CHAPTER Geometry of Homogenepus Strain o Wt we To faccher our undeestanding of the origin and signif. icance of the folds foliations, and lineations discussed in the lar four chapters, we nesd 10 become more fa miliar withthe nature of stain, as manifested in cocks We incroduced some concepts of steain in Chapters 7, 9, 12, and 14, but we need a more thorough and sys- tematic understanding in order to evaluate theoretically the models proposed for formation of ductile seructures as well as to cost these models against observations of nataral defocmation Our approach is largely geometric and qualitative, ‘because our intent is eo provide ineuieion into che phys ical chacacteristes of deformation, and steain lends itself easily to geometric description. The quantitaive anal- ysis of the ideas discussed in this chapter requires a rigorous mathematica} treatment of stain, which we Jnecodauce in Box 15.1, and which is developed in depth in more advanced-books on continuum mechanics and ws eso aplentops es the In of seagy a his. chapder). Readers interested in this fe scrain is homogeneous if the changes io shape are proportionately identical for each small parc of the body and for the body as a whole iguce 15.1, B). A consequence of these conditions is 7 18° Pr ose (ow o that for any homogencous strain, planar surfaces remain planar, sraigh¢ ines remain steaight and parallel planes ang lines remain parallel. The strain is inhomogencous (Figure 15.14, ©) if the changes ia size and shape of small pacts of the body are proportionacely different fcom place to place and diffeent from that of the body as a whole. Straight lines become curved, planes become curved surfaces, and parallel plones and kines genecally do nce remain parallel after defermation The stcain mast be inhomogeneous ducing folding, because in such 2 deformation, planes and lines do not generally remain planar, straight, or pacallel. Within very small volume-clements, however, the strain is sea~ ristically homogeneous, and we describe an inhomo- geneous steain as a variation of homogeneous strain fcom place 10 place in the srucruce. We discuss how big such a “small” yolume-clement must be in Section 457 The progressive deformation of a body sefess co the motion that cacries the body from its iaicial unde~ focmed scate to its final deformed state. The steain states though which the body passes during a progressive deformation define the steain path. The seace of strain ‘of a body is the net result of all the deformations che body has undergone. Although all states of serain are the result of progressive deformation, the final stace of strain provides no information about che particular strain path that the body experienced.A. Undelocmes siate 8. Homogeneously ieforned stale C. innomogeneously oformed state Figute 15.1. Homogeneous and inhomogencous plane defor- ration of 9 material square, A and B, Homogencous stain ‘The small black square i stained in exactly the same way 1s che whole square and as all the other squares. ris che angle of sheas. A and C. Inhomogeneous strain. The small Black square is sufficiently small that its straim is essennially ho- mogencous, but ie i not idenreal <0 the strain of the whole square o¢ fo that of any of the other small squares, Strain in general must be deseribed in ehree di- mensions, because the size and shape of a hody axe three-dimensional characteristics. la much of our dis- cussion, however, we consider only a two-dimensional deformation called plane stain, in which the strain is completely descrihed by changes in size and shape in a single orientation of plane through the body, and no deformation oceurs normal co thae plane. Although plane steain is commonly used 10 analyze deformation, ‘cs application t many situations in natural cock de- formationis, stitly speaking, unjustified. Nevertheless, the geomeery of two-dimensional deformation is aca. itively easicr co understand, and the generalization to three dimensions adds considerable complexity bu litle insight into the geometric characteristics of deforma: tion, For these reasons we eoncentrare on the properties, of two-dimensional strain. In discussing the geometry of serain, we refer to geometric objects such as lines, planes, cites, and el- fipses. Such geomeeric objects are called material objects if they are always defined by the same set of material particles, A bedding plane, for example, is 2 material plane because no matter how it moves and deforms, it is always defined by the same set of material particles, ‘A coordinate plane defined by cwo reference axes, on cheother hand, is a nonmaterial plane because asa body deforms, ies macesial particles can move through the coordinate plane and, consequently, different sets of material particles occupy the coordinate plane ae dif- ferent times. This distinecivn is important in the sub- cot ‘idear Strain 6k a body is measured by its volume, which in Ten is proportional co the product of thccecharacteristie engths of the body. For example, the volume V of a rectangular block that has edges of lengths /, ¢>, and £yi8 V = Ale, and the volume of an ellipsoid chat has semiaxes of fengehs ry, ra, and ry is V= (4/3) rings In Cartesian coordinates, the deseription of the change in size requires specification of the change in length of line sogmencs in the three coordinate dizections ‘The change in absolute length is an inadequate measure of the deformational seace of a fine segment, because for a given change in lengch, che intensity of the change is much greatcr for a shortline segment than for a long one. Thus the lengthening is expressed as a propodetion ofthe original line length. Two measuees in common use are the stretch 5, and the extension ey. che heginning of Chapeer 8. length L. sa) (We often use upper-case lecers when to the undeformed state and lower x1i0g to the deformed srace} line segment is the ratjo“0f its change in lengs, AL, co its initial length L,Ahere che change in ledgrh is the final lengeh minuy/ehe initial lenge." 11 €q of a shaterial (15.2) Tove sat wid Resign 1 and of > 0 represent increases in the length of material lines, and values where 0 < s,<1 ad ¢y <0 represent decrease in lenge (Table 15.3) 296 DUCTILE DEFORMATION Other measures are also used, including the qua- dratic elongation and the natural strain, The quadratic elongation is simply the square of the stretch, and itis often given che symbol A, although some authors use this symbol to designate the stretch. The natural strain Ey, also called the logarithmic strain, isthe integeal of all the infinitesimal increments of excension required co make up the deformation, whore the reference length‘Table 5.1. Extensional Stain of a Material Line Undeformes - ——_E _,_ ae Shorened | —£ 7} AL= Length Change Sterch Extension aL SpE te (- LL aL~o = ‘ -r<0 O0 yt en>0 4 teogtewes |___¢ LS for each increment in length d€ is taken to be the ine stantaneous deformed length ¢. =f %ou(4)- LF w(4) ins, as.) where L i the inital length, és che final length, and In indicates the natural logarithm. Notice that the nat- ural strain isthe natucal logarithm of the stretch. The natural strain is sometimes convenient for discussion of strain history (see Figure 15.20). Iralso provides a syin- metric measure of shortening and lengthening.