A Review of Near Dry Machining Minimum Quantity Lubrication Machining of Difficult To Machine Alloys

Int. J. Machining and Machinability of Materials, Vol. 18, No.
3, 2016
A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity

lubrication machining of difficult to machine alloys
Talwinder Singh, Pragat Singh and
J.S. Dureja*
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Punjabi University,
Patiala 147002, Punjab, India
Fax: +91-175-3046333
Email: tp_tiet@yahoo.co.in
Email: pargatucoe@gmail.com
Email: jsdureja73@yahoo.com
Email: jsdureja73@gmail.com
*Corresponding author
Manu Dogra
Swami Sarvanand Giri Panjab University Regional Centre,
Hoshiarpur-146110, Punjab, India
Email: mdogra7@gmail.com
Harwinder Singh
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College,
Ludhiana-141006, Punjab, India
Email: harwin75@rediffmail.com
Manpreet S. Bhatti
Department of Botanical and Environmental Sciences,
Guru Nanak Dev University,
Amritsar, Punjab, India
Email: mbhatti73@gmail.com
Abstract: Cutting fluids cool and lubricate the cutting tool and machined area,
wash away chips thereby increasing material removal rate, lengthen tool life
and improve dimensional accuracy. However, strict environmental regulations
prohibit liberal use of conventional coolants due to environment, health hazards
and economic reasons. But, dry cutting although environmental friendly is not
feasible under all machining applications. Some materials when machined dry;
tend to stick to tool face, spoiling tool and machined surface finish, can be
efficiently machined under near dry machining (NDM) or under minimum
quantity lubrication (MQL) conditions; in which cooling and lubrication in the
cutting zone can be achieved by a tiny amount of cutting oil applied to tool tip
Copyright 2016 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
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T. Singh et al.
with compressed air in mist form, thereby addressing the negative impact of
flooded coolant machining. This paper, attempts to critically review research
progress and current state of affairs in machining of difficult to machine alloys
under NDM/MQL.
Keywords: metal working fluids; MWFs; near dry machining; NDM;
minimum quantity lubrication; MQL; dry machining; flooded cooling and
lubrication; difficult to machine alloys; cleaner production; aerosol; positive
rake tools; Chip breaker ; Inconel; stainless steel.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Singh, T., Singh, P.,
Dureja, J.S., Dogra, M., Singh, H. and Bhatti, M.S. (2016) A review of near
dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining of difficult to machine
alloys, Int. J. Machining and Machinability of Materials, Vol. 18, No. 3,
pp.213251.
Biographical notes: Talwinder Singh is working as an Assistant Professor in
the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala. He has
received his BE in Mechanical Engineering with distinction and ME in
Production and Industrial Engineering (Gold Medalist) from the Thapar
University, Patiala, India. He is pursuing his PhD from the Punjabi University,
Patiala, India. He is a life member of ISTE. His areas of interest are machining
of aerospace alloys under minimum quantity lubrication machining/near dry
machining, green manufacturing and tool wear monitoring.
Pragat Singh is working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala. He has received his
BTech in Mechanical Engineering from the Punjab Technical University,
Jalandhar and MTech in Mechanical Engineering from the Punjabi University
Patiala, India. He is pursuing his PhD from the Punjabi University Patiala. His
areas of interest are machining of aerospace alloys under minimum quantity
lubrication machining/near dry machining, green manufacturing and tool wear
monitoring.
J.S. Dureja is working as an Associate Professor in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Punjabi University Patiala. He obtained his doctoral
degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Punjabi University Patiala, India.
He is a life member of ISTE. His areas of interest are hard turning, tool wear,
condition-based maintenance and monitoring apart from statistical modelling
and optimisation, machining of aerospace alloys under minimum quantity
lubrication machining/near dry machining, green manufacturing, etc.
Manu Dogra is working as an Assistant Professor in Mechanical Engineering
Department at UIET, PUSSGRC, Hoshiarpur, India. He received his PhD from
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology (Deemed University
Government of India) Jalandhar, Punjab, India. He has contributed about
25 research papers in international journals. His area of interest includes
machining, statistical modelling and welding.
Harwinder Singh is working as a Professor in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Guru Nank Dev Engineering College Ludhiana, India. He has
obtained his doctoral degree from the Punjabi University Patiala. He is a life
member of ISTE. His areas of interest are: lean manufacturing, interpretive
structural modelling, technology management, supply chain management, total
production management, machining of aerospace alloys under minimum
quantity lubrication machining, etc.
A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining
215
Manpreet S. Bhatti has 15 years research experience and working as an

Assistant Professor in the Department of Botanical and Environmental
Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India. He has published
16 international papers in reputed publishers like Elsevier (Journal of
Hazardous Materials; Desalination), Royal Society of Chemistry (Soft Matter;
RSC Advances), Springer (Polymer Bulletin), Taylor & Francis (Desalination
& Water Treatment), and SAGE (Journal of Engineering Manufacture Part B).
He received an Outstanding Reviewer Certificate from Desalination in 2010.
He is presently handling one major research project and five PhD scholars are
working under him. His special interests are design of experiments (DOE),
statistical modelling, artificial neural network modelling, response surface
methodology and process optimisation.
Introduction
Green engineering or green manufacturing addresses all the issues related to

manufacturing without disturbing the environment. Environmentally friendly machining
is the need of hour for sustainable development, which combines social and economical
aspects in addition to environmental concerns. This approach targets elimination or
minimisation of cutting fluid consumption, use of cutting tools, and power requirements
(Dixit et al., 2012). Cutting fluids generally in flooded application are employed in
machining to reduce friction, cool the tool and work piece and to wash away the chips
from cutting area. Their application minimises the tool wear and improves the surface
integrity of machined surface. These also minimise the cutting forces thus decrease
power consumptions thereby saving precious energy (Ezugwu et al., 2003). When used
effectively, cutting fluids remove the extra heat from cutting area generated in machining
operation resulting in only longer tool life along with achieving close dimensional control
(Ezugwu, 2005).
A number of drawbacks accompany these advantages associated with use of cutting
fluids in machining of metals. Firstly, a large quantity of the cutting fluid is required
involving higher manufacturing cost that in some cases is more than twice the
tool-related costs (Astakhov, 2008). Secondly, the cutting fluid/lubricant is not able find
its way to cutting area owing to obstruction from chips and swarf. Apart from this,
cutting fluids pose serious health hazard to the machine operator, and long time exposure
of operator to toxic coolants in machining sometimes may result in serious ailments:
asthma, skin problems, respiratory irritation, pneumonia, skin cancer, etc. (Burge, 2006).
Apart from all these problems, the disposal of the used cutting fluids also poses a major
challenge. The waste cutting fluids pollute surface and groundwater, can cause soil
contamination, affect agriculture produce, and lead to food contamination, if not recycled
properly. Some studies have reported that cost of cutting fluids account for nearly 17% of
manufacturing cost compared to only 8% tooling cost (Graham, 2000). The waste
disposal of cutting fluid is required to be treated (Dhar et al., 2006a). In order to control
bacterial growth in cutting fluids, chemical additives are necessary but they are hazardous
for both the environment and health of operators. Biocides and antimicrobials are utilised
in cutting fluids to keep their efficiency intact rather than protecting the operators (Hong
and Broomer, 2000). Serious problems associated with use of cutting fluids and
environmental concerns call for the elimination of cutting fluids in metal cutting practice.
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In the recent past lots of efforts have been made to do away the use of cutting fluid or use
minimal amount of cutting fluid. When no cutting fluid is used during machining, it is
referred to as: dry machining.
When a minimal amount of cutting fluid is used during machining, it is referred as
near dry machining (NDM) with minimum quantity lubrication (MQL). The dry cutting
(DC) is always preferred in the era of environment friendly machining, which involves
higher cutting forces, higher power and requires special cutting tools like PCBN, PCD
and ceramic, etc. along with prudent design of tool geometry (generally negative rake
tools, honed and chamfered edges are used). But DC is not always feasible as there are
materials, which are sticky in nature like nickel-chromium and titanium base alloys and
stainless steel, etc., these materials when machined dry tend to stick to tool surface
leading to tool failure and poor surface finish on machined surface. Conventionally, these
sticky material are machined under flooded coolant conditions, which involves higher
manufacturing cost on one hand and poses serious environmental and health hazards on
the other hand (Adler et al., 2006; Davim et al., 2007). In such cases, it is not altogether
possible to do away with the use of cutting fluids but attempts can be made to minimise
their use. It is here machining with MQL finds its application. MQL machining, also
referred as NDM (Klocke and Eisenblatter, 1997) or micro lubrication machining
(Kamata and Obikawa, 2007) is an innovative idea to overcome problems related with
use of cutting fluids in machining thereby eliminating or minimising the cost involved
with use of these cutting fluids (Attanasio et al., 2006). In MQL machining, a small
amount of cutting fluid (10100 ml/h, compared to 30,00060,000 ml/hour in flooded
machining) is directed onto the tool work piece interface with proper ratio of compressed
air (Khan et al., 2009; Dixit et al., 2012).
1.1 NDM/MQL
Generally speaking, NDM and MQL are reference to the same system. Various
authors/researchers/shop floor engineers have given different names to this technique viz.
NDM, micro-lubrification or micro-lubrication, and micro-dosing (available at
http://www.minimumquantitylubrication.com). MQL is a total-loss lubrication method
rather than the circulated lubrication method used with emulsions. The extreme reduction
of lubrication quantities results in nearly dry work pieces and chips; hence, the name
NDM. Metalworking fluids do not spread throughout the area around the machine, thus
also making for a cleaner workplace. MQL today uses such precise metering that the
lubricant is nearly completely used up. The reduction in use of lubricants greatly reduces
health hazards caused by emissions of metalworking fluids in breathed-in air and on the
skin of employees at their workplaces. The key factor here is the percentage of
metalworking fluid on the chips (less than 2% adhering to the chip means that it is dry).
In practice, up to 80 ml of metalworking fluid per hour can be used to achieve dry
chips. Therefore, the term dry processing also includes MQL (Walker, 2015).
In NDM, the cooling/lubricating medium is supplied as a mixture of air and an oil in
the form of an aerosol (often referred to as a mist). An aerosol is a gaseous suspension
(hanging) in air of solid or liquid particles. Aerosols are generated using a process called
atomisation. An atomiser is an ejector in which the energy of compressed gas, usually air
is used to atomise the oil. Oil is then conveyed by the air in a low-pressure distribution
system to the machining zone. The principle of the atomiser is shown in Figure 1. As the
compressed air flows through the venturi path, the narrow throat around the discharge
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nozzle creates a low pressure in the mixing chamber. This partial vacuum draws the oil
up from the oil reservoir where it is maintained under a constant hydraulic head. The air
rushing through the mixing chamber atomises the oil stream into an aerosol of
micrometer-sized particles. The design of the atomiser is critical in MQL as it determines
the concentration of the aerosol and the size of droplets.
Figure 1
Model of a simple atomiser
Source: Astakhov (2012)
Figure 2 explains the use of multiple nozzles for orthogonal machining under MQL
conditions. Method of applying the cutting fluid has a great effect on machining
performance in an MQL system. In an orthogonal machining, cutting fluid can be
supplied in cutting zone at three locations as shown in Figure 2. Cutting fluid injected
through nozzle 1 reduces the friction between tool and work piece and helps in reducing
flank wear. The injection of fluid at nozzle 2 helps in curling of chips because of rebinder
effect and also produces a cooling effect. Here, some heat from primary shear zone is
taken away. The injection through nozzle 3 helps in taking the heat away from secondary
shear zone on the rake face. Clean lubricants viz. fatty-alcohol or ester-based are
generally employed in NDM.
Figure 2
Use of multiple nozzles for orthogonal machining under MQL (see online version
for colours)
Source: Walker (2015)
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1.2 Advancements in NDM/MQL methods

