PROGRESS IN PHYSICS
Issue 3 (July)
A natural behavior is used to characterize by differential equation established on human observations, which is assumed to be on one particle or one field complied with
reproducibility. However, the multilateral property of a particle P and the mathematical
consistence determine that such an understanding is only local, not the whole reality
on P, which leads to a central thesis for knowing the nature, i.e. how to establish a
physical equation with a proper interpretation on a thing. As it is well-known, a thing
consists of parts. Reviewing on observations, we classify them into two categories, i.e.
out-observation and in-observation for discussion. The former is such an observation
that the observer is out of the particle or the field P, which is in fact a macroscopic
observation and its dynamic equation characterizes the coherent behavior of all parts in
P, but the later is asked into the particle or the field by arranging observers simultaneously on different subparticles or subfields in P and respectively establishing physical
equations, which are contradictory and given up in classical because there are not applicable conclusions on contradictory systems in mathematics. However, the existence
naturally implies the necessity of the nature. Applying a combinatorial notion, i.e. G L solutions on non-solvable equations, a new notion for holding on the reality of nature
is suggested in this paper, which makes it clear that the knowing on the nature by solvable equations is macro, only holding on these coherent behaviors of particles, but the
non-coherent naturally induces non-solvable equations, which implies that the knowing
by G L -solution of equations is the effective, includes the classical characterizing as a
special case by solvable equations, i.e. mathematical combinatorics.
~2
i~
= 2 + U
(1.3)
man in the blind men with an elephant, a famous fable for
t
2m
knowing the nature. For example, let 1 , 2 , , n be all ob- in quantum mechanics but observation shows it in two or
served and i , i 1 unobserved characters on a particle P at more possible states of being, i.e. superposition. We can not
time t. Then, P should be understood by
even say which solution of the Schrodinger equation (1.3) is
[
[
[
Introduction
Issue 3 (July)
PROGRESS IN PHYSICS
Volume 11 (2015)
in field theory, where is the state function and L the Lagrangian density with 1 , 2 the limiting surfaces of integration by viewed P an independent system of dynamics or a
field. The principle of stationary action S = 0 respectively
induced the Euler-Lagrange equations
L
L
L d L
= 0 and
=0
q dt q
( )
Fig. 1
If an observer is out the water molecule H2 O, his all observations on the Hydrogen atom H and Oxygen atom O are
the same, but if he enters the interior of the molecule, he will
view a different sceneries for atom H and atom O, which are
respectively called out-observation and in-observation, and
establishes 1 or 3 dynamic equations on the water molecule
H2 O.
The main purpose of this paper is to clarify the natural
reality of a particle with that of differential equations, and
conclude that a solvable one characterizes only the reality
of elementary particles but non-solvable system of differential equations essentially describe particles, such as those of
baryons or mesons in the nature.
For terminologies and notations not mentioned here, we
follow references [1] for mechanics, [5] for combinatorial geometry, [15] for elementary particles, and [17] for Smarandache systems and multispaces, and all phenomenons discussed in this paper are assumed to be true in the nature.
2
Out-observations
(2.3)
1 ~2
LS =
||2 + V||2 ,
2 t
t
2 2m
mc
LD = i
,
~
!
1
mc 2 2
LKG =
.
2
~
Then we respectively get the Schrodinger equation (1.3) or
the Dirac equation
mc
i
(t, x) = 0
(2.4)
~
for a free fermion (t, x) and the Klein-Gordon equation
!
mc 2
1 2
2
(x, t) = 0
(2.5)
(x, t) +
2
2
~
c t
for a free boson (t, x) hold in relativistic forms by (2.3),
where ~ = 6.582 1022 MeV s is the Planck constant, c is
the speed of light,
!
2
2
2
=
, ,
,
2 = 2 + 2 + 2 ,
x y z
x
y
z
!
1
=
,
,
,
,
c t x1 x2 x3
!
1
=
,
,
,
c t x1 x2 x3
and = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 with
!
!
I22
0
0
i
0 =
, i =
0
I22
i 0
Zt2
the
scalar curvature on the gravitational field. The equation (2.3)
Lagrange function on the particle, and
then induces the vacuum Einstein gravitational field equation
Z 1
1
S =
d4 xL(, )
(2.2)
(2.6)
R g R = 0.
2
2
S =
dt L (q(t), q(t))
(2.1)
277
Volume 11 (2015)
PROGRESS IN PHYSICS
q2
.. q1
..