® The time derivative ofthe natusal strain ig also often used voffimetric extension? (e,). If the undeformed volume is V and the deformed volume is v, v_av v TV AA rectangular block char undergoss only volumetric strain has undeformed sides (Ly, La, and Ls) and de- formed sides (¢), ¢2, and é5j. The volumetric stretch is pt 05S) Lilet ** hb Lesh + Met Mes+D — se) We consider further aspects of volumetcie strain in the A bedy can also change shape without changing volume r example, a cube can deform into s zhombohedeon, or a sphere into en ellipsoid, Changes in shape are For example fora lne semen stretched to twice it iil lengeh and one shortened co half ts inital enh, se 2 and 05, and = 1 and DS, bur, ~ 0673 and ~0.69, especialy The volumetric exenion is eoeamonly given the symbol & and called the dlstion, or even the diaetion, Wa resrve eo indore the change ina viable described by the changes in the angle between pairs of lines thar are intially peependicular (Figuce 15.2). The change in angle is called the shear angle ¥, and che shear stcain ¢, is defined by ee 05a asn [As defined here, gi the tensor shear strain. It aiffers from another common measure of the shear strain, che engineering shear strain 7, by a factor of 2 (y= tan 1 = 2c) For two material ine segments oxiginally ori- ented along the positive coordinate directions (Figure 15.2A), a decrease in angle between the two lines is considered a positive shear steain (Figure 15.2B, C) and an increase in angle is a negative sheae steain (Figure 15D, ). Both p and, increase from Oin the unstrained state t0 00, where yy = 90° (Figure 15.28). ‘The State of Strain: The Strain Ellipsoid and the Strain Tensor The Strain Ellipsoid ‘We know the state of strain at a point if, for a material line of any orientation, we can deteemine its extension, as wel as its shear stain with respect to any other line initially perpendicular to it. Any homogenous strain alwaysdefocmsa material sphere into an ellipsoid called the stain ellipsoid (Figuees 14.1 and 14.24) or, in plane strain, a material circle into the strain ellipse (eee Box 1541). ‘The steech, extension, snd shear steain all have @ simple geometric interpretation related to the strain el lipsoid. We describe these relationships here for wo dimensions, but they are essentially che same when &x- tended to thzee dimension Assume that a material ciele in the undeformed stare has a radius R= 1 (Piguze 15.34). After the de- formation, any radius of the circle is transformed into a radius r of the strain ellipse whose length vacies with orientation. Although R and r are lines made up of the same maccrial points, they differ in length and orien- tation because of the deformation, If we snperimpose the original unit ciecle on the strain ellipse (Figure 15.34}, we can see how much any radius of the strain Geometry of Homogeneous Susie 297Undstoxmes Positive ‘shear stain wo wo ‘et Negative shear strain A. B shear stain Ye te-g 90. F. Tensor and engineering shear strains 3 & function of shea A. Gxtension and srotch LUndetormed state Ly _ L A, onan ( er en 298 DUCTILE DEFORMATION Positive sheer strain Wea+p)>0 Figuce 153 The rationship of the snecch, extension, and shear strain to the seomerry of the stein ellis: A. A ho- rmogencous strain eransforms the unit cir cle into an ellipse. An undeformed radive 1 is eransformed ino a deformed 1 dius +, which has a different lengeh and oriemtarion. The stretch is che length of che radius ofthe ellipse, and the extension is the diference in radius berween the inigal tunic citcle and che ellipse. B. The shear stain is determined from the change in angle between a radius and a tangent at the end of the radius, The swo lines are perpendicular on the circle bur nor, in gem ral on the ellipse. The change in angle defines che sheae stain for thar pair of Tins.ellipse has been shortened oF lengehened. Using the def- initions of the sretch (Equation 15.1) and che extension {Equacion 25.2) and che fact that R= 1, we find thar aR Ra se z (13) “Thus for che deformacion of the unit eiscle, the radius of che strain ellipse is the stretch, and che difference becween the radius of the ellipse and chat of the nit Grdle is the extension ‘The shear strain of a line is determined with cef- cence 0 another line initially normal to it. On a cite, the line T devon pexpendiculee €o gay ridius & at its end poine is tangent to the circle (Figure 15.38). After Geformation, che lines T and R are ceansforted into the lines ¢ and r, respectively. Alhough 7 aed ¢ are 00 longer petpendicalar in the deformed state, ¢ is still rangent to the ellipse at the end point of the radius. Accordingly, any radius and the associated tangent 10 the strain ellipse define he angle berween two material Jines that were perpendicular in the undeformed stare. “The change in angle is thus easily consteucced (Figure 15.38}, and it is. measure of the shear strain for that pair of lines The Straive Tensor “The strain ellipsoid is a complete represencation of the state of sttain ar a point. We can describe chat state if we know the extension and the wo shear strains for A. Nolumetic componsee of stain cach of only chree material line segments chat were mutually orthogonal in the undeformed seate, We con sider the volumettic and che shear components of the strain separaeely For an orthogonal coordinate system 1X, Xz, X3) in the undeformed stare, che extension of a material line segmencof length L initially parallel to X;, for example, is (Pigure 15.44), Aly n=, 15.9) where the first subseripe on ery indicates hac che is ically parallel ro X;, and the second subscripe in- dicates that the change in length is also pacallel to X Similar relations define che extensions ezp and ey, for ‘material lines initially parallel 16 Xp and X; respectively (igure 15.44), For the shear component of the strain, material fines initially parallel 20 Xs, Xz, and X3 are, after de- formation, parallel to x, x2, and x3 respectively (Figure 15.4B). The two shear strain components for the ma- ceriat fine parallel co x are ey2 and ¢33, en = 05 ran Yaa Stan day (15.10) In each case the firs subseript indicates thar che shear strain is for the line initially parallel to X;, and the second subscript indicates that che shear strain is de- termined relative to a line initially parallel co Xp and to Xs, respectively (Figure 15.4B). Each angle $2. and x3 is the difference berween 90° and the deformed angle 08 fan ty O5tan dy, 00-4.) # OF =4y) Gaeta. B. Sheer component of strain Figure 15.4 Geanectic significance of che strain rensot components in three dimensions. A Volumercic pat ofthe stain. The stall cube increases in volueme ro che large cube by the equal Aengehening of al sides of the cube. B. Shear part of the strain. The shear attain describes the change in shape from 2 cube into a thombehedron (chaded}. x, xy, and x are parallel to the deformed edges ofthe rhombohedron. All re tentor shear strain components ace defined by three independent anges Ya = Yay. bis = Yan an = Ue. Geomery of Homogeneous Stain 299x1 A xpand.xj 4 x5, spectively. Thecomparable sain components for the material line segment initially pat- allel to X2are ey and e233 for the material line segment initially parallel to X3, they ace ep) and ep ‘Thus there are a toral of nine steain componcnts ‘The strain components for each materia fine are written in a separate row, forming an ordered array. ~EE4 \ PRINCIPAL DIAGONAL, ‘The components on the peincipal diagonal ofthe azray, which have both subscripts the same, ace the extensions (Figure 15.44), The off-diagonal components, which have two different subserpts, axe the sheas seains (Fig- ure 15.4B). This array of strain components represents the steain tensor, which provides enough information for us to calculate the extension and shear strain for a line segment of any specified orientation (see Box 15.1)." The strain tensor is symmeteic about the principal diagonal, because for a given pair of material lines ini tally parallel co Xy and Xp, for example, the shear angle Waa) of Xy with respect co Xp is the same as the shear angle (Yq) of Xo with respect to X; (Figure 15.48). Thus (as.12) cis) ante fee Oren and chere are only six independent strain components in three-dimensional