under Matthias
Corvinus in the region surely inuenced this hesitation
too. Moreover, Mehmed was also distracted in his attempts to suppress insubordination from his Moldovan
and Wallachian vassals.
With Hunyadis victory at Belgrade, both Vlad III the Impaler and Stephen III of Moldavia came to power in their
own domains, and Hunyadi went himself to great lengths
to have his son Matthias placed on the Hungarian throne.

While erce resistance and Hunyadis eective leadership

ensured that the daring and ambitious Sultan Mehmed
would only get as far into Europe as the Balkans, the Sultan had already managed to transform the Ottoman Empire into what would become one of the most feared powers in Europe (as well as in Asia) for centuries. Most of
Hungary was eventually conquered in 1526 at the Battle
of Mohcs. Ottoman Muslim expansion into Europe conBattle of Nndorfehrvr, Hungarian painting from the 19th tinued with menacing success until the Siege of Vienna
century. In the middle Giovanni da Capistrano with the cross in 1529, although Ottoman power in Europe remained
in his hand.
strong and still threatening to Central Europe at times until the Battle of Vienna in 1683.
The victory stopped the Ottoman advance towards
Europe for 70 years, though they made other incursions
such as the taking of Otranto between 1480 and 1481; and
the raid of Croatia and Styria in 1493. Belgrade would 6.7 Literature
continue to protect Hungary from Ottoman attacks until
the fort fell to the Ottomans in 1521.
It is claimed that, after the defeat and while he and his
After the Siege of Belgrade stopped the advance of
Mehmed II towards Central Europe; Serbia and Bosnia
were absorbed into the Empire. Wallachia, the Crimean
Khanate, and eventually Moldavia were merely converted
into vassal states due to the strong military resistance to

army were retreating into Bulgaria, this sound defeat as

well as the ensuing loss of no less than 24.000 of his
best soldiers, angered Mehmed in such a manner that,
in an uncontrollable t of fury, he wounded a number
of his generals with his own sword, just before getting

34
them executed.[19] The Sultan later came into conict
with Stephen III of Moldavia, resulting in an even worse
defeat at Battle of Vaslui and later a pyrrhic victory at the
Battle of Valea Alb.
A ctional account from the viewpoint of a Christian
mercenary is Christian Cameron, Tom Swan and the Siege
of Belgrade (Orion,2014-2016).

6.8 References
[1] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant,
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of
Julius III. p. 177. ISBN 978-0871691613.
[2] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant,
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of
Julius III. p. 177. ISBN 978-0871691613.
[3] Stanford J. Shaw (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire
and modern Turkey, Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The
Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. p.
63. ISBN 978-0521291637.
[4] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant,
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of
Julius III. p. 174. ISBN 978-0871691613.
[5] Andrew Ayton; Leslie Price (1998). The Military Revolution from a Medieval Perspective. The Medieval Military Revolution: State, Society and Military Change in Medieval and Early Modern Society. London, England: I.B.
Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-353-1. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
[6] John Julius Norwich (1982). A History of Venice. Lecture
notes in mathematics 1358. New York, United States: Alfred B. Knopf. p. 269. ISBN 0-679-72197-5.
[7] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant,
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of
Julius III. p. 175. ISBN 978-0871691613.
[8] Norman Housley (1992). The Later Crusades, 12741580: From Lyons to Alcazar (First ed.). p. 104. ISBN
978-0198221364.
[9] Tom R. Kovach (1992). The 1456 Siege of Belgrade. Military History, August 1996, Vol. 13, Issue 3. p. 34. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
[10] Anniversary of 1456 victory over Ottomans becomes
memorial day politics.hu
[11] Friedrich W.D. Brie (2012). The Brut; Or, the Chronicles
of England. p. 524. ISBN 978-1407773421.
[12] Thomas Henry Dyer (1861). The history of modern Europe: From the fall of Constantinople. J. Murray. p. 85.

CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

Hungary: Society of the Hungarian Quarterly. pp. 79

90. On July 22, 1456, John Hunyadi won a decisive victory at Belgrade over the armies of Sultan Mehmed II.
Hunyadis featcarried out with a small standing army
combined with peasants rallied to ght the indel by the
Franciscan friar St John of Capistrano had the eect of
putting an end to Ottoman attempts on Hungary and Western Europe for the next seventy years. The bells ringing
at noon throughout Christendom are, to this day, a daily
commemoration of John Hunyadis victory.
[15] http://www.hungarianhistory.com/lib/hunyadi/hu01.htm
[16] http://nq.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/CLXVII/sep08/
171-d
[17] Kerny, Terzia (2008). The Renaissance - Four Times
Over. Exhibitions Commemorating Matthiass Accession
to the Throne. The Hungarian Quarterly. Budapest,
Hungary: Society of the Hungarian Quarterly. pp. 7990.
On July 22, 1456, John Hunyadi won a decisive victory at
Belgrade over the armies of Sultan Mehmed II. Hunyadis
featcarried out with a small standing army combined
with peasants rallied to ght the indel by the Franciscan
friar St John of Capistrano had the eect of putting an
end to Ottoman attempts on Hungary and Western Europe
for the next seventy years, and is considered to have been
one of the most momentous victories in Hungarian military history. The bells ringing at noon throughout Christendom are, to this day, a daily commemoration of John
Hunyadis victory.
[18] Imre Lukinich: A History of Hungary in Biographical
Sketches (page: 109.)
[19] Radu R Florescu; Raymond T. McNally (1989). Dracula,
Prince of Many Faces: His Life and His Times. p. 80.
ISBN 978-0316286558.

6.8.1 Bibliography
Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the
Reign of Julius III. ISBN 978-0871691613.
Stanford J. Shaw (1976). History of the Ottoman
Empire and modern Turkey, Volume 1, Empire of the
Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire
1280-1808. ISBN 978-0521291637.
Andrew Ayton; Leslie Price (1998). The Medieval Military Revolution: State, Society and Military Change in Medieval and Early Modern Society.
London, England: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-3531. Retrieved 1 October 2010.

[13] Istvn Lzr: Hungary: A Brief History (see in Chapter

6)

John Julius Norwich (1982). A History of Venice.

Lecture notes in mathematics 1358. New York,
United States: Alfred B. Knopf. ISBN 0-67972197-5.

[14] Kerny, Terzia (2008). The Renaissance - Four Times

Over. Exhibitions Commemorating Matthiass Accession
to the Throne. The Hungarian Quarterly. Budapest,

Norman Housley (1992). The Later Crusades,

1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (First ed.).
ISBN 978-0198221364.

6.8. REFERENCES
Thomas Henry Dyer (1861). The history of modern
Europe: From the fall of Constantinople. J. Murray.
p. 85.

35

36

CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

6.9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.9.1

Text

Crusades Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades?oldid=754698807 Contributors: Kpjas, MichaelTinkler, JHK, Eloquence, Vicki

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Menchi, Ixfd64, IZAK, Flamurai, Dori, ArnoLagrange, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Anders Feder, Docu, Snoyes, Plop, Jebba, Error, Andres, Deisenbe, Cherkash, Efghij, John K, Conti, Hike395, Jengod, Loren Rosen, Uriber, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Dysprosia, Jstanley01, Andrewman327, Zoicon5, Selket, Tpbradbury, Imc, Saltine, Tempshill, Dogface, Paul-L~enwiki, Sabbut, EikwaR,
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37

