Design of Machine Elements I 1

Module I

MODULE I
Design principles different phases in design cycle; common engineering materials,
properties and selection.
Stresses in machine parts - Tension, compression and shear; factor of safety; stress
concentration.
Theories of failure Guests theory Rankines theory St. Venants theory
Haighs theory Von Mises & Hencky theory.
Design for fatigue loading endurance limit stress - Factors affecting endurance limit
fatigue stress concentration factor, notch sensitivity.
Combined steady and variable stress - Gerber, Goodman & Soderberg method and
Modified Goodman method.

DESIGN DATA HAND BOOK:

1. Design data Book - K. Mahadevan C.B.S Pub.

REFERENCES:
1. Shigley J. E., Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill Book Company,
2014.
2. Bhandari V. B., Design of Machine Elements, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SBCE Pattoor

KU 2013 Scheme

Design of Machine Elements I 2

Module I
1. DESIGN PRINCIPLES
1.1. Introduction to Design
Design is the formulation of a plan to satisfy a particular need, real or
imaginary. Fundamentally, design represents the process of problem solving.
Engineering design can be defined as the process of applying science and
engineering methods to prescribe a component or a system in sufficient detail
to permit its realization. A system constitutes several different elements
arranged to work together as a whole. Design is thus the essence, art, and
intent of engineering.
Mechanical design means the design of components and systems of a
mechanical nature - machines, structures, devices, and instruments. For the
most part, mechanical design utilizes the stress analysis methods and materials
engineering and energy concepts. That is, it applies to design of mechanical
systems or components where structures, motion, and energy or heat transfer
can be involved. A machine is an apparatus consisting of interrelated elements
or a device that modifies force motion or energy. Machine design is the art of
planning or devising new or improved machines to accomplish a specific
purpose. The field of machine design is a subset of mechanical design in
which focus is on the structures and motion only.
Mechanical engineering design deals with the conception, design,
development, and application of machines and mechanical apparatus of all
types. It involves all the disciplines of mechanical engineering.
1.2. Concept of Design
Design is essentially a decision making process. For every problem, we
need to design a solution.
Design is to formulate a plan to satisfy a particular need and to create
something with a physical reality, and then the product must be functional,
safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable and marketable.
Decisions sometimes have to made up with too little information or
occasionally with just the right information or with an excess of partially
contradictory information.
1.3. Design Cycle Phases

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SBCE Pattoor

KU 2013 Scheme

Design of Machine Elements I 3

Module I

Figure 1.1 Steps in Design process

The process begins with an identification of a need and a
decision to do

something about it. After many iterations, the

process ends with the

presentation of the plans for satisfying the

need. Depending on the nature of

the design task, several design

phases may be repeated throughout the life of the

product,

from

inception to termination.
Identification of need generally starts the design process.
Recognition of the

need and phrasing the need often constitute

a highly creative act, because the

need may be only a vague

discontent, a feeling of uneasiness, or a sensing that something

is

not right. The need is often not evident at all; recognition is

usually triggered by a particular adverse circumstance or a set
of random circumstances that arises almost simultaneously.
For example, the need to do something about a foodpackaging machine may

be indicated by the noise level, by a

variation in package weight, and by slight

but

perceptible

variations in the quality of the packaging or wrap.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SBCE Pattoor

KU 2013 Scheme

Design of Machine Elements I 4

Module I
There is a distinct difference between the statement of the
need and the

definition

of

the

problem.

The

definition

of

problem is more specific and must include all the specifications for
the object that is to be designed. The

specifications

input and output quantities, the characteristics and

are

the

dimensions of

the space the object must occupy, and all the limitations on
these quantities.
The synthesis of a scheme connecting possible system
elements is sometimes called the invention of the concept or
concept design. This is the first and most important

step

in

the

synthesis task. Various schemes must be proposed,

investigated,

and quantified in terms of established metrics. As the fleshing

out of the scheme

progresses, analyses must be performed to assess whether the system performance is

satisfactory or better, and, if satisfactory, just how

well it will perform. System

schemes that do not survive analysis are revised,

improved, or discarded. Those

with potential are optimized to determine the

best performance of which the

scheme is capable. Competing schemes are compared so that the path leading to the
most competitive product can be

chosen. Figure 1. 1 shows that synthesis and

analysis and optimization are

intimately and iteratively related.

