Informatio Communication Socity

UNIT 1 DATA, INFORMATION AND
KNOWLEDGE: INTELLECTUAL
ASSETS
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Value and Importance of Information
1.2.1 Central and Pivotal Role of Information Today
1.2.2 Information A Network of Related Concepts
1.3 Data, Information and Knowledge

1.3.1 Characteristics and Interrelationships
1.3.2 Comparative Study
1.4
Libraries and Data, Information and Knowledge
1.5 Summary
1.6 Answers to Self Check Exercises
1.7 Keywords
1.8 References and Further Reading
1.0
OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

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perceive the value, pervasive role and importance of information in todays

context of national development;
distinguish the meaning, distinctive characteristics and interrelationships

of data, information and knowledge; and
recognise the role of libraries servicing data, information and knowledge

in different contexts.
1.1
INTRODUCTION
From the primitive days of human civilisation to the present day, information
has always been a component of growth and improvement in living standards.
In modern societies of today, however, information is closely interlocked with
growth and development which is reflected in many ways, as seen in the growth
of economic, political, social, occupational, cultural and other sectors. But the
concept of information has to be understood in its relation to many other
associative concepts such as data, fact, observation, intelligence, skill,
knowledge, experience, wisdom and similar others to perceive the impact of
information on modern societies. All these concepts, indeed, are very much
the creation of human mind. It is, in fact the combination of these concepts
and their applications for human resources development that, in effect,
contribute to the growth and prosperity of a society. Information and knowledge
are, therefore, deliberately being created to meet a variety of challenges posed
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Information : Nature,
Property and Scope
to human living. A sea change is taking place in society due to the application
of information and knowledge for development. Information Technology with
all its spectacular advances has been, in fact, the chief instrument of these
revolutionary changes, leading societies to an information age. Creation of
new knowledge and information, their processing, storage, retrieval,
dissemination, distribution, etc. have become critical areas for industrial
investments. Indeed today, information industries are emerging as a major
group among modern industries.
Being aware of these fast and sweeping changes taking place in society, libraries
are making serious efforts to gear themselves to meet the new challenges of
handling and servicing information. In this Unit, we shall study all these aspects
with particular focus on the characteristics, interrelationships and comparative
utility of data, information and knowledge and their values as human intellectual
capital in the context of servicing them through libraries.
1.2
VALUE AND IMPORTANCE OF

INFORMATION
All societies ancient, medieval or modern have functioned and prospered on

the basis of information and knowledge in their various stages of developments.
In the past, the creation of new knowledge, innovations and inventions have
been the efforts of a small number of individuals with a passion for and
dedication to such activities and, therefore, growth of new knowledge has
largely been sporadic and incidental. Application of the new information and
knowledge was largely accidental; consequently, progress in terms of material
advancement of life had been slow. But from the beginning of this century,
more particularly in the last half a century, information has come to occupy
the central position, to be reckoned as a driving force for all human development.
Let us examine the causes for such a reckoning.
1.2.1 Central and Pivotal Role of Information Today

Some of the factors attributed to the current value of information and knowledge,
which have contributed so much to socio-economic developments, are discussed
below:
Research and Development (R & D)
It is increasingly realised and recognised that information and knowledge and
their application for transformation of non-resources into value-added economic
resources are the real driving power for human material progress. This
assessment has resulted in the creation of institutions exclusively for Research
and Development (R & D) in the last two centuries in the western countries,
although initially R & D activities were mostly individual efforts. The output
of these R & D activities has been the generation of new information and
knowledge. These efforts in science and technology in particular, and the
application of this new knowledge for industrial and economic development
have brought to the people of the western countries a high standard of life. The
infrastructure built for this purpose by these countries has indeed become a
model for developing countries to emulate.
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Fusion of Science and Technology (S & T)

In the last half a century, there has been a fusion of science and technology
that has begun to transform the character of technology itself. For a long time,
science has grown independently without relation to technology. But as science
developed in association with technology, and integrated framework of
reference (conceptual as well as theoretical) resulted offering much greater
explanatory power. For instance, the development of solid-state physics, which
is the foundation of the electronic revolution, arose out of the work of
metallurgists and physicists on the structure of conductor devices. Since
technology is the instrumental mode of rational action, Daniel Bell, the well
known sociologist, has characterised this new methodological development
as intellectual technology which constitutes a set of algorithms that are
embodied in a computer program to represent a formalisation of judgements.
Their routine application to many situations is becoming predominant in the
management of organisations and enterprises today.
Data,Information and
Knowledge: Intellectual
Assets
Science and Technology (S & T) and Societal Information

Another important point to note is the last quarter of a century is the increasing
emphasis on the application of science and technology to social and economic
developments. The organising principle for information systems and services
today is a mix of Science, Technology and Societal Information (STSI) for all
socio-economic developments. Development, being a complex and multidimensional process, involves, information and knowledge inputs of science
and technology and their applications. They combine with other forms of
society-related information such as political, economic, sociological,
demographic, occupational, health, legal, regulatory and environmental
information to provide a complete information universe. Development is said
to be not merely cultivating the physical resources, but also human resources
as well. Any imbalance in these development approaches weakens the overall
capacity of a society to transform itself. All these aspects have further reinforced
the importance and value of information and knowledge.
Information Technology
The rapidly developing information technology has revolutionised information
processing, storage, dissemination and distribution and has been the chief
instrument and a major contributing factor to change in society. These
technologies are not merely rapidly developing, but they also are converging
and integrating, giving an unprecedented push to growth and development in
everything.
Information Demand
The demand for information from laypersons to sophisticated specialists and
scholars has phenomenally increased in recent decades. Almost every person
needs information for some purpose or the other. Access to and availability of
information, therefore, has become very crucial.
There are number of pressures that have brought about the demand for
information. Some of these pressures and their consequent demand for
information are shown in figure 1.1:
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Property and Scope
Growth of population
greater complexity of administration
Social differentiation and reorganisation

Technological innovation
new products and process
new occupation and skills
more leisure
development of group
and class interests
Needs of inventors and entrepreneurs
development of private interests
improved transport
exploration and discovery
trade
new products
travel
cultural contacts
Increasing
Demand for
Information
Growth in education
needs of teachers and students
increased scholarship, science, speculation
needs of researchers
new ideas and knowledge
growing ability to learn and assimilate
Life expectancy increases
longer and more diverse

careers; needs of old age
Social welfare provision
needs of agencies and clients
Fig. 1.1: Pressure and Consequent Demand for Information
Power Shift
Information and knowledge have become a tremendous source of economic
and political power as they have become the principal driving force for the
acquisition of wealth, political strength and more knowledge. Informationrich countries of today are becoming even more powerful than the colonial
powers of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries on account of their
expertise in creating new information and knowledge and exploiting them for
their advantages.
Self Check Exercise
1)
Give at least three reasons as to why information has acquired an

importance and significance today.
Note : i) Write your answer in the space given below.

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
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1.2.2 Information A Network of Related Concepts

You can easily make out from the above that information and knowledge are
as essential to development as they have been to sources of power.
Assets
Information and knowledge, however, have to be understood in their widest

connotation to grasp fully their impact on society. A network of concepts are
associated with information and knowledge, such as data, facts, intelligence,
know-how, skills, experience and wisdom. It is the combination of all these
concepts that go to provide the necessary creative capabilities and competence
to transform a non-resource into a value-added economic resource. We shall
study in the next section the essential characteristics, interrelationships, value
and use of data, information and knowledge, as these are the ones which are
most tangible and could be serviced in libraries in whatever physical form
they are available.
Self Check Exercise
2)
Describe the factors contributing to the enhancement of the value of

information.

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1.3
DATA, INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE
Data, information, knowledge and wisdom are the products of the mind that
are acquired and perfected. They are not of equal value in terms of utility and
application. Rather, they (Data, Information, Knowledge) are evaluated in an
ascending scale of values, data having the least value, wisdom the greatest.
These concepts in their totality constitute valuable human intellectual assets
and hence, serve as the most precious human capital in all developmental
processes.
1.3.1 Characteristics and Interrelationships

Data is usually an observed fact, obtained on the basis of a systematic survey
or study, relating to a certain activity. For example, social data with reference
to urban life and civic amenities, government statistics relating to trade, excise
duties, taxes, etc. census figures of population, records of scientific experimental
findings and similar others. These have value with reference to studies on
subjects connected with these data. These data are analysed and synthesised to
derive indicators, provide projections and arrive at valid inferences with
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Property and Scope
reference to any event or activity and so on.

Information is obtained through processing of data. The storage, retrieval and
processing of data become the essential resource for all economic and social
exchanges. These include:
1)
Data processing of records: payrolls, government benefits (e.g., social

security), bank clearances, credit clearances and the like.
2)
Databases: characteristics and features of population as shown by census

data, market research, opinion, surveys, election analysis, bibliographic
data and the like.
3)
Data processing for scheduling: airline and railway reservations,

production scheduling, inventory analysis, document delivery priorities
in libraries and information centres, and the like.
Knowledge, on the other hand, is an organised set of statements of fact or an

idea, presenting a reasoned judgement or an experimental result, which is
transmitted to others through some communication medium is some systematic
form. Knowledge consists of new judgements (research and scholarship) or
presentation of older judgements as exemplified in textbooks, in teaching and
learning, and collected as library and archival materials. The interrelationship
of the three concepts could well be understood from the chart given below:
Data
Raw Material
Cotton
Information
Intermediary
Yarn
Knowledge
Finished Product
Cloth
Note: This example of cotton, yarn, cloth is given here merely to illustrate the
interrelationship of data, information, and knowledge. In the context of
dressmaking cloth may be a raw material, the finished product may be a suit.
It must be clear from the above descriptions of data, information and knowledge,
that these three concepts are interrelated, in the sense that one is the building
block of the other. Data is the building block for information and information
is the building block of knowledge.
Much of the confusion arises because these distinctions are ignored in common
and popular usage of these words. They are used interchangeably, very often,
information standing for knowledge or data. But as information professionals
we have to understand their distinctions and interrelationships and serve them
according to the needs of users.
Self Check Exercise
3)
Distinguish between data, information and knowledge with an illustrative

example.

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Assets
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1.3.2 Comparative Study

Information is news, facts, statistics, reports of contemporary events and
activities, legislation, tax-codes, judicial decisions and the like.
Knowledge is interpretation in context, exegesis (critical explanations and
interpretations, especially of scriptures), relatedness, conceptualisation and
forms of argument. The results of knowledge are theories; the effort to establish
relevant relationships or connection between facts, data and other information
in some coherent form and to explain the reasons for these generalisations.
Both in everyday use or in the usage of these words among specialists, however,
knowledge is universally regarded as a much wider concept than information
or data. Knowledge is a summation of many bits of information or data,
organised into some sort of a coherent entity. Comprehension and understanding
result from the acquisition of information.
Fritz Machlup, the well known scholar in this field, says that information is a
process, a flow of messages involving, the act of telling or being told, and
knowledge is a state or sense of knowing, an accumulated stock. So we talk of
flow of information and stocks of knowledge.
The distinctions between information and knowledge are summed up below
as described by Fritz Machlup:
Information
Knowledge
is piecemeal, fragmented, particular;
is structured, coherent and often

of enduring significance;
is timely, transitory, perhaps even

ephemeral; and
is a stock, largely resulting from

the flow, inputs of information;
and
is flow of messages
may affect the stock of

knowledge by adding to it,
restructuring it or changing it in
any way.
None of these distinctions relate to practical usefulness; neither information

nor knowledge needs to be useful or valuable in all contexts. Nor are we
concerned in libraries about popular knowledge or technical knowledge,
pedestrian or scholarly knowledge, and useful or useless knowledge. Stocks
in libraries are built up on the basis of the needs of users and not based upon
any judgement made on them, although we do recognise outdated, obsolete,
unused information and knowledge in building up collections and servicing
them in libraries in relation to user needs.
21
Property and Scope
Wisdom is an individual trait which comes to one through acquisition of sound

knowledge and the related virtues by age and experience. This trait among
others may comprise ability to see far ahead into the future, have a vision of
things to come and judgement in selecting the right alternatives among several
others available for making a decision and so on. While this is the highest
form of knowledge, this knowledge cannot be transferred; it is only acquired.
Self Check Exercise
4)
Why does Machlup consider information as a flow and knowledge as a

stock?

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1.4
LIBRARIES AND DATA, INFORMATION

AND KNOWLEDGE
In so far as libraries and information centres are concerned, while these

distinctions between data, information and knowledge are useful and necessary
to determine the types of services that can be planned and offered, users
information needs are really the determining factor in building up a collection
or in serving the clientele. Libraries or information centres are built in support
of information needs of the parent organisation, which is involved in some
activities. We have taken four typical areas to illustrate these points. These
are:
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Education, training and skill developments, research and development;
Government affairs;
Business and industry; and
Mass communication.
We are indicating in figure 1.2 the type of data, information and knowledge
that libraries and information centres handle in organising services in the four
typical areas mentioned above. In these examples, we are indicating only the
broad canvas of data, information and knowledge rather than any specific
guidance for organising library and information services. The nature of the
end products that may be obtained as a result of the information services is
also shown in the figure.
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It is also to be noted here that these data, information and knowledge discussed
in their respective contexts are not mutually exclusive. In fact any of these
types may be of use in any other context.
Fig. 1.2: Data, Information and Knowledge in Four Different Context
Assets
23
Property and Scope
Self Check Exercise

5)
Give examples of data, information and knowledge served by libraries

and information centres in the context of mass communication.