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38

CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

Vladimere putin on the ground, 5050500a, My Chemistry romantic, LordCalle, Mcjagger, Brockstarr4131313, Frank55221598, CAPTAIN RAJU, Coolz5, NY Frogman, Hooray4rob, Nameless5522, Dcmarvelahmadanonymas, CLCStudent, Eperoton, Bobbycameltoe,
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Delirium, Adam Bishop, Fjarlq, Art LaPella, Tim!, Jaraalbe, Manxruler, CrniBombarder!!!, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Andrwsc, Neelix, Cydebot, Buistr, Staberinde, The Anomebot2, Kevinsam, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Hugo999, Hasanbay~enwiki, Lightmouse, Vanished user
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9
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Delirium, Adam Bishop, Huangdi, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Art LaPella, ADM, Wereldburger758, Tim!, The wub, Jaraalbe, Gaius
Cornelius, CrniBombarder!!!, Mix321, Attilios, SmackBot, Davewild, Peter Isotalo, Cplakidas, Stevenmitchell, Andrwsc, Igoldste, Neelix,
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45
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Delirium, Art LaPella, Tim!, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Neelix, Cydebot, Alexander VIII~enwiki, The Anomebot2, Kevinsam, CommonsDelinker, Dinkytown, Gligan, Hugo999, TXiKiBoT, Hasanbay~enwiki, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Pindanl,
Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, Xqbot, Nedim Ardoa, DrilBot, WikitanvirBot, Jbribeiro1, Catlemur, Gligan1, ELNO
Checking, , Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 4
Siege of Belgrade (1456) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1456)?oldid=753725977 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Edward, Reddi, Shizhao, Joy, Dimadick, The Phoenix, Mattaschen, Adam78, Everyking, Snowdog, Alensha, Kpalion, Mboverload,
Gdr, PFHLai, Rich Farmbrough, Fvdham, Hidaspal, Bender235, Mateo SA, Sietse Snel, CeeGee, Anthony Appleyard, Pippu d'Angelo,
Dhanak~enwiki, Drbreznjev, Saxifrage, Sandover, PANONIAN, Woohookitty, PoccilScript, Zzyzx11, Mtloweman, Tim!, Coemgenus,
Orjen, InFairness, Gparker, Wars, Jaraalbe, Kummi, YurikBot, RussBot, Red Slash, Kirill Lokshin, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius,
Snow8261, KissL, Snek01, The Ogre, Howcheng, BOT-Superzerocool, CLW, Laszlo Panaex, Anclation~enwiki, Curpsbot-unicodify,
Hirudo, CrniBombarder!!!, SmackBot, Yamaguchi , Nzd, Chris the speller, F382d56d7a18630cf764a5b576ea1b4810467238, Colonies
Chris, Mladilozof, Cplakidas, Ioscius, OrphanBot, Evlekis, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, SashatoBot, John, Cmlau, Hunadam, NeroN BG,
Greier, CmdrObot, WeggeBot, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Doug Weller, DBaba, Lysandros, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, Captain Crawdad, Escarbot,
Oreo Priest, BokicaK, Kun25, Kdano, JAnDbot, Wisdom0906, Arun nowhere, Bg007, The Anomebot2, MetsBot, Shield2, Edward321,
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Tiptoety, Moonraker12, Baxter9, Mimihitam, Doncsecz~enwiki, Vojvodaen, VVVladimir, Apof, Djmaschek, AlptaBot, Niceguyedc,
Alexbot, Sun Creator, Takabeg, SchreiberBike, Muro Bot, Sunquanliangxiuhao, DumZiBoT, Cerian, Addbot, Bjrnebacke, Sulmues, Serbia123, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Kipoc, PZJTF, Romano-Dacis, Gaius Claudius Nero, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Xqbot,
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Cwmhiraeth, Rekonstruh, Frietjes, Mannanan51, Mohacsbattle, Helpful Pixie Bot, NOVA3A7, Koertefa, BG19bot, Greatwars, Little wars,
CitationCleanerBot, Nicola.Manini, Bornder, Blundunt, Dark Silver Crow, Dexbot, Mogism, Kleeblatt187, Delvidek20, Oldhouse2012,
Nimetapoeg, StormyNighttime, Carpathians, Chris troutman, Hasan-aga, Spyglasses, Revanbh,
, Monkbot, Wintereu, Agilulf2007,
Nagy zsuzsa89, Wisdom Scholar, EasternOrthodox33, BD2412bot, Orwellianist, Wnscher, Emre541 and Anonymous: 128

6.9.2

Images

File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA

3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark

6.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

39

File:311St.Georgs_Ritterorden_Einsetzung_durch_Papst_Paul_II.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/

a/ab/311St.Georgs_Ritterorden_Einsetzung_durch_Papst_Paul_II.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Klagenfurt, Krntner Landesmuseum.
eingescannt aus: Alois Niedersttter: 1400 - 1522:das Jahrhundert der Mitte: an der Wende
vom Mittelalter zur Neuzeit, aus der Reihe sterreichische Geschichte, Wien 1996, ISBN 3-8000-3532-4 Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
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BY 3.0 Contributors: <a href='//validator.w3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='W3C' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
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height='30'
style='vertical-align: top' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/
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of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.
org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FArgent_a_chief_gules.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>.
Original artist: Jimmy44
File:Armoiries_Hongrie_ancien.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Armoiries_Hongrie_ancien.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: <a href='//validator.w3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='W3C' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/88px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png'
width='88'
height='30' style='vertical-align: top' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%
29.svg/132px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_
SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/176px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='91' data-le-height='31' /></a>iThe
source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.
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Original artist: Odejea
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File:Badge_of_the_Order_of_Alcantara.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Badge_of_the_Order_
of_Alcantara.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Heralder
File:Battle_of_Nandorfehervar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Battle_of_Nandorfehervar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Benemerenti_Medal_(Vatican)_-_ribbon_bar.png
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File:Blason_Empire_Latin_de_Constantinople.svg
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commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/132px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/176px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='91' data-le-height='31' /></a>iThe source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'
href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FBlason_Empire_
Latin_de_Constantinople.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>.
Original artist: Jimmy44
File:Blason_ville_fr_Villejust_(Essonne).svg Source:
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Villejust_%28Essonne%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: <a href='//validator.w3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='W3C'
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commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/132px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/176px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='91' data-le-height='31' /></a>iThe source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'
href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FBlason_ville_fr_
Villejust_%28Essonne%29.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>.
Original artist: User:Spedona
File:Byzantine_Constantinople-en.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Byzantine_Constantinople-en.
png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cplakidas
File:Byzantium_after_the_First_crusade.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Byzantium_after_
the_First_crusade.PNG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: I created this work entirely by hand Original artist: <a href='https:
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/user:Gabr-es' class='extiw' title='en:user:Gabr-es'>Gabr-</a><a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:
Gabr-el#top' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:Gabr-el'>el</a>
File:Cantigas_battle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Cantigas_battle.jpg License: Public dohttp://www.hist.umn.edu/courses/hist3613/calendar/art/images/Las%20Cantigas%20de%20Santa%20Maria.jpg
main Contributors:
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'