We have noted, and we emphasize, that design is an iterative process in which

we proceed through several steps, evaluate the results, and then return to an
earlier phase of the procedure. Thus, we may synthesize several components
of a system, analyze and optimize them, and return to synthesis to see what
effect this has on the remaining parts of the system.
Clearly, rough estimates will need to be made in order to proceed through the
process, refining and iterating until a final design is obtained that is
satisfactory for each individual component as well as for the overall design
specifications.
Both analysis and optimization require that we construct or devise abstract
models of the system that will admit some form of mathematical analysis.
As indicated in Figure 1. 1, evaluation is a significant phase of the total design
process. Evaluation is the final proof of a successful design and usually
involves the testing of a prototype in the laboratory. Here we wish to discover
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SBCE Pattoor

KU 2013 Scheme

Design of Machine Elements I 5

Module I
if the design really satisfies the needs. Is it reliable? Will it compete
successfully with similar products? Is it economical to manufacture and to
use? Is it easily maintained and adjusted? Can a profit be made from its sale or
use? How likely is it to result in product-liability lawsuits? And is insurance
easily and cheaply obtained? Is it likely that recalls will be needed to replace
defective parts or systems?
Communicating the design to others is the final, vital presentation step in the
design process. Undoubtedly, many great designs, inventions, and creative
works have been lost to posterity simply because the originators were unable
or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a
selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative,
management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them
that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time
and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted. When
designers sell a new idea, they also sell themselves. If they are repeatedly
successful in selling ideas, designs, and new solutions to management, they
begin to receive salary increases and promotions; in fact, this is how anyone
succeeds in his or her profession.
1.4. Design Considerations
Sometimes the strength required of an element in a system is an important
factor in the determination of the geometry and the dimensions of the element.
In such a situation we say that strength is an important design consideration.
When we use the expression design consideration, we are referring to some
characteristic that influences the design of the element or, perhaps, the entire
system. Usually quite a number of such characteristics must be considered and
prioritized in a given design situation. Many of the important ones are as
follows (not necessarily in order of importance):

Functionality
Noise
Strength/stress
Styling
Distortion/deflection/stiffness
Shape
Wear

Size
Corrosion
Control
Safety
Thermal properties
Reliability
Surface

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SBCE Pattoor

KU 2013 Scheme

Design of Machine Elements I 6

Module I

Manufacturability
Lubrication
Utility
Marketability
Cost
Maintenance
Friction

Volume
Weight
Liability
Life
Remanufacturing/resource
recovery

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SBCE Pattoor

KU 2013 Scheme

Some of these characteristics have to do directly with the dimensions, the

material, the processing, and the joining of the elements of the system. Several
characteristics may be interrelated, which affects the configuration of the total
system.
2. COMMON

ENGINEERING

MATERIALS

PROPERTIES

AND

SELECTION
2.1. Common Engineering Materials
Choice of materials for a machine element depends very much on its
properties, cost, availability and such other factors. It is therefore important to
have some idea of the common engineering materials and their properties
before learning the details of design procedure. This topic is in the domain of
material science or metallurgy but some relevant discussions are necessary at
this stage.

Figure 2. 1. Common Engineering Materials Classification

Common engineering materials are normally classified as metals and nonmetals. Metals may conveniently be divided into ferrous and non-ferrous
metals.
Important ferrous metals for the present purpose are:
(i) Cast Iron (ii) Wrought Iron (iii) Steel.
Some of the important non-ferrous metals used in engineering design are:
(a) Light metal group such as aluminium and its alloys, magnesium and
manganese alloys.

(b) Copper based alloys such as brass (Cu-Zn), bronze (Cu-Sn).