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1.5
SUMMARY
In this Unit, we have learnt why information has acquired a strategic significance
today, although its role in all societies throughout the past has always been to
provide for growth and development. The reasons attributed to the present
status of information are:
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The realisation and recognition of information as a vital component in

socio-economic development;
Creation of exclusive R & D institutions, especially in science and

technology, to generate new information and knowledge;
The fusion of science and technology and its synergetic impact under
which Information Technology is rapidly advancing;
The organising principle of information today is a mix of science,

technology and societal information, the focus being on socio-economic
development;
Information Technology and its fast increasing impact on changes in

society causing, in the process, to transform the society itself into an
Information Society as some scholars have maintained; and
Ever increasing demand for, and supply of information contributes to

raising the level and reorganisation of information into a strategic source
of economic and political power.
Information has to be examined in its relationship with other concepts, which

together constitute the intellectual capital which is the driving force for changes
in the society.
While many concepts are associated with information, the three concepts of
data, information and knowledge are studied with reference to their general
meaning, interrelatedness and specific distinctions as these are the tangible
forms which can be served in libraries and information centres.
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Finally, the role of libraries and information centres (that handle and service
data, information and knowledge) is analysed with reference to four typical
situations:
i)
education, training and skill development, research and development;
ii) government affairs;
Assets
iii) business and industry; and

iv) mass communication with reference to:
a)
typical institutions in each of these four areas above;
b)
categories of users in these institutions; and
c)
illustrative examples of data, information and knowledge serviced

in libraries and information centres attached to these institutions.
1.6
1)
ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

The three reasons why information has acquired a special importance and
significance today are:
i)
The realisation and recognition that a good mix of Scientific,

Technical and Societal Information is vital to socio-economic
development.
ii) The demand for information from a lay person or a sophisticated

scholar has phenomenally increased today on account of various
pressures such as population, social differentiation, technological
innovation, education and research, use of leisure, human longevity
of life, etc.
iii) Information has become the most crucial weapon for acquisition of
economic and political power.
2)
The factor contributing to the enhancement of the value of information

are:
i)
Research and Development: The output of various research and

development activities results in generation of new information and
knowledge. It is being increasingly realised that information and
knowledge and their application for transformation of non-resources
into value-added economic resources are the real driving power for
human material progress.
ii) Fusion of Science and Technology: Fusion of science and

technology has begun to transform the character of technology itself.
technology has become the instrumental mode of rational action and
their routine application to many situations is becoming predominant
in the management of organisations and enterprises today.
iii) Science and Technology and Societal Information: The increasing
emphasis on the application of science and technology to social and
economic developments is another factor contributing to the
enhancement of the value of information. The organising principle
for information systems and services today is a mix of Science,
Technology and Societal Information (STSI) for all socio-economic
developments.
25
Property and Scope
iv) Information Technology: The rapidly developing Information

Technology has revolutionised information processing, storage,
dissemination and distribution. It is the chief instrument and a major
contributing factor in the enhancement of the value of information.
v)
Information Demand: The demand for information from lay persons

to specialists and scholars have increased phenomenally in recent
decades. Access to and availability of information, therefore, has
become very crucial.
vi) Power Shift: Information and knowledge have become a tremendous

source of economic and political power as they have become the
principal driving force for the acquisition of wealth, political strength
and more knowledge for development.
3)
Data is undifferentiated observation of facts in terms of words, numbers,

symbols, etc. For example, scientific data collection in a laboratory
experiment, social data with reference to population, or trade statistics,
price index, etc.
Information is processed data. For example, analysis of population data
with reference to scientific and technical personnel in a country, weather
forecasting based on the data collected on atmospheric conditions built
up on the high seas, inferences obtained on the properties of materials
acquired from moon, etc.
Knowledge is consolidated and structured information as in encyclopaedic
articles, state-of-the-art reports, textbooks, etc.
4)
By definition, information is piecemeal, unstructured, timely, etc. and the

main purpose of information is to inform. The communication aspect is
implied in information which flows from a sender to a receiver. Knowledge
is a consolidation of validated data and information that constitutes a body
of coherent and structured reservoir. To this body is added further
knowledge and hence, this keeps on increasing as a stock, at times leading
to modification of existing knowledge.
5)
Data, e.g., trade and industrial statistics, price index, entertainment

announcements, etc.
Information, e.g., processed information of weather to warn farmers
during times of monsoons, stock exchange information for investments,
reports of music concerts, news about national and international events,
etc.
Knowledge, e.g., press responsibilities vis--vis democratic institutions
in the form of a report, international information order as exemplified by
the third world countries meetings, the books such as Many Voices One
World published by UNESCO, etc.
1.7
KEY WORDS
Algorithm
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: Instructions for carrying out a series of

logical procedural steps in a specific order.
Human Intellect
: Skills of all variety necessary for all round

development.
Information Age
: A period characterised by domination of

information.
Information Industry
: Market place created by the convergence

of computers, telecommunication and
micro-electronics.
: Acquisition, processing, storage and

dissemination of information by a
combination of base technologies such as
microelectronics,
computers
and
communications.
Synergetic Effect
: An effect produced as a result of

combination of two or more forces
representing more than their mere
summation.
1.8
Assets
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Alder, Mortimer J. (1986). A Guidebook to Learning for the Life Long Pursuit
of Wisdom. New York: Macmillan.
Bell, Daniel (1974). The Information Society: The Social Framework of the
Information Society. In Dertouzos, M.L. and Moses, J. (eds.). The Computer
Age: A Twenty Years View. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Pp 16-211.
Machlup, Fritz (1983). Semantic Quirks in Studies of Information. In Machlup,
F. and Mansfield, U. (eds.), A Study of Information, Interdisciplinary Messages.
New York: Macmillan. Pp. 641-71.
Martin, William J. (1988). The Information Society. London: Aslib.
Stewart, Thomas A. (1991). Brain Power. Fortune. June 3, 44-60.
Vickery, Brian C. and Vickery, Alina (1987). Information Science in Theory
and Practice. London: Butterworths.
Vitro, Robert A. (1988). Viewpoint: Towards a Knowledge Based Development
Strategy. National Development. 29(8), 4-5.
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UNIT 2 DATA: DEFINITION, TYPES,

NATURE, PROPERTIES AND
SCOPE
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Meaning of Data
2.3 Types of Data
2.3.1 Types of Data in Sciences
2.3.2 Types of Data in Social Sciences
2.4 Nature and Properties of Data

2.4.2 Properties of Data
2.5 Scope of Data

2.6 Summary
2.8 Keywords
2.0
OBJECTIVES

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explain the meaning of data;
describe their types, nature and properties;
examine the scope of data in different fields; and
assess the place of data in library services.
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Having studied the preceding Unit, you are now in a position to distinguish
between data and information, and between information and knowledge. You
have reached a stage where you will be able to recognise the place of data in
total research.
A study of this Unit will be useful in getting yourself acquainted with the
meaning of data, their types, nature and properties. It will also enable you to
assess the scope of data in different fields of knowledge and to recognise how
important it is to acquire data in order to enrich library service.
2.2
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MEANING OF DATA
The word data is Latin in origin, and literally, it means anything that is given.
Different sources have defined the word in different ways. Websters Third
New International Dictionary defines data as something given or admitted;

facts or principles granted or presented; that upon which an inference or
argument is based, or from which an ideal system of any sort is constructed.
According to Oxford Encyclopaedic English Dictionary data are known facts
or things used as a basis for inference or reckoning. These dictionaries also
state that even though data is the plural form of datum, it is often treated as a
singular collective noun. Hence, its treatment as a singular noun is equally
acceptable. For the sake of consistency, however, the word is used in this Unit
as the plural form of datum.
Data: Definition, Types,

Nature, Properties and Scope
UNESCO defines data as facts, concepts or instructions in a formalised manner

suitable for communication, interpretation or processing by human or automatic
means. Robert A. Arnold, in his Modern Data Processing [Wiley, 1972],
has defined the terms in the context of commerce as a function of business and
accounting. Dictionary of Modern Economics defines data as observations
on the numerical magnitude of economic phenomena such as national income,
unemployment, or the retail price.
Data are defined in McGraw-Hill Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology
as numerical or qualitative values derived from scientific experiments. While
another definition of data in Sciences is obtainable from CODATA (Committee
on Data for Science and Technology) as quoted by Luedke and others in ARIST,
12, 119-181. CODATA defines data as a crystallised presentation of the
essence of scientific knowledge in the most accurate form. According to this
definition, clarity and accuracy are two essential attributes of data. One also
learns of yet another attribute of data from the CODATA definition. That is to
say, data are the essence of the matter. The phrase essence of scientific
knowledge in this definition is synonymous with qualitative values derived
from scientific experiments as given in the McGraw-Hill definition.
In social sciences, data are stated as values or facts, together with their
accompanying study design, code books, research reports, etc. and are used
by researchers for the purpose of secondary analysis. At one extreme, economics
and demography have been heavily quantitative materials or observations.
Sociology and, more recently, political science, fall between these two extremes.
The change in research orientation in the subject can be seen with changing
data, especially with data relating to public opinion.
In humanities, the text such as Biblical materials or Shakespeares drama deals
with a fixed quantity of data represented by a finite amount of text to be
interpreted. Clashing interpretations may be irresolvable, since each
interpretation views the text differently, while the text to be interpreted may
be finite and fixed. However, in sciences, the total text is to be interpreted and
the text of data is not fixed before interpretation. The text of fact is constantly
expanding. Scientists not only observe facts but also use instruments to generate
more systematic data.
In Information Science, Shuman [BASIS, 1975, 1(7), 11-12,34] defines data
as quantitative facts derived from experimentation, calculation, or direct
observation. Shuman opines that a more meaningful definition of data is the
symbolisation of knowledge.
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Property and Scope
To understand further, we can say that data or facts have no shape that is
relevant to a particular viewpoint. It must be given relevance, arrangement,
coherence, usefulness within a definite framework of meaning, intent or interest.
Self Check Exercise
1)
Write a paragraph explaining the meaning of data.

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2.3
TYPES OF DATA
In order to understand the nature of data it is necessary to categorise them into

various types. Different categorisations of data are possible. The first such
categorisation may be on the basis of disciplines, e.g., Sciences, Social Sciences,
etc. in which they are generated. Within each of these fields, there may be
several ways in which data can be categorised into types. For the sake of
convenience we shall discuss the types as present in sciences and then in social
sciences.
2.3.1 Types of Data in Sciences

The CODATA Task Group on Accessibility and Dissemination of Data
(CODATA/ADD) recognised in 1975 the need for categorising data while
working on its report on the problems of accessibility of data. The Task Group
evolved a scheme according to which the following categories of scientific
data are formed:
i)
Data with reference to time factor: Based on time factor, data can be
classified into the following two types:
a)
Time-independent data The term refers to the data, which can be

measured repeatedly, e.g., data in geosciences and astronomy such
as geological structures, rocks, fixed stars, etc.
b)
Time-dependent data These can be measured only once, e.g., certain

geophysical or cosmological phenomena like volcanic eruptions and
solar flares. Likewise, data pertaining to rare fossils are timedependent data.
ii) Data with reference to location factors: Data with reference to location
factor can be categorised as follows:
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a)
Location-independent data These are independent of the location

of objects measured, e.g., data on pure physics and chemistry.
b)
Location-dependent data These are dependent on the location of

objects measured. Data in earth sciences and astronomy normally
belong to this category. Data on rocks are also location dependent.

iii) Data with reference to mode of generation: There are three types of
data under this category. These are:
a)
Primary data Data are primary when obtained by experiment or

observation designed for the measurement, e.g., values of velocity
derived by measuring length and time.
b)
Derived (reformatted) data These data are derived by combining

several primary data with the aid of a theoretical model.
c)
Theoretical (predicted) data These are derived by theoretical

calculations. Basic data such as fundamental constants are used in
theoretical calculations, e.g., data concerning solar eclipses are
predicted with the use of celestial mechanics.
iv) Data with reference to nature of quantitative values: These are

categorised into the following two classes:
v)
a)
Determinable data Data on a quantity, which can be assumed to

take a definite value under a given condition, are known as determinable
data. Time-dependent data are usually determinable data, if the given
condition is understood to include the specification of time.
b)
Stochastic data Data relating to a quantity, which take fluctuating

values from one sample to another, from one measurement to another,
under a given condition are referred to as stochastic. In geosciences,
most data are stochastic.
Data with reference to terms of expression: The categorisation in this

case yields three classes of data:
a)
Quantitative data These are measures of quantities expressed in

terms of well-defined units, changing the magnitude of a quality to a
numerical value. Most data in physical sciences are quantitative data.
b)
Semi-quantitative data These data consist of affirmative or negative

answers to posed questions concerning different characteristics of
the objects involved, e.g., in biology, classification of organisms is
based upon a set of Yes and No responses to questions concerning
morphological, biochemical and other characteristics of species. Such
data are regarded as semi-quantitative. Yes and No can be coded
as 1 and 0 (zero) for obtaining numerical data.
c)
Qualitative data The data expressed in terms of definitive statements

concerning scientific objects are qualitative in nature. Qualitative
data in this sense are almost equivalent to established knowledge.
vi) Data with reference to mode of presentation: These are categorised as

numerical, graphic and symbolic data.
a)
Numerical data These data are presented in numerical values,

e.g., most quantitative data fall in this category.
31
Property and Scope
b)
Graphic data Here data are presented in graphic form or as models.

In some cases, graphs are constructed for the sake of helping users
grasp a mass of data by visual perception. Charts and maps also belong
to this category.
c)
Symbolic data These are presented in symbolic form, e.g., symbolic

presentation of weather data.
These are, six basic types of scientific data based on the nature of data. Within
these six types, there exist fifteen different classes of data.
Self Check Exercise
2)
Write a note on the parameters used in categorising data in Sciences.