A lot of improvements in the design of NDM/MQL system have been reported since its
inception, which can be classified in two categories based on aerosol composition. In first
category, aerosol is considered as an air-oil mixture with flow rate of oil in the range of
30600 ml/h depending upon the design of the MQL system, the nature of the machining
operation, the work material and many other factors. The other category known as
advanced NDM/MQL system uses aerosol that includes not only oil but also some other
components. There are two types of advanced MQL systems (Astakhov, 2012):
1
oil on water droplet
advanced minimum quantity cooling lubrication machining (MQCL machining).
1.2.1 Oil on water MQL machining

This system comprise of supply of water droplets covered with a thin oil film, thereby
achieving good cooling and lubricating abilities. The cooling is achieved due to water
properties (high specific heat capacity, density and thermal conductivity compared to air)
and its evaporation, and lubrication takes place due to the specific droplet configuration.
The schematic arrangement of this technique is explained in Figure 3, which shows an
ideal oil on water droplet moving towards a hot surface, i.e., machining zone, wherein the
lubricant oil spreads over the surface in advance of water spreading. The water droplets
are expected to perform three tasks:
a
carrying the lubricant
spreading the lubricant effectively over the surface due to inertia
cooling the surface due to its high specific heat and evaporation.
To make this concept practical, i.e., to generate oil on water droplets, a specially designed
discharge nozzle is needed. Figure 4 presents a design which provides a reliable
continuous supply of oil-on-water droplets in a controlled fashion. Rated by the flow
meter, compressed air is fed through the central channel of the nozzle. Another air flow
goes into the control unit where it is mixed by the control valve with oil in a known
measurable proportion. Then the resulting mixture is fed into the first array of the ejector
nozzles, through which the mixture is ejected and atomised by the main air flow. Water is
supplied through a flow meter to the second Water is supplied through a flow meter to the
second array of ejector nozzle as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3
The concept of the oil-on-water MQL machining
Source: Ekinovic et al. (2014)

Figure 4
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A nozzle developed for aerosol containing air, oil and water
The water is also atomised as it passes through these nozzles. When two atomised flows
meet after the second nozzle, adhesion of oil to the surface of water droplets takes place
as the average size of water droplets is greater than that of the oil droplets owing to the
difference between the surface tension of water and oil. In selecting particular oil that has
favourable spreading properties over a water surface, one can achieve automatic
generation of oil on water droplets. When this method is applied in a milling process, the
machining force can be reduced more than by the supply of the same amount of oil
droplet alone, and the thermal expansion is also suppressed (Astakhov, 2012).
Figure 5
(a) Schematic of MQCL machining and (b) Coanda effect
(a)
(b)
1.2.2 Advanced minimum quantity cooling lubrication machining

(MQCL machining)
This technique combines a source of propellant gas (i.e., compressed air), lubrication
additives (i.e., soy oil) and solid and/or gaseous CO2 (i.e., the coolant) in various
concentrations to form a widely adjustable aerosol (Cool Clean Technologies, USA). A
schematic of arrangement of the system is explained in Figure 5(a). This system employs
a novel Coanda-coaxial injector and spray applicator comprising a passive electrostatic
charging mechanism to enhance droplet uniformity, spray force and machined surface
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deposition. A mixture of the propellant gas and additives move along Coanda profile as a
thin film [Figure 5(b)]. The higher pressure (and warmer) propellant-additive film sheds
into and mixes with the lower pressure (and cooler) coaxial CO2 stream. This is
analogous to a waterfall, resulting in rapid vortex mixing and electrostatic charging of the
cooling lubricant aerosol (referred to as an electrosol). Moreover, the Coanda effect
creates an atmospheric pressure tunnel which extends for a long distance from the nozzle
tip towards the machining operation. The Coanda tunnel confines and shields the charged
cooling lubrication spray as it moves from the nozzle to the cutting zone.
1.2.3 The physical foundation of NDM/MQL

The best machining option is always: dry machining which eliminates adverse affect of
flooded cooling including environmental and health hazards. However, under certain
machining application when DC is not feasible, compressed air may be used for direct
cooling. Although, air is less effective for cooling than a liquid coolant, but it also does
not thermally shock hot tools like a liquid coolant. Moreover, pressurised air supply in
cutting zone removes cut chips. Air absorbs sensible heat only, thus heat carrying
capacity is limited. The heat removal capacity of air blast can be improved by mixing
lubricant into it in tiny amounts, which is directed in the cutting area in mist form using
nozzles having the benefit of greater access to tool-work-chip interface under air
pressure. This aerosol when comes in contact with red hot areas in the cutting zone
absorbs its latent heat and vaporises, thereby improves heat removal from cutting zone.
Whereas in flooded cooling, metal working fluids (MWFs) are not able to penetrate into
the tool-chip and tool-workpiece contact surfaces even when supplied at high pressure.
In NDM/MQL system, a lubricant instead of coolant is employed and that too in tiny
amounts. Whereas in flooded system coolant floods the cutting zone to cool things down,
NDM/MQL applies a coating of thin film of lubricant at tool-chip-work interface to
transfer the heat of friction in the cutting zone effectively into cut chips. Lubrication of
interfaces and transfer of heat into chips relatively cools the cutting thereby reducing tool
wear. The friction and heat in the interface vaporises the small amount of lubricant and
leaves cutting tools, parts, equipment, and floors dry and clean. The swarf or chips from
cutting with NDM/MQL are virtually dry and can be recycled without cleaning thus
reducing overall machining cost. With NDM/MQL, parts often do not require any
cleaning prior to secondary operations. Because the lubricant is consumed, there is no
disposal required and no extra equipment is necessary for fluid reclamation. Many
NDM/MQL lubricants are essentially highly refined bio-based (plant) oils and are
completely safe for skin contact as well as having the extra benefit of coming from
renewable, environmentally-friendly material (Astakhov, 2012).
1.3 MQL supply systems

Aerosol in NDM/MQL system can be supplied in the cutting zone either externally
through a set of nozzles fitted separately in the machine area or by supplying aerosol
internally via channels built into the tool (DGUV, 2010). The selection between external
and internal supply channel is made based on application. In applications involving
external supply, the aerosol is sprayed onto the tool from outside via one or more nozzles
(Figure 2). The number and direction of the nozzles in conjunction with the spray pattern,
which depends on the nozzle arrangement, play an important role in the final surface
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quality of machined surface. This technique finds application in operations: sawing, end
and face milling, and turning. In the case of machining operations, such as drilling,
reaming, or tapping, external supply of the medium is appropriate only up to
length/diameter ratios of l/d < 3. When the l/d ratio is larger than this, the tool may have
to be withdrawn several times so that it can be wetted again, resulting in a considerable
increase in the overall machining time. The external supply of aerosol is not suitable
during machining operations requiring the use of multiple tools with widely varying
lengths and diameters. But this system is critical, when the tools involved in the operation
do not have any internal cooling channels.
The internal supply of aerosol through spindle and tool finds applications in drilling,
reaming, and tapping operations with larger l/d ratios, ensuring the supply close to the
cutting edge, regardless of the tool position. This system is also applicable for tools with
very different dimensions. In deep hole drilling operations, the large l/d ratio makes an
internal aerosol supply indispensable. Internal supply of aerosol eliminates the errors
associated with incorrect nozzle positioning, and frees machine area of piping system.
The internal supply system may be: 1-channel and 2-channel systems, as shown in
Figure 6 (Weinert et al., 2004). In 1-channel system, the aerosol mixture is formed
outside the spindle, and the single channel acts as a feed route for the mixture. In 2channel systems, oil and air are fed separately through the spindle. The air-oil mix is then
produced directly ahead of the tool. Both the systems, however, ensure sufficient
availability aerosol in cutting zone.
Figure 6
MQL-feed systems (see online version for colours)
Source: Weinert et al. (2004)
1.4 Cutting tools for NDM/MQL

Special tools are required for efficient NDM/MQL machining, to check excess heat
development, and quick dissipation of heat via chips. Tools are to be optimised for
these requirements in respect of respect cutting materials and tool geometry.
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NDM/MQL-compatible coatings and geometries that assist chip removal and combat
overheating are recommended (Lawal et al., 2013). In addition, friction between chip and
cutting face is reduced due to the thermally insulating hard material layers and polished
tool surfaces. For optimising the lubricant supply, tools with elliptical cooling channels
that increase the cross section of the cooling channel are recommended. Figure 7 shows
the three commonly used MQL cutting tools.
Figure 7
Cutting tools for MQL (drilling and face milling) (see online version for colours)
Source: Weinert et al. (2004) and Lawal et al. (2013)
1.4.1 Tool geometry considerations for NDM/MQL applications

Cutting tool inserts are specially are provided with special features: substrate, edge
geometry involving chip breaker, specific edge preparation, tool surface coatings,
appropriate size, style, and nose radius, etc. Each of these features makes a significant
contribution to overall performance of the cutting tool and their values must be carefully
selected. Remarkable advancements in coating technology, high wear resistant grades,
comprising positive rake to break chips easily resulted in achieving best surface finish on
the machined parts. Properly designed tool geometry also controls cutting forces which in
turn can reduce heat, deformation and friction to increase tool life and improve
dimensional control and surface finish. The following modification should be
implemented in practical tool design for NDM/MQL:
1.4.1.1 Positive rake tools

