CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING

Group 1

DEFORMATION AND STRENGTHENING OF

METALS

Elasticity and Plasticity

Elastic deformation
The material returns to its original
shape when the force is removed.
Materials which is tough and ductile
such as wrought iron, typically have
high elasticity
Plastic deformation
Material is said to be plastic if it is very
soft and easily deformed
The material does not return to its
original shape when the force is
removed (permanent deformation)
DISLOCATION MOVEMENT- Dislocations
occur when the atoms do not arrange
themselves in a perfect regular repeating
pattern when the metal solidifies from the
melt.
Types of Dislocation
1. Edge Dislocation- a portion of an
extra plane of atoms
2. Screw Dislocation- helical atomic
displacement around the line
extending through the crystal.

Strain Hardening
-increase dislocation density by plastic
deformation
-Ductile metals become stronger when they
are deformed plastically at temperatures well
below the melting point (cold working).
Anneling
-reduce dislocation density
-increase grain size
-reduce strength and increase ductility
Alloying
-impurities distort lattice structure and
generate stress
-stress produces barriers to dislocation
motion
Quenching and Tempering
-quenching is a form of heat
treatment performed on various types
of steel.
-tempering is a heat treatment used
to give toughness to steel that has
been hardened through quenching.
-Quenching and tempering heat
treatment is used to adjust the
mechanical properties of the steel,
with the entire series of processes
referred to as thermal refining heat
treatment.
STRENGTHENING, DUCTILITY AND
TOUGHNESS
This is that as yield and tensile strength
increase ductility, toughness and fracture
toughness are reduced.

STRENGTHENING OF METALS
Pure metals in the as-cast condition after
slow cooling are generally soft, have low
yield stresses and are very ductile; this is a
consequence of the ease of dislocation
movement or slip.
We now consider some of these ways
and their consequences.
Grain size
-grain boundaries are barriers to slip
-smaller grains increases barriers to slip
-increasing barriers to slip increases strength

FORMING OF METALS
Metal forming is also known as
mechanical working of metals. Metal
forming operations are frequently desirable
either to produce a new shape or to improve
the properties of the metal.
The main objectives of metal working
processes are to provide the desired shape
and size, under the action of externally
applied forces in metals.
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL FORMING
PROCESSES

1. Plastic Deformation Processes

Plasticity is the ability of material to

undergo some degree of permanent
deformation without rupture or failure.

Ductility is the property of a material

enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of tensile force.
Recrystallisations- If the temperature is
sufficiently high, the growth of new grains
is accelerated and continuous till the
metal comprises fully of only the new
grains. This process of formation of new
grains is known as recrystallization and is
said to be complete when the metal
structure consists of entirely new grains.
a. Hot working, (or hot forming), is
the plastic deformation process that is
carried out at a temperature range
that is higher than the recrystallization
temperature of the metal being
formed. This allows all the common
metals to be heavily deformed,
especially in compression, without
breaking.
Plastic deformation is a
permanent deformation, and
obtained by applying forces
great enough to exceed the
elastic limit of the material.
Recrystallization
temperature is the
temperature at which new,
unstrained crystals from the
original distorted grains are
formed after being plastically
deformed.
CLASSIFICATION OF HOT WORKING
PROCESSES

Hot
Hot
Hot
Hot

rolling
forging
extrusion
drawing

b. Cold working of a metal is carried out

below its recrystallisation
temperature. It is generally performed
at room temperature. In cold working,
recovery processes are not effective.
Purpose of Cold Working

to obtain better surface finish on

parts.
to obtain increased mechanical
properties.
to obtain thinner material.