..
..
...........
.
.
.
.
.....
.
.....
.....
. q3
.....
q1 ................................. q2
Baryon
Meson
Issue 3 (July)
L
L1
L2
L1
L2
L
F a scalar, it is clear that G + G and G are also
V
(u, v) X G . Then, it was shown that G is a Banach
space, and furthermore a Hilbert space if introduce
X
L
G
=
kL(u, v)k ,
!
(u,v)X G
L
X
1
L2
G ,G
=
hL1 (u, v), L2 (u, v)i
!
(u,v)X G
Fig. 2
L
L1
L2
V
for G , G , G G , where kL(u, v)k is the norm of
L(u, v) and h, i the inner product in V if it is an inner space.
Then, why is it believed without a shadow of doubt that The following result generalizes the representation theorem
the dynamical equations of elementary particles such as those of Frechet and Riesz on linear continuous functionals on
GV
of quarks, leptons with interaction quanta are (1.3) in phys- flow space
G , which enables us to find G-flow solutions on
ics? It is because that all our observations come from a macro linear equations (1.2).
viewpoint, the human beings, not the particle itself, which
V
rationally leads to H. Everetts multiverse interpretation on Theorem 2.1([12]) Let T : G C be a linear continuous
bL
V
the superposition by letting parallel equations for the wave functional. Then there is a unique
G G such that
functions (t, x) on positions of a particle in 1957 ([2]). We
L * L bL +
only hold coherent behaviors of elementary particles, such as
T
G = G ,G
those of quarks, leptons with interaction quanta and their antiparticles by (1.3), not the individual, and it is only an equa
L
V
tion on those of particles viewed abstractly to be a geometfor G G .
rical point or an independent field from a macroscopic point,
chanically for hold the behaviors of particles such as those solutions on them if G can be decomposed into circuits.
shown in Fig. 2 on hadrons. However, such an assumption Theorem 2.2([12]) If the topological graph G is strongis a little ambiguous in logic, i.e. we can not even conclude connected with circuit decomposition
which is the point or the independent field, the hadron or its
l
subparticle, the quark.
G=
Ci
In fact, a point is non-divisible in geometry. Even so, the
i=1
278
Issue 3 (July)
PROGRESS IN PHYSICS
such that L(uv ) = Li (x) for (u, v) X C i , 1 i l and the
Cauchy problem
(
Fi x, u, u x1 , , u xn , u x1 x2 , = 0
u|x0 = Li (x)
is solvable in a Hilbert space V on domain Rn for integers 1 i l, then the Cauchy problem
Fi x, X, X x1 , , X xn , X x1 x2 , = 0
X|x0 =
G
such that L (uv ) = Li (x) for (u, v) X C i is solvable for
V
XG .
Theorems 2.12.2 conclude the existence of G-flow solution on linear or non-linear differential equations for a topo
Volume 11 (2015)
L1 d L1
=0
q
dt q
L2 d L2
=0
q
dt q
Lm d Lm
=0
q
dt q
0 ) = q 0
q(t0 ) = q0 , q(t
(3.1)
L1
L1
=0
( )
L2
L2
=0
( )
Lm
Lm
=0
( )
(t0 ) = 0
(3.2)
for characterizing particle P in field theory, where the ith equation is the dynamic equation of particle Pi with initial data
An in-observation observes on the internal behaviors of a par- q0 , q 0 or 0 .
ticle, particularly, a composed particle P. Let P be composed
We discuss the solvability of systems (3.1) and (3.2). Let
by particles P1 , P2 , , Pm . Different from out-observation
(
from a macro viewing, in-observation requires the observer
d L1
3 L1
S
=
(x
,
y
,
z
)(q
,
t)
R
qi
i i i
i
qi dt q i = 0,
holding the respective behaviors of particles P1 , P2 , , Pm in
P, for instance an observer enters a water molecule H2 O reqi (t0 ) = q0 , q i (t0 ) = q 0 }
ceiving information on the Hydrogen or Oxygen atoms H, O.
For such an observation, there are 2 observing ways:
for integers 1 i m. Then, the system (3.1) of equations is
(1) there is an apparatus such that an observer can simul- solvable if and only if
taneously observe behaviors of particles P1 , P2 , , Pm , i.e.
m
\
P1 , P2 , , Pm can be observed independently as particles at
D(q) =
S qi , .