Earlier, flat or negative geometry was normally used, resulting in poor chip formation
built-up edge formation. As a result, high temperature is generated in the cutting zone and
poor surface finish was achieved. Nowadays, inserts are provided with positive rake
angle (1030) instead of negative rake angle used earlier. A positive rake decreases the
shearing force required during machining. The area of contact between tool face and chip
decreases with the increase in positive rake angles. The use of positive rake geometry
during turning decreases the power requirements and cutting forces compared to negative
turning inserts. The other advantages of positive rake geometry include less heat
generation, better finish of the part and less wear of machine tools. The positive rake also
directs axial cutting forces toward the centre of insert support, thereby improving its life.
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1.4.1.2 Edge radius

The strength of newer inserts is improved by providing edge radius, thereby improving
tool life. However, large radius increases the force required during cutting and may result
in formation of built up edge on tool face that can seriously affect the surface finish and
also cause chatter. The edge radius provided on modern inserts used for MQL
applications varies from 0.2 mm to 1.2 mm.
1.4.1.3 Chamfer
The use of chamfered tools having higher strength increases, shearing action during
machining shifts from positive to negative. But cutting forces increase in chamfered
tools, hence the width of chamfer should be carefully selected to achieve balance between
strength and cutting forces.
1.4.1.4 Chip groove land

The flat area behind the cutting edge is called chip groove land. The wider is the chip
groove land, stronger is the cutting edge. It controls the flow of work material into the
chip groove.
1.4.1.5 Chip-breaker
Modern inserts are provided with a chip breaker groove to break chips resulting in
segmented chips rather than long continuous chips, which pose hindrance to aerosol
reaching cutting zone. Long continuous chips also spoil surface finish of machined
surface.
Chip breaker grooves have various designs such as serrated and corrugated edges,
tiny ridges and bumps near the cutting edge along the chip groove. Moreover, chip
deflectors are incorporated to promote chip flow away from the tool-work piece interface
so as to direct the heat of cutting into chips safeguarding tool and work. These
modifications help in effective chip breaking and control. Tiny ridges and bumps along
the groove reduce the contact area and friction, and therefore, reduce the heat-transfer
between the hot chips and insert. Modern insert configuration is shown in Figure 8.
1.4.1.6 Increase the flank angle

An insufficient flank angle causes unnecessary friction between the tool and work piece.
To prevent generation of unnecessary heat in NDM/MQL, the flank angle should be
increased by 30% to 40% compared to its optimal value in machining with a
high-pressure MWF supply (Astakhov, 2012). Moreover, the clearance between tool
body and the walls of the hole being drilled (the so-called body clearance) in drills and
reamers should be increased at least two times to allow aerosol free flow around the tool
body.
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Figure 8
T. Singh et al.
Modern inserts configuration, (a) chip breaker grooves (b) rake angle (see online
version for colours)
(a)
(b)
Source: Sandvik (2008)
1.4.1.7 Increase the back taper

Back taper is one of the most important parameters of the tool geometry directly affecting
the tool life and quality of the machined surface, particularly in finishing reaming.
Moreover, a significant amount of heat is generated owing to improper back taper in
improperly designed reamers used in the automotive industry.
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1.4.1.8 Reduce adhesive friction to its possible minimum

Thermally induced adhesion between the tool and work material is the principle issue in
NDM, particularly in high-speed machining (Astakhov, 2012). It causes premature tool
wear and chip jamming in the machined hole as it adheres to the contact surface.
1.4.1.9 Tool surface coatings

The tribological behaviour of cutting tools under dry and NDM/MQL machining can be
improved using modern tool surface coatings. These coatings help to compensate for
some functions of the coolant/lubricant to extend tool life. Coatings with low thermal
conductivity, friction act as a heat barrier layer between the cutting and workpiece
materials. The presence of coating retards crater wear (diffusion wear) and as well as
reduces friction force on the rake face. Coatings are deposited on tool surface by
chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and physical vapour deposition (PVD) techniques.
These coatings may be mono-layer or multi-layer coatings. While mono-layer coatings
consist of a single coating type, multi-layer coatings are composed of numerous layers of
the same, or combinations of different, coating types. Most of the heat generated is taken
away by chips. As coated inserts absorb less heat, these can withstand higher cutting
temperatures and more aggressive cutting conditions without sacrificing tool life.
Nowadays, TiAlN, Al2O3 and TiN coated inserts are considered best for dry/NDM
machining at high speeds.
Cubic boron nitride (CBN) is the hardest material known suitable for the machining
of ferrous materials. Compared to widely used sintered polycrystalline cubic boron
nitride (PCBN), PVD CBN coatings on cemented carbide substrates have a number of
advantages, regarding the geometrical flexibility, sharp cutting edges without chamfers
and negative rake angles, no diffusion of binder material, as well as cost efficiency
(Weinert et al., 2004).
1.5 Machine tools and part design requirements

For machine tools that operate with MQL, fast and complete removal of chips and metal
dust from the workspace is of utmost importance. Chip accumulation and residues in the
work area (e.g., on the work pieces and machining equipment) should be avoided as far
as possible. The utilisation of gravity for disposal of the chips has proven in practice to be
of great benefit. The chips should fall unhindered onto steeply inclined metal sheets and
via large openings on to the chip conveyor (Walker, 2015).
Position of the work piece is also vital for good chip removal. A suspended work
piece is ideal, e.g., for a vertical lathe. A good alternative for machining centres is the use
of work piece pivot axles. After being machined, the work piece can be suspended so that
the chips fall from the work piece and equipment. The dry-compatible machine tool
should be equipped with mechanical and electrical interfaces for installation of MQL
systems. The machine tool control system should have a connection option for the MQL
system. For tool holders, it is important that dry-machining-compatible tools are also able
to use internal lubricant feed. Moreover, the volume of material to be removed can be
optimised by using high speed, feed and decreasing depth of cut so as to minimise the
heat dissipation requirements. Higher value of machining parameters especially the high
cutting speed and feed reduce the engagement of tool, thereby concentrating the heat just
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at the point of contact softening the work material for easy removal, whereas, the parent
metal remains unaffected. Heavier, larger work pieces may act as heat sink, limiting
metallurgical changes.
1.6 Cutting fluids for NDM/MQL

The cutting fluids are basically of two types: oil-based cutting fluids and chemical cutting
fluids. Oil-based cutting fluids comprise of: straight oil, soluble oil, whereas chemical
cutting fluids can be further categorised as synthetic and semi synthetic cutting fluids.
Straight oils are non-emulsifiable and are used in an undiluted form. These comprise of a
base mineral or petroleum oil and additives such as fats, vegetable oils and esters, or
extreme pressure additives such as chlorine, sulphur and phosphorus. Straight oils
provide the best lubrication and the poorest cooling characteristics among cutting fluids.
Synthetic fluids contain no petroleum or mineral oil base and instead are formulated from
alkaline inorganic and organic compounds along with additives for suppressing of
corrosion phenomenon. They cannot be used in pure form, but used in a diluted form
(concentration = 3 to 10%) (Dixit et al., 2012). For best cooling under extreme cutting
conditions, synthetic fluids preferred as these provide best cooling among all cutting
fluids. Soluble oil cutting fluids are used in emulsification with water. These comprise of
a base mineral oil and emulsifier to help produce a stable emulsion. They are used in a
diluted form and provide good lubrication and heat transfer performance. They are
widely used in industry and are the least expensive among all cutting fluids.
Semi-synthetic fluids are essentially combination of synthetic and soluble oil fluids and
have characteristics common to both types. The cost and heat transfer performance of
semi-synthetic fluids lies between those of synthetic and soluble oil fluids. Extremely
cold (cryogenic) fluids (often in the form of gases) like liquid CO2 or N2 are used in some
special cases for effective cooling without creating much environmental pollution and
health hazards. The selection of cutting fluid depends on parameters such as work piece
material and nature of machining process (Sluhan, 1994; Chattopadhyay, 2014). For
instance, cutting fluids containing sulphur and chlorine additives should not be used with
nickel-based alloys and titanium, respectively. Cutting fluids with high lubricity ability
are generally used in low-speed machining such as screw cutting, broaching and gear
cutting and on difficult-to-cut materials, whereas cutting fluids with high cooling ability
are generally used in high-speed machining. Generally, cutting fluids are employed in
liquid form but occasionally also employed in gaseous form.
1.7 Selection of cutting fluids for MQL

The selection of cutting fluids for a machining application is mainly based on two factors
(Baradie, 1996; Avuncan, 1998; Kavuncu, 1998):
a
type of machining processes
type of machined work piece material apart from other factors like: fluid cost,
environmental impact and health hazards.
In turning, milling and grinding, water-based cutting fluids are more commonly used due
to material being hard involving higher cutting speeds and feeds thereby minimising
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contact period between cutting tool and work piece material small. The applications of
synthetic cutting fluids are possible in drilling and broaching operations (Ebbrell et al.,
2000). Water-based cutting fluids reduce heat generation in the cutting zone and its affect
on cutting tool wear. For grinding, some emulsion oils and chemical cutting fluids are
prepared specially having concentration between 1:25 and 1:60 with water. Material
removal rate in grinding is higher when higher concentration (2.5% to 10%) cutting fluids
are used. This would also provide a better surface finish quality. Moreover, the required
grinding power would decrease (Baradie, 1996; Ebbrell et al., 2000). Grinding which is
predominantly carried out under flood cooling, the potential of MQL in grinding is being
explored by various researchers. MQL grinding of 100Cr6 hardened steel and AISI 4140
hardened steel in comparison to dry grinding significantly enhances grinding
performance in terms of improving surface quality of the groundwork piece and reducing
grinding temperature and forces (Sadeghi et al., 2010; Mao et al., 2012). Synthetic ester
oil is a better cutting fluid in grinding of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy under MQL conditions
(Sadeghi et al., 2009). Drilling with under MQL can be carried out externally only in the
cases where the surface quality of the holes can be compromised, but for best results, the
internally allied MQL is the most suitable technique.
The selection of cutting fluid is also based on work piece material (Baradie, 1996).
For machining of steel, cutting fluids with some additive are used at high pressure and for
stainless steel, high pressure cutting oils are generally selected. Work-hardening
properties in some steels may cause some problems during machining operation. For
machining of heat resistant and difficult-to-cut steel alloys, water-based cutting fluids are
preferred, due to higher cutting zone temperature. The concentration for water-based
cutting fluids lies between 1:20 to 1:40. However, sulphur added mineral cutting oils can
also be used in such applications (Ebbrell et al., 2000). During MQL milling, the tool life
as well as the cutting force values can be improved by using vegetable oil, especially in
machining of Inconel 718.
In machining of nickel and chromium base alloys, generally sulphured mineral oil is
the preferred cutting fluid. In machining of the difficult-to-cut materials such as titanium
alloys, generally machined at higher cutting speeds, high temperature becomes an
influential factor for selection of cutting fluid. The selected cutting fluid must have both
cooling and lubricating characteristics. The cooling factor is more important in machining
of titanium alloys due to high heat generation during machining operation. It is observed
that lubrication properties of selected cutting fluids are preferred when low cutting speeds
are selected. Emulsion oil can be selected in the machining of titanium alloys when low
cutting speeds are used; chlorine additive cutting oils are preferred when higher cutting
speed are used (Ezugwu and Wang, 1997; Ezugwu et al., 2003; akr et al., 2003). With
the environmental factor in mind, the synthetic esters could well be replaced by palm oil,
thus the cost reduction could be made possible as well, while drilling Inconel and
titanium alloys. Machining under MQL shows significant reduction in maintenance and
cleaning work and better surface quality during turning and milling of high strength
material like tool steel, aluminium, forged alloys and Cr-Ni steels. Likewise, during the
machining of magnesium and its alloys, MQL led to a lowered adhesion rate and built up
edge formation (Bhowmick and Alpas, 2011), thus resulting in a better surface quality
and tool Life.
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1.8 NDM/MQL machining of difficult to machine alloys