strain, Thus the strain, like the stress, is a secand-rank syme-tcie tensor For plane strain, we have ent = e72 = €23 = 0, and by Equations (15.12), ¢12 = e,) = 0. Thus if we drop com Equation (15.11) al ems that necessarily become zero for plane strain, the plane strain tensor is repre- sented by only four strain components, three of which ave independent af 2] a1 ‘Therefore, in order to describe the state af piane strain, we need only the extension and one shear strain for cach of the two araterial lines chat ociginally are parallel to X; and Xz, respectively. (15.13) Duar definion ofthe ers tain component are corect only foe small series. For large sins, addons} nonlinear ers ose be Sided 0 our defeitions, which makes ehe theory more complex NNeverhlesy she rele dicasced hereafter ee ere for both sal and large sans. 400 DUCTILE DEFORMATION Principal Strains and Stretches Parallel to the principal axes of the stain ellipsoid, the extensions and stretches are amaximum, minimax,’ and minimum, which we designate® MzGz% and PTE — (ISH Tangents to the ellipsoid ac the ends of the principal radii are perpendicular to the radii (Figuse 15.5), and these are the only points on the ellipsoid where this is true, Because these radii and tangents must have been perpendicular before deformation, che shear strains for hose cadii and tangents all must be zero. Thus if we define a ser of principal coordinates parallel to che pria- cipal axes of the strain ellipsoid, the representation of the strain tensor reduces to a particularly simple form in which the extensions are the principal values, and the shear strains are zero. For ehtee- and two-dimen- sional secains, cexpectively ao 6 _ cu=[o 9] aa [% 2] asin oo » Ie is very important to remember that in general the principal axes of fue strain are nov parallel co the principal axes of sess. We ciscuss this further in Section 4154 and in Chapter 18, ‘We now see that, for any general deformation, the volumetric serecch 5, (Equation 15.6} can be expressed in torms of the principal stretches and extensions as follows A= G+V+Me+Y — Gs.16 reach & minimax beeavse each fs iniom in the 7a foe fy ~ 2) pane and a maxim in the 23 (or fg 4) lane which s perpendicular co the fis * Consistent with ous notation fr ares, we ue the circuexes and 1 single subserpe eo net principal values. The subrerie indent the principal ai o which the extension ose i pale. Figure 15.5 Represeotation of the principal sxetches and the principal extensions on the strain ellipse formed from the unie ‘scl The sheae scrains are 2er0 forthe material lines parallel tothe principal axes of strain, because the tangents a the ends of the principal radii are perpendicular to those radii both before and after deformation.© although derived forthe example of a deformed eube, Equations (15.16) acc completely genecal” In plane ‘Serain, 32 = 1 and 4) =, so Equation (15.6) reduces to Ses 5) = 4 DL HTD (say) ‘Thus the condition for constant-volume defor- mation is given for chreesdimensional and plane strains, respectively, by spoked and 4,284, ron “The last equation: implies ; 5.18) The Inverse Strain Ellipse In analyzing large strains such as are common in dus- plely deformed tacks, it may be move convenient to measuee the stetches and shear stains of three material lines thae are murually pecpencicular in the strained state, cthet than i ehe unstrained state as we described above. Thit analysis requices a differene strain ellipse called the inverse strain ellipse, which is the ellipse in the undelormed state that is transformed into a ciecle in the deformed state (Figute 15.6). The lengths of its principal axes are the inverse of the principal axes of the Strain eligse, and the material lines pacallel co the principal exes of iavocsesteain in che undeformed seats become parallel to the principal axes of strain in the deforened sta. For che purposes of our descriptive diss ‘cussion, however, we deal mostly withthe stain ellipse Why Study Strain? Cyt reir Al chs discussion of cieles and ellipses may seem ac- ademic and far removed {tom the study of real rocks. {vis not, however, because structures chat are initially approximately circular or spherical are relacively com- ‘mon ia some cock types. Where these rocks have been deformed, those structuees provide a fascinating record ofthe dstribation of strain throughout the rock. Ooi, for example, are small, almost sphezicalpelletlike bod Jes comeon in limescones (Figure 15.74), and they de- form withthe rock to recotd the shape and orientation of the steain eflipsord (Figure 15.78). Radiolatia and 7 We derive Eaussion (2.6) fom the equasien for «yin Equations (05.5) by subsneuring fr 5, From she second Equation (15.16), siplying ae the indicated produc, and irocing zesond- aod hid oder tec. The cerul' the su ofthe components an de principal diagonal of the esi teasor matvie (Equation 15-11, which # 2 scala invariant af che strain tensor {ae the defiitin of the sale Invavianes of de scesseatoe in Equant 844 and $26) s04 hence Is the same forthe represenacon of erat any coordinate yam. That ye, = A+ Babes wen hen ty, A. Undetormes state B. Dotermed state Figure 15.6 Definition of the inverse serain ellipse and ies relationship 10 che strain ellipse. Solid lines show how the tvetse stein allipse in the endeformed state (part A) is ceans- formed into citcle in the deformed state (pate 8). The dashed lines show how a circle in che undeformed state (part A) is teansformed into che strain ellipse inthe defortned state (part B). Marerial lines A and B, which are parallel co che principal axes of inverse scan ellipse in parc A, ace transformed by the formation to lines and b, which are paral o ve principal axes of the sera ellipse in pare B. In general, A and B are noe parallel to a and 6, respectively foraminifera, which are tiny spherical or disk-shaped fossils found in chercsor limestones, and alteration spots in slates (Figare 13.198) may also serve as steain indi- caeors. Ochet fossils, such as cephalopods and bracki pods, as well as pebbles and cobbles in conglomerates, (Figure 13.19A) can. provide information abooe che stain, even though they are not originally spherical and ‘may have an original peeferred dimensional orientation jn the tinde“ormed rock (see Figuce £4.2C). We discuss the significance of strain for interpreting the origin of seructures in Chapter 16, and che measurement and ob- servation of strain in deformed rocks in Chapter 17. Some seructures, such a5 folds and boudins. also record components ofthe strain, Consider, for example, ‘competent layer imbedded in an incompetent matrix. A variety of structuces can develop (Figure 15.8). set ‘of folds develops if the layer is parallel 0 a principal axis of shortening and normal to an axtis of lengthening (Figure 15.8A-D). Bousins develop ifthe layer is parallel to principal axis of lengthening Figure 15.8C-F). Two Inerfering 5018 of Folds for ifthe layer is pacallel to two principal dieections of shortening and normal co an axis of lengthening (Figure 15 84). Folds develop that are boudinaged parallel co the fold axis ifthe layer is perpendiculat co a principal axis of lengthening, and the ewo principal axes pacallel to the layer ace axes of lengehening and shortening rexpectively (Figure 15.8C, D), Finally, cablet boudinage develops if the layer is pacallel co two principal axes of lengehening and per- pendicular to one of shortening (Figure 15.8F). Thos the orioaeacion of eke layer relacive «0 the principal streeches is @ major factor in determining what strue- tres ean develop. Geometry of Homogeneous Siesin 301Fignre 18.7. Ooids sore as strain markers in deformed lime- 8 stone, A. An undeformed golive limesrone, B. A deformed oplitc limestone. The ratio of the