(c) White metal group such as nickel, silver, white bearing metals eg.
SnSb7 Cu3, Sn60Sb11Pb, zinc etc.
2.1.1. FERROUS MATERIALS
I. CAST IRON - It is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon and it is hard and
brittle. Carbon content may be within 1.7% to 3% and carbon may be present
as free carbon or iron carbide Fe3C. In general the types of cast iron are (a)
grey cast iron and (b) white cast iron (c) malleable cast iron (d) spheroidal or
nodular cast iron (e) austenitic cast iron (f) abrasion resistant cast iron.
(a) Grey cast iron - Carbon here is mainly in the form of graphite. This type
of cast iron is inexpensive and has high compressive strength. Graphite is an
excellent solid lubricant and this makes it easily machinable but brittle. Some
examples of this type of cast iron are FG20, FG35 or FG35Si15. The numbers
indicate ultimate tensile strength in MPa and 15 indicates 0.15% silicon.
(b) White cast iron- In these cast irons carbon is present in the form of iron
carbide (Fe3C) which is hard and brittle. The presence of iron carbide
increases hardness and makes it difficult to machine. Consequently these cast
irons are abrasion resistant.
(c) Malleable cast iron - These are white cast irons rendered malleable by
annealing. These are tougher than grey cast iron and they can be twisted or
bent without fracture. They have excellent machining properties and are
inexpensive. Malleable cast iron are used for making parts where forging is
expensive such as hubs for wagon wheels, brake supports. Depending on the
method of processing they may be designated as black heart BM32, BM30 or
white heart WM42, WM35 etc.
(d) Spheroidal or nodular graphite cast iron - In these cast irons graphite is
present in the form of spheres or nodules. They have high tensile strength and
good elongation properties. They are designated as, for example, SG50/7,
SG80/2 etc where the first number gives the tensile strength in MPa and the
second number indicates percentage elongation.

(e) Austenitic cast iron - Depending on the form of graphite present these
cast iron can be classified broadly under two headings: Austenitic flake
graphite iron designated, for example, AFGNi16Cu7Cr2
Austenitic spheroidal or nodular graphite iron designated, for example,
ASGNi20Cr2. These are alloy cast irons and they contain small percentages of
silicon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus, etc. They may be produced by
adding alloying elements viz. nickel, chromium, molybdenum, copper and
manganese in sufficient quantities. These elements give more strength and
improved properties. They are used for making automobile parts such as
cylinders, pistons, piston rings, brake drums etc.
(f) Abrasion resistant cast iron - These are alloy cast iron and the alloying
elements render abrasion resistance. A typical designation is ABR33 Ni4 Cr2
which indicates a tensile strength in kg/mm2 with 4% nickel and 2%
chromium.
II. WROUGHT IRON - This is a very pure iron where the iron content is of
the order of 99.5%. It is produced by re-melting pig iron and some small
amount of silicon, sulphur, or phosphorus may be present. It is tough,
malleable and ductile and can easily be forged or welded. It cannot however
take sudden shock. Chains, crane hooks, railway couplings and such other
components may be made of this iron.
III. STEEL - This is by far the most important engineering material and there
is an enormous variety of steel to meet the wide variety of engineering
requirements.
Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content can
be less than 1.7% and carbon is present in the form of iron carbide to impart
hardness and strength. Two main categories of steel are (a) Plain carbon steel
and (b) alloy steel.
(a) Plain carbon steel - The properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on
the carbon percentages and other alloying elements are not usually present in
more than 0.5 to 1% such as 0.5% Si or 1% Mn etc. There is a large variety of
plane carbon steel and they are designated as C01, C14, C45, C70 and so on
where the number indicates the carbon percentage.
Following categorization of these steels is sometimes made for convenience:
Dead mild steel- upto 0.15% C

Low carbon steel or mild steel- 0.15 to 0.46% C

Medium carbon steel- 0.45 to 0.8% C.
High carbon steel- 0.8 to 1.5% C
Detailed properties of these steels may be found in any standard handbook but
in general higher carbon percentage indicates higher strength.
(b) Alloy steel - these are steels in which elements other than carbon are added
in sufficient quantities to impart desired properties, such as wear resistance,
corrosion resistance, electric or magnetic properties. Chief alloying elements
added are usually nickel for strength and toughness, chromium for hardness
and strength, tungsten for hardness at elevated temperature, vanadium for
tensile strength, manganese for high strength in hot rolled and heat treated
condition, silicon for high elastic limit, cobalt for hardness and molybdenum
for extra tensile strength. Some examples of alloy steels are 35Ni1Cr60,
30Ni4Cr1, 40Cr1Mo28, 37Mn2.
Stainless steel is one such alloy steel that gives good corrosion resistance.
One important type of stainless steel is often described as 18/8 steel where
chromium and nickel percentages are 18 and 8 respectively. A typical
designation of a stainless steel is 15Si2Mn2Cr18Ni8 where carbon percentage
is 0.15.
2.2. PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS (KU MAY 2012)
2.2.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The physical properties of the metals include luster, colour, size and shape,
density, electric and thermal conductivity, and melting point.
2.2.2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The characteristics of material that describe the behavior under the action of
external loads are referred as its mechanical properties. The common
mechanical properties are as follows:
1. Strength It is defined as the ability of a material to resist loads
without failure. It is usually expressed or measured in terms of maximum load
per unit area (i.e. maximum stress or ultimate strength) that a material can
withstand failure and it varies according to the type of loading:
(a). Tensile Strength - The tensile strength or tenacity is defined as the ability
of material to resist a stretching (tensile) load without fracture.