Materials used in the manufacture of components used in aerospace applications
generally comprise of nickel, chromium, titanium base alloys and stainless steel (Dixit
et al., 2012). Modern jet engine components are made from various grades of Inconel
(nickel chromium base alloy). Other applications of Inconel include: nuclear reactors,
marine equipment, food processing equipments and oil refineries. The selection of
Inconel for these extreme environmental conditions is based on its special properties to
maintain high resistance to corrosion and erosion at elevated temperatures, superior
mechanical and thermal properties, and higher creep resistance (Davim et al., 2007).
However, these materials provide serious challenges for cutting tool materials during
machining due to their unique combinations of good properties but being sticky, which
spoil tool life and surface finish of machined surfaces. Properties of Inconel and other
sticky materials which contribute to their poor machinability, include rapid work
hardening during machining, tendency to weld to tool edge at high temperature generated
during machining, tendency to form a built-up edge during machining, and the presence
of hard carbides, such as titanium carbide and niobium carbide, in the microstructure of
these materials, that severely abrade the tool face (Klocke and Eisenblatter, 1997). In
addition, the low thermal conductivity of nickel-base alloys result in high heat
concentration in the cutting zone, resulting in rapid tool failure and low material removal
rate (Klocke and Eisenblatter, 1997; Kamata and Obikawa, 2007).
Therefore, in the machining of above mentioned difficult to machine materials, the
use of coolants/lubricants cannot be altogether eliminated; however attempts can be made
reduce the consumption of cutting fluids. This will on one hand reduce the machining
cost, and decrease the environmental and health impacts of use of cutting fluids, thereby
making the machining of these materials environmental friendly. The research today is
therefore focused on exploring the use of MQL in machining of these difficult to
machine-sticky materials.
Some of the issues related to machinability of difficult to machine alloys are
presented in this section.
1.8.1 Machining of Inconel

Various grades of Inconel are the most widely used materials in the aerospace industries.
These materials exhibit high temperature strength along with good corrosion resistance
that is well suited for their service in extreme environmental conditions involving high
pressure and heat. When heated, Inconel forms a thick, stable, passivating oxide layer
protecting the surface from further attack, thereby making these attractive for high
temperature applications where aluminium and steel would succumb due to creep as a
result of thermally-induced crystal vacancies. Inconels high temperature strength is
improved by solid solution strengthening or precipitation strengthening, depending on its
composition. Despite all merits, high hardness of Inconel results in shorter tool life and
poor surface quality. Notch wear and induction of residual stresses as a result of the
metallurgical transformations are other problem issues to be taken care of Ezugwu et al.
(2003). Inconel is difficult to shape and machine using traditional techniques due to rapid
work hardening characteristic. After the first machining pass, work hardening tends to
plastically deform either the work piece or the tool on subsequent machining passes. For
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this reason, age-hardened Inconel 718 is machined using an aggressive but slow cut with
a hard tool, minimising the number of passes required. Alternatively, the majority of the
machining can be performed with the work piece in a solutionised form, with only the
final steps being performed after age-hardening (Ezugwu et al., 2005). Inconel 625 has
excellent resistance of pitting and crevice corrosion in both oxidation and reduction
environments like nitric acid, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and the
mixture of sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid (Kashaev et al., 2013). Inconel 617 is a
solid-solution, strengthened, nickel-chromium-cobalt molybdenum alloy with an
exceptional combination of high-temperature strength and oxidation resistance. The alloy
also has excellent resistance to a wide range of corrosive environments, and it is readily
formed and welded by conventional techniques. Inconel 617 has high mechanical
properties over a broad range of temperatures. The resistance of the alloy to
high-temperature corrosion enhances the usefulness of its strength.
1.8.2 Machining of stainless steel

The stainless steels are often regarded as difficult to machine materials. In general, higher
the alloy content in stainless steel, the more difficult it is considered to machine. The
special properties that make stainless steels difficult to machine are listed below:
stainless steels work-harden considerably
these have low thermal conductivity
they have high toughness
these steels tend to be sticky
moreover, these have poor chip-breaking characteristics.
One of the most versatile and commonly used stainless steel grade (Grade: 304) is an
austenitic chromium alloy which is popularly known as 18/8 stainless steel (18%
chromium and 8% nickel). The chromium content promotes the materials considerable
resistance against corrosion and oxidation. The stainless steel is resistant to most
oxidising acids and can withstand ordinary rusting but tarnish over time. These materials
needs to be cold worked to generate higher tensile strength. For stainless steel sections
which are welded heavily, post-weld annealing may be necessary to improve the
corrosive resistance (Xavior and Adithan, 2009).
Stainless steel grade 420 is a high-carbon steel with a minimum chromium content of
12%. Like any other stainless steel, grade 420 can also be hardened through heat
treatment. It offers good ductility in its annealed state and excellent corrosion resistance
properties when the metal is polished, surface grounded or hardened. This grade has the
highest hardness, i.e., 50 HRC among all the stainless steel grades with 12% chromium.
AISI 1045 steel is characterised by good weld ability, good machinability, and high
strength and impact properties in either the normalised or hot rolled condition (Fratila and
Caizar, 2012b).
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Review of research progress in machining under MQL conditions
The introduction section and the previous section have highlighted the problems of
machining sticky materials: various grades of Inconel and stainless steel. These materials
cannot be machined dry but use of coolant in flooded conditions involves cost,
environmental pollution and serious health concerns for the machine operator. Therefore,
the present section critically reviews the research progress in machining (turning, milling,
grinding and drilling) of above mentioned materials under MQL conditions. Majority of
researchers have investigated machining of said materials under MQL conditions and
compared it with that in flooded coolant conditions. Investigators have also compared
tool performance and machined material surface characteristics (surface integrity, surface
roughness, etc.) under different MQL regimes. It is revealed that favourable results are
obtained under MQL conditions which reduce cutting forces, improves tool life and
decrease surface roughness. The literature concerning machining of difficult to cut sticky
materials under flooded and MQL conditions has been critically reviewed and the salient
findings are reported in subsequent sections.
2.1 Turning under MQL condition

The role of MQL on cutting temperature, chip formation and product quality in turning of
AISI-1040 steel under different speed-feed combinations was investigated by Dhar et al.
(2006a). Fratila and Caizar (2012a) investigated the influence of process parameters and
cooling/lubrication method during finish turning of AISI 1045 steel on tool performance
and surface quality of machined surface. Tests were performed in dry conditions (DC),
using the minimal quantity lubrication (MQL) conditions, and also in flood coolant (FC)
conditions, using carbide inserts. Numerical and graphical optimisations show that the
minimal level of depth of cut, the maximum cutting speed, and the maximum lubricant
flow rate resulted in a better quality of machined surface. Dhar et al. (2006b) investigated
the role of MQL on tool wear and surface roughness in turning AISI-4340 steel with
uncoated carbide inserts. The results indicated a reduction in tool wear rate and surface
roughness under MQL environment, mainly through reduction in the cutting zone
temperature and favourable change in the chip-tool and work-tool interaction. Hadad and
Sadeghi (2013) presented a new method to calculate average temperatures and the heat
partition to the tool, work piece and chip during MQL turning of AISI 4140 steel. It was
observed that if the oil mist be supplied only to rake face, the tool temperature could be
reduced by 200C lower than that achieved under dry turning. The results were compared
with dry machining and machining with soluble oil as coolant. The experimental results
indicated that MQL enables substantial reduction in the cutting zone temperature,
dimensional inaccuracy depending upon the levels of the cutting velocity and feed rate. It
was also observed that the chip formation and chip-tool interaction become more
favourable under MQL conditions
The effect of cutting speed, feed rate and different amount of MQL on machining
performance during turning of brass using K10 cemented carbide tools was investigated
by Gaitonde et al. (2012). It was revealed that amount of lubricant has no impact on
surface finish of machined surface; however, it increases sharply with increase in feed
rate. Davim et al. (2007) investigated turning performance of brasses with different
amounts of MQL. Various parameters studied include the feed rate, cutting power,
specific cutting power, and surface roughness. Results of the study suggest that with
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proper selection of the MQL system, results similar to flooded lubricant conditions can be
achieved. The effect of different lubricant environments during machining of aluminium
alloy 6061 with diamond-coated carbide tools was investigated by Sreejith (2008).
Machining performance under dry machining, MQL, and flooded coolant conditions was
analyzed with respect to the cutting forces, surface roughness of the machined
work-piece and tool wear. It was observed that MQL conditions provide a very good
alternative to flooded coolant/lubricant conditions, in addition to improving the
machinability characteristics.
Yazid et al. (2011) experimentally investigated the effect of cutting parameters and
machining conditions on surface integrity in finish turning of Inconel 718 under three
cutting conditions (dry, MQL 50 mL/h and MQL 100 mL/h) and observed that MQL
possibly improve surface integrity of machined surfaces. Kamata and Obikawa (2007)
applied MQL in finish-turning of Inconel 718, with super lattice (PVD) and TiAlN
(PVD) and TiCN/Al2O3/TiN coatings. It was observed that carbide tools coated with
TiN/AlN gives best performance under MQL. Arunachalam et al. (2004) examined the
residual stresses and surface integrity of components when machining (facing) age
hardened Inconel 718 using two grades of coated carbide cutting tools specifically
developed for machining heat resistant super alloys (HRSA). This investigation,
suggested that coated carbide cutting tool inserts of round shape, chamfered cutting edge
preparation, negative type and small nose radius (0.8 mm) and coolant generate primarily
compressive residual stresses. Rahman et al. (1997) examined the effect of cutting
conditions on the machinability of Inconel 718. Various combinations of side cutting
edge angles (SCEAs), cutting speeds and feed rates were tested at a constant depth of cut.
Cutting results indicate that SCEA, together with cutting speed and feed rate, do play a
significant role in increasing the tool life of an insert. Costes et al. (2007) investigated
wear mechanisms on the rake and flank faces of different tool grades during finish
machining of Inconel 718. It was found that a low CBN content tool with a ceramic
binder and small grains gives the best results. Thakur et al. (2013) during investigation of
machinability characteristics of Inconel 718 under dry and MQL conditions with respect
to cutting forces, surface roughness and tool wear using K20 tungsten carbide cutting
tool, observed that machining of Inconel 718 under MQL conditions has outperformed as
compared to dry machining. Cantero et al. (2013) examined tool wear mechanisms in
finishing turning of Inconel 718, both under wet and DC conditions. It was observed from
experimental analysis that SCEA has strong influence in the tool wear evolution. Results
indicate that with increase in SCEA, the cutting aggressiveness of the tool decreases.
2.2 Milling under MQL conditions