40

CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Chevalier_lgion_d'honneur_2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Chevalier_l%C3%A9gion_
d%27honneur_2.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Chevalier_lgion_d'honneur.jpg Original artist: Chevalier_lgion_d'honneur.jpg: Rpublique franaise
File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Bulgarian_Empire.PNG Source:
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Arms_of_the_Bulgarian_Empire.PNG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Self-made, based on a historical image, published in
History of Bulgaria, volume 4 The Bulgarian people under Ottoman rule (from XV to the beginning of the XVII century)", Publishing
house of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Soa, 1983, page 58 (in Bulgarian). Original artist: Bulgarian Herald
File:Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg Source:
cense: Public domain Contributors:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg Li-

Bruno Bernhard Heim, Heraldry in the Catholic Church: Its Origin, Customs and Laws (Van Duren 1978 ISBN 9780391008731), p. 54;
Original artist: F l a n k e r
File:Combat_deuxime_croisade.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Combat_deuxi%C3%A8me_
croisade.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://classes.bnf.fr/ema/images/3/chrono/7-1.jpg Original artist: anonymus
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File:ConquestOfConstantinopleByTheCrusadersIn1204.jpg Source:
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ConquestOfConstantinopleByTheCrusadersIn1204.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 15th century miniature. [1] Original artist: ?
File:Croix_Gueules.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Croix_Gueules.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: image from fr.wiki Original artist: Cornelis
File:Croix_constantinien.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Croix_constantinien.svg License: CC BY
2.5 Contributors: Guy Stair sainty, The orders of chivalry and merit of the Bourbon Two Sicilies dynasty Original artist: own work
File:Croix_de_l'Ordre_Hospitalier_du_Saint-Esprit.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Croix_de_
l%27Ordre_Hospitalier_du_Saint-Esprit.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized and greatly cleaned up version of File:
Hospitaliers st esprit 002 copie.jpg (symbol of the Ordre Hospitalier du Saint-Esprit, as scanned in from 1892 book Histoire de l'Ordre
Hospitalier du Saint-Esprit par Paul Brune, diteur C. Martin). Original artist: AnonMoos (SVG le)
File:Croix_de_l_Ordre_du_Saint-Sepulcre.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Croix_de_l_Ordre_
du_Saint-Sepulcre.svg License: Public domain Contributors: old sign Original artist: Bayo
File:Cross-Pattee-alternate_red.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Cross-Pattee-alternate_red.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original
artist: No machine-readable author provided. Bilou~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Cross_Calatrava.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Cross_Calatrava.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cross_Santiago.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Cross_Santiago.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cross_frati_gaudenti.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Cross_frati_gaudenti.png License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cross_monreal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Cross_monreal.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: png version Original artist: Janmad. SVG Convertion by The Photographer
File:Cross_montessa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Cross_montessa.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: own work - vector version of image found on commons. Original artist: (of SVG version) Stanisaw Skowron; (of original
image) Janmad
File:Cross_of_MJC.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Cross_of_MJC.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: own work - vector version of image found on commons Original artist: Stanisaw Skowron
File:Cross_of_order_of_mountjoy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Cross_of_order_of_mountjoy.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Life of Riley
File:Cross_of_saint_Maurice.png Source:
cense: GPL Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Cross_of_saint_Maurice.png Li-