principal scerches is y53)~ 1.5. The larger ooids ace approximarely 4 mm in § ameter. perpendicolar to ayer perpendieuir ‘layer perpendicular ‘o layer E. Figure 15.3. Stevctutes that could develop in a competent layer imbedded in an incompetent rmacrix depend on che orieneation of the layer telatve ro the principal sretehes, and on the value of &, In this diagram, we assume that lengthening the layer causes boudinage, shoveening causes folding, and deformation js ar constant volume, so thar 5; > 2,4 <1, and & can take on any value, 3a2_ DUCTILE DEFORMATION[ER] Examples of Homogeneous Strains Various simple geometries of homogeneous strain are given specific names. Pure strain is any strain for which the principal axes of strain are constant in orientation erative to the reference coordiaace system. Thus the principal axes of stain and the principal axcs of inverse strain are pat- allel Stcain geometries belonging to this class (and de- scribed below) include uniform dilation, pure shear, simple extension, simple fastening, and uniaxial steaio. Uniform dilation is a pore volumettic strain with no change in shape of the deforming body. A cube or a squace if ccansformed into a body that is of the same shape buc has either a larger dimension (aniform ex- pansion) or a sealfer dimension (uniform conteaction). The same statement, of course; applies to both a sphere or a circle. The stretch has the same value in all direc- tions, as does the extension, and the shear strains sce 22¢0 in all dicections; thar is, ¢ = 0 forall orientations of ice, All material lines ‘change length, bue none changes orientation Pure sheae is a constant-volume (sy = 1) plane strain (3) = 1) that changes the shape of che deforming body (Figure 15.9}. Macecial lines parallel to che prin cipal axes of strain do not rotate and experience no shear strain. Material lines ofall other orientations in the plane of stain (the #)~%5 plane) are rotated rowed 4), Two orientations of line in tke plane of strain have the same fength as thei initial lengehs these are the lines cof no finite extension. They divide the ellipse into sectors ‘within which all radial lines ace either shorcened (sectors Sin Figuse 15.90) or lengthened (sectors 2), depending on their orientation. Simple extension involves lengthening parallel ro ‘one principal axis of strain and axially symmetric shoct- ening in ail dicoccions perpendicular to that axis, Simple factening involves shortening parallel co one principal strain axis and axially symmetric lengthening in all di- rections perpendiculsr co that axis. The volume of che body in either ease is noe aecessarily constant ‘Uniaxial strain js characterized by having wo of the principal stretches equal 10 1, The third principal stretch may be either gceater than { {uniaxial extension; Figure 15.10A)or les chan 1 (uniaxial shoccening, Figure 15.108). Volume is nor conserved. Lines perpendiculac co the unique axis of stretch are unchanged in length Lines in all other orientations are lengehened in uniaxial extension and shortened in uniaxial shortening Simple shear isa ype of scain we discussed briefly a che beginning of Chapter 12 (Figuse 12.1). Ic is 2 constant-volume (sy = 1) plane strain (= 1) whose chacacterisics resemble the shearing of a deck of cards; thus, for a homogeneous deformation, the side of the deck changes from a cectangle toa patallelogeam (Figure 45.114). Itis nota pure strain, because the otientations ‘of principal strain axes change with the magnitude of shear, and the principal axes of strain and of inverse steain are not parallel (Figuce 15. 1B}. Displacement of ail macetial particles is parallel co the shear plane (the 1-82 plane in Figure 15.11) and all material lines are rorated except those parallel co the shear plane. There are two orientations of no finite extension in the plane of steain (the x1-x3 and §,~% plane), one of which is always parallel to the shear plane. These lines divide the strain cllipse into sestors of shortened radii ( in Figuce 15.11C) and lengthened radi (1). ‘These states of strain are all special cases of the infinize variety of possible states. They have no special qualities chat make them uniquely applicable 0 the inceepretation of rock deformation, but they are used because the geometry of each is simple and welt defined ‘An arbicraty deformation, however, can always be cx- mea ©. Saersion Figure 15.9 Pace shear: 2 constant-volume plane strain in which the principal axes of strain are nor roeated by the deformation. A. Pure shear of & cube into 2 rectangular prism (shaded). B Puce sheae of a ewavdienensional square to Form a reccargle (shaded). The diagonals of the square ace material lines chat are rocated and stretched to become the diagonals of che rectangles they are noc che Same a che lites of no finite elongation. C. Pure shear of a unit etc to form an ellipse. The lines of ro finite extension divide the strain ellipse into secors in which all radi ace shortened (sectors 5) and chose in which all radi are lengthened (sectors). Goose of Homogeneous Stain 303Bi. Urixal chosiening pressed as the sum of a pure strain that has strexches pacallel ro che axes of inverse strain (Figure 15.124, B), angie rotation of the body chat beings dhe principal axes of strain into the proper orientacion (Figure 45.120), and a rigid eeanslation of the body thar brings {ince the proper location (Figure 15.120). These con ponents of che deformation can in principal be applied in any order. The net result of a simple shear steain igure 15.11), for example, can be reproduced by the sum of 2 pure shear (Figure 15.9) parallel ro the axes Of inverse strain, a rotation of the principal axes, aad a translation (Figure 15.12). Other geometrically more complex deformations can be similarly reproduced. B. Figute 15.10 Uniaxial strain: owe prin cipal seretches are both equal to 1 Dashed lines indicate the undeformed sete, solid lines the deformed state UJ Progressive Deformation So far in oue discussion, we have simply celaced che deformed state 10 the undeformed stare, without im- plying anything aboue the intermediate strain states that develop during the deformation. In rocks, we generally ean observe only the final steainod stave and muse infer the intial undeformed state. The history of the defor~ mation is also of great inrerest, and in some cases itis ccorded by features in deformed rocks, Understanding the consequences of different strain paths can provide insighe that is useful in interpreting strain in rocks. Hor Lines of finite extension Apa cof invarea sin c Figure 15.11. Simple shewe: @ eonscaae-olume plane strain in which all mateial particles ace ‘isplaced sticly parallel ro the shear plane. Dashed lines indicate the wodeformed state, solid lines the deformed state, A. Simple shear of a cube. B. Simple sheae in exo dimensions of 2 sqoate. The princigal axes of invesse stxin in che undesormed seate ace dashed; the principal ‘axes of stain in dhe deformed state are solid. Material lines pacalll to the axes of inverse stain are rotaced by the deformation into parallelism wich che peincipal axes of stain. C. Lines of no Janie exrension in che stein ellipse divide che elipseinco sectors of shoccened (S} and lengrhened (1) adit of the ellipse 3o4 DUCTILE DEFORMATIONFigure 15.12 Decomposition of an arbitrary homogeneous fain ineo & pote sain, » rigid rotation, and a rigid teense lavion, These components may be applied in any seqence. A “The ndeformed sete, showing the Unit circle, the inverse serain ellipse (dashed), and rhe principal axes of inverse sera. 2B. Steerches are imposed parallel othe principal axes of inverse strain to reproduce the final shape of che strain ellipse, The inverse stain ellipse becomes a circle. C, Rigid-body oration brings the