(b). Compressive Strength - The ability of a material to resist squeezing

(compressive) load without fracture is called compressive strength.
(c). Shear Strength - The ability of a material to resist transverse loads i.e.
loads tending to separate (or cut) the material is called shear strength.
2. Stiffness It is the ability of material to resist deformation or deflection
under load. Within the elastic limit, stiffness is measured by the modulus of
elasticity.
3. Elasticity - The ability of a material to deform under load and return to its
original shape when the load is removed is called elasticity.
4. Plasticity - The ability of a material to deform under load and retain its
new shape when the load is removed is called plasticity.
5. Ductility - It is the ability of a material to be deformed plastically without
rupture under tensile load. Due to this property material can drawn out into
fine wire without fracture.
6. Malleability - It is the ability of a material to be deformed plastically
without rupture under compressive load. Due to this property metals are
hammered and rolled into thin sheets.
7. Toughness It is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy up
to fracture during the plastic deformation. Toughness of a metal offers the
resistance to breaking when force is applied.
8. Brittleness It is the property of sudden fracture without any visible
permanent deformation.
9. Hardness It is defined as the ability of a material to resist scratching or
indentation by another hard body. Hardness is directly related to strength.
10. Creep The slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at
constant stress is called creep.
11. Fatigue Failure of material under repeated or reversal stresses is called
fatigue. Machine parts are frequently subjected to varying stresses and it is
important to know the strength of materials in such conditions. The maximum
stress at which the material will operate indefinitely without failure is known
as the endurance limit or fatigue limit.
12. Machinability The ease with which a given material may be worked or
shaped with a cutting tool is called machinability. Machinability depends on
chemical composition, structure and mechanical properties.
13. Resilience It is a property of material to absorb energy and to resist
shock and impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per
unit volume within the elastic limit.

14. Weldability It is the ability of material to be joined by welding.

Weldability depends on chemical composition, physical properties and heat
treatment to which they are subjected.
15. Castability Castability of metal refer to the ease with which it can be
cast into different shapes and is concerned with the behavior of metal in its
molten state.
16. Strain Hardening The strengthening effect produced in metals by
plastic deformation (cold working) is called strain hardening or work
hardening. Strain hardening reduces ductility and corrosion resistance but,
raises the hardness and electrical resistance.
2.3. SELECTION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most
difficult problems for the designer. The best material is one which serves the
desired objective at the minimum cost. The following factors should be
considered while selecting the material:
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
3. The cost of the materials.
3. STRESSES IN MACHINE PARTS
3.1. TENSILE STRESS
The stress developed in the bar, figure 3.1, subjected to tensile loading is given by,
t=

P
A

Figure 3.1 - A prismatic bar subjected to tensile loading.

3.2. COMPRESSIVE STRESS
The stress developed in the bar (Figure 3.2) subjected to compressive loading
is given by,
C =

P
A

Figure 3.2 - A prismatic bar subjected to compressive loading.

Here the force P is the resultant force acting normal to the cross-section A.
However, if we consider the stresses on an inclined cross-section B (Figure
3.3.),

Figure 3.3. Stresses developed at an inclined section of a bar subjected to tensile

loading
Then the normal stress perpendicular to the section is,
=

PCos
A /cos

and shear stress parallel to the section

=

P Sin
A / cos

3.3. SHEAR STRESS

When forces are transmitted from one part of a body to other, the stresses
developed in a plane parallel to the applied force are the shear stresses
(Figure 3.4) and the average values of the shear stresses are given by,

Figure 3.4. Stress developed in single and double shear modes

=

P
A

P
2A

(in single shear)

(in double shear)

In design problems, critical sections must be considered to find normal or

shear stresses. We consider a plate with holes under a tensile load (Figure 3.5)
to explain the concept of critical sections.