Similar to turning under MQL conditions, various investigators have successfully applied
MQL for milling of sticky materials. Most salient findings of different authors
concerning milling under MQL conditions are reported in this section. Sun et al. (2006)
investigated cutting forces during end milling of titanium, under dry, flood cooling, and
MQL conditions. The experimental results show that MQL machining can remarkably
and reliably improve tool life, and reduce cutting force due to the better lubrication and
cooling effect. The effect of milling parameters, tool material on tool life was
investigated by Shi et al. (2013) on a new damage-tolerant titanium alloy (TC21). The
results showed that cutting force, cutting temperature, and tool life were greatly
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influenced by milling parameters, tool material, and tool wear. Thus, cutting tool
matching with proper milling parameters should be carefully chosen to satisfying the tool
life in actual production. Face milling under MQL environment on titanium alloy was
investigated by Hassan and Zhen-Qiang (2004). The parameters considered to achieve
best tool life, highest MRR and best surface finish, were cutting speed, feed rate, and
depth of cut. The results showed that the multiple performance characteristics such as
tool life, volume removed, and surface roughness can be improved simultaneously. The
most important influence on the cutting parameters with multiple performance
characteristics in face milling titanium is the feed rate.
Li et al. (2006) investigated tool wear and cutting forces during end milling of
Inconel 718 with coated carbide inserts. The results indicate that flank wear was the
predominant failure mode affecting the tool life. The tool flank wear propagation in up
milling was more rapid than that in the down milling operation. It was revealed that
thermal effects could be a significant cause for the peak force variation within a single
cutting pass; the tool wear propagation was believed to be responsible for the gradual
increase of the mean peak force in successive cutting passes. The influence of cutting
parameters and cooling technique on the work piece surface roughness in milling of
7075-T6 aluminium alloy was experimentally investigated by Tosun and Huseyinoglu
(2010). The results indicated that MQL gives better surface finish with increasing speed
and decreasing feed rate. The cutting fluid concentration: 1:10 (boron oil-to-water ratio)
under MQL conditions resulted in better surface quality compared to fluid concentration:
9:10 (boron oil-to-water ratio) under MQL conditions due to the more efficient
penetration of the fluid into the cutting region. Performance of MQL technique in near
micro milling with respect to DC on the basis of tool wear, surface roughness and burr
formation was investigated by Li and Chou (2010). The results indicated that application
of MQL improves the tool life, surface roughness and burr formation compared to those
in DC. It was also found that the air flow rate has a more significant influence on tool life
than the oil flow rate under MQL conditions. The effect of cutting speed, feed rate and
depth of cut on the surface roughness of Inconel 718 was investigated by Kasim et al.
(2013), during milling under MQL. The results showed that MQL gives very high surface
finish ranging from 0.173 m to 0.3 m. The interaction between radial depths of cut and
feed rate were found to be most dominant factor affecting the surface roughness. Zhang
et al. (2012) investigated DC and MQL cutting with biodegradable vegetable oil to
evaluate tool wear and cutting forces during end milling of Inconel 718 using cemented
carbide coated cutting tools. The experimental results showed that MQL cutting with
biodegradable vegetable oil can effectively improve the machinability of Inconel 718,
such as extension of tool life and reduction of cutting forces. From an environmental
point of view, MQL cutting with biodegradable vegetable oil meet the increasing
demands for cleaner manufacturing of Inconel 718, and is an alternative of MQL cutting
and DC.
Milling of hardened steel generates excessive heat during the chip formation process,
which increases the temperature of cutting tool and accelerates tool wear. Application of
conventional cutting fluid in milling process may not effectively control the heat
generation. To minimise health hazard and environmental problems caused by use of
conventional cutting fluids, a cryogenic cooling setup was developed by Ravi and Kumar
(2011) to cool the tool-chip interface using liquid nitrogen (LN2). The results showed that
machining with LN2 lowers cutting zone temperature, tool flank wear, surface roughness
and cutting forces as compared with dry and wet machining. With LN2 cooling, it was
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found that the cutting temperature was reduced by 57% to 60% and 37% to 42%; the tool
flank wear was reduced by 29% to 34% and 10% to 12%; the surface roughness was
decreased by 33% to 40% and 25% to 29% compared to dry and wet machining
respectively. The cutting forces also decreased moderately compared to dry and wet
machining. This can be attributed to the fact that LN2 machining provides better cooling
and lubrication through substantial reduction in the cutting zone temperature. The
mechanism of MQL in HSM (high speed machining) of hardened steel is investigated
more comprehensively by Liao and Lin (2007). The rapid wear rate of cutting tools due
to high cutting temperature is a critical problem to be solved in HSM of hardened steels.
Near-dry machining such as MQL is regarded as one of the solutions to this difficulty.
Comparing with DC, the tool performance can be enhanced by MQL under all cutting
speeds. It was found that MQL can provide extra oxygen to promote the formation of a
protective oxide layer in between the chip-tool interface. This layer is basically results in
formation of quaternary compound oxides of Fe, Mn, Si, and Al, and is proved to act as
diffusion barriers effectively. Hence, the strength and wear resistance of a cutting tool
can be retained which leads to a significant improvement of tool life. It is found that there
exists an optimal cutting speed at which a stable protective oxide layer can be formed.
When cutting speed is lower than this speed, there is less oxide layer and the
improvement of tool life is less apparent. As the cutting speed is far beyond the optimal
value, the protective layer is absent and the thermal cracks are apt to occur at the cutting
edge due to large fluctuation of temperature. Thus, application of MQL may be
inappropriate in the extreme high-speed cutting conditions irrespective of its little
improvement in tool life. It is revealed that the tool life can be effectively improved by
MQL in HSM of NAK80 hardened steels when cutting parameters are chosen properly.
Micro milling of 316 L stainless steel under MQL was investigated by Kajaria et al.
(2012). A laser-based technique was developed to measure spindle run out and assist tool
setting for fragile micro cutting tools. Thresholds were established to help select cutting
parameters and avoid catastrophic tool failure. Computational fluid dynamics was used to
simulate flow of lubricant micro droplets around a rotating tool. When properly applied
to wet the tool and work piece, minimum quality lubrication reduces the built up edge on
a cutting tool and increases the tool life up to 100 times compared to dry micro milling of
316L and stainless steel. Da Silva et al. (2011) presented a comparative study of the
influence of two machining environments (dry and wet) on tool wear and surface quality
during end milling of AISI 1047 steel with carbide tools. Fluids were directed on to the
cutting zone by three different techniques-flooding, reduced flow rate and MQL. The
results showed that longer machined length values and higher material machining
removal volume were obtained when machining using reduced flow rate system. MQL is
also effective in machining of hardened materials to reduce the thermal cracks. Junior
et al. (2009) made efforts to find out tool wear and tool life in end milling of 155 PH
stainless steel under different cooling and lubrication conditions. Tool life and the tool
wear are strongly influenced by cooling and lubrication conditions, and furthermore, that
tool lubrication rather than cooling should be the purpose of using cutting fluid in this
kind of operation, in order to avoid damage caused by tool temperature variations. Kang
et al. (2008) compared the performance of Ti 0.75Al 0.25N and Ti 0.69Al 0.23Si 0.08N
coated carbides end-mills under flooded coolant, dry and MQL conditions during highspeed machining of AISI D2 cold-worked die steel (62 HRC). Results under flooded
coolant conditions showed that they produce shortest tool life due to severe thermal
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cracks whereas, MQL gives best performance, enabling the use of MQL in the high speed
machining of high-hardened materials for industrial applications. MQL with milling also
improves physical properties, wetability, tribological properties (lubricity and extreme
pressure properties), mist characteristics and machinability during machining of sticky
materials.
The temperatures variations in the cutting zone under flood of oil-water emulsion
(FE), NDM, and DC conditions during the face milling of AlMg3 was examined by
Fratila and Caizar (2012a). The experimental measurements revealed the temperature
variations in the cutting zone under flood of oil-water emulsion (FE), NDM, and DC
condition. The study compared the dual effects of air-oil mixture in NDM with the
cooling effect to DC and FE in terms of the reduction of the cutting temperature through
the cooling effect, as well as the reduction of heat generation through the lubricating
effect to face milling. This study concerning the face milling of AlMg3 and the
experimental measurements show the cooling and the lubricating effects in NDM reduce
the cutting temperatures on the tool-chip interface with respect to the dry machining. The
cutting speed remains a dominant factor in the cutting temperature compared with the
feed and the depth of cut in the NDM processes. The lubricants and the cutting fluids
have to be appreciated not only by the effect they have in the cutting process, but also by
the issues raised to their recovery and the treatment in order to decrease the pollution
effects they have on the environment.
Tai et al. (2011) and Priarone et al. (2012) showed that machinability have good
correlation with low fluid viscosity, high mist concentration, large mist droplet diameter,
and high wetability. The effect of cutting force, tool wear, surface roughness, and chip
shape under MQL with milling are explored by some researchers. Rahman et al. (2001)
compared MQL and flooded coolant regimes at low speeds, low feed rates and small
depths of cut. In all cases, the surface roughness generated is almost the same. Fewer
burrs formed during machining with MQL, which is an individual advantage, compared
to DC and the flood cooling method resulting in a lower de-burring cost in MQL. Milling
experiments with MQL were conducted by Bruni et al. (2008) to find out tool wear and
surface roughness during finish face milling of AISI 420B stainless steel under MQL and
DC conditions. The MQL machining resulted in lesser tool wear and surface roughness,
especially at higher cutting speeds. Heisel et al. (2009) used the MQL on milling of C45E
as reference material and studied burr formation. The research showed the effect of MQL
on burr formation was not significant in face milling. A variation in cutting speed at
constant feed showed no significant influence on burr formation. However, with change
in feed per tooth, the leave burr curve of the lateral face shifts towards higher values in
dry machining compared to MQL.
2.3 Grinding with MQL