(3.3)
the same time for the observer;
3
In-observations
i=1
(2) there are m observers O1 , O2 , , Om simultaneously
observe particles P1 , P2 , , Pm , i.e. the observer Oi only Otherwise, the system (3.1) is non-solvable. For example, let
observes the behavior of particle Pi for 1 i m, called particles P , P of masses M, m be hanged on a fixed pulley,
1
2
parallel observing, such as those shown in Fig. 3 for the water such as those shown in Fig. 4.
molecule H2 O with m = 3.
Then, the dynamic equations on P1 and P2 are respectively
O2
O1
?
?
P1 : x = g, x(t0 ) = x0 and P2 : ddotx = g, x(t0 ) = x0
P
2
1 P1
Y
>
P3
I
O3
Fig. 3
x = g
x = g, x(t0 ) = x0
Volume 11 (2015)
PROGRESS IN PHYSICS
Issue 3 (July)
L1
L1
=0
i
( i )
(t ) = .
they are real in the nature. Even if the system (3.1) holds
with condition (3.3), i.e. it is solvable, we can not apply the
solution of (3.1) to characterize the behavior of particle P because such a solution only describes the coherent behavior of
particles P1 , P2 , , Pm . Thus, we can not characterize the
0
0
behavior of particle P by the solvability of systems (3.1) or
Then, the system (3.2) is solvable if and only if there is a state (3.2). We should search new method to characterize systems
function (x, t) on P hold with each equation of system (3.2), (3.1) or (3.2).
Philosophically, the formula (1.1) is the understanding of
i.e.
3
particle
P and all of these particles P1 , P2 , , Pm are inher(x, t) = 1 (x, t) = = m (x, t), x R ,
ently related, not isolated, which implies that P naturally inwhich is impossible because if all state functions i (x, t), 1 herits a topological structure G L [P] in space of the nature,
i m are the same, the particles P1 , P2 , , Pm are nothing which is a vertex-edge labeled topological graph determined
else but just one particle. Whence, the system (3.2) is non- by:
solvable if m 2, which implies we can not characterize
V G L [P] = {P1 , P2 , , Pm },
the behavior of particle P by classical solutions of differential
T
E G L [P] = {(Pi , P j )|Pi P j , , 1 i , j m}
equations.
with labeling
L : Pi L(Pi ) = Pi and
T
L : (Pi , P j ) L(Pi , P j ) = Pi P j
for integers 1 i , j m. For example, the topological
graphs G L [P] of water molecule H2 O, meson and baryon in
the quark model of Gell-Mann and Neeman are respectively
shown in Fig. 5,
g
?
P1
g
6
H
HO
HO
O
P2
q1
q1 q3
q1 q2
q3
q2
q2 q3
Baryon
Fig. 5
H2 O
q q0
q0
Meson
Fig. 4
O
~
i~
=
2 O V(x)O
t
2mO
behaviors of particle P are determined by particles P1 , P2 , ,
H1
~2 2
[v]
t
2mH1
(3.2). For example,
of equation at ver
let u be the solution
[v]
L
~
H
2
2
tex
v
V
G
[P]
with
initial
value
u
and
G L0 [P] the ini
0
i~ t = 2m H2 V(x)H2
[v]
L
H2
tial G -solution, i.e. labeled with u0 at vertex v. Then, a
L
G
-solution of systems (3.1) or (3.2) is sum-stable if for any
Then O (x, t) = H1 (x, t) = H2 (x, t) concludes that
number > 0 there exists v > 0, v V(G L0 [P]) such that
0
i
i
i
each G L -solution with
AO e ~ (EO tpO x) = AH1 e ~ (EH1 tpH1 x) = AH2 e ~ (E H2 tpH2 x)
0 [v]
u 0 u[v]
v V(G L0 [P])
for x R3 and t R, which implies that
0 < v ,
AO = AH1 = AH2 , EO = E H1 = E H2 and pO = pH1 = pH2 ,
a contradiction.