Figure 3.5. The concept of critical sections explained with the help of a loaded
plate with holes at selected locations
Let the cross-sectional area of the plate, the larger hole H 1 and the smaller
holes H2 be A, a1, a2 respectively. If 2a2 > a1, the critical section in the above
example is CC and the average normal stress at the critical section is,
=

P
A2 a2

4. ALLOWABLE STRESSES FACTOR OF SAFETY

4.1. STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM
The stress-strain curve characterizes the behavior of the material tested. It is
most often plotted using engineering stress and strain measures, because the
reference length and cross-sectional area are easily measured. Stress-strain
curves generated from tensile test results help engineers gain insight into the
constitutive relationship between stress and strain for a particular material.
The constitutive relationship can be thought of as providing an answer to the
following question: Given a strain history for a specimen, what is the state of
stress? As we shall see, even for the simplest of materials, this relationship can
be very complicated.

In addition to providing quantitative information that is useful for the

constitutive relationship, the stress-strain curve can also be used to
qualitatively describe and classify the material. Typical regions that can be
observed in a stress-strain curve are:

Elastic region
Yielding
Strain Hardening
Necking and Failure

A stress-strain curve with each region identified is shown below. The curve
has been sketched using the assumption that the strain in the specimen is
monotonically increasing - no unloading occurs. It should also be emphasized
that a lot of variation from what's shown is possible with real materials, and
each of the above regions will not always be so clearly delineated. It should be
emphasized that the extent of each region in stress-strain space is material
dependent, and that not all materials exhibit all of the above regions.
A stress-strain curve is a graph derived from measuring load (stress - ) versus
extension (strain - ) for a sample of a material. The nature of the curve varies
from material to material. The following diagrams illustrate the stress-strain
behaviour of typical materials in terms of the engineering stress and
engineering strain where the stress and strain are calculated based on the
original dimensions of the sample and not the instantaneous values. In each
case the samples are loaded in tension although in many cases similar
behaviour is observed in compression.

Figure 4.1 Typical Stress Strain Diagram

4.1.1. Nominal stress Strain or Conventional Stress Strain diagram or

Engineering Stress Strain diagram
Stresses are usually computed on the basis of the original area of the
specimen; such stresses are often referred to as conventional or nominal
stresses, denoted bys.

Engineering strains are denoted bye.

i.e.
s=

e=

P
Ao

LLo
Lo

where, Lo and Ao are the initial or original length and cross-sectional area
respectively.
L = final length of the specimen
P = load applied at the instant.
4.1.2. Natural Stress - Strain diagram or True stress Strain Diagram
Since when a material is subjected to a uniaxial load, some contraction or
expansion always takes place. Thus, dividing the applied force by the
corresponding actual area of the specimen at the same instant gives the so
called true stress.
True Stress () & True strain () is related to engineering stress & strain in
the following way:
Keeping the volume of material constant, we can write,

AoLo = AL

Ao L
=
A Lo

LLo + Lo
P P Ao
L
= =
x =s x =s x
=s x(1+ e)
A Ao A
Lo
Lo
Similarly true strain offers a more accurate calculation of the instantaneous
elongation per unit length of the material. The true stress is generally
increased rapidly than engineering stress once the strain increases and the
accordingly, the cross sectional of the specimen decreases.
L

=
Lo

dL
L
LLo+ Lo
=ln =ln
=ln ( 1+e)
L
Lo
Lo

4.1.3. SALIENT POINTS OF THE GRAPH

(A) So it is evident from the graph that the strain is proportional to strain or
elongation is proportional to the load giving a straight line relationship. This
law of proportionality is valid upto a point A or we can say that point A is
some ultimate point when the linear nature of the graph ceases or there is a
deviation from the linear nature. This point is known as the limit of
proportionality or the proportionality limit.
(B) For a short period beyond the point A, the material may still be elastic in
the sense that the deformations are completely recovered when the load is
removed. The limiting point B is termed as Elastic Limit.
(C) and (D) - Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains
are not totally recoverable. There will be thus permanent deformation or
permanent set when load is removed. These two points are termed as upper
and lower yield points respectively. The stress at the yield point is called the
yield strength.
A study a stress strain diagrams shows that the yield point is so near the
proportional limit that for most purpose the two may be taken as one.
However, it is much easier to locate the former. For material which do not

posses a well define yield points, In order to find the yield point or yield
strength, an offset method is applied.
In this method a line is drawn parallel to the straight line portion of initial
stress diagram by off setting this by an amount equal to 0.2% of the strain as
shown as below and this happens especially for the low carbon steel. (Figure
4.2).