Grinding is a material removal and surface generation process used to shape and finish
components made of metals and other materials. The precision and surface finish
obtained through grinding can be up to ten times better than with either turning or
milling. Grinding employs an abrasive product, usually a rotating wheel brought into
controlled contact with a work surface. The grinding wheel is composed of abrasive
grains held together by binder. These abrasive grains act as cutting tools, removing tiny
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chips of material from the work piece. Although dry and MQL turning and milling have
been successful applied in many industrial applications; the elimination or reduction in
the use of coolants for grinding is not so easy due to the large amounts of heat generated
that must be removed from cutting zone. Similar to turning and milling under MQL
conditions, various investigators have successfully applied MQL for grinding of sticky
materials. Most salient findings of different authors concerning grinding under MQL
conditions are reported in this section.
Surface grinding of AISI 4140 hardened steel using MQL was investigated by
Sadeghi et al. (2010). The results showed that MQL grinding produced better surface
finish. Grind ability of hardened stainless steel (UNS S34700) and aluminium alloy
AA6061 using minimum quantity of lubrication technique was compared by Hadad and
Hadi (2013). The surface roughness was observed to be significantly lower in MQL
conditions due to the better lubrication effect of MQL oil mist in the contact zone. In
MQL grinding of aluminium, the surface finish is higher than that in flooded cooling.
Mao et al. (2012) compared surface quality under dry, wet and MQL grinding. It was
found that MQL grinding in comparison to dry grinding significantly enhances grinding
performance in terms of improving surface quality of the groundwork piece and reducing
grinding temperature and forces. Grinding of 100Cr6 hardened steel using different
abrasive and coolant-lubricant types (minimum quantity lubricant-MQL) was
investigated by Tawakoli et al. (2010). The grinding wheels employed were vitrified
bond corundum, resin bond corundum and vitrified bond SG wheels. The results
indicated that SG wheels, MQL oils have the potential for application of MQL process to
grinding in comparison to vitrified and resin bond corundum. In addition, the lowest
thermal damages, material side flow on the ground surface and wheel loading have been
achieved with SG grinding wheel in MQL grinding process.
Grinding of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy under MQL conditions using synthetic esters
oil and vegetable oil was investigated by Sadeghi et al. (2009). The results indicated that
synthetic ester oil is a better cutting fluid in MQL grinding of Ti-6Al-4V. Surface
roughness and tool life was investigated by Li and Lin (2012) under the MQL in microgrinding. It was observed that surface roughness and tool life improved with the
application of MQL in micro-grinding. To improve effectiveness of MQL in the fine
surface grinding, Barczak et al. (2010) presented a comparative study of three cooling
methods: conventional flood cooling, dry grinding and grinding with MQL. Common
steels EN8, M2 and EN31 were ground with a general purpose alumina wheel. It has
been proved that under specific conditions, MQL is able to compete with or outperform
conventional flood cooling delivery. However, it is anticipated that very hard materials
may not be suitable for MQL and can limit its usability range towards softer materials.
The surface quality achieved in MQL machining is comparable to and in some cases
better than that achieved in flooded machining. Lee et al. (2010) investigated the
characteristics of environmentally friendly nano-fluid MQL grinding process.
Nano-diamond particles and paraffin oil were used for nano-fluid, and a series of
nano-fluid MQL mesoscale grinding experiments were carried out. The experimental
results revealed that nano-fluid MQL approach can significantly reduce grinding forces
and surface roughness compared to dry and pure MQL conditions. In addition, smaller
nano-diamond particles exhibit better finish of ground surfaces.
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2.4 Drilling with MQL

Drilling is generally carried out under flooded coolant conditions, especially in deep hole
drilling and drilling of blind holes, due to difficulty for cutting fluid to approach the
cutting edge of drill inside drilled hole, as the clearance between drilled hole and drill is
very small and cut chips pose serious hindrance to coolant flow. However, under flooded
cooling, the coolant is able to reach the cutting edge by capillary action and gravity in
vertical drilling. Various researchers have explored the use of MQL for drilling operation.
The salient findings by different researchers are summarised in this section. Haan et al.
(1997) performed drilling on aluminium and grey cast iron in order to evaluate the
performance of the different cutting fluids with feed rate, hole depth, material and cutting
speed as input parameters. It was observed that the cutting fluids helped in reducing the
built up edge formation and also help in lubrication of the margins of the drill.
Rabinovicha et al. (2011) studied the different coatings and their effect by using
cemented carbide drills during drilling of aluminium silicon B-319 cast alloy.
Comparison was made between both MQL as well as the flood cooling techniques. It was
concluded that the MQL process when used along with a proper coated tool gave results
nearly as good as the flood cooling, and thus could act as a good alternative for the
expensive flood cooling approach. Jayal et al. (2007) carried out investigation on various
methods of external cutting fluid during blind-hole drilling of cast aluminium alloy
A-390. The dimensional accuracy under DC conditions was found inferior and
independent of cutting speed and feed. Kilickap et al. (2011) studied the effects of
different cutting parameters on performance characteristics during the drilling of
Al-7075. They found that better results with MQL technique than with other cooling
techniques. The best surface roughness was obtained at cutting speed of 20 m/min and
feed of 0.1 mm/rev. Dasch and Kurgin (2010) examined MQL by varying the methods of
mist application: external MQL, internal single channel and internal double channel
MQL. The mist formed in each case was carefully examined and values such as
concentration and the particle size of the mist were carefully calculated. The results
obtained were very much in competition with the wet cooling systems. Bhowmick and
Alpas (2011) drilled the Al alloy AM60 using both dry and MQL systems. The main
response parameters recorded were the drill torque and the thrust forces, while cooling
was done using fatty acid-based or distilled water-based coolants with a rate of up to
10 ml/h. MQL drilling resulted in parameters very much comparable to those of flood
cooling systems, giving a better tool life, thus making MQL a highly desirable technique
on account of its lesser cost and environment friendliness. Machining of Inconel 718
using synthetic esters and palm oil as coolants has been performed by Rahim and
Sasahara (2011). It was reported that MQL using such coolants improves the surface
roughness and micro hardness.
The salient findings along with the critical machining parameters for MQL machining
are summarised in Table 1.
Nickel-base alloy,
Inconel 718
AISI 304 stainless

steel
Mahdavinejad
and Saeedy
Ezugwu et al.
Cast 393 aluminium

alloy
Tai et al.
Inconel 718
Brass (CuZn39Pb3)
Davim et al.
Senthilkumaar
et al.
Carbon steel bar,

AISI-1045
Fratila and
Caizer
Inconel 718
Nickel base
superalloy Inconel
718
Imran et al.
Turning
Turning,
facing
Turning
Turning
Drilling,
reaming
Turning
Turning
Micro-drilling
Turning
Operation
Critical parameters
Salient findings
Optimised parameters are 40 m/min cutting speed,

13 MPa delivery pressure, 10 ml/min. MQL and N = 300
for high speed machining of superalloy Inconel 718.
It was found that low feed (0.10 mm/rev) and medium

depth of cut (1.20 mm) are the optimum machining
parameters for turning whereas high feed (0.17 mm/rev)
and high depth of cut (1.46 mm) are the optimum
machining parameters for facing.
Tool life improves up to 15 MPa coolant pressure and
start reducing if the pressure exceeds 20.3 MPa.
Cutting depth, ap(mm) = 1.0, 1.25, 1.5,

Feed rate, f (mm/rev) = 0.1, 0.15, 0.2,
Cutting speed, V (m/min) = 25, 35, 45
Cutting depth, ap (mm) = 0.5,

Feed rate, f (mm/rev) = 0.1, 0.2,
Cutting speed, V (m/min) = 200, 270, 300,
Coolant supply pressure (MPa) = 11, 15, 20.3
Tool flank wear decreases significantly by increasing the

cutting speed up to 175 m/min.
Low fluid viscosity, large mist droplet diameter and high

wettability were best correlated with good machinability.
The surface roughness obtained in MQL

(200 ml/h) conditions or flood lubrication is similar.
Feed rate, f (mm/rev) = 0.08, 0.125,

Cutting speed, V(m/min) = 40, 60,
MQL flow rate, Q (ml/min) = 5, 10,
Delivery pressure, P (MPa) = 10, 13,
Frequency of pulses, N (pulses/min) = 200, 300
Feed rate, f (mm/rev) = 0.2, 0.3, 0.4,

Cutting speed, V(m/min) = 100, 125, 150, 175, 200
Drilling: Feed (mm/rev) = 738,

Speed (rpm) = 2,419, MQL flow (ml/h) = 10,
Reaming: Feed (mm/rev) = 6,000,
Speed (rpm) = 6,000, MQL flow (ml/h) = 10
The specific cutting force at 200 m/min was seen to

be lowest. Hence, 200 m/min can be considered as
critical velocity for machining brass at MQL.
MQL to AISI 1045 can be successfully implemented

without affecting the surface quality.
2
1
Surface quality is strongly influenced by the cutting

depth (51.81%) and less by the feed rate (6.53%).
Cutting depth, ap (mm) = 0.25, 0.5, 1,

Feed rate, f (mm/rev) = 0.196, 0.226, 0.306
Cutting speed, V(m/min) = 62, 90, 204,
MWF flow rate, Q (l/hour) = 0, 0.066, 60
Depth of cut, ap (mm) = 2,
Feed rate, f (mm/rev) = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.2
MQL conditions, Q(ml/h) = 50, 100, 200,
Flooded conditions, Q = 2,000 ml/h
Wet drilling reveals progressive tool wear and cutting

edge blunting phenomena compared to catastrophic tool
failure in dry drilling.
Improved tool life by 20% to 30%.
Feed (m/rev) = 0.5, 2, 5, 8

Speed (rpm) = 1,000, 3,000, 5,000, 7,000
Peck depth (mm) = 0.1
Depth-of-cut, ap = 0.2 mm,

Feed rate, f = 0.1 mm/rev,
Cutting speed, V = 78 and 90 m/min and application
angle of cutting fluid, = 20
Table 1
Thakur
Nickel base
superalloy Inconel
718
Work material
Obikawa et al.
Researcher

237
Salient findings under MQL machining by various researchers
Titanium alloy,
Ti-6Al-4V
7075-T6
Aluminium alloy
Steel, SKD 61
NAK80 mold steel
Nickel-base alloy,
Inconel 718
Nickel-base alloy,
Inconel 718
Hardened steel,
AISI4140
Liu et al.
Tosun and
Huseyinoglu
Li and Chou
Liao and Lin
Kasim et al.
Zhang et al.
Sadeghi et al.
Hardened stainless
steel, S34700
6061 aluminium
alloy
Sreejith
Grinding
Grinding
End milling
End milling
End milling
End milling
End milling
Turning
Turning
Operation
A less viscous coolant of MQL is essential for the

effective cooling.
Significant reduction in perpendicular and tangential

forces was observed under MQL as compared to flooded.
MQL grinding lowers the surface roughness and

temperature as compared with dry grinding.
Wheel speed, Vs (m/s) = 30,

Work speed, Vw (mm/min) = 1,500,
Depth of cut, ae(m) = 5, 15, 25, 35, 45, 55, 65
The tool life under MQL cutting conditions was observed