Cold

working process increases:

Ultimate tensile strength
Yield strength
Hardness
Fatigue strength
Residual stresses

Cold

working processes decreases:

Percentage elongation
Reduction of area
Impact strength
Resistance to corrosion
Ductility

Limitations of Cold Working

1. The cold worked process possesses
less ductility.
2. Strain hardening occurs.
3. Metal surfaces must be clean and
scale free before cold working.
4. Hot worked metal has to be pickled in
acid to remove scale, etc.
5. Higher forces are required for
deformation than those in hot working.
6. More powerful and heavier equipment
are required for cold working.
Spring Back Phenomenon- also present in
cold working operations. In the elastic region,
the strained material returns to its original
size and shape.
2. Bulk Forming Processes
Bulk deformation refers to the use of
raw materials for forming which have
low surface area to volume ratio.
Examples for products produced by
bulk forming are: gears, bushed,
valves, engine parts such as valves,
connecting rods, hydraulic valves, etc.
These processes involve large amount
of plastic deformation. Bulk
deformation processes are those
processes where the thickness or
cross-sections are reduced.
a. Casting

Most common metals can be produced

by melting and casting into molds. The
cast may be of the shape and
dimensions required for the
component, or a prism of material may
be produced for further processing
Casting Processes

Sand casting is normally used for the

production of large parts, by filling a
molten metal into the mold cavity that
has been shaped from natural or
synthetic sand.
Die Casting- In this process metal is
forced into the mold at a high pressure
that ensures production of identical
parts, a better surface finish, and an
increased dimensional accuracy.
Centrifugal Casting- This is a casting
technique that has an extensive range
of industrial applications including the
casting of machine fittings where
durability of the finished product is
important.
Television picture tubes, spherical
glass objects, pipes, flywheels, and
boilers are also produced by
centrifugal casting.

Limitations
With normal casting process the
dimensional accuracies and surface
finish is less.
Defects are unavoidable.
It is labor intensive.
b. Rolling
Rolling usually is the first step in converting
cast material (ingot) into finished wrought
products. Hot rolled products, such as
sheets, plates, bars, and strips, serve as
input material for further processes, such as
cold forming or machining.
A machine used for rolling metal is
called rolling mill.
A typical rolling mill consists of a pair
of rolls driven by an electric motor
transmitting a torque through a gear
and pair of cardans. The rolls are
equipped with bearings and mounted
in a stand with a screw-down
mechanism.

Rotating rolls perform two main

functions:
Pull the work into the gap between
them by friction between work part
and rolls.
Simultaneously squeeze the work to
reduce its cross section.
Steps in Rolling
The preheated at 1200 Celsius cast ingot
(the process is known as soaking) is rolled
into one of the three intermediate shapes
called blooms, slabs, or billets.
Bloom has a square cross section of
150/150 mm or more
Slab (40/250 mm or more) is rolled
from an ingot or a bloom
Billet (40/40 mm or more) is rolled
from a bloom
Various Roll Configurations
(a) Two-high (b) Three-high
(c) Four-high (d) Cluster mill (e) Tandem mill
Roll configurations in rolling mills

Two-high and three-high mills are

generally used for initial and
intermediate passes during hot rolling,
while four-high and cluster mills are
used for final passes.
Last two arrangements are preferred
for cold rolling because roll in these
configurations are supported by backup rolls which minimize the deflections
and produce better tolerances.

c. Forging is the plastic working of

metal by means of localized
compressive forces exerted by manual
or power hammers, presses, or special
forging machines. It may be done
either hot or cold.
Three Types of Forging
1. Open-die forging - work is
compressed between two flat dies,
allowing metal to flow laterally with
minimum constraint
low precision but good for small lot
size
2. Impression-die forging - die
contains cavity or impression that is
imparted to work part

Metal flow is constrained so that flash

is created (preferentially fills cavity)
Better precision and complexity
3. Flash less forging (Precision
Forging) work part is completely
constrained in die
No excess flash is created
d. Extrusion- A compression forming
process in which the work metal is
forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross-sectional
shape.

e. Drawing - Large quantities of wires,

rods, tubes and other sections are
produced by drawing process which is
basically a cold working process. In
this process the material is pulled
through a die in order to reduce it to
the desired shape and size.
3. Sheet Forming Processes
Sheet metal forming processes are those
in which force is applied to a piece of sheet
metal to modify its geometry rather than
remove any material.