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As in sciences, data in social sciences are also organised into different types so
that their nature can be easily understood. The following categorisation is
normally observed in social sciences:
i)
32
Data with reference to scale of measurement: Based on the scale of

measurement, data can be categorised as follows:
a)
Nominal data The nominal scale is used for assigning numbers as

the identification of individual unit. For example, the classification
of journals according to the discipline they belong to, may be
considered as nominal data. If numbers are assigned to describe the
categories, the numbers represent only the name of the category.
b)
Ordinal data It indicates the ordered or graded relationship among

the numbers assigned to the observations made. These numbers
connote ranks of different categories having relationship in a definite
order. For example, to study the responsiveness of library staff a
researcher may assign 1 to indicate poor, 2 to indicate average,
3 to indicate good and 4 to indicate excellent. The numbers 1, 2,
3 and 4 in this case are set of ordinal data which indicate that 4 is
better than 3 which in turn is better than 2 and so on. The ordinal data
show the direction of the difference and not the exact amount of
difference.
c)
Interval data Interval data are ordered categories of data and the
differences between various categories are of equal measurement.
For example, we can measure the IQ (Intelligence Quotient) of a

group of children. After assigning numerical value to the IQ of each
child, the data can be grouped with interval of 10, like 0 to 10, 10 to
20, 20 to 30 and so on. In this case, 0 does not mean the absence of
intelligence and children with IQ 20 are not doubly intelligent than
children with IQ 10.
d)

Ratio data Ratio data are the quantitative measurement of a variable

in terms of magnitude. In ratio data, we can say that one thing is
twice or thrice of another as for example, measurements involving
weight, distance, price, etc.
ii) Data with reference to continuity: Data with reference to continuity

can be categorised as follows:
a)
Continuous data Continuous data are an infinite set of possible

values. Between a range there are infinite possible values. For
example, height of an individual is not restricted to values like 155
cm. and after that to 156 cm. It can be 155.59 cm. or 155.99 cm.
continuous value.
b)
Discrete data The discrete data are finite or potentially countable

set of values. For example, the number of members in a library. It
can be 2,575 or 2,599 but certainly not 2,599. Similarly, the number
of citizens in a country, the number of vehicles registered is the
examples of discrete data.
iii) Data with reference to number of characteristics: Data can also be

categorised on the basis of number of variables considered. These are:
a)
Univariate data Univariate data are obtained when one characteristic

is used for observation, e.g., the performance of student in a given
class.
b)
Bivariate data Bivariate data result when instead of one, two

characteristics are measured simultaneously, e.g., height and weight
of tenth class students.
c)
Multivariate data Multivariate data consist of observations on three

or more characteristics, e.g., family size, income and savings in a
metropolitan city in India.
iv) Data with reference to time: There are two types of data under this
category. These are:
a)
Time series data Data recorded in a chronological order across

time are referred to as time series data. It takes different values at
different times, e.g., the number of books added to a library in different
years, monthly production of steel in a plant, yearly intake of students
in a university.
b)
Cross-sectional data This refers to data for the same unit or for
different units at a point of time, e.g., data across sections of people,
region or segments of the society.
33
Property and Scope
v)
Data with reference to origin: Data under this category can be put as
follows:
a)
Continuous data The data obtained first hand from individuals by

direct observation, counting, and measurement or by interviews or
mailing a questionnaire are called primary data. It may be complete
enumeration or sampling, e.g., data collected from a market survey.
b)
Secondary data The data collected initially for the purpose and
already published in books or reports but are used later on for some
other purpose are referred to as secondary data. For example, data
collected from census reports, books, data monographs, etc.
vi) Data with reference to characteristic: Data can be categorised on the

basis of the characteristics as follows:
a)
Quantitative data When the characteristic of observation is

quantified we get quantitative data. Quantitative data result from the
measurement of the magnitude of the characteristic used. For example,
age of a person, price of a commodity, income of a family, etc.
b)
Qualitative data When the characteristic of observation is a quality

or attribute, we get qualitative data. For example, sex or colour of a
person, or intelligence of a student.
Self Check Exercise

3)
How are data categorised in social sciences?

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2.4
NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF DATA
34
To understand the nature of data, we must recall, what are data? and what are
the functions that data should perform on the basis of its classification? The
first point in this is that data should have specific items (values or facts), which
must be identified. Secondly, specific items of data must be organised into a
meaningful form. Thirdly, data should have the functions to perform.
Furthermore, the nature of data can be understood on the basis of the class to
which it belongs. We have seen that in sciences there are six basic types within
which there exist fifteen different classes of data. However, these are not
mutually exclusive. There is a large measure of cross-classification, e.g., all
quantitative data are numerical data, and most data are quantitative data. With
reference to the types of data; their nature in sciences is as follows:

Numerical data: All data in sciences are derived by measurement and stated
in numerical values. Most of the time their nature is numerical. Even in semiquantitative data, affirmative and negative answers are coded as 1 and 0
for obtaining numerical data. Thus, except in the three cases of qualitative,
graphic and symbolic data, the remaining twelve classes yield numerical data.
Descriptive data: Sciences are not known for descriptive data. However,
qualitative data in sciences are expressed in terms of definitive statements
concerning objects. These may be viewed as descriptive data. Here, the nature
of data is descriptive.
Graphic and symbolic data: Graphic and symbolic data are modes of
presentation. They enable users to grasp data by visual perception. The nature
of data, in these cases, is graphic.
Likewise, it is possible to determine the nature of data in social sciences also.
We can do this again with reference to the types of data in social sciences,
which are not necessarily mutually exclusive. The data in social sciences can
be either enumerative or descriptive in nature. Whenever the data are derived
by enumeration, their nature is enumerative. The data that describe the
phenomena are descriptive.
Enumerative data: Most data in social sciences are enumerative in nature.
However, they are refined with the help of statistical techniques to make them
more meaningful. They are known as statistical data. This explains the use of
different scales of measurement whereby they are graded.
Descriptive data: All qualitative data in social sciences can be descriptive in
nature. These can be in the form of definitive statements. However, if necessary,
numerical values can be assigned to descriptive statements, which may be
reduced to numerical data.
In the context of social sciences, it is possible to examine the nature of data in
library science. Their nature can be either bibliographic or non-bibliographic.
The former is descriptive while the latter is enumerative. All cataloguing and
indexing data are bibliographic, whereas all management data such as books
acquired, books lent, visitors served and photocopies supplied are nonbibliographic.
Having seen the nature of data, let us now examine the properties, which the
data should ideally possess.
2.4.2 Properties of Data

For examining the properties of data, reference to the various definitions of
data discussed in Section 2.2 is necessary. Reference to these definitions reveals
that following are the properties of data: 1) amenability of use, 2) clarity,
3) accuracy, and 4) the quality of being the essence of the matter. Each of
these may be discussed further.
Amenability of use: From the dictionary meaning of data it is learnt that data
are facts used in deciding something. In short, data are meant to be used as a
35
Property and Scope
base for arriving at definitive conclusions. They are not required, if they are
not amenable to use. The use may differ with the context. Amenability to use
nevertheless remains a characteristic of data.
Clarity: According to the CODATA definition, data are a crystallised
presentation. This means data should necessarily display so essential for
communicating the essence of the matter. Without clarity, the meaning desired
to be communicated will remain hidden.
Accuracy: Data should be real, complete and accurate. Accuracy is thus, an
essential property of data. Since data offer a basis for deciding something,
they must necessarily be accurate if valid conclusions are to be drawn.
Essence: In social sciences, large quantities of data are collected which cannot
be presented, nor is it necessary to present them in that form. They have to be
compressed and refined. Data so refined can present the essence or derived
qualitative value, of the matter. Data in sciences consist of observations made
from scientific experiments, these are all measured quantities. Data, thus, are
always the essence of the matter.
Besides the above four properties, three more properties are evident, more
particularly in social sciences. They are the properties of being aggregated,
compressed and refined.
Aggregation: Aggregation is cumulation or adding up. For example, monthly
data are added up to form a consolidated annual cumulation. Cumulative
percentages are always worked out in data presented on a variable in tabular
form. In social sciences, aggregation is of great importance. For instance,
production figures, crop yield, export and import statistics and census data are
cases of aggregation.
Compression: Large amounts of data are always compressed to make them
more meaningful. To present the essence of the matter, it is necessary to
compress data. Compressed data are manageable and can be grasped quickly.
There exist a number of techniques to compress data to a manageable size.
Graphs and charts are some examples of compressed data.
Refinement: Data require processing or refinement. When refined, they are
capable of leading to conclusions or even generalisations. This refinement can
then discover new facts. Bradfords bibliography denoting the scatter of a
subject or Garfields historiography denoting the development of a discipline
are two examples of data refinement. Conclusions can be drawn only when
data are processed or refined.
Self Check Exercise
4)
Write a note on data as a crystallised presentation.

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36
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2.5
SCOPE OF DATA
Scope of the data can be studied from the following points of view:
Utility of Data Data have great utility of their use in the growth of knowledge.
No research, investigation, experiments, etc. is possible without reference to
data already existing. Nor does any research end without generating new data.
No decision-making system can work, nor can a problem be solved, without
adequate use of data. No planning is conceivable without enough data. For
want of sufficient data research results or conclusions drawn from an enquiry
are automatically rendered untenable.
Data also alter concepts and remove uncertainty. Data, then, are indispensable
in research and in planning and decision-making. The importance of data is no
less in managing libraries and library services.
Size of Data Size of the data involves the coverage of the subject under
study, data elements, and data population covering documents, data banks,
and field survey methods (questionnaire, interview, observations, etc.). In
science what already exists is in the form of data. According to an Aslib
statement, scientific data include:
l
the properties and attributes of an individual entity;
the values of one property over many entities;
variations of one property of one entity under different conditions;
classification of entities based on properties; and
quantitative relations between two or more entities.
There are equations and formulae, properties and values, actions and reactions
and conditions and variations. All these, when stated, form data. There also
exist numerous data banks, e.g., Chemical Formulary and British
Pharmocopoeia. The scope of data in sciences is, thus, very vast.
All world governments are involved in socio-economic upliftment. Most
applied research all over the world, therefore, is being conducted nowadays at
the behest of the state. Every government has established its own data system
for collecting and organising data concerning all human activities. We, in India,
have a number of agencies responsible for organising data in their respective
fields, e.g., Indian Meteorological Department, Survey of India, Indian
Statistical Organisation, National Sample Survey, Census of India and several
others. Governments cannot frame policies and formulate plans unless large
amounts of data are available as a basis. This explains the establishment of
National Information Centre.
There also exist international bodies like International Monetary Fund,
International Labour Organisation and scores of other UN agencies that collect
37
Property and Scope
and organise data as an indispensable aid in policy research. Management and

administrative data called operational data are gathered by institutions, public
or private, national or international, in the performance of their functions. No
worthwhile socio-economic programme nor pure economic planning is possible
without a supportive data system. Social Sciences are known for a plethora of
data banks. Thus, data are pervasive in all human endeavours in all fields of
knowledge.
Period of Data Data collection for any research problem must indicate the
time span. It should be clearly stated whether data period is current or
cumulative. In Sciences the interpretations and conclusions are mainly drawn
keeping in view the whole text of the subject. In Social Sciences and
Humanities, however, the cumulative period is not taken into account for data
collection.
The importance of data in library service is manifold. Librarians are users of
data in more than one way. They collect bibliographic data for providing
services and generate and use non-bibliographic data for managing these
services. Apart from these, they are required to make available data to
researchers and planner according to their subject interests. It is, thus, necessary
to ensure that relevant data sources are available in the library in order that the
users may be assisted with appropriate and adequate data in their decision
process. It is seen that there exists no field of knowledge, no human activity
where data can be dispensable. All investigations begin and end with data. In
intellectual pursuits data are all pervasive, only their nature varies with the
event.
Self Check Exercise
5)
Data pervade all human endeavour. Elaborate.

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2.6
38
SUMMARY
Data literally, means anything that is given. They are facts or information
used in discussing or deciding something. In short, the term data includes
facts, figures, letters symbols, words, charts or graphs that represent an idea,
object or condition. The term, thus, connotes diverse things. Unlike codes,
data are measured quantities or derived qualitative values. Data constitutes
the basis for drawing conclusions, taking policy decisions and formulating
and implementing plans.
Amenability to use, clarity, accuracy, and essence of the matter, aggregation,

compression and refinement are the properties of data. Because of these
properties, data are usable in investigative studies. In order to know the nature
of data, it is first necessary to categorise them into various types. While there
is one set of data types in sciences, there is another in social sciences. Dependent
upon the characteristic and categorisation used, different data types can be
derived.