1.57 times as much as that under dry cutting conditions.
Optimum conditions for minimum surface roughness

include cutting speed of 136 m/min and feed rate of
0.1 mm/rev at minimum depth of cut.
The tool life enhanced in case of MQL as compared to dry

cutting at low cutting speeds such as 300 m/min.
60% reductions of tool flank wear in MQL.
Minimum surface roughness was obtained at

1,330 rpm spindle speed, 20 mm/min feed rate.
MQL condition was found to have more significant

influence on improving the tool life than dry condition.
At MQL conditions the tool wear was found to be lower.
Salient findings
Wheel speed, Vs (m/s) = 30,

Work speed, Vw (m/min) = 10, 20, 30, 40,
Depth of cut, ae (mm) = 0.005, 0.010, 0.015,
MQL flow rate, Q(ml/h) =15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70,
100, 140
Cutting speed, V(m/min) = 55,

Feed per tooth, fz(mm/tooth) = 0.1,
Axial depth of cut ap(mm) = 0.5,
Radial depth of cut ae(mm) = 1

Feed rate, f (mm/rev) = 0.15, 0.2 ,0.25,
Depth of cut (mm) = 0.6, 0.8, 1.0

Feed rate, f (mm/tooth) = 0.10, 0.15, 0.20,
Axial depth of cut (mm) = 0.3,
Radial depth of cut(mm) = 5
Spindle speed, V (rpm) = 20,000, 30,000 40,000,

Feed, f (m/rev) = 1.0, 1.5, 2.0,
MQL flow (ml/h) = 1.88, 3.75, 5.0
Cutting speed, V (rpm) = 260, 780, 1,330,

Feed rate, f (mm/min) = 20, 40, 80

Feed rate, f (mm/rev) = 0.1,
Cutting speed, V (m/min) = 120,
MQL flow (ml/h) = 16

Feed rate, f (mm/rev) = 0.15,
MQL flow (ml/h) = 50, 100
Critical parameters
Table 1
Hadad and Hadi
Work material
Researcher
238
T. Singh et al.
Salient findings under MQL machining by various researchers (continued)
239
Critical review on NDM/MQL machining
Obikawa et al. (2012) reported that in air jet assisted machining of nickel-based
superalloy (Inconel 718) with a CVD-coated cemented carbide insert improves the tool
life by 20% to 30% compared to conventional wet machining at higher cutting speeds and
nozzle angle in the range of 1030. It was revealed that the cutting speed could be
increased by 12% without decrease in tool life as compared to wet machining. When
nitrogen is used in place of air, tool life remains unaffected. Kamata and Obikawa (2007)
experimentally observed that when argon is the carrier gas for oil mist instead of air, it
enhances cooling at cutting point. Ezugwu et al. (2005) showed that the life of the cutting
tool improves up to 15 MPa coolant pressure and start reducing if the pressure exceeds
20.3 MPa due to acceleration in notching on both flank and rake faces of tool. However,
higher coolant pressure results in lower cutting forces due to improved cooling and
lubrication (low frictional forces) at the cutting interface and also as a result of chip
segmentation caused by the high-pressure coolant jet. Thakur et al. (2010) investigated
that the 13 MPa delivery pressure at the nozzle can be considered as effective optimised
parameter for tool life during high speed machining of superalloy-Inconel 718.
Devillez et al. (2011) and Pusavec et al. (2011) found the optimised cutting speed and
feed rate in case of turning of Inconel 718 under dry and MQL conditions. The optimal
cutting speed and feed rate was 60 m/min and 0.05 mm/rev. to obtained surface
roughness, Ra of 0.46 m in DC whereas at same parameters in MQL, surface roughness,
Ra was found 0.4 m, due to improved lubrication effect. Whereas Yazid et al. (2011)
showed that MQL at flow rate of 50 ml/h produces better surface finish than dry
machining. In addition to this, Senthilkumaar et al. (2010) found that at higher cutting
speed and feed, the temperature generation rate is high which leads to material softening
at cutting zone. The magnitude of the cutting force is higher at higher depth of cut for the
same cutting speed. It was also observed that with the increase in the depth of cut, the
direction of chip flow changes. The degree of work hardening was observed to be less in
the case of high cutting speed and feed rate (Vc = 60 m/min and feed = 0.2 mm/rev)
compared to low speed and feed rate (Vc = 40 m/min and feed = 0.08 mm/rev),
respectively. But the tool life is generally decreased with the increase of cutting speed as
reported by Zhou et al. (2012).
Imran et al. (2014) found that the adhesion, diffusion and chipping are the main
tool-wear mechanisms in micro-drilling nickel-based super alloys. The tool wear can be
attributed to high chip contact length, higher temperatures, high adhesion and diffusion in
DC in comparison to wet cutting. Wet drilling reveals progressive tool wear and cutting
edge blunting phenomena compared to catastrophic tool failure in dry drilling. Nam et al.
(2011) investigated that the number of holes was significantly increased (up to 150) when
the pure MQL being applied due to their enhanced cooling and lubrication effects and
reduced chip adhesion to the micro-drill. The quality of drilled holes could be
significantly improved when applying nanofluid MQL because this will reduce chip
adhesion and therefore it could be an effective solution for easy chip removal and
deburring for the micro-drilling process.
Tosun and Huseyinoglu (2010) investigated that minimum surface roughness was
obtained at high spindle speed, i.e., 1,330 rpm and minimum feed rate, i.e., 20 mm/min in
case of end milling of 7075-T6 aluminium alloy. However, a less viscous MQL coolant is
essential for the effective cooling. The tool life was significantly improved at low cutting
240
T. Singh et al.
speeds such as 300 m/min during end milling of NAK80 mould steel as reported by Liao
and Lin (2007). Kasim et al. (2013) found the optimised conditions for end milling of
nickel-base alloy, Inconel 718. The minimum surface roughness was observed at cutting
speed of 136 m/min and feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev. Also for same material, the tool life
under MQL cutting conditions was observed 1.57 times as much as that under DC
conditions (Nguyen et al., 2007). Sadeghi et al. (2010) found significant reduction in
perpendicular and tangential forces under MQL as compared to flooded in case of
grinding of hardened steel, AISI4140. MQL grinding also lowers the surface roughness
and temperature as compared with dry grinding (Hadad and Hadi, 2013).
Summary
The use of NDM/MQL in various machining operations including turning, milling,

grinding and drilling to machine ferrous and non-ferrous alloys is now a well established
method to improve tool life on one hand and to achieve desired machined surface finish,
reduced cutting forces, etc. on the other hand. This techniques initially used for turning
operations has been well adopted for milling and its potential is being explored for
machining with non-geometrically defined cutting edges, i.e., grinding as well as for
drilling operations as explained in literature review. Although DC, which is considered
best in terms of environmentally friendly machining and involving minimum machining
cost may not be feasible under all cutting conditions and paves the way for MQL in
contrast to flooded coolant/lubrication machining, which is highly polluting and
uneconomical. The MQL is continually growing and being developed and modified for
its applicability to various machining operations. A significant amount of research has
been dedicated to understand the mechanics of metal cutting under different
cooling/lubrication regimes. Through this paper an attempt has been made to critically
review research progress in machining (turning, milling, grinding and drilling) of difficult
to machine alloys under minimal quantities lubrication conditions. The work carried out
by various researchers shows that MQL is quite effective for turning of aluminium,
brass, Inconel and stainless steel, etc. with carbide and coated carbide tools. Most of the
authors have indicated improvement in machining performance under MQL compared to
dry machining, more meaningful results could also be obtained if it was compared with
flood machining. MQL not only effectively control work piece surface temperature but it
also control the tool tip temperature and cutting zone temperature. The optimum
lubrication significantly reduces the frictional heat.
The use of NDM/MQL for various machining operations has proved its capability and
future scope. Table 2 gives a summary of merits, drawbacks and precautions to be
observed during NDM/MQL machining and Table 3 throws light on its application area
(Weinert et al., 2004).

Table 2
Summary of MQL applicability in various machining operations
Machining operation
under MQL
Turning
241
Merits, drawbacks and precautions

Merits
Substantial reduction in the cutting zone temperature and
dimensional inaccuracy.
Reductions in tool wear rate and surface roughness.
Improvement in tool life, and reduction in cutting forces due to the
better lubrication and cooling effect.
MQL is environmental friendly and safe as there is no spreading of
oil around the machining area and there are less environmentally
harmful residuals to be disposed off.
Drawbacks
Does not move chips away from the cutting zone
Does not effectively prevent corrosion on either chips or parts
Precautions
Spray nozzle must be located not more than 2550 mm from the tool
as it enters the cutting zone.
Applicator nozzle must be adjusted for different tool.
Certain additives used in MQL fluids may be reactive under pressure
and in the presence of moisture.
Avoid use of chlorinated cutting fluid under aggressive cutting
condition, where cutting zone temperature is quite high due to
difficulty in cleaning machine area after machining.
Milling
Merits
Significantly improve surface finish of machined parts as compared
to dry machining without noticeable increase in power consumption
of the machine tool.
Improves tool life and suppress burr formation and increases material
removal rate (MRR) compared to dry milling.
Reduction in cutting forces.
Less environmentally harmful residuals to be disposed off.
Drawbacks
Multiple nozzles are required for applying oil mist in cutting zone,
adding to overall cost of equipment.
Difficulty in keeping same concentration of cutting fluid through all
nozzles.
MQL will not move chips from the cutting zone.
After the tool enters the work piece no additional fluids can reach the
tool-work piece interface.
242
T. Singh et al.
Table 2
Summary of MQL applicability in various machining operations (continued)
Machining operation
under MQL
Milling
Merits, drawbacks and precautions

Precautions
Nozzles are susceptible to both damage and being moved when either
heavy chips or stringers are produced.
Many additives used in MQL fluids can be very reactive both under
pressure and in the presence of moisture.
MQL fluid left on parts chips, or machine tools can cause mild to
moderate corrosion or staining.
Grinding
Merits
Less clogging of grinding wheel due impingement of high pressure
air+oil mist at wheel-work piece interface.
Grinding swarf being lighter than chips can be flushed out from
cutting area
Economic and environmental benefits are obtained from the
reduction/elimination of conventional fluids and relatively less
harmful residuals to be disposed off.
Better surface finish.
Drawbacks
Not appropriate for dressing process.
Elimination or reduction in cutting fluid results in higher
temperatures during the process, affecting surface integrity and
geometrical precision of the ground part in addition to increasing
grinding wheel wear.
Precautions
Wheel susceptible to loading if no efficient cleaning system is
employed.
Drilling
Merits
Reduction in built up edge formation.
Helps in lubrication of the margins of the drill, thereby enhances tool
life.
Improves the surface roughness and micro hardness.
Drawbacks
Ineffective in deep hole drilling and drilling of blind holes compared
to flooded cooling, compared to flooded cooling, wherein the liquid
coolant is able to penetrate up to cutting edge by capillary action,
while in MQL the high velocity jet of air + coolant may not reach
cutting area.
Fails in flushing chips and swarf from the cutting edge.
Precautions
MQL in drilling process required special safety consideration. Avoid
use of chlorine containing or halogen containing cutting fluids in
deep hole drilling.