Suitable material for extrusion

Two factors affect the ease with which the
metal can be extruded namely, required
temperature and the temperature
range. If the required temperature for
extrusion is low and available
temperature range is wide the extrusion
will be better. The most common metals
used for the extrusion (listed in order of
extrudability):
Aluminum and aluminum alloys
Copper and copper alloys
Magnesium
Low-carbon and medium-carbon steels
Modified-carbon steels
Low-alloy steels
Stainless steels
Types of Extrusion
1. Direct extrusion is also called
forward extrusion and it is the most
general extrusion process. Its work
operation includes the placement of
the billet in a container, which is
heavily walled. Ram or screw is used
to push the billet through the die.
2. Indirect Extrusion- In the indirect
extrusion, the metal flows in the
direction opposite to the ram motion.
Indirect extrusion requires a lower
force than direct process as there is no
friction between the billet and inside
walls of the container.
3. Impact extrusion is similar to the
other extrusion methods described,
but is a much faster process. Ductile
and low melting point metals such as
tin, aluminum, zinc, and copper are
well suited for impact extruding.

a. Deep drawing is a manufacturing

process that is used extensively in the
forming of sheet metal into cup or box
like structures. Pots and pans for
cooking, containers, sinks, automobile
parts, such as panels and gas tanks,
are among a few of the items
manufactured by sheet metal deep
drawing.
b. Sheet metal bending is the plastic
deformation of the work over an axis,
creating a change in the part's
geometry. Similar to other metal
forming processes, bending changes
the shape of the work piece, while the
volume of material will remain the
same.
One of the most common types of
sheet metal manufacturing processes
is V bending.
This type of process can bend both
very acute and very obtuse angles,
also anything in between, including 90
degrees.
Some Types of Sheet Metal
Bending

V Bending
Air Bending
Channel Bending
U Bending
Air bending is a simple
method of creating a bend
without the need for lower die
geometry.

 Channel bending uses a

shaped punch and die to form a
sheet metal channel.
U bend is made with a Ushaped punch of the correct
curvature.
In addition to V-bending, another common
bending method is wipe bending,
sometimes called edge bending. Wipe
bending requires the sheet to be held against
the wipe die by a pressure pad. The punch
then presses against the edge of the sheet
that extends beyond the die and pad. The
sheet will bend against the radius of the
edge of the wipe die.
c. Shearing is defined as the
mechanical cutting of large sheets of
metal into smaller pieces of
predetermined sizes.
Shearing is a sheet metal cutting
operation along a straight line
between two cut-ting edges by means
of a power shear.
d. Stretch forming is a metal forming
process in which a piece of sheet
metal is stretched and bent
simultaneously over a die in order to
form large contoured parts.
Stretch-forming is commonly used in
the curving of aluminum sheet,
extruded profiles, stainless sheet, bent
or rolled profiles, structural shapes,
various steel alloys, brass, bronze,
copper, titanium.
4. Joining and Assembly Processes
a. Welding is a fabrication
process to make high strength
joint between two or more parts,
usually metals or thermoplastics,
by heating to their melting
temperature, with or without the
application of pressure and with or
without the use of filler metal.
A filler metal is a metal added in the
making of a joint through welding, brazing
or soldering.
Some Types of Welding Processes
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW/MIG)

Gas Tungsten Arc Gas Welding
(GTAW/TIG)
b. Brazing, Soldering and Gluing
Brazing
A joining process in which a filler metal
is placed between the faying surfaces
to be joined (or at their periphery) and
the temperature is raised sufficiently
to melt the filler metal, but not the
components (base metal).
It is a liquid-solid state bonding
process.
Soldering
Soldering is similar to brazing and can
be defined as a joining process in
which a filler metal with melting point
(liquidous) not exceeding 450C is
melted and distributed by capillary
action between the faying surfaces of
the metal parts being joined.
Filler metal, called Solder, is added
to the joint, which distributes itself
between the closely fitting parts.
c. Bolting and riveting are by far
the most common ways of making
joints in such circumstances. Both
rely on friction.