principal axes ince the correc final ovientaion. D. Rigid-body causlarion brings the Body saxo the correce final location, We refer to the nonrigid motion of a body as a progressive strain or progressive deformation, and we can describe the mosions of all material particles in the bly by describing the deformed position ofthe particles as.a function of theic original position and of ime (see Box 15.0. Seructures such as folds, boudins, foliations, and lineations develop in rock in cesponse to progressive deformations, Folds and boudins develop in material layers in the cock, such as sedimentary layers, cross- Nore h x i A-Progessive pune shear B. Progressive simple shoar cuteing veins, or dikes. Most spaced foliations ate also defined by materi) sucfaces. Therefore, in order to un- decscand the relationship berween such seeuctores and the principal axes of serain, we investigace what happens 0 material lines of various orientacions during different progressive plane deformations. We can conceptualize che geometty of the pro- gressive deformation by stopping it, marking 2 macerial Citcle on the body, and allowing the deformation ¢o ‘continue for a unic increment of tine, The ellipse formed from the citele represents the increment of sttain for that increment of cime and is therefore called the in- cremental sai ctiipse. Thus the incremental extension ens the incremental sheae strain é,, and the inctemental stretch Gy (he Greek letter zeta) ate defined in terms of the inscantancous lengeh of a material line ¢, its inere- mental change dé, and the incremental sheae angle dif ‘of two instantaneously perpendiculac lines ae 7 se0Srand) Ge (05.20) ‘The inceemental stein ellipse is represented by the ine cremencal strain tensor fe, which has the same peop: ‘ertiey as che infinitesimal strain tensor ® The half-lengehs ‘of the principal axes are the principal incremental stcetches, fy 2 & & fy. If he inccemental stan ellipse is constant for every uni incremene in time, che morioa of the material particles is called « steady motion. To illuseeaze the effects of different motions on material lines, consider two special steady motions: po gressive puce shear and progcessive simple shear. The particle paths during these progressive deformations are shown in Figue 15.13 and B, eespecrinely. See Bqua- sions (15.1.4) and (15.1.5) in Box 15.1, for the quanti ceause re ineemenel cin alpe eptetnes de sean in uni Inctemene of ame, ssa eo the stain fat ens Isc Box 18) "Note tha he natural scrain Zhe ical le neremeval strain ‘overtime (ee Egnation 15.4 Figure 15.13 Paricle mations during ewo progeessve deformations, A. Particle mo- tions during progressive pure shear. The lines with the arcoweads are parallel ro rhe velocity veetors of the pasticles in the body. B. Particle motions during progres ‘ive simple sheae ate al strictly parallel co the shear plane (X; direction). The velociry varies nearly With disrance normal 0 the shear plane &% direction). Geomeuy of Homogeneous Seain 35* ee one e 4 a ai Be, hs aa 85 a0 75-99 45 os HO A 7s c. & Prin ses of Persnent sa 2 es « oD. Figure 15.14 Seates of grain during a steady progressive pure shear. The axes ac the bottom, right of the fgare indicate the constant orientation of the principal axes of incremental stretch Matetial kines ate labeled by the angle they make with X; in che undeformed stace. The lines © sod 90 are the only ones thar do not rotate during tothe principal axes of st n, The magnitudes ofthe pr the deformation, and chey re always parallel ipa sreeches in each diagram are he same a Tor the corresponding diagesm in Figure 15.15. tative description ofthese motions) For these examples, the incremental sceain ellipse has the geometsic prop exces of either pure shear (Figure 15.9) or simple shear (Figuee 15.11} for each inerement of strain through time Figures 15.14 and 15.15 illustate che consequences ‘of progressive pure shear and progressive simple shear, respectively. Part A ia each figure is the undeformed state, showing a sheaf of material lines. In Figuee 15.144, che material lines are oriented at regular angulze aicer- vals, and each line is labeled with the angle it originally makes with che X; axis, In Figure 15.1SA, the material lines are parallel to the axes of inverse strain for the state of strain in the diagram labeled with the corre- sponding leter. For example, the material lines C and Cin pate A, ate parallel to the principal axes of inverse strain for the steain state shown in part C. These lines are rotated by the deformation into the orientations shown by ¢ and c, which become parallel co the prin- cipal axes of strain in pace C, Parts B through D in both figures show the evolucion of boch the strain ellipse and the orientations of the same material lines as appear in part A. The corresponding diageams in the two figures show chesame states of stain, alehough the orientations of the principal axes are different (See Figure 15.12). 505 DUCTILE DEFORMATION A comparison of Figures 15.14 and 15.15 shows the following significant differences in behavior 1. With respect to the coordinate axes, the prin- cipal axes of strain do nor rorate in progressive pure shear, but in progressive simple shear thes do. Thus the former is an ferocational, and the latter 2 rotational progressive deformation. The diffecencein behavior of the principal strain axes isdescribed by the vorticity ofthe deformation,? which is a measure of che average rate of ro- «ation of materia lines of all orientations about each coordinate axis ‘The vorticity is zero for irroracional de- formations and nonzero for rotational defor ‘mations. In Figure 15.14, for example, the _macerial fines in che upper-right quadcant rotate iu the opposite sense to those in the lower right. 7 Technically the votciny vector i the ctl a the welaciy (a = V % V), which as dhe thee components {or my a9) = [ofa — Oey) {@oyldxy — dy/8u) (Ov !82 ~ OyfBe)] Tei elated ro the spin tess, which is che anisymmetric pee of the ‘eloctypradiene sensor (ee footte ie Sesion 19.7)yw Figure 15.15. States of serain during steady progressive simple sheat. The axes atthe bottom Fight of che Fguse indicate the coaseane orientation of che ptincipal axes of incremental seceth ‘The pairs of material ines in the undeformed seate labeled (8 and H), (C and C), and (D and D)} are parallel to the principal axes of inverse strain for the sain etatee shown 49 parts B,C, and D, respectively. These paits of mateval lines take on the otieneations in che deformed starer indicated by the lines labeled in the equivalent lower-case letters, and eack pair becomes parallel ‘co the principal axes of strain in che diagram labeled wih the same lerer as the ine pair. Thus ‘he material lines rotate past che principal axes of stain, which themselves are not material lines. Sand s indieste a mareral line pacallel so the shear plane. This ig the only oriensation of line Principal axes of incremental strain for which the orienrarion and length are constant throughout the deformation, Because material lines oriented symmetrically relative to che x; axis haveexactly opposite rates of rotation, the average over all orientations must be zero. in conteast, all the material kines in Figote 15.15 rotate in the same sense, so the average rate of rotation is nonzero, In progeessive pure shear, the principal axes of finite strain are always parallel to, or coaxial ‘with, the principal axes of ineremeneal strain. The deformation is therefore a coaxial pro gressive deformation. In progressive simple shear, the principal axes of finite strain rotate with respect to those of incremental stain, and this characceristic defines a noncoaxial pro- ‘gressive deformation, Note that for progressive simple shear the principal axes of incremental