Table 3
243
Areas of application for MQL and dry processing

Material
Aluminium
Cast alloy
Forged
alloy
MQL
MQL
Process
Drilling
Steel
Cast
Free-cutting
High-alloy
steel, quenched
steels, rolling
and tempered
bearing steel
steel
GG20GGG70
MQL
Dry
Dry
Reaming
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL
Thread cutting
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL
Thread rolling
MQL
MQL
MQL
Deep drilling
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL
Milling
Dry
MQL
Dry
Dry
Dry
Turning
MQL/dry
MQL/dry
Dry
Dry
Dry
Dry
Dry
Dry
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL
MQL/dry
Dry
Hobbing
Sawing
Broaching
Source: Weinert et al. (2004)
Current state of affairs in machining with MQL
The concept of MQL was introduced about a decade back with the aim to reduce the
coolant consumption and reduce its environmental and health hazards. Initially,
compressed air and conventional cutting fluids with proper ratio were applied on the tool
tip to achieve desired cooling and lubrication. However, recent trends show an increase in
efforts to enhance the cooling and lubricating capacity of coolant used in MQL. Instead
of conventional fluids, nano fluids are being explored owing their better wet ability and
lubricity, which reduce tool wear and result in better surface finish. Nano fluids contain a
colloidal dispersion of nano sizes particles of various metals, oxides, carbides, nitrides, or
nanotubes, etc. Typically, a nano fluid may contain carbon nanotube (CNT), TiO2, Al2O3,
MoS2, and diamond dust. This nano fluid MQL could significantly reduce grinding forces
and enhance surface quality (Setti et al., 2012). Nano particles of nano fluid MQL are
effective for significantly reducing grinding force magnitude due to their superior
lubrication effects rather than their cooling effect. In addition, it has also been observed
that higher volumetric concentration of nano particles is not effective in reducing
grinding forces. Regarding surface roughness, it has also found that nano fluid MQL is
effective for reducing surface roughness values of ground work pieces. Das et al. (2006)
in their investigation of heat transfer in nano fluids revealed that dispersal of nano
particles into a base fluid provides extremely desirable thermal properties, such as higher
thermal conductivity and high convection heat transfer coefficient. Average heat transfer
enhancement for nano fluids is shown to be in the range of 15% to 40%. Liao et al.
(2010) in their investigation on effects of cutting fluid with nano particles on the grinding
of titanium alloys observed that nano fluids result in less loading of grinding wheel,
smaller cutting forces and yield better surface finish compared with flooded grinding with
water-based cutting fluids. Kalita et al. (2012) studied the tribo-chemical lubricant film
244
T. Singh et al.
formation during nano-fluid MQL grinding. The performance in terms of force ratio,
specific energy exhibited substantial improvement with nano fluid grinding. Nam et al.
(2011) applied nano-fluid containing 30-nm size diamond particles with the base fluids of
paraffin and vegetable oils in microdrilling of aluminium 6061 workpiece. Nanofluid
MQL resulted in improved lubrication and cooling effects with enhanced penetration and
entrapment at the drilling interface compared to compressed air lubrication and pure
MQL. The authors observed that paraffin oil-based nano-fluid MQL are more effective
than the vegetable oil-based one. Although use of nano-fluids in MQL machining has
shown superior performance over conventional fluids, yet it also raises the concerns in
environment, particularly the machine operator safety. While using nano-fluids, aerosol
with nano particles cannot be easily filtered. Clustering and agglomeration of nano
particles can clog and contaminate the MQL pipeline, quick vales, and other mechanical
components.
Several researchers have combined MQL with cryogenic air cooling of cutting tools
to achieve best results compared to flooded machining. Shokrania et al. (2013)
investigated performance of cryogenic cooling during end milling of the Inconel 718
using TiAlN coated carbide tools. The experimental results revealed that cryogenic
cooling has a significant potential to improve surface finish of machined parts as
compared to dry machining without noticeable increase in power consumption of the
machine tool.
Figure 9
Schematic arrangement of hybrid MQL-CO2 grinding system (see online version

for colours)
Source: Sanchez et al. (2010)
Academia and industrial research today is focused towards development of cleaner

grinding enabling elimination, or at least, reduction in use of grinding fluid while
maintaining process efficiency. Apart from using nano fluids and combining MQL and
cryogenic air cooling, some authors have also attempted to use a new approach for
245
elimination of fluids in grinding. Sanchez et al. (2010) developed a new technology based
on hybridisation of minimum quantity of lubrication and low temperature CO2 system
that reduces lubrication consumption. In this system, abrasive grit of grinding wheel was
protected from being wearing out by a layer of frozen oil, which resulted in a significant
improvement in grinding wheel life and surface quality of the machined component,
Figure 9. Although the cooling action was reduced with respect to the conventional
flooded cooling, no thermal damage was observed on the work piece. The objective was
to protect abrasive grains from wear, rather than cooling the contact zone. At the same
time, to reduce the risk of high heat flow into the work piece due to efficient
refrigeration, heat production within the contact zone was minimised by using the MQL
oil system.
Some researchers have used liquid nitrogen in place of CO2 for producing the
cryogenic effect. Paul and Chattopadhyay (1996) reported that cryogenic grinding using a
jet of liquid nitrogen could reduce heat transfer into the workpiece especially at high
infeed and with ductile part materials. Results by Ben and Sidhom (2006) seem to
confirm this fact, since improvements in surface integrity in terms of better surface
roughness, higher level of work hardening, lower level of tensile residual stresses and
better resistance to corrosion were noticed in the cryogenic grinding of AISI 304
austenitic stainless steel. However, a recent work by Nguyen et al. (2007) on the use of
liquid nitrogen for grind-hardening observes that the penetration of cold gas into the
contact zone is very limited due to a very high evaporation rate, which is also increased
by the turbulent air flow produced by wheel rotational speed. As a consequence, the
effect of heat dissipation is only present in the proximity of the contact zone. Although
heat dissipation due to cryogenic temperatures may not be as relevant, cryo-temperatures
may favour material removal by shearing and limit the ground surface damage especially
in ductile materials. Despite merits of using liquid nitrogen for creating cryogenic
environment, it has some limitations too. Pusavec et al. (2010a, 2010b) suggest that since
the cryogenic nitrogen costs are dramatically higher per same amount than conventional
emulsion, the use of this alternative may lead to much higher costs in comparison to
conventional emulsion usage.
Scope for future work
Future work in MQL machining may be undertaken on the following lines:
The literature consulted so far reveals that most of researchers have explored the
applicability of MQL techniques on evaluating the machinability of Inconel grades:
716,718, Al alloy grades: 6061 7075-T6, A-390, Al-7075 and AM60, stainless steel
grades: 316L AISI 420B, AISI 4140, 4340, UNS S34700, 155 PH, etc. and
hardened steel grades like AISI 1040, 1045, 1047 steel, titanium alloy (TC21) and
some aluminium-magnesium alloys. So, there is wide scope of research work on
machining under MQL of other grades of Inconel (grades-600, 617, 625, 751, X750,
etc.) and stainless steels (grades-304, 304L, 321, etc.) and titanium alloy grades.
Another research area application may be to optimise different combinations of

air-fluid ratio to minimise tool wear, cutting forces and improve machined surface
finish.
246
T. Singh et al.
There is scope for development of environmentally friendly cutting fluids. Large

number of studies has been carried out on dry machining, MQL machining and FC
machining, but there little published work available, whereby a comparison has been
made to compare various types of cutting fluids, from the point of view of machining
performance and environmental concerns. There is a need to compare the available
cutting fluids and at the same time to develop new cutting fluids.
Another hot research area is development of environmentally friendly cutting tools

and machine tools.
Wide scope of research in the field of different types of nozzle design used in MQL.
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Int. J. Machining and Machinability of Materials, Vol. 18, No.

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

Manpreet S. Bhatti has 15 years research experience and working as an

Green engineering or green manufacturing addresses all the issues related to

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

Model of a simple atomiser

Source: Astakhov (2012)

Source: Walker (2015)

1.2 Advancements in NDM/MQL methods

oil on water droplet

advanced minimum quantity cooling lubrication machining (MQCL machining).

1.2.1 Oil on water MQL machining

carrying the lubricant

spreading the lubricant effectively over the surface due to inertia

The concept of the oil-on-water MQL machining

Source: Ekinovic et al. (2014)

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

A nozzle developed for aerosol containing air, oil and water

Source: Astakhov (2012)

(a) Schematic of MQCL machining and (b) Coanda effect

Source: Astakhov (2012)

1.2.2 Advanced minimum quantity cooling lubrication machining

1.2.3 The physical foundation of NDM/MQL

1.3 MQL supply systems

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

MQL-feed systems (see online version for colours)

Source: Weinert et al. (2004)

1.4 Cutting tools for NDM/MQL

Source: Weinert et al. (2004) and Lawal et al. (2013)

1.4.1 Tool geometry considerations for NDM/MQL applications

1.4.1.1 Positive rake tools

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

1.4.1.2 Edge radius

1.4.1.4 Chip groove land

1.4.1.6 Increase the flank angle

1.4.1.7 Increase the back taper

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

1.4.1.8 Reduce adhesive friction to its possible minimum

1.4.1.9 Tool surface coatings

1.5 Machine tools and part design requirements

1.6 Cutting fluids for NDM/MQL

1.7 Selection of cutting fluids for MQL

type of machining processes

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

1.8 NDM/MQL machining of difficult to machine alloys

1.8.1 Machining of Inconel

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

1.8.2 Machining of stainless steel

stainless steels work-harden considerably

these have low thermal conductivity

they have high toughness

these steels tend to be sticky

moreover, these have poor chip-breaking characteristics.

Review of research progress in machining under MQL conditions

2.1 Turning under MQL condition

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

2.2 Milling under MQL conditions

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

2.3 Grinding with MQL

A review of near dry machining/minimum quantity lubrication machining

2.4 Drilling with MQL

AISI 304 stainless