Figure 4.2 Offset method to find Yield stress

(E) A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in the whole
volume of the metal. The maximum load which the specimen can with stand
without failure is called the load at the ultimate strength.
The highest point E' of the diagram corresponds to the ultimate strength of a
material.
Su = Stress which the specimen can with stand without failure & is known as
Ultimate Strength or Tensile Strength.
Su is equal to load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area of the bar.
(F) Beyond point E, the bar begins to forms neck. The load falling from the
maximum until fracture occurs at F.

[Beyond point E, the cross-sectional area of the specimen begins to reduce

rapidly over a relatively small length of bar and the bar is said to form a neck.
This necking takes place whilst the load reduces, and fracture of the bar
finally occurs at point F]
Note: Owing to large reduction in area produced by the necking process the
actual stress at fracture is often greater than the above value. Since the
designers are interested in maximum loads which can be carried by the
complete cross section, hence the stress at fracture is seldom of any practical
value.
4.1.3.1. PERCENTAGE ELONGATION ()
The ductility of a material in tension can be characterized by its elongation
and by the reduction in area at the cross section where fracture occurs.
It is the ratio of the extension in length of the specimen after fracture to its
initial gauge length, expressed in percent.
=

l1 l g
x 100
lg

l1 = gauge length of specimen after fracture(or the distance between the gage
marks at fracture)
lg = gauge length before fracture(i.e. initial gauge length)
For 50 mm gage length, steel may here a % elongation d of the order of 10%
to 40%.
4.1.3.2. ELASTIC ACTION
The elastic is an adjective meaning capable of recovering size and shape after
deformation. Elastic range is the range of stress below the elastic limit.

Many engineering materials behave as indicated in Figure (a) however, some

behaves as shown in figures in (b) and (c) while in elastic range. When a
material behaves as in (c), the s vs is not single valued since the strain
corresponding to any particular s ' will depend upon loading history.
Figure (d): It illustrates the idea of elastic and plastic strain. If a material is
stressed to level (1) and then released the strain will return to zero beyond this
plastic deformation remains.
If a material is stressed to level (2) and then released, the material will recover
the amount (2 - 2p), where 2p is the plastic strain remaining after the load is
removed. Similarly for level (3) the plastic strain will be 3p.
4.1.4. DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS
Based on this behaviour, the materials may be classified as ductile or brittle
materials.
4.1.4.1. DUCTILE MATERIALS
It we just examine the earlier tension curve one can notice that the extension
of the materials over the plastic range is considerably in excess of that
associated with elastic loading. The Capacity of materials to allow these large

deformations or large extensions without failure is termed as ductility. The

materials with high ductility are termed as ductile materials.
4.1.4.2. BRITTLE MATERIALS:
A brittle material is one which exhibits a relatively small extensions or
deformations to fracture, so that the partially plastic region of the tensile test
graph is much reduced.
This type of graph is shown by the cast iron or steels with high carbon
contents or concrete.

4.2. FACTOR OF SAFETY

Determination of stresses in structural or machine components would be
meaningless unless they are compared with the material strength. If the
induced stress is less than or equal to the limiting material strength then the
designed component may be considered to be safe and an indication about the
size of the component is obtained. The strength of various materials for
engineering applications is determined in the laboratory with standard
specimens. For example, for tension and compression tests a round rod of
specified dimension is used in a tensile test machine where load is applied
until fracture occurs. This test is usually carried out in a Universal testing
machine. The load at which the specimen finally ruptures is known as
Ultimate load and the ratio of load to original cross-sectional area is the
Ultimate stress.

