Lecture 1: Evaporation

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
- Know the equipment for evaporation and their
differences
- Know the calculation Methods for Single-Effect
Evaporator
- Know the Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions and
how to use Duhring chart

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Evaporation
The general definition of evaporation is the loss
or disappearance of a liquid due to vaporization.
In the process industry, evaporation process is to
concentrate a solution (of a non-volatile solute) or
to separate a volatile solvent from a non-volatile
solute, by vaporizing and removing part of the
solvent (mostly water).
Or the unit operation whereby an aqueous
solution is concentrated by the application of heat
which causes the partial removal of water.
It involves heat transfer in a boiling liquid.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6lfZrQO9bYU

Purpose of Evaporation
To concentrate solution by removing the vapor from a boiling
liquid solution. In the majority of cases, evaporation refers to
the removal of water from an aqueous solution.
Example: concentration of aqueous solutions of sugar, sodium
chloride, sodium hydroxide, glycerol, glue, milk, and orange
juice.
In these cases the concentrated solution is the desired product
and the evaporated water is normally discarded.
In a few cases, water, which contains a small amount of
minerals, is evaporated to give a solids-free water to be used as
boiler feed, for special chemical processes.
Evaporation processes to evaporate seawater to provide
drinking water have been developed and used.

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What is Evaporation?
Evaporation
Occurs at any temperature above melting point
Occurs at surface of liquid
Heat is generally added from top
Only molecules with high kinetic energy participate
Slow process
Does not involve formation of bubbles
Boiling
Occurs at boiling point
Occurs throughout liquid
Heat is generally added from bottom
Rapid process
Involves formation of bubbles

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Types of evaporation equipment

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Types of evaporation equipment

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Types of evaporation equipment

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Open kettle or pan

Horizontal-tube natural circulation evaporator
Vertical-type natural circulation evaporator
Long-tube vertical-type evaporator
Falling-film-type evaporator
Forced-circulation-type evaporator
Agitated-film evaporator
Open-pan solar evaporator

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(a) horizontal-tube (b) vertical-tube type evaporator

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(c) long-tube vertical (d) forced-circulation type evaporators

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Processing Factors
1.

Concentration in the liquid

- low viscosity: high mass transfer coefficient
- high viscosity: low mass transfer coefficient
-adequate circulation and/or turbulence must be present to keep the
co-effeicient from becoming too low

2.

Solubility
- solubility increases with temperature
- crystallization may occur when a hot concentrated solution is cooled
to room temperature

3.

Temperature sensitivity of materials

- food and biological materials may be temperature sensitive and
degrade at higher temperature or after prolonged heating.

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Processing Factors
4.

Foaming or frothing
- food solution such as skim milk and some fatty-acid solution form a
foam or froth during boiling.

5.

Pressure and temperature

- high operating pressure: high boiling point

6.

Scale deposition and materials of construction

- Some solutions deposit solid materials called scale on the heating
surfaces.
- results in the overall heat-transfer coefficient decreases and
evaporator must be cleaned.

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Methods of Operation of Evaporators

1.
2.
3.
4.

Single-effect evaporators
Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators
Backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators
Parallel-feed multiple-effect evaporators

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1) single-effect evaporator

The feed enters at TF

Saturated steam at TS enters the heat- exchange section.
Condensed steam leaves as condensate or drips.
The solution in the evaporator is assumed to be completely mixed
Hence, the concentrated product and the solution in the evaporator have the same
composition.
Temperature T1 is the boiling point of the solution.
The temperature of the vapor is also T1, since it is in equilibrium with the boiling solution.
The pressure is P1, which is the vapor pressure of the solution at T1.

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1) single-effect evaporator
If the solution to be evaporated is assumed to be dilute and like
water, then 1 kg of steam condensing will evaporate
approximately 1 kg of vapor (if the feed entering has TF near the
boiling point)
The concept of an overall heat-transfer coefficient is used in the
calculation of the rate of heat transfer in an evaporator
The general capacity equation can be written
= = 1
q is the rate of heat transfer in W (btu/h),
U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient in W/m2. K (btu/h ft. OF),
A is the heat-transfer area in m2 (ft2),
TS is the temperature of the condensing steam in K (OF),
T1 is the boiling point of the liquid in K (OF).