By nature, data are either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data are

numerical and qualitative data are descriptive. It is possible to transform
qualitative data into numerical values. Additionally, in sciences, data can also
be graphic in nature. In social sciences, however, the nature of data is either
enumerative (quantitative) or descriptive (qualitative). Enumerative data can
often be statistical in nature. Graphic data also exist in social sciences. In the
context of library science, data are either bibliographic or non-bibliographic.
The scope of data is truly vast. Data pervade all sciences, all investigations, all
human activities, planning and implementation. They provide the basis for
conclusions drawn. All techniques used in research are aimed at collecting
objective data, which lead to the creation of new knowledge. The scope of
data in library service cannot be over emphasised. Data sources form an equally
important part of library resources.
2.7
1)
Literally, the word data means anything that is given. Data are facts or
information used in discussing or deciding something. The term connotes
diverse things. In sum the term includes facts, figures, letters, symbols,
words, charts, and graphs that represent an idea, object or condition. Data
are measured quantities or derived qualitative values. Data forms the basis
for drawing conclusions, taking policy decisions and formulating and
implementing plans. As a rule, data have the attributes of clarity, accuracy
and usability. They present the essence of the matter.
2)
For categorising data in sciences, certain parameters are used. There are
six parameters using which six basic types of data are derived. Within
each of these types there are two or three classes. The parameters for
categorisation used in sciences are: 1) time factor, 2) location factor, 3)
mode of generation, 4) quantitative values, 5) terms of expressions, and
6) modes of presentation. It is easy to understand the nature of data after
first categorising them on the basis of these parameters. In all, one finds
fifteen classes of data in sciences as a result of applying these parameters.
3)
As sciences, data are categorised in social sciences in several ways. On

the basis of characteristics of observation, data in social sciences are
categorised into two types, viz., quantitative and qualitative. Another
categorisation of data is according to the origin of data, which yields two
types: primary and secondary. Cross-section data and time series data are
yet another categorisation in social sciences. Here, the parameter used is
time factor. Using scales of measurement we get either continuous data
or discrete data. Besides, there are four scales or levels used for deriving
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data. Lastly, dependent upon the
39
Property and Scope
number of characteristics observed, we get univariate, bivariate, or

multivariate data. This is how data are categorised in Social Sciences.
4)
According to the CODATA definition, data are a crystallised presentation

of the essence of knowledge in the most accurate form. In the opinion of
CODATA, clarity is an essential attribute of data. We learn from the
UNESCO definition that data are concepts in a formalised manner suitable
for communication and interpretation. Unless data display clarity, neither
communication nor interpretation is possible. If there is no clarity, the
meaning desired to be communicated will remain hidden and the purpose
of presenting data will be defeated. Many presentation techniques exist
for lending clarity to data.
5)
Data are required in all scientific, socio-economic and management

operations. With the increased applied research for socio-economic and
technological development, the importance of data has increased now all
the more. All socio-economic programme, scientific investigations,
planning activities and operational work require large measures of data of
various types. Every decision problem calls for data. The first step in any
research design is data collection. Neither enquiry can be conducted, nor
problem solved without reference to available facts on the variables
involved. Data are the basis upon which the hypotheses are formulated
and tested and theories are built. The importance of data in library services
is truly immense.
2.8
KEYWORDS
Observation
: A recording of a single datum.
Phenomenon
: Fact or occurrence (Phenomena is the plural

form).
Population
: An aggregate of individual units, whether

composed of people or things, having the
characteristic under study.
2.9
Busha, Charles and Harter, Stephen P. (1980). Research Methods in

Librarianship, Techniques and Interpretation. New York: Academic Press.
Carpenter, Ray L. (1978). Statistical Methods for Librarianship. Chicago: ALA.
Kochen, Manfred (1967). The Growth of Knowledge: Readings on Organisation
and Retrieval of Information. New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Smith, J.M. and McCombs, M.E. (1971). The Graphics of Prose. Journalism
Quarterly. 48, 134-36.
40
UNIT 3 INFORMATION: DEFINITION,

TYPES, NATURE, PROPERTIES
AND SCOPE
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Information: Nature
3.2.1 Disciplines Centered around Information
3.2.2 Information Theory
3.3 Information: Definitions and Concepts

3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5
3.3.6
3.3.7
Belkin
Wersig and Neveling
Brookes
Bells Approach
Machlups Approach
Information Science(s): The Power of Plural s
Relevance to Library and Information Studies
3.4 Information: Types

3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.4.5
By Source
By Channel
By Media
By Recipient
By Information Needs
3.5 Information: Properties

3.5.1 General
3.5.2 Scientific and Technical Information
3.5.2 Technological and Economic Information
3.6 Barriers to Information

3.7 Information Studies: Scope
3.7.1 Ranganathans Five Laws and Information Studies
3.7.2 Observations of B.C. Vickery on Information Science
3.8 Summary
3.10 Keywords
3.0
OBJECTIVES

l
recognise the knowledge spectrum and its validity to library and

information science;
get a good overview of the nature, definition and concept of information;
pick out the appropriate definition(s) of information that fulfills the

requirements for library and information service;
41
Property and Scope
obtain a clear insight into the types and kinds of information;
discern the qualities and properties of and barriers to information; and
grasp the widening scope of library and information science.
3.1
INTRODUCTION
We have studied data, information and knowledge in the earlier two units with
reference to their meanings, interrelationships and value in general and in
particular, with reference to their relevance to library and information service.
In this Unit, information is seen as an element of a knowledge spectrum.
Information is also studied here as forming a link in a communication transfer
chain, which integrates the source that generates it, the channel employed to
transmit it through a medium to a receiver who finally receives it to fit it into
his specific needs.
We shall also give a brief resume of literature on the nature, definitions and
concept of information; and also disciplines wherein information is their core.
This idea is illustrated with a schematic diagram to give an idea of the range
and variety of subjects falling under this ambit. The purpose of this exposure
to different ideas on information is to put our discussion in proper perspective
vis--vis, their relevance to the expanding dimensions of library and information
science.
As there is no single universally accepted definition of information, there can
be no single set of characteristics or grouping of information into its types.
The basis of grouping or classification of information has to be in relation to
the information transfer process that links sources, media, channels, recipients
and their needs, which are inseparable.
The qualities and properties of information while depending upon all different
types have their own attributes, some of which are universally recognised and
accepted. There are also quite a few barriers that obstruct the free flow of
information.
The scope of information is studied with reference to its expanding dimensions
and contexts of use. Ranganthans Five Laws of Library Science restated with
focus on information admirably fits in with the new dimensions of information
service. Vickery in his book Information Science: Theory and Practice (1987)
has given his views on the new dimensions of information science. The ideas
of two eminent persons in this field are sketched briefly in this Unit.
3.2
INFORMATION: NATURE
The word information is defined or interpreted very differently in the

disciplines that have information as their core area of study and research. The
nature of information is that, it is an element of a knowledge spectrum [Debons,
1980]. Here data, information, knowledge, and wisdom are viewed as part of
a continuum, one leading to another, each the result of actions on the preceding,
with no clear boundaries between them. This knowledge spectrum is presented
in figure 3.1.
42
Fig. 3.1: Knowledge Spectrum
Information, Definion, Types,

43
Property and Scope
3.2.1 Disciplines Centered around Information

There are a number of disciplines that claim to be dealing with the phenomena
of information as their central core. Some of these disciplines are:
l
Electrical Engineering e.g. signal transmission over noisy channels as

propounded in the Information Theory of Shannon;
Computer Technology e.g. information processing, storage and retrieval

as bits;
Physical Sciences e.g. information considered as an abstraction similar to

matter and energy; also analogous to the phenomena of movement and
diffusion, structure, communication and entropy;
Biological Sciences e.g. information processing in living beings;
Behavioural Sciences e.g. cognitive process of information;
Social Sciences e.g. sociology and economics of information and

knowledge; here information is viewed as a resource and an economic
commodity;
Philosophical Studies e.g. conventional and modern studies on

epistemology;
Linguistic Studies e.g. expressing, structuring, coding and communicating

ideas and information;
Library and Information Studies e.g. application of Information

Technology for conventional practices of librarianship and the new
dimension that are evolving, including the newly emerging information
systems and services;
Information Science and Technology e.g. studies involving the intersection

of disciplines mentioned above.
While all the above areas of studies may be worthy of detailed discussions to
understand the nature of information and the knowledge spectrum, we shall
confine ourselves here to examine only those that are relevant and directly
useful to library and information studies.
3.2.2 Information Theory

Before we consider the definitions and concept of information, let us sketch
briefly the theory of information of Shannon-Weaver, as it has been a source
model, which has inspired quite a few studies in library and information science.
44
This theory pertains more accurately to the communication process of signal

transmission and has an extremely sophisticated mathematical base for
examining the effects of transmission of messages. When the communication
engineers use the word information, they are not concerned with contents
but the messages that the sender, by signals, conveys to the receiver to select a
particular message from the ensemble of possible messages. Therefore, in this
narrow technical sense of the term, information is the statistical probability of
a sign or signal being selected from a given set of signs or signals.
The model has been simplified into a flow model viz.

Source Message Channel Receiver

This model recurs implicitly or explicitly in many of the information transfer
systems that have been evolved dealing with contents of information as well.
Information transfer process in scientific communication is explained usually
as a flow model corresponding to the model of information theory stated above.
It has been found useful to deal with information transfer in this way in different
situations in library and information service.
Self Check Exercise
1)
Enumerate the disciplines that have information as their core area of study,
indicating the information aspect that is studied.
2)
Explain the simplified model of information transfer derived from

Shannon-Weaver Theory.
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
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3.3
INFORMATION: DEFINITIONS AND

CONCEPTS
In this section, we are presenting a quick resume of the literature on the

discussions on the definitions and concepts of information. There are too
many formal definitions and none has universal acceptability, as the word
information used is differently in the context in which the word figures.
Therefore, it would be more useful and appropriate to give a brief review on
the definition and concept of information rather than stating a few formal
definitions of information.
Most writers take the position that the word information is used with many
different connotations and a single precise definition encompassing all the
aspects cannot in principle be formulated. Whatever be the definitions of
information, a science of information, could be useful for studying the structure
of information science.
3.3.1 Belkin
In an elaborate study on the information concepts for Information Science,
Belkin makes a distinction between definition and concept. The distinction is
while a definition presumably defines the phenomenon, the concept is looking
at or interpreting the phenomenon. By accepting the idea of a concept, it
45
Property and Scope
becomes easier to look for a useful concept rather than attempting a universal
definition of information.
Belkin postulates three approaches to the determination of the requirement of
an information concept:
l
Methodological having to do with utility of the concept;
Behavioural having to do with the phenomena which the concept must

account for; and
Definitional having to do with the context of the concept.
With these postulates, the following eight requirements are enumerated which
would be relevant and operational to develop a structure of information science:
1)
It must refer to information within the context of purposeful, meaningful

communication;
2)
It should account for information as a process of social communication

among human beings;
3)
It should account for information being requested or desired;
4)
It must account for the relationship between information and state of

knowledge of generator and recipient;
5)
It should account for the effect of information on the recipient;
6)
It should account for the varying effects of messages presented in different

ways;
7)
It must generalise beyond the individual case; and
8)
It should offer a means of prediction of the effect of information.
Requirements 1 to 6 pertain to relevance of information to user communities;

the rest two are operational requirements to design and develop useful model
of information systems.
3.3.2 Wersig and Neveling

Wersig and Neveling consider information much more comprehensively,
adopting six different approaches:
46
1)
The Structural Approach (matter oriented) in which information is seen

as structures of the world or static relations between physical objects which
may be perceived or not;
2)
The Knowledge Approach, which records knowledge that is built up on

the basis of perception of the structure of the world. This approach is not
recommended because knowledge and information are used as synonyms;
3)
The Message Approach in which information is recorded as symbols

oriented in a physical career. This approach is used only by those
concerned with the mathematical theory of communication;
4)
The Meaning Approach where the semantic content of a message is

accepted as information;
5)
The Effect Approach or the Recipient-Oriented Approach, which states

that information occurs only as a specific effect of a process;
6)
The Process Approach where information is seen as a process, which,

for example, occurs in the human mind when a problem and useful data
are brought together.

The substance of these approaches is that information is a social process, and

can be understood if it is in relation to needs either as reduction of uncertainty
caused by a communication of data or as data used for reducing uncertainty.
3.3.3 Brookes
Brookes, the well known British Bibliometrician and Information Scientist,
takes yet another stand. According to him knowledge is a summation of many
bits of information, which have been organised into some sort of coherent
entity. The relationship is expressed in a simple equation, which he calls the
fundamental equation of information science.
K [S] + I = K [S+ S],
which states in its very general way that the knowledge structure K[S] is
changed to the new modified structure K[S + S] by the information I, the
S indicating the effect of the modification.
In other words, K is a knowledge structure and [S+ S] is modified knowledge
structure caused by the absorption of the increment of information I to K [S]
Brookes says that the equation is not strictly a mathematical expression but
merely expressed in a pseudo-mathematical form because it is the most compact
way in which the idea can be expressed. It merely says that a knowledge
structure changes when bits of information are added to it and the new structure
can be interpreted to have changed from its original structure and nothing
more. It does not express any exact measure of change.
Brookess fundamental equation of information science K [S] + I = K [S+
S] is a very profound expression of the human and natural way of thinking
and suggests a basis for treating various aspects of information related
phenomena. Having defined information as a small bit of knowledge and as
an entity, which pervades all human activity, Brookes further, explains his
view of knowledge as a structure of concepts linked by their relationship and
information as a small part of such structure. Objective knowledge is the
main concept around which Brookess fundamental equation operates.
But Brookes is inconclusive, as the equation defines the unknown in terms of
unknown and is symbolised by a vicious circle of very small radius. But it is
useful, he says, to express in this way because the same I may have a different
affect on different knowledge structures. Brookes believes that the fundamental
problem of information science is to interpret this equation and thereby explain
information process.
Self Check Exercise
3)
State the difference between concept and definition as exemplified by

Belkin.
47
Property and Scope
4)
Give the salient points on the nature and definition of information

propounded by a) Belkin, b) Wersig and c) Brookes.