secain ate always ac a 45° angle co the shear plane The terms irrotational and coaxial are nor synonymous, nor are rotational and rioncoaxial The difference isin the reference frame from which che rotation is determined. A deformation is totational or irrotational depending on how the principal axes of finite strain behave with respect to the coordinate system, which is alk ways somewhat arbitracily defined by che ob- server. A deformation is coaxial ar noncoaxial depending on how the principal axes of finite strain behave with respect to the principal axes of incremencal strain. This reference frame is ineeinsic ¢o the geometry of the deformation itself and is therefore nor arbicrary. Thus the description of a progressive deformation as coaxial or noncoaxial is somewhat more fun- damental chaa the description as rotational oF irrorational, especialy in geologic sieuations in which the best choice of an external coordinate system is noe obvious. In progressive pure shear, all material lines 10° tate during the deformation except those par allel co the principal axes of strain. The lines rotate toward parallelism with the; diceesion, Geometry f Homogeneous Strain 307Note that the term irrotutional cefers only the behavior of the principal axes of strain and ro the average motion ofall material lines, noe {0 the motion of a specific material line. {n progressive simple shear, all lines exeepe those parallel to the shear plane rocare during. the deformation, and che rotation rate of aay line decreases with decreasing angle between the line and the shear plane. 4, The lines thac rotate most capidly in progressive pure shear are chose at an angle of 45° to the principal axes of the incremencal steain ellipse. Un progressive simple shear, the lines chac rorate mose rapidly are normal ro the shear plane, and thefe lines are also at 245° angle fcom the prin cipal axes of ineremental steain. Lines parallel to the shear plane, however, do not rorate ac all and they coo ace 45° from the principal axes of incremental stain. S. In progressive pure sheat, the same pair of ma- terial lines remains parallel ro the principal axes of steain throughout the deformation. In pro- gressive simple sheas, material lines rocate through the principal axes of stcain. This chae- acteristic shows that the principal axes of strain are or in general material lines. During pro- ‘esive simple shear maverial lines that are par- allel to the principal axes ac any’ time were etiginally orchogonal in the undeformed state. Daring the deformation, however, any such paic of lines is sheared our of orthogonality, then back into orthogonality when they are parallel to the principal axes, and finally our of orchog- conality again ( lines © and Cin Figure 15.15). 6. In both progressive pure and progeessive simple shear, che stretch of material lines depends on their orientation, Some lines experience a his- tory only of shortening, others experience only lengehening, and still ozhers experience inivial shosrening followed by lengthening and can end tp being either shorter or longer than they were originally. The pateern of variation determines what types ofstructuresean develop. We discuss this further in the next section, SE the deformation stops at any tine, the final sare of strain can always be related to the initial state in Figuee 15.14 by 2 pure shear strain or in Figure 15.15 by a simple shear stein. The converse of cis statement, however, is not teve: Ifa final seate of strain can be relared t0 the inicial state either by a pure shear strain ‘0 by a simple shear stein, it does ner follow that the Foal state of stein was the cesult of a progressive pice shear or a progressive simple sheat, respectively. These ate an infinite number of seein paths thar lead from an ‘undeformed state to a deformed state, andthe final stare 308 DUCTILE DEFORMATION ‘of stcain does norby itself provide suficient informacion for any of the paths to be distinguished. It is very im- portant ro remember this when interpreting the steain in cocks. From the foregoing discussion, i is evident chat if 4 progressive deformation is noncoaxial, the principal axes of finite serain rotate relative to those of inere- mental stcain, and thatthe principal axes of incremencal strain are constant in orientation only if the deformation ‘steady, Ie should not be surprising, cherefore, chat che pincipal axes of Bite secain are noe in genera) parallel to the principal axes of stress. In face, we sce in Chapcer 18, where we discuss che telacionships becween stress and strain, thae for steady morions of homogeneous isotropic maeerials, che prineipal seess axes are pacallel to the principal axes of incremental seein or of serain rate. Because most natural deformations ace probably not steady, even this relationship may not be accurate for interpreting deformation that we observe in rocks. Thus as a general rule, structures should always be interpreeed in terms of the principal axes of sain. Only under very special ciccumstances can useful inferences be made about the orientations of the principal stress B] Progressive Stretch of Material "Lines Lfche unit circle is superposed on the finite strain ellipse, the radii to the intersection points define fines of no finite extension (¢, = 0), which are lines ehat are che same length 2¢ they were in she undeformed stare (5, = 1). These lines divide the ellipse (Figure 15.164) into sectors in which radii are longer than chey were originally (s,> 1, labeled L) and sectors in which the radii are shorter (0 < 5 G; labeled L) and seceors in which the lines are becoming shorrer (d5q/dt) < 0: labeled §). ‘The sector boundaries on the incremental strain ellipse (Figure 15.16B) are not in the same orientation as those on the finite strain ellipse (Figuee 15.26), andbbecause material lines in gengsat ocare during a defor- mation, they can pass from one sector into another. ‘Ths ee finite steain ellipse can be divided into sectors in each of which the material lines have a different history of stetching (Figure 15.16C). The diffecene pos- sible histories ate illustrated in Figure 15.17, where shostening of material lines is represented as folding o imbrication, and lengthening of maceral lines is cep- resented as boudinage. In sectors labeled SS, lines ace shorter than che original length and have a history of continuows shortening (Figure 15.174). in sectors lar beled LS, lines are longer chan the original length i Figure 15.16 Geometry of finite and incremental strain ellipses foc deformation in which the incremental stain is superposed ‘on a preexisting homogencous strain. For genesality, we have dicating an initial history of lengthening, bat they are See re eee nic cela cine dee can bg 00 shortening (Bgure 15.7B), with continued defor formed only fom an usendydeforaconchacccrsed by mation they may end up shorter than thee initial length an incremental strain ellipse whose principal axes change ori- and therefore positioned in the S$ sector (see Figure Greationdovingthedefornarn.A.Thestrsinelipse showing 15-178) Ia sectors LL, inesacelongerand ave history lines of so inte eacenson thar dere sectors in which adal of continuous lengshening gate 15.17C)y and in se. -macerial lines have been lengthened (L) or shortened (5) by the deformation. The uni citce is shown dashed. B, The incremental stain clips, showing lines of no race of extension thar divide the ellipse inco sectors in which radial material i Ts ave Beng gthened Ed Tpostve sae ot choses ot LNBer than thee intial lenge and ehereore in the (LE) ° sector. Thus (88) seccots may be subdivided according stretch) and sectors in which radial material lines are being Shovrened (3) feepatve tte of change of strech) ©. The £0 Whether or not the lines had an