File:Cross_of_saint_stephen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Cross_of_saint_stephen.svg License:

Public domain Contributors: SVG version based on JPG version by Janmad; own work Original artist: Stanisaw Skowron - Ss181292
18:43, 18 April 2006 (UTC)
File:Cross_of_the_Knights_Hospitaller.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Cross_of_the_Knights_
Hospitaller.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Cross of the Knights Hospitaller.png Original artist: Cross of the Knights Hospitaller.png: Own work
File:Cross_of_the_Knights_Templar.svg Source:
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Templar.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cross_saint_thomas_1236.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Cross_saint_thomas_1236.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cross_wing_saint_michael.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Cross_wing_saint_michael.png
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

6.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

41

File:Cross_with_red_star.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Cross_with_red_star.svg License: GFDL

Contributors: Own work Original artist: Life of Riley
File:Crux_Ordis_Teutonicorum.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Crux_Ordis_Teutonicorum.svg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Liuzzo
File:Dirham_struck_in_Acre_by_Christians_1216-1241.jpg
Source:
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66/Dirham_struck_in_Acre_by_Christians_1216-1241.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
Rodrigoenxadrista
File:Dobrzynski_braty.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Dobrzynski_braty.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alex Tora or Alex K in Ukranian and Japanese wiki
File:Dugovics.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Dugovics.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Fine Arts in Hungary: <a href='http://www.hung-art.hu/index-e.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/24px-Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg.png' width='24' height='24' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg/36px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/
Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/48px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-height='128'
/></a><a href='http://www.hung-art.hu/kep/w/wagner/muvek/dugovics.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/24px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='24' height='24' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/36px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/48px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a><a href='http:
//www.hung-art.hu/frames-e.html?/english/w/wagner/muvek/index.html'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Information
icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/24px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='24'
height='24' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/36px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/48px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Original artist: Alexander von Wagner
File:Emblema_OrdendSantaMariadEspaa.svg
Source:
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OrdendSantaMariadEspa%C3%B1a.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dgarcia29
File:Eugne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_012.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Eug%C3%A8ne_
Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_012.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVDROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Flag_of_Most_Serene_Republic_of_Venice.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Flag_of_Most_
Serene_Republic_of_Venice.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Website about Heraldry of Venice (http://digilander.iol.it/arupino/
serenissima.htm) Original artist: F l a n k e r
File:Flag_of_Palaeologus_Dynasty.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Palaeologus_Dynasty.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Dragases at English Wikipedia
File:Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg Source:
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Empire.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://www.vicmart.com/ext/en/exrw/item=1416 - Ottoman medal from 1850 Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/User:Dsmurat' title='User:Dsmurat'>DsMurat</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Dsmurat' title='User
talk:Dsmurat'>talk </a>
File:Flag_of_the_Vatican_City.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Flag_of_the_Vatican_City.svg
License: CC0 Contributors: http://files.mojeeuro.meu.zoznam.sk/200000288-390ab3a04d/2_Commemorative_coin_Vatican_city_2010.
jpg labelbasis Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
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File:Fresco_siege_of_Belgrade_1456_in_Olomouc.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Fresco_siege_
of_Belgrade_1456_in_Olomouc.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: artist of the fresco is unknown. Photo by
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File:Fridrich2_Al-Kamil.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Fridrich2_Al-Kamil.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://a749.ac-images.myspacecdn.com/images01/5/l_9942b00b8cd77fd34727cf6aa420aebc.jpg Original artist:
Anonymous
File:Gustave_dor_crusades_the_childrens_crusade.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Gustave_
dor%C3%A9_crusades_the_childrens_crusade.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6926530M/
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File:Husit_-_Jensk_kodex.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Husit%C3%A9_-_Jensk%C3%BD_
kodex.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Vavinec z Bezov - Husitsk kronika; Pse o vtzstv u Domalic (nakladatelstv
Svoboda, 1979) Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>

42

CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

File:Iancu_Hunedoara.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Iancu_Hunedoara.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Insignia_Germany_Order_Teutonic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Insignia_Germany_
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File:Kalemegdanska_tvrava_IMG_1941.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Kalemegdanska_tvr%
C4%91ava_IMG_1941.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from sr.wikipedia to Commons by Micki using
CommonsHelper. Original artist: at Serbian Wikipedia
File:LatinEmpire2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/LatinEmpire2.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
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File:Leon_Wyczkowski_-_Zota_ra.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Leon_Wycz%C3%B3%
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6.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

43

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44

CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

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