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3.3.4 Bells Approach

Daniel Bell, the eminent, Harvard Sociology Professor, in his famous book
The Coming of the Post-industrial Society, a venture in social forecasting,
and in his subsequent books places emphasis on the centrality of theoretical
knowledge as the source of innovation and policy formation in an information
society. The social transformation of a society from industrial to a postindustrial society (information society) is based on the creation of a new
intellectual knowledge. He asserts that this is a key tool for system analysis
and decision theory based on the new theoretical knowledge, computerisation,
formal rules and procedures; it involves new methods which seek to substitute
an algorithm i.e. decision rules for intuitive judgements. While there are other
consequent factors arising out of the centrality of the new intellectual theoretical
knowledge that transform a society, the knowledge factor is the primordial
factor, ushering a society into new times.
While some of the premises of Bells theory are contested and questioned
with reference to information society, the fact that information and knowledge
are the real moving force of the social transformation is generally accepted.
Dealing with his thesis, he defines data, information and knowledge in a
pragmatic manner for a proper comprehension of his approach.
Bell suggests that information is data processing in the broadest sense; the
storage and processing of data becomes the essential resource for all economic
and social changes. These include:
48
Data processing of record payrolls, government benefits (e.g. social

security), bank clearances, credit clearances and the like.
Data-bases: characteristics and features of populations shown by census

data, market research, opinion surveys, election analysis and the like.
Data processing for scheduling: airline and railway reservations,

production scheduling, inventory analysis, document delivery priorities
in libraries and information centres, and the like.
Knowledge is an organised set of statements of facts or ideas, presenting a

reasoned judgement or an experimental result, which is transmitted to others
through some communication medium in some systematic form. Knowledge
consists of new judgements (Research and Scholarship) or presentation of older
judgements as exemplified in textbooks, teaching and learning, and collected

as library and archival material.

This approach of Bell appears to be in conformity with the objectives of library
and information services, in providing support to any activity, irrespective of
the type i.e. data, information or knowledge.
Self Check Exercise
5)
What are the premises on which Bell bases his arguments on the
transformation of the Industrial Society into Information Society?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.

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3.3.5 Machlups Approach

Fritz Machlup, an Austrian Economist, immigrated to the United States during
the inter-war years, is said to be the pioneer of information economics.
Machlups studies on information and knowledge through his seminal book in
1962 viz. The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States
and his subsequent publications on knowledge and information, placed
information and knowledge as the primary economic resource for growth and
development of any economy.
Machlups distinction between information and knowledge is succinctly
described as shown in the tabular statement given below:
Information
Knowledge
is piecemeal, fragmented, particular is structured, coherent and often of

enduring significance;
is timely, transitory, perhaps even
ephemeral
is a stock, largely resulting from the

flow, inputs of information;
is a flow of messages
may affect the stock of knowledge by

adding to it, restructuring it or
changing it in any way
Later studies based on the Machlups approach included a number of sectors,

handling information in one way or the other. These encompass sectors of
primary information, secondary, computer-based information providers,
information retailers, seminar and conference services, information support
services, etc.
The important aspects for us to note in these studies of Machlup and Bell, the
former considering information as a vital economic resource and the latter
dealing with information and knowledge as primary factor in the social
49
Fig. 3.2: A Panoramic view of Information Science: A Cluster of Disciplines and Specialities
Property and Scope
50
transformation of a society, are that library and information services are very
essential infra-structural support facilities for every human activity, just as the
financial, transport, power sectors are.

3.3.6 Information Science(s): The Power of Plural S

In another major work viz. Study of information: interdisciplinary messages,
Machlup provides an epitomised study on a number of disciplines, which have
information as their core.
A schematic diagram of the various disciplines centering round information is
given in figure 3.2.
The different chapters of this Work written by experts in their respective
disciplines, present a neatly organised state-of-the-art report to prompt and
initiate healthy debates and discussions of critical issues relating to information
studies.
Machlup says, the bond among the Information Sciences is their focus on
information as the object of study, though it is important to bear in mind that
the word information is interpreted very differently by various groups of
researches. Like the Natural Sciences and the Social Sciences, Information
Sciences need no single paradigm, no overarching scientific research
programmes, no common fundamental postulates and axioms, no unified
conceptual framework.
The final statement that Machlup makes on the various aspects of his study is
that the use of the word information where only observation and analysis
are involved is unwarranted. Those who believe that observations of physical
reality or consultation of data tell us anything have misunderstood the basic
lessons of methodology. He goes on to say that when information theorists
explain their system, they make a sad misuse of language; they explicitly
abstract them from a meaning-content of the signals, the transmission of which
they describe. Their system does not care about telling anything, directing or
advising anybody, arousing anybodys interest or inducing any decision or
emotions. Appropriate expression to use in the context would be signal
transmission, or actuation or activating impulses. The use of the word
information in this sense has led to unending confusion.
Self Check Exercise
6)
Sum up Machlups approach to information science as a cluster of many

disciplines wherein the central core is information.

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51
Property and Scope
3.3.7 Relevance to Library and Information Studies

Libraries and Information Centres have always been concerned with
information and knowledge, as these constitute their stockin-trade.
The emphasis and accent are always on developing better tools and techniques
for organising, managing and servicing recorded data, information and
knowledge, irrespective of their physical media. They have not been so much
concerned per se with universal definitions of data, information or knowledge
as they were more concerned with supplying relevant information, data or
knowledge to those who seek them without making any distinction between
them.
Nevertheless the debates and discussions on the nature and definition of
information do provide us a sharper focus on the contents and quality of
information service to users either for reducing uncertainty to their prior
information or perception of information/knowledge or help in taking right
decisions in different contexts or aiding their studies or research or adding to
or enriching their already existing knowledge. The main concern of library
and information scientists involved in a communication transfer process is
about the intellectual and semantic contents of information and the provision
of high quality service.
Another point to be noted here is that the words nature, definition, type, property,
scope of information are not mutually exclusive both in their meanings and
usage. Their meanings overlap very considerably and hence their scope should
be understood in their contexts.
Information and Communication Technology, Multimedia, Internet, Web and
other related technologies have introduced a total metamorphosis in the methods
and techniques of organisation and offering services in libraries and cognate
institutions. But no technology by itself can ever change, modify, alter, or
negate, information contents under any circumstances. Electronic Libraries,
Virtual Libraries, Digital Libraries, and such other expressions are indicating
only the physical store and the consequent changes in the organisation of such
libraries; they have nothing to do with the contents of material these libraries
have.
3.4
INFORMATION: TYPES
We have been discussing so far the nature, concept and definition of information
in general and with reference to disciplines that have information as their central
theme. But these discussions also have to be seen along with the different
types of information to get an overall view of it in all its dimensions. We shall
examine, in this section, the fuller dimensions of information with reference
to its different manifestations.
52
Just as the word information has no single universally accepted definition,

there is no one single way we can group or classify information. In fact, the
types of information could be grouped using different characteristics depending
upon the purpose of such a classification. Keeping these in view, let us choose
a set of characteristics on the basis of the modified Shannon-Weaver Model of
information transfer with an added one viz. information needs. These are:
Source Channel Media Information Needs Recipients

Source is the mode of communicating messages through signs, symbols, texts

or graphics;
Channel refers to the established carriers that disseminate information
knowledge or any type of their surrogates;
Media are the physical media that carry messages or contents of information;
Information Needs indicate the types of information that are normally
communicated to those who seek the different types of information relevant to
their needs. The scope to divide information in this way, however, is almost
unlimited; and
Recipient is the ultimate receiver of information who may also generate or
create information.
3.4.1 By Source
Using source as a characteristic, information can be grouped as follows:
Signals, Message in the form of Signs, Symbols, Words and Numbers e.g.
Mathematical formulae, Stastistical and Factual data, etc.;
Text matter, carrying larger amount of messages or information; and
Graphics of various kinds , e.g. Photographs, Pictures, Graphs, etc.
It may be worthwhile repeating here that in this context source connotes the
way in which information is communicated, i.e. in the form of signals, textual
matter or graphics, irrespective of the persons or groups who generate
information.
Self Check Exercise
7)
Explain briefly the relevance of the discussion of the different authors

who have been examining the nature and definition to the study of Library
and Information Science.
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3.4.2 By Channel
Using channel as a carrier that disseminates information for grouping
information, we have the following terms e.g. Literature, Organisations and
Institutions, and Agencies that distribute them.
Literature: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary channels. The different
characteristics of these three with examples are given below:
53
Property and Scope
Primary
Characteristics
Examples
1) New, Original or new interpretations

of known facts and ideas
Research papers
Journal articles
2) Unorganised and unrelated, each

unit being a separate
Conference Papers
and Proceedings
Official publications
3) Widely scattered
Theses and Dissertations

Project Reports
4) Unassimilated into the general

body of knowledge
Diaries, Memos,
Correspondence,
Personal files
Secondary
Characteristics
Examples
1) Information derived from

primary sources
Bibliographies,
Current Awareness
Bulletins
2) Organised and arranged

according to a definite plan
Indexing and
Abstracting journals
Reviews, State-of-the-art
Reports
3) Scattered information collected
Reports, Progress,
Advances, etc.
4) Repositories of assimilated and

digested knowledge
Reference books,
Dictionaries,
Encyclopedias
5) Bibliographical key to primary literature
Directories
Tertiary
Characteristics
54
Examples
1) Compilations of primary and

secondary sources
Bibliographies of
Bibliographies, Year Books
2) Organised and arranged according

to a definite plan
Directories, List of
Research in Progress
Guides to Literature
3) Aids to searching primary and

secondary sources
Information Sources,
Organisations, Human
Resources

Information Institutions
Libraries, Documentation and Information Centres, Information Analysis
Centres, and such others. These institutions collect, process, analyse,
disseminate all the three types of literature mentioned above
Distribution Agencies
Booksellers, Subscriptions Agents, Clearing Houses, Information Brokers and
such others. While information institutions are essentially agencies involved
in the provision of information services with reference to a specific clientele,
distribution agencies are largely commercial agencies, selling information.
However these distinctions are getting blurred with the advent of information
technology.
3.4.3 By Media
Using physical media as a characteristic for grouping information, we have
the following:
Oral: Person to person, one to one, one to many,
many to many;
Recorded: Paper-print
Microforms
Audio, visual and audio-visual
Electronic/ Digital
In the above categories, we distinguish Oral with other types of textual matter,
irrespective of their physical media. Oral information refers to voice
information with or without any corresponding textual information.
3.4.4 By Recipient
Using recipient as a characteristic for grouping information, we have the
following that receive and use information and knowledge for various
requirements:
Individuals, Groups, Organisations and Institutions.
3.4.5 By Information Needs

Using Information needs as a characteristic for grouping information, we have
the following Information Needs:
By Standard
By Type
Popular
Know-why
Scientific
Know-how
Technical
Show-how
Know why Information: more scientifically oriented information, readily

accessible in the numerous secondary tools (data bases), available in libraries
and information centers, Internet and also easily transferable.
Know-how Information: more technically oriented and noticed in the tools
and more difficult to locate and obtain, less easy to transfer.
55
Property and Scope
Show-how Information: operational skills, maintenance and control

capabilities, seldom recorded in communicable form, and therefore, never gets
recorded in any primary or secondary tools. Transferable only through personal
contacts and interactions, depending very much upon the willingness of the
person who has the skills to share them with others.
Recipients and information needs, as characteristics for grouping while
producing different sets or classes of information, are in fact, closely
intertwined. As B C Vickery puts it, the social position of recipients, their
activities, knowledge generation and information input, knowledge structure,
ability to assimilate, communication behaviour, etc. may still be a series of
influences that will determine the information needs of individuals or groups.
Information systems and services must respond to these kinds of requirements.
Self Check Exercise
8)
Summarise the classification of information as discussed in Section 3.4,

in a tabular form.

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3.5
INFORMATION: PROPERTIES
Information can be examined from the point of view of its inherent properties.
We are studying them here with reference to those that apply to i) Information
in general, ii) Scientific and Technical Information, iii) Information pertaining
to technology and economics.
3.5.1 General
l
Information is not consumed in its use.
Information can be shared by many and can be used simultaneously without

any loss to anyone.
It is the most democratic resource in that it can be consumed by all,

depending upon their intake capacity, particularly in the context of Internet
facilities.
Knowledge is dynamic, ever growing and continuing and no final word is

said or will ever be said on any aspect of it.
(Note: Information is the building block of knowledge)

56
3.5.2 Scientific and Technical Information

l
Universal, particularly in the physical, chemical and biological sciences.
Open and available to all who seek them, through a well organised and
operated communication system.
A system of peer review and mode of communication operates in its

dissemination.
Peer group review ensures quality control of information.
Healthy competition results on account of peer review and speedy

communication.
Becomes obsolete in fast developing disciplines and the obsolescence

factor is quite high in some of them.
Exponential growth in scientific publications has been causing concern

in accessibility and availability.

3.5.3 Technological and Economic Information

l
Highly competitive, particularly because of business interests, for reasons

of security of nations.
Secretive because of competition and security.
As described in Unit 1 of this course, knowledge and information have become

a very powerful weapon for economic and political superiority among nations.
The generation of new knowledge and its applications for various purposes
has been given the highest priority in recent decades, particularly among western
industrialised societies. The developing countries naturally suffer from a
number of constraints in the acquisition, storage, processing, disseminating
and making them available for use, despite Internet facilities. Some of the
barriers to information also restrict the use of information and knowledge among
the information-poorer nations. The following section projects some of these
barriers to information.
Self Check Exercise
9)
List three broad groups under which information properties are studied in
this Unit.
Note: i)
Write your answer in the space given below
ii) Check your answer with the answer given at the end of the Unit
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57
Property and Scope
3.6
BARRIERS TO INFORMATION
A variety of obstacles are hindering the free flow and use of information and
knowledge. Some of these barriers are deliberate and hence do not appear
within easy means to overcome these barriers.
The barriers to communication of information flow are of the following kinds:
Language
Language
Jargon
Presentation
Man-man
Neologism
Level
Man-machine
Synonym
Style
Antonym
Form
While language is a powerful means of communication, the barriers caused by

jargons and levels of presentation fail to convey the message intended to be
communicated.
Problems of Cultural and Social Differentiation
Communication
Media
Socio-Economic
Multiplicity of Sources
Comprehension
Culture
Seepage and scatter
Perception
Alien of Reality
Misunderstanding
Level of Development
of countries
Cultural and Social differentiation may cause serious problems of

communication. These problems may be overcome by appropriate presentation
of information.
Problems of Volume, Mis-information and Delays
Over Population
Pollution (Noise)
Delays in Handling
Primary papers
Propaganda
Publication
Rehash
Redundant Data
Postal Transit
Abstracts, Digests, etc.
Error
Translation
Processing
Searching
Accessing
Document Delivery
Feedback
In this group, the problems posed by volume, mis-information and delays in

publication due to various reasons
Economic, Political, Legal Barriers
58
Economic
Political
Regulatory
Direct Cost
Instability
Foreign Exchange
Overheads
War
Customs
This group of barriers indicates the problem of costs, political situation of a

country and other legal measures of a country.