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Value of U
The overall heat-transfer coefficient U in an
evaporator is composed of:
1. The steam-side condensing coefficient, which has
a value of about 5700 W/(m2 K) (1000 btu/(h ft2
oF));
- The steam-side condensing coefficient outside
the tubes is estimated.
2. The metal wall, which has a high thermal
conductivity and usually a negligible resistance;
3. The resistance of the scale on the liquid side; and
the liquid film coefficient, which is usually inside
the tubes.
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Value of U

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2) Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators

Single-effect evaporators are often used when the required capacity of
operation is relatively small and/or the cost of steam is relatively cheap
compared to the evaporator cost.

A single-effect evaporator as is wasteful of energy. The latent heat of the

vapor leaving is not used but is discarded.
Much of this latent heat, however, can be recovered and reused by

employing a multiple - effect evaporator.

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2) Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators

In forward-feed operation , the fresh feed is added to
the first effect and flows to the next in the same
direction as the vapor flow.
This method of operation is used when the feed is hot
or when the final concentrated product might be
damaged at high temperatures.
The boiling temperatures decrease from effect to
effect. This means that if the first effect is at P1 = 1
atm abs pressure, the last effect wilt be under vacuum
at a pressure P3.
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2) Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators

If the feed to the first effect is near the boiling point at the pressure
in the first effect, 1kg of steam will evaporate almost 1 kg of
water.
The first effect operates at a temperature that is high enough that
the evaporated water serves as the heating medium to the second
effect.
Here, again, almost another kg of water is evaporated, which can
then be used as the heating medium to the third effect.
As a very rough approximation, almost 3 kg of water will be
evaporated for 1 kg of steam in a three-effect evaporator.
Hence, the steam economy, which is kg vapor evaporated/kg
steam used, is increased.
This also holds approximately for more than three effects.
However, the increased steam economy of a multiple-effect
evaporator is gained at the expense of the original first cost of
these evaporators.
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3) Backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators

In the backward-feed operation a triple-effect evaporator, the fresh feed
enters the last and coldest effect and continues on until the
concentrated product leaves the first effect.

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3) Backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators

This method of reverse feed is advantageous when
the fresh feed is cold, since a smaller amount of
liquid must be heated to the higher temperatures
in the second and first effects.
However, liquid pumps must be used in each
effect, since the flow is from low to high pressure.
This reverse-feed method is also used when the
concentrated product is highly viscous.
The high temperatures in the early effects reduce
the viscosity and give reasonable heat-transfer
coefficients.
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4) Parallel-feed multiple-effect evaporators

Parallel-feed in multiple-effect evaporators
involves the adding of fresh feed and
withdrawal of concentrated product from each
effect.
The vapor from each effect is still used to heat
the next effect.
This method of operation is mainly used when
the feed is almost saturated and solid crystals
are the product, as in the evaporation of brine
to make salt.
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Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporator

1.
2.
3.
4.

Heat and Material Balances for Evaporators

Effects of Processing Variables on Evaporator Operation
Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions
Enthalpy - Concentration Charts of Solutions

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Heat and Mass Balances

The basic equation for solving for the capacity of a singleeffect evaporator is

= = 1
where T (K, oF) is the difference in temperature between

the condensing steam and the boiling liquid in the

evaporator.
The value of q in W (btu/h) must be determined by making a
heat and material balance on the evaporator.

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Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporator

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Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporator

The feed to the evaporator is F kg/h (lbm/h) having a solids content of
xF mass fraction, temperature TF, and enthalpy hF J/kg (btu/lbm).