Similar tests are carried out for bending, shear and torsion and the results for
different materials are available in handbooks. For design purpose an
allowable stress is used in place of the critical stress to take into account the
uncertainties including the following:
o
o
o
o
o

Uncertainty in loading.
Inhomogeneity of materials.
Various material behaviours. e.g. corrosion, plastic flow, creep.
Residual stresses due to different manufacturing process.
Fluctuating load (fatigue loading): Experimental results and plot-

ultimate strength depends on number of cycles.

o Safety and reliability.
For ductile materials, the yield strength and for brittle materials the ultimate
strength are taken as the critical stress. An allowable stress is set considerably
lower than the ultimate strength.
The ratio of ultimate to allowable load or stress is known as factor of safety
i.e.
Ultimate stress
=F . S .
Allowabledesignworking Stress

The ratio must always be greater than unity. It is easier to refer to the ratio of
stresses since this applies to material properties.
5. STRESS CONCENTRATIONS
5.1. INTRODUCTION TO STRESS CONCENTARTION FACTOR
(KU MAY 2011)
In developing a machine it is impossible to avoid changes in cross-section,
holes, notches, shoulders etc. Some examples are shown in figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1. Some typical illustrations leading to stress concentrations

Any such discontinuity in a member affects the stress distribution in the

neighbourhood and the discontinuity acts as a stress raiser. Consider a plate
with a centrally located hole and the plate is subjected to uniform tensile load
at the ends. Stress distribution at a section A-A passing through the hole and
another section BB away from the hole are shown in figure 5.2.
Stress distribution away from the hole is uniform but at AA there is a sharp
rise in stress in the vicinity of the hole. Stress concentration factor kt is
defined as,
kt =

3
avg
Where avg at section AA is simply given by,

avg =

P
t ( w2 b)

and
1=

P
tw

Figure 5.2. Stress concentration due to a central hole in a plate subjected to a

uni-axial loading
This is the theoretical or geometric stress concentration factor and the
factor is not affected by the material properties.

It is possible to predict the stress concentration factors for certain geometric

shapes using theory of elasticity approach.
For example, for an elliptical hole in an infinite plate, subjected to a uniform
tensile stress 1 (Figure 5.3), stress distribution around the discontinuity is
disturbed and at points remote from the discontinuity the effect is
insignificant. According to such an analysis,

3 = 1 1+

2b
a

If a=b the hole reduces to a circular one and therefore 3 = 31, which gives
kt = 3.
If, however b is large compared to a then the stress at the edge of
transverse crack is very large and consequently k is also very large. If b is
small compared to a then the stress at the edge of a longitudinal crack does
not rise and kt = 1.

Figure 5.3. Stress concentration due to a central elliptical hole in a plate

subjected to a uni-axial loading
The stress concentration factor depends for its value only on the geometry of
the part. i.e. the particular material used has no effect on the value of k t. This
is why it is called a Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor.
5.2. METHODS OF FINDING STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Photo Elasticity Method

Grid Method
Brittle coating method.
Strain Gauge method
Finite Element techniques.

5.3. METHODS OF REDUCING STRESS CONCENTRATION

A number of methods are available to reduce stress concentration in machine
parts. Some of them are as follows:
a. Provide a fillet radius so that the cross-section may change gradually.
b. Sometimes an elliptical fillet is also used.
c. If a notch is unavoidable it is better to provide a number of small notches
rather than a long one. This reduces the stress concentration to a large
extent.
d. If a projection is unavoidable from design considerations it is preferable to
provide a narrow notch than a wide notch.
e. Stress relieving groove are sometimes provided.
These are demonstrated in figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4. Illustrations of different methods to reduce stress concentration

5.4. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR (KU MAY 2011)
Stress intensity factor is a bit different; it is an inherent property of the
material that is tested and defined for cracks or flaws. For cracks and flaws,
the radius is very small, approaching zero for sharp corners, and stress
concentration factors become very high, approaching infinity. In this case we
use the measured stress intensity factor and equations of fracture mechanics to
calculate allowable stresses. It is often used for fatigue calculations for metals
and for strength determination for brittle materials like glasses and ceramics.
k I = a
Where, a is the length of the crack under analysis.