initial history of combination ofthe rwo sets of secrors from parts Aand Boa lengthening (compare Figure 15.17A, B}. Similarly, (LL) the scrain ellipse defines seetors in which radial material lines Sectors may be subdivided according to whether or not have different combinasions of stewch and rare of stretch tors SL, lines are shorter, indicating an initial history of shortening, but chey are now lengthening (Figuce 15.17D). With continued deformation they may end up hm — —_ —- te Ne aN Fat IWIN’ SSPE A ete) 1 as ‘ : fi cote NEN erste Acsewrsé ——B.seaurt Gusset D.sesorsh Figure 15.17 The histories of progressive deformacion for competene layers oriented within ch differen sectors showa in Figure 15.16C. The undeformed, intermediate, and inal sears are points along the deformation path, A, Secroce 6: shorter and being shortened. The layer is continuously folded. B. Sectors LS: longer and being shortened. The layer was italy boudlined and cub: sequently shortened, which caused fading and imbrication of the boudins The “final” overall lengeh is greater then the initial length, but continued shortening could make if less, cheveby transferring the line into che S$ eetor. €. Seecors LL: longer and being lengthened. The layer is consinuously bou- dinaged, D. Sectore SL: shorter and being lengthened. The layer is iniially folded and subsequently boudinaged, The “inal” overall length is saller thao che original length, buc continued lengthening could make i longer, sheseby transferring the line ineo the LL sector. E. Boudins thar have been shortened after formation, ilustating the deformational history in pate B Geomeay of Homogencous Sain 309the lines had an inital history of shortening (compare Figuees 15.17C, De lighter grey portions of LL sectors in Figure 15.184, B). “Thus, depending on the orientation of the material line with espectto the tra axes, the same deformation can produce folds, boudinage, boudinaged folds, ot folded and imbricared boudins. The distribution of such sectors for progressive pure shear and for progressive simple sheae is shown in Figuce 15.18A, B, respectively The main diferenc inthe distribution of sectors about the principal axes of strain is the absence of an (SL} sector for progressive simple shear subpacallel to the shear plane. Thus the sectors of the serain ellipse for progressiye pure shear have an overall orthorhombic symmetry, whereas the sectors for progressive simple shear have an overall monoclinic symmetry. When these aspects of the deformation ate taken into account, an arbitrary deformation cannot be reproduced by the se- quence of operations indicated in Figuce 15.12 because, for example, the rotation of the sectors with the steain cllipse produced by progressive puse shear (Figure 15.18A) does noe teprocluce the sectors in the strain ellipse formed by progressive simple shear (Figute 15.18B), even though the strain elipees themselves are che same shape. Ta principle, thea, it should be possible to distin- sich some feacures of te strain history, such as coaxial and noncoaxial progressive defocmations, by examining the relationship herween the deformational steuceures in the rock and theit orientations. For example, if veins axe intruded into a rock in a variety of orientations, Figure 15.18 Diseribusion of sectors of stretch and stretching, Maceral lines inthe lighter grey parts of he LL. sectors have an Faia histary of shortening followed by lengehening (eee botcom of Figuee 15.17D). A. Progressive pure shear. B. Pro- restive simple shear. This case difer from progressive pure ‘hear mainly in he lack of symmetry ofthe (SL) seceors about the principal axes of stain. C. Serucrases developed in com petene layers in an incompetenr matrix consistent with the szccats for progressive simple shear D. Folding ofa layer (lefe) and simoltancous boudinage of » perpendicular layer (hori ‘ontal above pencil) during deformation of a marble. 30 DUCTILE DEFORMATION subsequent deformation could cause veins to form folds and/or boudins depending on their orientation relative to the principal stretches, The observed distribution of these stcuctures defines the sectors of the fisite strain sslipse (Figure £5.18). In practice, however, the sector patterns are difficult to establish. The distribution of oriencations of deformed layers is usually not ideal Fig- ure 15.182), and layers can shorten and thicken without folding or can lengthen and chin without boudinage. Despite its limited practical application, this analysis demonstrates the important fact that no single type of steucture is uniquely indicative ofa particular geomecry of deformation The Representation of Strain States and Strain Histories Ie is often useful to compare various states of stcain in ‘order to show, for example, how they ace related to ‘one another in heterogeneously deformed rocks ot to illusteate the sequence of strain states thae represents a particular progressive deformation. Such a comparison is easily made by plotting the information on a Flin diagram, on which che ordinate and abcissa are the ratios 4 and b of the principal stretches, defined by say‘The study of geologic strains rarely includes the ‘volumetric strain, because iis very uncommon to know the original size of a strained object such as a fossil, ‘even though its original shape may be known. Thus we -can frequently determine the relative lengths of the price cipal axes of the serain ellipsoid bar not rhe absolute lengths. Because the Flinn diagram isa plot of the catios of the principal strecches, ie can be used to show the shape of a strain ellipsoid, but not the size. “The origin of the coordinate axes for the Flinn diagram is generally taken to be (1, 3) because 2 and b cannot be less thae 1, as can be seen from the second Equation (15.14) and Equation (15.21). Any sctain el lipsoid plots ata parricular poine on the Flinn diagram, and the slope & of the line from the otigin (1, 1) ro that point is faints (5.20) ‘The value of k provides a useful way of classifying the rypes of constant-volume ellipsoids (Figure 15.19). Three lines, for & , and k= ao, divide the graph into two felds, with ellipsoids of different char- _aceristics plotting along each line and within each fel. “The field of flattening strain comprises the region for which 0 = <1. The line & =0 characterizes oblate uniaxial ellipsoids (pancake shaped; 8 = 5 >1> Ss, and the range 0<&< 1 characterizes oblate triaxial llipsoids (6; > 3 > Sy}. The line k = 1 characterizes all plane strain ellipsoids {&1 > § = 1 > %). The field of constrictional stain ineludesthe values 1 < & < 00. The kee <= Simple extenaon od Figure 15.19 Flinn diagram showing the chree lines (k = 0, f=1, and k= 0) and the qo fields (O 1 > Sp > §) and the line & = 9 describes prolace uniaxial ellipsoids (cigar-shaped, §, > 1 > 8 ~ 3). The values ofthe sererches given here apply only to constant- volume strains (Equations 15.18). “The Flinn diagram lends itself well co che repce- sentation of stezin paths, which define the sequence of strain states through which 2 body pesses in a pro~ gressive deformation, Steady motions produce strain paths that ploca stright lines. In geologic deformation, however, steady motions over long periods of rime are probably che exception, and curved paths, which may ‘even cross fcom the constrictional Feld into the Aactening field, or vice versa, ate probably common, The diagram makes no distinction, however, between coaxial and rnoncoaxial progressive deformations. Progressive pure shear and progressive simple shear, for example, are both consrant-volume progressive plane deformations that plot along the line & = 1. This fact shows that che rotational comipanent of any deformation, which dis tinguishes pure shear from simple shear, for