Some of the barriers have been removed through ease of accessibility and
availability of hard copies through Internet. But the crux is the capacity to use
information and knowledge that makes a society to grow and develop.
Self Check Exercise
10) State the different kinds of barriers to information.
ii) Check your answer with the answer given at the end of the Unit
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3.7
INFORMATION STUDIES: SCOPE
The scope of information and the other associated concepts have been discussed
at length in Units 1 and 2 of this Block with reference their relevance, value,
role and importance in all human activities. We have also learnt that
information and knowledge has value, utility only if it is communicated which
makes information and communication inseparable, sometimes even
indistinguishable.
It is necessary, therefore, to discuss the scope of information studies in a broader
perspective in relation to communication process of information transfer which
has been studied in some detail in earlier sections of this Unit. Source, Channel,
Media, Recipient, and User constitute the elements that form an Information
Transfer Chain.
Our primary focus being library and information studies, it is also appropriate
to examine the scope of information in relation to to the expanding dimensions
of information services.
3.7.1 Ranganathans Five Laws and Information Studies

Ranganathans Five Laws of Library Science examined in the light of the canvas
of Information Studies, give the widest implications as it is evolving today.
Restated with focus on information, the Five Laws are:
l
Information is for Use
Every User his/her Information
Every Information its User
59
Property and Scope
Save the Time of the User; its corollary, Save the Time of the Information
Services staff
Information Institution is a Growing Organism.
The First Law stresses the value of information in its use. Information pervades
every human activity, be it personal or corporate. In an information society, as
has been evolving; information is viewed as a vital resource, as vital as finance.
Information today is an economic resource and a very basic input in every
human growth and development. It is important to reiterate that information
has value only in its use. Mere possession of information in whatever form, if
remains idle in a store, even if it is in a highly sophisticated digital form, will
only remain ornamental.
The concept of information society is very much in conformity with
Ranaganathans perceptions. In fact, the well-known adage, Knowledge is
Wealth. Knowledge is Power is captured in these ideas to reinforce the
power of information and knowledge that transform non-resources into potential
resources.
In essence, the First Law comprehends a whole range of aspects of information
studies that includes:
l
Development of document and non-document resources;
Organisation and management of these information resources;
Techniques and tools for processing the collections of information,

irrespective of their physical form;
Use of different kinds of literature in various contexts;
Bibliometric studies measuring the value, growth, and development;
National and international information policies.
The Second Law suggests that information services should be entirely oriented
towards users needs. User Studies, therefore, are crucial to objectivity and
should show proper direction to services. This thinking is analogous to
customer-oriented services in business. Such a service includes among others;
l
Behaviour patterns of information gathering habits by different categories

of Users in different contexts;
Use and Users of different types of information;
Study of interest profiles of users that includes individuals, groups,

institutions and projects, programs and such others;
The emphasis in this Law is on the User of Information.
60
In the Third Law the focus is on information. The entire information transfer
process should be in consonance with the ultimate use. The primary principle
in information service is Right Information to the Right User in the Right
Time is communicated here. Primary, secondary, and tertiary communication
channels should be focused on use. In other words, marketing of information,
keeping users information needs in view is stressed, providing scope for
innovative products and services, irrespective of their physical form and media
of communication.
The Fourth Law places the highest emphasis on the most precious resource
Time. Time loss is a loss forever. Timeliness in anything and speed with
which it is accomplished with quality is the essence of service. The use of
Information Technology enables a total metamorphosis in improving the means
and mechanics to provide high quality information service. Information
professionals should be geared to this transformation process that hinges on
education and training and more importantly building up a proper perspective,
developing high skilled capability in the use of IT for various Information
Services. Use promotion, education in information use skills and user
friendliness make the use and operation of a system not only simple but also
saves great amount of valuable time. Continuous research on all aspects of
information handling is an absolute necessity, keeping all these factors in view.
But it must be borne in mind, the contents of information are the meat and IT
is today an excellent enabling tool to get the meat palatable. The proof of the
pudding is in the eating and not in the making.

The Fifth Law refers to the dynamics of change, which is seen in the
evergrowing, sometimes, turbulent advancement of knowledge, which is a
dynamic continuum and ever-growing phenomenon. The institutional
mechanisms for handling and servicing information needs have to change in
conformity with the corresponding changes in the information environment
with a self-adapting capacity to these constant changes. The library and
Information professionals must have a clear view of this need for affecting
changes in the institutional mechanisms.
These Laws of Ranaganathan are not scientific generalisations but norms,
percepts, guides to good practice in the wider field of information studies and
their new expanding dimensions.
3.7.2 Observations of B.C. Vickery on Information Science

Vickery (1983) puts the changing dimensions of information studies as given
below:
l
The behaviour of people as generators, sources, recipients and users of

information, all of whom are partners in the information transfer process;
The qualitative study of messages: size, growth rate, distribution, pattern

of production and use;
The semantic organisation of messages and of channels that facilitate their

identification by sources and recipients;
Problems particularly associated with functions of information storage,

analysis and retrieval;
The overall organisation of information systems and their performances

in transfer;
The social context of information transfer, in particular its economics and

politics.
61
Property and Scope
Self Check Exercise

11) Give briefly the scope of information studies as viewed by Vickery and
Ranganathan.
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3.8
SUMMARY
In this Unit, Information is studied from two perspectives.

In the first , information is seen as an element of a knowledge spectrum with
all its implications for a multiplicity of studies with information as a central
theme of study. This approach has given rise to the development of a number
of disciplines, each of which has a specific focus on information. The definition
of information, therefore, has a wide-ranging variety and no single definition
has emerged as common to all the disciplines.
Yet the model provided by
Shannon-Weaver in their Mathematical Theory of Communication has helped
specialists in Library and Information Science to view information as a
communication flow model in the context Information Transfer Chain.
In the second perspective, the nature and definition of information as has been
propounded by five different experts viz. Belkin, Wersig and Neveling,
Brookes, Bell, and Machlup have been discussed. The relevance of all these
discussions to Library and Information Science has been pointed out.
The Information Transfer Chain Model has been taken as a method of examining
the different types of information. Source, Channel, Media, Recipient, and
Information Needs are the characteristics that have been used for studying
information types with suitable examples.
The properties of information are also examined in the light of their general,
scientific and technical and economic and political points of view.
The barriers in communication are discussed with reference to a number of
constraints in information communication and transfer.
In the light of these discussions, the scope of information studies is discussed.
Vickerys approach and the Five Laws of Library Science are taken as
illustrating examples to delineate the scope of Information Science.
62
3.9
1)
2)

The disciplines that claim to be dealing with the phenomena of information

as their central core are:
l
Electrical Engineering e.g. signal transmission over noisy channels

as propounded in the Information Theory of Shannon;
Computer Technology e.g. information processing, storage and

retrieval as bits;
Physical Sciences e.g. information considered as an abstraction similar

to matter and energy; also analogous to the phenomena of movement
and diffusion, structure, communication and entropy;
Biological Sciences e.g. information processing in living beings;
Behavioural Sciences e.g. cognitive process of information;
Social Sciences e.g. sociology and economics of information and

knowledge; here information is viewed as a resource and an economic
commodity;
Philosophical Studies e.g. conventional and modern studies on

epistemology;
Linguistic Studies e.g. expressing, structuring, coding and

communicating ideas and information;
Library and Information Studies e.g. application of Information

Technology for conventional practices of librarianship and the new
dimension that are evolving, including the newly emerging
information systems and services;
Information Science and Technology e.g. studies involving the

intersection of disciplines mentioned above.
The Information Theory of Shannon-Weaver pertains more accurately to

the communication process of signal transmission and has an extremely
sophisticated mathematical base for examining the effects of transmission
of messages. The word information, here is not concerned with contents
but the messages that the sender, by signals, conveys to the receiver to
select a particular message from the ensemble of possible messages.
Therefore, in this narrow technical sense of the term, information is the
statistical probability of a sign or signal being selected from a given set of
signs or signals.
The model has been simplified into a flow model viz.
Source Message Channel Receiver
This model recurs implicitly or explicitly in many of the information
Transfer Systems that have been evolved dealing with contents of
information as well.
Information transfer Process in scientific
communication is explained usually as a flow model corresponding to
the model of information theory stated above. It has been found useful to
deal with information transfer in this way in different situations in Library
and Information Service.
63
Property and Scope
3)
A definition defines the phenomenon; but a concept interprets the

phenomenon. Instead of trying to define the phenomenon for which there
is no one single definition acceptable to all; it is more useful to interpret
the concept of information in all its ramifications in different contexts. It
leads to explain the transfer process of information.
Belkin postulates three approaches to the determination of the requirement
of an information concept:
4)
Methodological having to do with utility of the concept;
Behavioural having to do with the phenomena which the concept

must account for;
Definitional having to do with the context of the concept.
With these postulates, the eight requirements are enumerated of which

the first six pertain to relevance of information to user communities; the
rest two are operational requirements to design and develop useful models
of information systems and to build a structure of information science.
Wersig and Neveling consider information in a much comprehensively
adopting six different approaches:
l
The structural approach
The Knowledge approach
The Message approach
The Meaning approach
The effect approach or the Recipient-oriented approach
The Process approach
The substance of these approaches is that information is a social process

and can be understood only if defined in relation to needs either to reduction
of uncertainty caused by a communication of data or as data used for
reducing uncertainty.
According to Brookes, knowledge is a summation of many bits of
information, which have been organized into some sort of coherent entity.
This relationship is expressed in a simple equation, which he calls the
fundamental equation of Information Science.
K (S) + 1
= K (S + S)
Where K is knowledge structure and (S + S) is the modified knowledge

structure caused by the absorption of the increment of information I to
K(S). He believes that the fundamental problem of Information Science
is to interpret this equation and thereby to explain the information process.
5)
64
Daniel Bell places emphasis on the centrality of theoretical knowledge as

the source of innovation and policy formation in a information Society.
The social transformation of a society from industrial to a post-industrial
Society (information society) is based on the creation of a new intellectual
knowledge. He asserts that this is a key tool for system analysis and
decision theory based on the new theoretical knowledge, computerization,
formal rules and procedures; it involves new methods which seek to
substitute an algorithm i.e. decision rules for intuitive judgments.
6)
Machlup says that the bond among the Information Sciences is their focus
on information as the object of study, though it is important to bear in
mind that the word information is interpreted very differently by various
groups of researchers.

Like the Natural Sciences and Social Sciences, Information Sciences need
no single paradigm, no overarching scientific research programs, no
common fundamental postulates and axioms, no united conceptual
framework.
It is, therefore, possible for several disciplines (wherein the central theme
of study is information) to keep their own identity and yet be together as
a cluster of independent disciplines. He, however, urges that the word
information should not be used where only observation and analysis are
involved.
7)
The discussions on the nature and definition of information provide us a

sharper focus on the common and quality of information service to users
either for reducing uncertainty to their prior information or perceptions or
help in taking right decisions in different contexts or aiding their studies
or research or adding to or enriching their already existing knowledge.
The main concern of library and information scientists, being involved in
a communication transfer process, is to the intellectual and semantic
contents of information and the provision of offering high quality service.
This approach coalesces well with the general philosophy of library and
information science.
8)
The three broad properties of information with examples are:

General: Information is not consumed in its use. It can be shared by
many and can be used simultaneously without any loss to anyone.
Scientific Information: Universal, particularly in the physical, chemical
and biological sciences. Open and available to all who seek them, through
a well organized communication system.
Technological and Economic Information: Restricted because of time
and geographical space bound. Competitive because of business interests,
sometimes for reasons of security of nation.
9)
Summary Table showing classification of Information by different

characteristics, with definitions and examples
65
Property and Scope
Characteristics
Source
Definitions
Mode of communicating
messages through signals,
symbols, texts or graphics
Channel
A carrier of information
for grouping information
such as primary, secondary
and tertiary documents
Modes
Physical Media for

grouping information
Recipient
Persons who receive and

use information and
knowledge for various
requirements
Information needs
Specific types of
information; Needs by
standards, by type
Examples
Mathematical,
formulae, News,
Research papers,
photographs, pictures
Books, Journals, etc.
Bibliographical and
reference materials,
Yearbooks and
directories
Paper-print,
microforms, audio visual, electronic,
digital
Individuals, Groups,
Organizations,
Institutions
Popular, Scientific,
Technical, Know-why,
Know-how, Show-how
10) The four broad groups of barriers to communication of information with

examples are:
Language
66
Jargon
Presentation
Man-man
Man-machine
Neologism
Synonyms and
Antonyms
Level
Style, Form
Communication
Problem
Media Problem
Socio-economic
Problem
Multiplicity of sources
Seepage and scatter
Computerization
Perception,
Alien of Reality
Misunderstanding
Culture
Level of development of
countries
Over Population
Pollution (Noise)
Delays in Handling
Primary papers
Rehash
Abstracts, Digests
Propaganda
Redundant data
Error
Publication
Postal Transit
Translation, Processing,
Accessing
Searching,
Document Delivery
Feedback
Economic
Direct Cost
Overheads
Political
Instability
War
Regulatory
Foreign Exchange
Customs
11) Information and knowledge are basic inputs for human growth and
development. It is reflected in many ways in actual life of every human
being or institutional organisation. Vickery and Ranganathan have
examined information and knowledge in the context of Library and
Information Science as the study of the behaviour of people as generators,
sources, etc. bibliometric measurements, semantic organization of

information, storage, analysis and retrieval; sociology, politics and
economics of information. Ranganathan incorporates most of these ideas
in his Five Laws restated with information as focus instead of books.
3.10