Coming out as a liquid is the concentrated liquid L kg/h (lbm/h) having

a solids content of xL, temperature T1, and enthalpy hL.
The vapor V kg/h (lbm/h) is given off as pure solvent having a solids
content of yv = 0, temperature T1, and enthalpy Hv.
Saturated steam entering is S kg/h (lbm/h) and has a temperature of TS
and enthalpy of HS.
The condensed steam leaving of S kg/h is assumed usually to be at TS,
the saturation temperature, with an enthalpy of hS.
This means that the steam gives off only its latent heat, , where:
= HS hS

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Mass balance
Since the vapor V is in equilibrium with the liquid L,
the temperatures of vapor and liquid are the same.
Also, the pressure P1 is the saturation vapor pressure
of the liquid of composition xL at its boiling point T1.
(This assumes no boiling-point rise.)
For the material balance, since we are at steady state,
the rate of mass in = rate of mass out. Then, for a
total balance,
F=L+V
For a balance on the solute (solids) alone,
F xF = L xL
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Energy balance
Total heat entering = total heat leaving,
heat in feed + heat in steam =
heat in concentrated liquid + heat in vapor + heat in condensed steam

*This assumes no heat lost by radiation or convection. Substituting into

+ = + +
+ = +

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Energy Balance
HV is approximated from the saturated steam
table using the temperature of the boiling
solution T1
If heats of dilution can be neglected, the heat
capacities cpF and cpL may be used to
determine hF and hL (Tref = 0.01oC 0oC)

hF c pF TF Tref

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and

hL c pL T1 Tref

Energy balance
If cpF= cpL= cp constant regardless of weight fraction

FhF SS LhL VH V
Fc p (TF Tref ) SS ( F V )c p (T1 Tref ) VH V

SS Fc p (T1 TF ) V ( H V hL )

q SS Fc p (T1 TF ) V1
where 1 ( H V hL )
the latent heat of vaporization of water at T1

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Energy balance
The heat q transferred in the evaporator is then
= =

latent heat or of steam at the saturation

temperature TS can be obtained from the steam
tables.

However, the enthalpies of the feed and products are

often not available; these enthalpy concentration
data are available for only a few substances in
solution.
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Energy balance
Hence, some approximations are made in order to make a
heat balance. These are as follows:
1. It can be demonstrated as an approximation that the
latent heat of evaporation of 1 kg mass of the water
from an aqueous solution can be obtained from the
steam tables using the temperature of the boiling
solution T1 (exposed surface temperature) rather than
the equilibrium temperature for pure water at P1.
2. If the heat capacities cpF of the liquid feed and cpL of
the product are known, they can be used to calculate
the enthalpies.
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Example 1
A continuous single-effect evaporator concentrates 9072
kg/h of a 1.0 wt % salt solution entering at 311.0 K
(37.8C) to a final concentration of 1.5 wt %. The
vapor space of the evaporator is at 101.325 kPa (1.0
atm abs) and the steam supplied is saturated at 143.3
kPa. The overall coefficient (U = 1704 W/m2.K.
Calculate the amounts of vapor and liquid product and
the heat-transfer area required. Assume that, since it is
dilute, the solution has the same boiling point as
water.
F, L, V = ?
xF , xL , = ?
P 1 , T1 , = ?
PF , TF , hF = ?
TS , HS = ?
HV = ?

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Effects of Processing Variables on Evaporator Operation

Effect of feed temperature.
The inlet temperature of the feed has a large effect on the
operation of the evaporator.
If feed enter the evaporator at 311.0 K - cold as compared
to the boiling temperature of 373.2 K.
About 1/4 of the steam used for heating is used to heat the
cold feed to the boiling point.
Hence, only about 3/4 of the steam is left for vaporization
of the feed.

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Effect of pressure

In Example 1, a pressure of 101.32 kPa abs was used in the

vapor space of the evaporator.
This set the boiling point of the solution at 373.2 K and gave
T =10 K.
In many cases a larger T is desirable, since, as T
increases, the heating-surface area A and cost of the
evaporator decrease.
To reduce the pressure below 101.32 kPa (to be under
vacuum), a condenser and vacuum pump can be used.
For example, if the pressure were reduced to 41.4 kPa, the
boiling point of water would be 349.9 K
The new T would be 383.2 - 349.9 = 33.3 K.
A large decrease in heating-surface area would be obtained.