example, is noe ceptesented on a Flinn diagram. Volurmetrie deformation is easy t0 cepresent on the Flinn diagram. Because plane strain gcomerty (Gy = 1) must always separate the Feld of constriction (62 < 1) from the field of flattening (& > 1), the location of this boundary separates constticzive from flattening strains even when che volume is not constant. In order co de- termine the equation for the line of plane strain when the volume is not constant, we take #) = 1 in Equation (15.22), which gives 1 -i 1b (523) ‘We can then express the equation for voiumetric stretch in plane straia (che first Equation 15.17) in terms of 2 and 6 by using Equation (15.23). yaa or aah ‘The second Equation (15.24) is the equation for the plane strain line oo che Flinn diagram in terms of the volumetcic stretch. Taking the natural logarithm of both, sides gives an alternative form: as.24) Ings tne, tin b (15.25) “The base-10 logarithm could also be used. ‘The second Equation (21.24) shows that the volumetric seretch 5, determines the slope of the line through the point (a 5) = (0,0) on the Flinn diagram chat separates constric- tional strain from flaccening ¢teain. Note thar in general, these lines do not pass through the origin of ehe Flinn diageam (4, &) = (2, i}. Only when che volurme is con- stant (5, ~ 1) is the slope of the plane strain line equal to 1, in which case k= 1 also, and the line passes through the origin of the Flinn diagram (2, 6) = (1, 1. Geomeury of Homogeacous Strain Sitlane strain tines for Indcated volumetric stretch and percent volume decrease 0 0s 19 15 20 28 nd=nsy-n8, Figure 15.20. Logarithmic Fina diagram showing the plane sirain boundary lines (Equation 15.25) beeweea the Belds of fauening and conseieonal sein for vasious amounts of ‘oluimesricsteerch 5, (Equation 15.16) The logarithmic Flinn diagram, on which the axes are In a and In 6 is more conveuient for showing the effects cof volumetric deformation (Figure 15.20). Equation (15.25) shows that on this form of the diagram, the plane strain line maintains a constant slope of 1, and the volumetric stetch deveemines the intexcept. Each line on Figure 15.20 repeesents the plane stein line for a different yolumeccic seetch, as labeled, and each line therefore separates the field of constrictive strain above fcom the field of fattening strain below. The danger of iurerpreting strain measurements withourksawing the volumetric stcetch is evidene from Figure 15.20. A strain ellipsoid that plots at point A, for example, would be in che flatteriug feld for 5, = 1 but in the constrictive field for 5 $0.8. Simitstly. a strain ellipsoid thar plots at point B would be in the Hattening field for 1 2 +, 2 0.8 but iu the constrictive field for 5, < 0.6. Thus plotting steain ellipses on the Flinn diagram without knowing the volumetrie stretch can be misleading, and the common assumption of con- stant-volume deformation for rocks ean lead to incorrect interpretations. Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Deformation So far inthis chapter we have restricted our discussion to homogencous stains. As we noted atthe beginning ‘ofthis chapter ifwe ace icterestedin the inhomogeneous distribution of steain, such as in the formation of a fold, we assume the deformed hody ean be divided into vol. 312 DUCTILE DEFORMATION ‘umes that are sufficiently small for the deformation yo be described as locally homogeneous. The variation of these local steains across the body describes the inho mogeneous strain distribution, For any real materia, we must realize thac the description of a deformation as homogeneous at any particular scale i¢ the resule of averaging the deformation over volumes that are large compared with the scale of inhomogencities that are of 10 immediace interest, but small compared wich che scale at which the inhomogeneous diseribution of stcain is of interest Figure 15.21, for example, shows the so-called deck-of-cards model for forming a passive sheat fold (see also Figure 12.8). As discussed in Section 12.2, che deformation is accomplished by a discontinuity in the shear displacement at the card surfaces, with n0 defor- ‘ation at all of the individual cards. On the scale of a fold limb, however, the deformation in this example can be regarded as homogencous simple shear, and it produces the average strain ellipse shown on each fold Jima in che figuee. Thus che description of che steain as homogeneous cesults from averaging the strain over a zegion thar is large compared with the thickness of the cards, but small compared with the wavelength of che fold. Inather words, the homogeneity depends on scale The variety of scales on which we could consider a deformation to be homogenconsisilluscrated in Figure 15.22. In Figure 15.224, the body of folded rock mea- sures about 1 km in length. The scale of the whole block is lange compared with the wavelength of the folds, but small compared with the dimension of a mountain belt Ac this scale, the average deformation is homogencous and is represented by the strain ellipse shows beside | the block. ‘When we look at 2 scale comparable to the fold wavelength, however, the steaia is no longer homoge- ‘neous (Figure 15.228). We then describe the deformation in terms of the variation in local strain, which is con- sidered homogeneous on a scale, for example, of about Figure 15.21 Deck-of-cards model of passive-shear folding (On each card, he arcs of the undeformed circle ace displaced 50 28 «© approximate the shape of che strain ellipse,D. Microscope seate / Figure 15.22 Scales of homogenccus and inhomogencous ssrain. In each diagram, the volume over which the stain is averaged to form a locally homogene us sta ellipse ean be viewed at smaller scale at which the stain distribution is inhomogeneous, a mecer. ‘That scale is small compared with the wave- length of che fold, bu large compared with the inhomo- geneitis in strain chat might be present, for example, if the layer were « sandstone containing a spaced fol iation. ‘When we shift scales again, down to the level of the spaced foliation (Figure 15.220), we again find an inhomogeneous distribution of local strain. In this case, the loca! sceain is averaged over a volume small relative to the spacing of the foliation domains, but large relative to the grain size Another shift in scale brings us down to the scale of the grains (Figure 15.22D), where the local stcain is again inhomogeneous and the steain in each grain is averaged over a volume thar is lage compaced with the scale of erystal lattice imperfections. “Thus we can consider the strain to be “homoge- neous” on a scale that is small compared with the par ticular stracture within which we want to determine the serain distribution, but large compared with the scale ‘of inhomogencities in Which we are not interested and ‘over which we want to average the deformation, Additional Readings LEcingen, A: C1967. Mechanics of continua. New York: Wiley Flinn, D. 1962. On folding during theee dimensional progtes- Sve deformation. Q. J. Geol, Sac. Lond. 118: 385-428, Means, W. D. 1976. Stress and stron, Basic concepts of con Lumaum mechanice for geologists, New York: Speingec- Venta, Passchiee, C. W. 1990. Reconstruction of deformation and flow paramesers from defor med vein sets, Tectonophysi 180424}: 185=199 Ramsay, J, G, 1967. Folding and fracturing of rocks. New ‘York: McGraw Fil Ramsay, J. G, 1976. Displacement and strain, Pbil. Trans Roy Soc, Lond. A283: 3-25, Ramsay, J. G., and M. I, Hlubet, 1983, The techniques of moder structural geology, Vol. 1: Serain analysis. New York: Academie Press. Wood, D. S., and P.F. Holi. 1980. Quansicative analysis of steain hececogencty as 4 function of emperature and steain rate, Tectonophysics 66: 1-14 Gromesry of Homogentous Sain 313