Notice that each equation in systems (3.1) and (3.2) is
solvable but the system itself is non-solvable in general, and
280
vV(G [P])
vV(G [P])
Issue 3 (July)
PROGRESS IN PHYSICS
Volume 11 (2015)
holds, denoted by G L [P] G L0 [P]. Furthermore, if there 4.1 States of particles are multiverse
exists a number v > 0 for v V(G L0 [P]) such that every A particle P understood by formula (1.1) is in fact a multi0
G L [P]-solution with
verse consisting of known characters 1 , 2 , , n and un 0 [v]
known characters k , k 1, i.e. different characters charac
u 0 u[v]
v V(G L0 [P])
terize different states of particle P. This fact also implies that
0 < v ,
the multiverse exist everywhere if we understand a particle P
satisfies
with in-observation, not only those levels of I IV of Max
Tegmark in [24]. In fact, the infinite divisibility of a matter
X
X
M in philosophy alludes nothing else but a multiverse ob[v]
0
[v]
u
u = 0,
lim
served
on M by its individual submatters. Thus, the nature of
t
vV(GL0 [P])
vV(G L [P])
a particle P is multiple in front of human beings, with unity
character appeared only in specified situations.
then the G L [P]-solution is called asymptotically stable, de
noted by G L [P] G L0 [P]. Similarly, the energy integral of 4.2 Reality only characterized by non-compatible sysL
tem
G -solution is determined by
E(G [P]) =
Z
(1)
GG L0 [P]
|G|+1
uG
t
!2
dx1 dx2 dxn1 ,
OG
T
vV(G)
v V(G)
Although the dynamical equations (1.2) established on unilateral characters are individually compatible but they must
be globally contradictory with these individual features unless all characters are the same one. It can not be avoided by
the nature of a particle P. Whence, the non-compatible system, particularly, non-solvable systems consisting of solvable
differential equations are suitable tools for holding the reality of particles P in the world, which also partially explains a
complaint of Einstein on mathematics, i.e. as far as the laws
of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as
far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality because the
multiple nature of all things.
4.3
As we know, there always exists a universal connection between things in a family in philosophy. Thus, a family F of
things naturally inherits a topological graph G L [F ] in space
and we therefore conclude that
F = G L [F ]
(4.1)
Reality
281
Volume 11 (2015)
PROGRESS IN PHYSICS
Conclusion
Reality of a thing is hold on observation with level dependent on the observer standing out or in that thing, particularly, a particle classified to out- or in-observation, or parallel observing from a macro or micro view and characterized
by solvable or non-solvable differential equations, consistent
with the universality principle of contradiction in philosophy.
For holding on the reality of things, the out-observation is
basic but the in-observation is cardinal. Correspondingly, the
solvable equation is individual but the non-solvable equations
are universal. Accompanying with the establishment of compatible systems, we are also needed to characterize those of
contradictory systems, particularly, non-solvable differential
equations on particles and establish mathematics on topological graphs, i.e. mathematical combinatorics, and only which
is the appropriate way for understanding the nature because
all things are in contradiction.
Issue 3 (July)
11. Linfan Mao. Cauchy problem on non-solvable system of first order partial differential equations with applications. Methods and Applications
of Analysis, 2015, v. 22 (2), 171200.
References
1. Abraham R. and Marsden J. E. Foundation of Mechanics, 2nd ed.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1978.
2. Everett H. Relative state formulation of quantum mechanics.
Rev.Mod.Phys., 1957, v. 29, 454462.
3. Lu J. C. Fangfo Analyzing LAO ZHI Explaining TAO TEH KING by
TAI JI (in Chinese). Tuan Jie Publisher, Beijing, 2004.
4. Linfan Mao. Combinatorial speculation and combinatorial conjecture
for mathematics. International J.Math. Combin., 2007, v. 1 (1), 119.
5. Linfan Mao. Combinatorial Geometry with Applications to Field Theory. The Education Publisher Inc., USA, 2011.
6. Linfan Mao. Combinatorial fields an introduction. International J.
Math.Combin., 2009, v. 3, 122.
7. Linfan Mao. Global stability of non-solvable ordinary differential equations with applications. International J.Math. Combin., 2013, v. 1, 1
37.
8. Linfan Mao. Non-solvable equation systems with graphs embedded in
Rn . in Proceedings of the First International Conference on Smarandache Multispace and Multistructure, The Education Publisher Inc.,
July 2013.
9. Linfan Mao. Geometry on G L -systems of homogenous polynomials.
International J.Contemp. Math. Sciences, 2014, v. 9 (6), 287308.
10. Linfan Mao. Mathematics on non-mathematics A combinatorial contribution. International J.Math. Combin., 2014, v. 3, 134.
282