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Effect of steam pressure

Using higher-pressure saturated steam
increases T, which decreases the size and
cost of the evaporator.
However, high-pressure steam is more costly
as well as often being more valuable as a
source of power elsewhere.
Hence, overall economic balances are really
needed to determine the optimum steam
pressures.
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Enthalpy - Concentration Charts of Solutions

If the heat of solution of the aqueous solution
being concentrated in the evaporator is large,
neglecting it could cause errors in the heat
balances.
Should consider the heat-of-solution
phenomenon.
If pellets of NaOH are dissolved in a given
amount of water, it is found that a
considerable temperature rise occurs; that is,
heat is evolved, called heat of solution.
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Enthalpy concentration chart for the system NaOH/water

hF and hL for a
specific solution, e.g.
Fig. 8.4-3 for NaOH
solution, can be
obtained
in
its
enthalpyconcentration
diagram.
xF and TF, and xL
and T1 need to be
specified in order to
find hF and hL,
respectively.

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Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions

In the majority of cases in evaporation, the solutions are not
dilute solutions as in Example 1.
In most cases, the thermal properties of the solution being
evaporated may differ considerably from those of water.
The concentrations of the solutions are high enough that the
heat capacity and boiling point are quite different from those
for water.
For strong solutions of dissolved solutes the boiling-point rise
due to the solutes in the solution usually cannot be predicted.
However, a useful empirical law known as Duhrings rule
can be applied.
According to this rule, a straight line is obtained if the boiling
point of a solution in C or F is plotted against the boiling
point of pure water at the same pressure for
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Duhring chart
Solutions, such as
NaOH, have a
large boiling-point
rise
T1 is NOT the
saturated liquid
water temperature
at pressure P1 any
more
Actual boiling-point
T1 is found from
Dhring lines for a
specific solution.
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Example 2
As an example of use of the Dhring chart, the pressure in an
evaporator is given as 25.6 kPa (3.72 psia) and a solution of 30%
NaOH is being boiled. Determine the boiling temperature of the
NaOH solution and the boiling-point rise BPR of the solution over
that of water at the same pressure.

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Example 3
An evaporator is used to concentrate 4536 kg/h (10 000 lbm/h)

of a 20% solution of NaOH in water entering at 60 C (140 OF)

to a product of 50% solids. The pressure of the saturated steam
used is 172.4 kPa (25 psia) and the pressure in the vapor space
of the evaporator is 11.7 kPa (1.7 psia). The overall heat-transfer
coefficient is 1560 W/m2.K (275 btu/h ft2. OF). Calculate the
steam used, the steam economy in kg vaporized/kg steam used,
and the heating surface area in m2.

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Evaporation of Biological Materials

Biological material such as pharmaceuticals, milk, citrus
juice and vegetable extracts are usually heat-sensitive.
Often contain fine particles of suspended matter in
solution.
Problems due to bacteria growth: equipment must be
designed for easy cleaning.
Degradation of biological material is a function of the
temperature and length of time.
To keep temperature low, evaporation must be done under
vacuum, which reduces the boiling point of the solution.
To keep the time of contact low, equipment must provide
for low holdup time (contact time) for the material being
evaporated.

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Summary for This Week

Factors affecting boiling point
External pressure (higher the pressure, greater the boiling point)
Added solute (adding solute increases boiling point)

Mole fraction of solvent (Xw) determines boiling point of solution

Types of evaporators
Batch-type pan, natural circulation, rising-film, falling-film, rising/fallingfilm, forced circulation, agitated (or mechanical) thin-film
Capacity of evaporator
Mass of vapor produced
Steam economy
Ratio of vapor produced to steam utilized
Energy conservation techniques
Multiple effects
Vapor recompression (thermal or mechanical)

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