KEYWORDS
Channel
: Established carriers that disseminate

information of knowledge or any type of
their surrogates.
Information
: (No single definition is possible)

Information is the building block of
knowledge is generally relevant in library
and information studies.
Information Transfer Chain : The movement of information from

generation to use with a series of
intermediate links that connect each other
to form a chain.
Knowledge
: Knowledge is an organised set of

statements of ideas, presenting a reasoned
judgment or an experimental result which
is transmitted to others through some
communication medium in a systematic
form.
Media
: The physical media that carry messages or

contents of information.
Recipient
: The ultimate receiver of information who

may also generate or create information.
Source
: The mode of communicating messages

through signs, symbols, texts or graphics.
Spectrum
: A broad range of varied but related ideas,

the individual features of which tend to
develop so as to form a continuous series
of sequence.
3.11
Belkin, N. J. (1978). Information Concepts for Information Science. Journal

of Documentation. 34, 55-85.
Bell, Daniel (1974). The Information Society: The Social Framework of the
Information Society. In Dertouzos, M. L. and Moses (eds). The Computer
Age: A Twenty Years View. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
Brookes, B. C. (1980). The Foundations of Information Science. 4 parts.
Journal of Information Science. 2 (3).
Buckland, Michael (1991). Information as a Thing. Journal of American Society
for Information Science. 42(5), 351-60.
67
Property and Scope
Debons, A. (1980). Foundations of Information Science. In Information: An

Integrated View. Boston, Mass: G.K. Hall.
Gorman, Lyon and McLean, David (2003). Media and Society in the Twentieth
Century. London: Blackwell.
Machlup, Fritz (1983). Semantic Quirks in Studies of Information. In Machlup,
F. and Mansfield, U. (eds.). A Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages.
New York: Macmillan.
Preston, Paschal (2001). Reshaping Communication. Technology, Information,
and Social Change. New Delhi: Sage Publication.
Vickery, B.C. and Vickery, A. (1987). Information Science in Theory and
Practice. London: Butterworths.
Wersig and Neveling (1975). The Phenomenon of Interest in Information
Science. Information Scientist. Vol.9, Pp. 127-40.
68
UNIT 4 KNOWLEDGE: DEFINITION,

TYPES, NATURE, PROPERTIES
AND SCOPE
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Knowledge
4.3 Knowledge: Definition
4.4 Knowledge: Nature, Characteristics/Properties
4.5 Knowledge: Types and Scope
4.5.1 Personal and Public Knowledge
4.5.2 Tacit and Explicit Knowledge
4.5.3 Three Worlds of Knowledge
4.6 Formation of Knowledge

4.6.1 Ranganathans Modes of Formation of Knowledge
4.6.2 Neelameghans Extension
4.7 Origin and Growth Pattern of Disciplines

4.7.1 Disciplines
4.7.2 Attributes of Scholarly Disciplines
4.8 Mapping of the Structure of Subjects

4.8.1 Citation Analysis and Subject Structuring
4.8.2 Graphic Display
4.9 Sociology of Knowledge

4.9.1 Sociology of Science
4.9.2 Sociology of Literature
4.9.3 Sociology of Reading
4.10 Knowledge Utilisation

4.11 Summary
4.13 Keywords
4.0
OBJECTIVES

l
get a fairly good idea of knowledge and its meaning in the context of our
study;
perceive the composition of knowledge into subjects;
recognise the characteristics of knowledge;
distinguish personal knowledge and public knowledge;
69
Property and Scope
understand Polanyis tacit and explicit knowledge and the three worlds of
knowledge as propounded by Popper;
get an insight into the formation of knowledge, origin and growth pattern
of disciplines; and
get an exposure to sociology of knowledge, science and literature.
4.1
INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we shall study knowledge in all its ramifications in the context of
library and information science. Knowledge has always been a prime source
through which human societies have advanced materially and elevated
themselves spiritually. Knowledge comprises many hundreds of fields and
sub-fields, known as subjects, which are interlocking and interlinking. This
universe of knowledge is infinite, dynamic, and continuously expanding. The
structure of a subject is never complete or closed; every aspect of it remains
always open, offering new problems for further study and research. Knowledge
is also seen as personal and public knowledge, as tacit/implicit and explicit
knowledge. Popper sees knowledge as three worlds viz., physical, subjective
and objective knowledge.
Knowledge structure growth and development has a pattern. This aspect of
knowledge formation, its structural growth, and related aspects are studied by
scholars. Dr. Ranganathan has examined the formation of knowledge in the
context of classification design and development. Knowledge is also deemed
to comprise different disciplines. Citation analysis and subject scattering form
useful studies. Knowledge and its parts can also be mapped as in an atlas to
have a graphic view of its ramifications.
Knowledge being a social product, its sociology is of interest to us as well as
its sub-sets sociology of science, literature, and reading. Finally knowledge
utilisation is the ultimate goal, which gets the human being, the value and
utility.
The advent of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has offered
a tremendous opportunity to generate new knowledge, disseminate, distribute,
and provide access and many other facilities cutting across space. All these
aspects of knowledge are studied in this Unit.
4.2
KNOWLEDGE
From cave life to the sophisticated life of the information/knowledge society,

knowledge has been the prime resource that has advanced human communities
materially and spiritually. While we are not concerned with spiritual
advancement in this Unit, knowledge in all its dimensions forms an important
subject of study for library and information professionals. It will enable them
to plan, organise and offer useful services to those who seek knowledge.
70
In this Unit, we attempt to study knowledge with reference to its definition,

nature and characteristics/properties, its type(s), structure, formation and scope.
We shall also study the way knowledge has grown and developed into subjects/
disciplines, its sociology and other related aspects.
4.3
KNOWLEDGE: DEFINITION
Knowledge: Definition,
Types, Nature, Properties
and Scope
A precise single definition of knowledge, universally acceptable to all and in

all contexts, is well nigh impossible. Scholars who are interested in the study
of knowledge, as a resource, as a philosophical concept, as social wealth, etc.
have given their own definitions to suit their line of studies.
The meanings of Knowledge as given by the Random House Dictionary
(RHD), and words synonymous with knowledge are:
l
Acquaintance with facts or principles, as from study or investigation;

general erudition;
Familiarity or Conversance, as with a particular subject or branch of

learning;
Acquaintance or familiarity gained by sight, experience, or report; as for

example knowledge of human nature;
The fact or state of knowing, clear and certain perception of fact or truth;
Awareness, as of a fact or circumstance;
That which is or may be known; information; and
The body of truths or facts accumulated by mankind in the course of time,

as for example mans knowledge of the moon.
Words synonymous with knowledge given in the RHD are Enlightenment,

Information, Understanding, Discernment, Comprehension, Judgement,
Wisdom, Lore, and Science.
Another approach to define knowledge is that the word knowledge has its
roots in the Greek word gnosis. A word that uses the same root is recognise.
We know what we recognise. This means that we mentally process our
experience, shaping it and giving it mental forms that we can identify. So we
recognise experience and bring it into the realm of knowledge. This approach
to the meaning of knowledge cuts across the meaning of knowledge given by
RHD.
Daniel Bell, the Harvard University Professor of Sociology while discussing
knowledge as the moving force of the Post-industrial Society, gives a
comprehensive definition of knowledge as follows:
Knowledge is an organised set of statement of fact or ideas, presenting a
reasoned judgment or an experimental result, which is transmitted to others
through some communication medium is some systematic form. Knowledge
consists of new judgments (Research and Scholarship) or presentation of older
judgments as exemplified in text books, teaching and learning and collected
as library and archival material.
Alvin Toffler, the well known author of Future Shock, Third Wave and Power
Shift, gives another meaning of knowledge, which includes data, information,
images and imagery, as well as attitudes, values and other symbolic products
of society whether true, approximate or even false.
71
Property and Scope
In the fast emerging new discipline of Knowledge Management, Davenport

defines knowledge as follows:
Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information,
and expert insight that provides an environment and framework for evaluating
and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is applied
in the minds of knowers. In organisations, it often becomes embedded not
only in documents or repositories but also in organisational routines, processes,
practices, and norms.
Considering all these approaches to the definitions of knowledge, we can arrive
at a working definition of knowledge for our discussion in this Unit.
Knowledge is a highly organised intellectual product of humans that includes
personal experience, skills, understanding of the different contexts in which
we operate our activities, assimilation of all these and recording all this in a
form that could be communicated to others. This communication of recorded
experience, data, information, etc. makes for further of growth.
(Note: This Unit should be studied along with the Unit 3, of this course on
Information, Nature, Definition, Types, Properties and scope to get its full
importance)
Self Check Exercise
1)
Give the definition of knowledge as understood in the context of

knowledge management.

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4.4
KNOWLEDGE: NATURE,
CHARCTERISTICS/PROPERTIES
We have also learnt in Unit 1 of this Course, that knowledge has been defined
to constitute a stock of organised and structured ideas and concepts, validated
by peer groups. When we talk of knowledge, we recognise that it comprises
number of subjects, each having its own parameters and scope for independent
study. However from the beginning of this century, the universe of knowledge
comprises increasingly numerous subjects, which are increasingly
multidisciplinary, interlocking and interlinking many disciplines, moving in
multidimensional ways.
72
It is also said that our knowledge base today, includes much more than the
traditional Natural Sciences, Social Sciences and Humanities. It covers a
nations strategic conceptions, its foreign intelligence, its capabilities, and its
cultural and ideological impact on the world. Thus, the control of knowledge
is the crux of a worldwide struggle for power as the most powerful weapon.
Knowledge utilisation is fundamental to its use. Knowledge, merely stocking
it in whatever form, may be of little consequence, if it is not used properly.
Again knowledge can be used for the good or ill of living beings. Destructive
weapons (atomic weapons) are got out of intense research ostensibly for a
nations security. But, if is used indiscriminately, it would bring about total
annihilation of all living beings.
and Scope
We shall present below some of the important characteristics of knowledge:

l
Knowledge is infinite.
Knowledge is dynamic, continuous, and ever expanding.

No final word can ever be said of any discipline; they are at best
provisional, subject to criticism, correction, contradiction, change or
modification.
A gifted man may acquire wide knowledge, deep wisdom and spiritual
insights but all these are lost when he/she dies except those that he/she
had recorded.
Knowledge once parted to others, results in no loss to the person.
Knowledge becomes obsolete.
Self Check Exercise

2)
List the characteristics of knowledge.

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4.5
KNOWLEDGE: TYPES AND SCOPE
We have so far studied the nature of knowledge, what it comprises, and its
characteristics. In this section, we shall discuss different views of knowledge.
4.5.1 Personal and Public Knowledge

Knowledge is broadly divided into two groups, personal knowledge (private
knowledge) and social knowledge (public knowledge). Personal knowledge is
the knowledge of the individual and as such is available to others only if
communicated. Social knowledge is the knowledge possessed collectively by
a society. It is supposed to be available to all the members of the society freely
and equally. Libraries and information centres provide this kind of knowledge.
It must be, however, stated here that these two kinds of knowledge are not
mutually exclusive. Social knowledge is an essential source of personal
73
Property and Scope
knowledge and it is from personal knowledge that most social knowledge is

built up.
Ziman, the distinguished physicist, emphasises the importance of the
organisation of public knowledge. There are three aspects to the organisation
of public knowledge viz. a) organisation by creating, b) self-organisation and
c) bibliographic organisation. Organisation by creation is the result of the efforts
of those that generate knowledge by means of experiments and other methods
of investigation and record them in a form to be communicated. Selforganisation refers to the references cited to any document to other documents,
establishing a thought link between the citing and cited documents. When
extended, it provides a very interesting intellectual organisation of knowledge
that can cut across the conventional classificatory norms known to librarians.
We shall study this aspect later in this Unit.
Bibliographic organisation refers to the organisation of primary documents in
bibliographies, indexing and abstracting journals and other various types of
information products and services. All these are handled by libraries and
information centers.
4.5.2 Tacit and Explicit Knowledge

The above two groups of knowledge is expressed slightly differently by Michael
Polayani. Explicit knowledge is that expressed to others, orally or in a recorded
form and tacit knowledge is personal knowledge that may or may not be
expressed by an individual. Generally most people express their personal
knowledge up to a point but not beyond for reasons of their own. Sometimes it
may be deliberate or sometimes they may not be able to describe their special
skill. For instance a particular skill in arts and crafts may only be demonstrated
by an expert and not explained. In music, a curve of a musical phrase may be
demonstrated by an expert but may not be conducive to be described or
explained. This makes Polayani to point out that we know more than we can
tell or explain to others. Another way of distinguishing between tacit and
explicit knowledge is knowledge of the body, which is subjective, practical,
analog while explicit knowledge is of the mind which is objective, theoretical
and digital. Quite often we talk about the body language, facial expressions
and other signals that communicate quite a lot of the intention of the person
but never expressed in words. Therefore it is said that tacit knowledge is highly
personal and hard to formalise, making it difficult to communicate or share
with others.
However tacit knowledge is as important as explicit knowledge. In the new
discipline of Knowledge Management, it is this tacit knowledge, which is valued
very highly, constituting the real strength of a company. It is this knowledge
of individuals that need to be extracted by various means and methods, to
build up the organisational strength of a company to be competitive in a market.
4.5.3 Three Worlds of Knowledge
74
Another view of knowledge is the way Karl Popper has identified knowledge
groups, more on a philosophical plane. Popper ontological scheme is to see
three worlds of knowledge. viz., World 1, the physical world in which earth,
vital though it is to us, but an insignificant speck in the immensity of the
universe of radiation and matter. World 2 is the world of subjective human

knowledge, corresponding to individual knowledge. The World 3 is objective
knowledge, which the product of human mind recorded in languages, in arts,
the sciences, the technologies in all the artifacts humans have stored or
scattered the earth.
and Scope
Although these three worlds are independent, they also interact. As humans
living on earth, we are a part and parcel of the physical world, dependent for
our continued existence on heat and light from the sun, oxygen from the air,
carbon-dioxide being absorbed by plants, fresh water from springs,
carbohydrates and proteins from our foods and so on. Through our mind and
intellect and other sense faculties, humans observe everything in their
environment and make our own subjective understandings. World 3 is one
which all human thoughts, ideas and experiences are recorded in the form of
print and non-print media which are the stock in trade for all libraries and
information centers.
Personal knowledge is short lived. Human history has seen great persons,
achieving extraordinary successes in ever so many walks of life. Such
outstanding persons with great caliber have left their prints in history. But
their personal knowledge is gone no sooner they die. Such persons are not
born in every generation. Although knowledge includes personal and public
knowledge, personal knowledge has a short life; invariably all tacit knowledge
are not possible to be recorded.
Self Check Exercise
3)
Distinguish between personal and public knowledge.
4)
Why is personal knowledge short lived?