6. DESIGN FOR STRENGTH

6.1. DESIGN AGAINST STATIC LOADING

Machine parts fail when the stresses induced by external forces exceed their
strength. The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and the
component size depends on the stresses developed. Stresses developed in a
link subjected to uniaxial loading is shown in figure 6.1. Loading may be due
to:

The energy transmitted by a machine element.

Dead weight.
Inertial forces.
Thermal loading.
Frictional forces.

Figure 6.1. Stresses developed in a link subjected to uni-axial loading

In another way, load may be classified as:

a) Static load Load does not change in magnitude and direction and
normally increases gradually to a steady value.
b) Dynamic load Load may change in magnitude for example,
traffic of varying weight passing a bridge. Load may change in
direction, for example, load on piston rod of a double acting cylinder.
Vibration and shock are types of dynamic loading. Figure 6.2 shows load vs
time characteristics for both static and dynamic loading of machine elements.

Figure 6.2 Types of loading on machine elements

6.2. THEORIES OF FAILURE
When a machine element is subjected to a system of complex stress system, it
is important to predict the mode of failure so that the design methodology may
be based on a particular failure criterion. Theories of failure are essentially a
set of failure criteria developed for the ease of design. In machine design an
element is said to have failed if it ceases to perform its function. There are
basically two types of mechanical failure:
(a) Yielding - This is due to excessive inelastic deformation rendering the
machine part unsuitable to perform its function. This mostly occurs in ductile
materials.
(b) Fracture - in this case the component tears apart in two or more parts.
This mostly occurs in brittle materials. There is no sharp line of demarcation
between ductile and brittle materials. However a rough guideline is that if
percentage elongation is less than 5% then the material may be treated as
brittle and if it is more than 15% then the material is ductile. However, there
are many instances when a ductile material may fail by fracture. This may
occur if a material is subjected to,
a) Cyclic loading.

b)
c)
d)
e)

Long term static loading at elevated temperature.

Impact loading.
Work hardening.
Severe quenching.

Yielding and fracture can be visualized in a typical tensile test as shown in the
clipping- Typical engineering stress-strain relationship from simple tension
tests for same engineering materials are shown in figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3(a) Stress strain diagram for ductile materials (Eg. Low carbon steel)

Figure 6.3(b) Stress strain diagram for low ductility

.
Figure 6.3(c) Stress strain diagram for brittle materials

Figure 6.3(d) Stress strain diagram for elastic perfectly plastic material
For a typical ductile material as shown in figure 6.3(a), there is a definite yield
point where material begins to yield more rapidly without any change in stress
level. Corresponding stress is y. Close to yield point is the proportional limit
which marks the transition from elastic to plastic range. Beyond elastic limit
or elastic - perfectly plastic material yielding would continue without
further rise in stress i.e. stress-strain diagram would be parallel to parallel to
strain axis beyond the yield point. However, for most ductile materials, such
as, low-carbon steel beyond yield point the stress in the specimens rises upto a
peak value known as ultimate tensile stress u. Beyond this point the specimen
starts to neck-down i.e. the reduction in cross-sectional area. However, the
stress-strain curve falls till a point where fracture occurs. The drop in stress is
apparent since original cross-sectional area is used to calculate the stress.

If instantaneous cross-sectional area is used the curve would rise as shown in

figure 6.3(a). For a material with low ductility there is no definite yield point
and usually off-set yield points are defined for convenience. This is shown in
Figure 6.3(b).
For a brittle material stress increases linearly with strain till fracture occur.
6.2.1. MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL OR NORMAL STRESS THEORY OR
RANKINES THEORY

The maximum-normal-stress (MNS) theory states that failure of the

mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs
whenever one of the three principal stresses equals or exceeds the yield or
ultimate strength of the material.
If we arrange the principal stresses for a general stress state in the ordered
form 1 2 3.
This theory then predicts that failure occurs whenever,
1 Sut or 3 Suc, for brittle materials
1 Syt or 3 Syc, for ductile materials
Where Sut and Suc are the ultimate tensile and compressive strengths and S yt &
Syc are the tensile and compressive yield strengths respectively, given as
positive quantities.
Experimental investigations show that this theory gives good predictions for
brittle materials and hence it is not recommended for ductile materials.
To find the principal stresses, use equation no. 2.8a, page no. 21 in Data
Book, Mahadevan.
Region of Safety
This theory considers only the maximum principal stresses and disregards the
influence of other principal stresses.