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4.6
FORMATION OF KNOWLEDGE
The organisation of public knowledge in their physical forms of print and nonprint materials, in libraries and information centers, has to continuously grapple
with the rapidly expanding dimensions of knowledge. Not only new disciplines
are emerging, the multidimensional and interdisciplinary nature, and a host of
other factors makes it essential to keep the tools of organising collections with
the same pace of the growth of knowledge. Libraries and information centers
disseminate information about their collection through their catalogues,
75
Property and Scope
bibliographies, indexes, abstracts and other such products. Provision of subject

approach to documents through these types of secondary tools, has been and is
a major challenge to library and information professionals. Classification
Systems, Subject Heading Lists, Information Retrieval Thesauri are some of
the tools and techniques that have been employed in information storage and
retrieval. These tools have to keep updated with the expanding horizons of
knowledge. The designing of these tools and their developments need to be on
a theoretical basis to respond to the unprecedented expansion of knowledge.
This need was seen by Ranganathan and he developed his general theory of
classification with laws, normative principles, postulates, canons, etc. not only
to take care of past and present knowledge but also for the future developments.
He provided a general framework for organising isolates in any subject through
his concepts of Basic Facet, Fundamental Categories of PMEST, which has
become a model for other systems to adopt or adapt. In designing schemes for
classification of subjects, he felt the need to study the ways subjects grow and
get formulated. This resulted in his general enunciation of modes of formation
of subjects. The following are the five preliminary modes of formation of
subjects and isolates initially identified and expounded by Ranganathan.
4.6.1 Ranganathans Modes of Formation of Knowledge

Dissection is cutting a universe of entities into parts of coordinate status,
even as we cut a slice of bread into strips. When the parts are ranked, they
form an array. Each part is termed as a Lamina.
Example: Botany, Agriculture, Zoology constitute the dissected members of
the Universe of Basic Subjects.
Lamination is a construction by overlaying facet on facet, even as we make
a sandwich by laying a vegetable layer over a layer of bread. When the basic
layer is a Basic Subject and the other layers are isolates, a compound subject is
formed.
Example: In the subject Agriculture of Corns, the two layers, Agriculture
and Corn lie on both the ends of the Basic Subject Agriculture and isolate idea
Corns. There can be more layers of this type.
Denudation is the progressive decrease of the extension and increase of the
intension (or the depth) of a Basic Subject or an isolate idea, even as we scoop
the flesh of a soft fruit from deeper and deeper layers or as we excavate a
well. In the words of Shera denudation is the exposure of a new area of
knowledge by erosion or divestment through research or enquiry.
Example: Philosophy, Logic, and Symbolic logic.
Loose Assemblage is the assembling together of two or more subjects.
Example: General relation between Political Science and Economics.
Superimposition is connecting together two or more isolate ideas belonging
to the same universe of isolate ideas. The need for this usually arises when an
entity is eligible to as isolate idea on the basis of two or more quasi isolate
ideas.
76
Example: Sociology of Rural Poor.
4.6.2 Neelameghans Extension

Based on Ranganathan methodology, Neelemeghan worked further on these
ideas of the modes of formation of subjects and enumerated a few micro modes.
These are:
and Scope
Fission is the process of division or splitting or breaking up into parts. The

process has, until recently, been denoted by the term Dissection. However,
Dissection usually implies the splitting, breaking up, etc. of an entity into
parts by an outside agency. On the other hand, Fission is an internal process of
division without the involvement of an outside agency.
Distillation of Kind 1 A distilled subject is one which gets formed on the
basis of some or similar or common observation, experiments and experiences
in several subjects.
Example: Management Science, which is distilled out of studies in the
management of science laboratories, universities or industries and such others.
Other examples of such subjects are Systemology, Metrology, Research
Methodology, and Conference Techniques.
Distillation of Kind 2 From time to time, for various academic and sociological
reasons, scholars may study extensively and in depth some particular idea or
even several ideas. This may lead to a considerable literary warrant for the
ideas generated. The publication of a new periodical, the organisation of a
faculty in a teaching institution, the formation of a research group, the formation
to have an independent status as a subject in its own right.
Example: Statistical Calculus developing from Mathematics, Microbiology
developing from Biology and Botany. International Relations developing from
Political Science; Demography developing from Sociology.
Fusion is a result of interdisciplinary research with characteristic trends in
present day research programs. These efforts lead to the emergence of a new
set of ideas or theories of an interdisciplinary character. These ideas attract a
group of specialists and a new field of specialisation emerges with its own
normative principles, postulates and theories.
Example: Astrophysics, Biomechanics, Psycholinguistics, Socio-cybernetics
Clusters are formed of subject fields wherein there is a core entity of study
with inputs or viewpoints or works on it coming from specialists from diverse
subjects.
Example: Studies in Sinology, Tibetology, Studies centered around famous
personalities Gandhiana; Studies grouped together as in Defense Sciences.
Others: Environmental Sciences, Ocean Sciences, etc.
Agglomeration of Kind 1 consists of subjects treated integrally or distinctively
in one and the same document.
Example: Natural Sciences, and Humanities.
Agglomeration of Kind 2 constitutes subjects comprehending other subjects
with respect to the schedules of a particular scheme of classification.
77
Property and Scope
Example: Psychology and Sociology as in UDC.

(Note: These are illustrations, not exhaustive listings of the different kinds of
modes of formation.)
These studies of Ranganathan and Neelameghan have been developed in the
context of designing classification schemes such as Colon Classification. They
may be useful in contexts other than this also. For instance the intellectual
organisation of information knowledge and information for various other
purposes, collection development, information storage and retrieval and others.
Research studies on the formation of formation of subjects are a continuous
effort as new subjects/disciplines keep on emerging. As we know no final
word can ever be said on any research effort. They are at best provisional.
Self Check Exercise
5)
Enumerate the modes of formation of subjects as propounded by

Ranganathan and extended by Neelameghan.
Note i) Write your answer in the space given below.

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4.7
ORIGIN AND GROWTH PATTERN OF

DISCIPLINES
Formation and structure of subjects of Ranganathan and Neelameghan are one

method of studying the growth of subjects. There are also other observations
made by scholars as to how disciplines get formed and what are their attributes.
In this section, we give a brief resume of this approach to knowledge.
4.7.1 Disciplines
Giving an overview of the social organisation of knowledge and information,
McGarry observes that a discipline is a branch of instructions, of mental and
moral training. Etymologically it is derived from the word disciple which
means one who learns. A scholarly discipline is an organised field of enquiry
pursued by a community of knowledgeable persons. In contrast to vocational
and skilled crafts, persons involved in their scholarly disciplines are acutely
conscious of the historical and social envirionment of their intellectual
commitment. They act as authorities in their particular fields. The results of
their activities in the form of theories and formulations are included in the
curricula in all formal schools of learning.
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4.7.1 Attributes of Scholarly Disciplines

Some of the attributes of scholarly disciplines are:
l
It enables distinguishing between knowledge and opinion. Opinions do

not have anything to do with scholarship; they are subjective and
conditioned by ones own perception of things. Knowledge is the outcome
of disciplined enquiry and is developed by criteria of justification and
validity.
Disciplines of knowledge are composed of people. Communities of

scholars share a domain of certain intellectual enquiry or discourse. Their
deliberations result in a body of knowledge which eventually gets formed
into a discipline.
A discipline may contain knowledge and information of all degrees from

the simple introductory textbooks to the complex elaboration of specialists
symposium. Authenticity which is the outcome of learning, scholarship
applying critical scrutiny and rigorous methods of evaluation, judgment,
etc., lend quality to the discipline.
A discipline is not a collection of a summary of ideas and a rule of thumb

technique ; it has form, pattern and structure.
Each discipline has a distinct domain of enquiry and specialised methods

by knowledge is created and validated.
Every discipline classifies its domain in a particular way, according to its

ramification. This gets reflected in all writings in the discipline.
Each discipline has a documentary communication structure through which

ideas are conserved, transmitted, assessed and validated.
A discipline has its own specialised vocabulary which serves the scholarly
community both as a medium of communication and as a thesaurus for
mapping out the domain of study.
and Scope
Disciplines differ in their purpose, methods and domains of enquiry and they
differ from each other in varying degrees. Meanings in Biology are often the
same logical type as meanings in the Physical Science in that they are empirical
descriptions of matters of fact ideally formulated in terms of exact laws and
explanatory theories of great generality. In the Humanities and the Fine Arts,
the Form becomes the subject matter and the other concepts are the singularity
of the work. Accordingly, there are strong and influential bonds between the
social and intellectual organisation of subjects disciplines and its modes of
communication and information transfer.

An important part of work of the library and information professionals lies at
the intersection of disciplines in organising literature search services and other
related information storage and retrieval efforts. Studies on Knowledge about
knowledge give the professional an insight into the disciplines to intuitively
work out the strategy for content analysis and synthesis.
79
Property and Scope
In the final analysis, one can study the academic contents of disciplines to see
how they are related to use and for the provision of library and information
services.
Self Check Exercise
6)
State the purpose of the study of Knowledge about knowledge in the

light of interdisciplinary nature of modern subjects.

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4.8
MAPPING OF THE STRUCTURE OF

SUBJECTS
The previous two sections dealt with the modes of formation of subjects and
the origin and patterns of growth of disciplines respectively and their relevance
to library and information studies.
In this section we shall study another model of structuring subjects and mapping
them to get a view of concept relationships in subjects.
4.8.1 Citation Analysis and Subject Structuring

An interesting method of structuring of concepts has been conceived by Eugene
Garfield, the innovator of Citation Index and Citation Studies. Citing a reference
in books, research papers, journal articles, conference papers and similar other
documents, is an age long practice. The citing and the cited articles have a
relationship between them by virtue of the authors having some connections
to the ideas propounded in both the cited and citing articles. The relationship
established between the two articles, transcends the formal reference value
and establishes the conceptual relationship between them. At a deeper level, it
can be discerned that there is a relationship between the two articles. This
method of citations when analysed with reference to many other citations brings
to the surface, a cluster of concepts, which have some intrinsic relationship
between them, which is much beyond the conventional hierarchical and
associative relationships between concepts. This has been very effectively
captured by Garfield in his mapping of the structure of some subjects.
80
This method of identification of clusters of concepts related to a subject bears

evidence to the interdisciplinary nature of newly emerging subjects. The
problem of seepage and scattering of articles in core, peripheral and alien
periodicals has been a serious constraint in meeting the information needs of
researchers and other types of users in library and information centres. This
approach in clusters using citations is a useful method. This is particularly
helpful in computer searching wherein the relationships between concepts are

captured in a matrix.
and Scope
4.8.2 Graphic Display

Most of the classification schemes display the concept relationship in subjects
in linear fashion, indicating them by various types of indention and other
methods of display techniques. In this method, there is a restriction imposed
by the linear display of concepts whereas these concepts are truly
multidimensional in their relationships. This problem of display is generally
overcome by graphic display methods, which may map the hierarchical and
associative relationship.
This method of graphic presentation of concepts of multidimensional
relationships brings out the ramification of subject concepts effectively. This
makes it easier for an indexer or a searcher in storing and retrieving work. An
atlas of the different broad concepts may be required to show the relationships
between major groups and narrow concepts in specific subjects, as in
geographical atlas of world, continental, country, and smaller geographic
divisions.
4.9
SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE
We have so far studied knowledge, its varied definitions, distinguishing personal

knowledge from public knowledge, Polayanis tacit and explicit knowledge,
Poppers three worlds of knowledge, Zimans perception of public knowledge,
formation of knowledge and its extension by Ranganathan and Neelameghan
respectively, ramifications of disciplines, citation and subject structuring, and
mapping of subjects.
All these give us an idea of how knowledge has been studied from different
angles. In this section, we shall learn about another dimension of knowledge
study viz. Sociology of Knowledge.
Knowledge, it is said, is a product of humans and gets aggregated over a period
of time and also keeps on expanding. It is also said that it is a social product.
Hence it has been studied by sociologists, as a artifacts of human beings.
Sociology is defined as the science or study of the origin, development, and
organisation and functioning of human society. One of the major contributions
of human society is knowledge, which has been the basic strength for the
human society to grow, develop and advance. As a theory, Sociology of
knowledge, seeks to analyse the relationship between knowledge and existence,
as historical social research, it seeks to trace the forms that this relationship
has taken in the intellectual development of mankind.
The International Encyclopaedia of Social Science (1968) defines Sociology
of knowledge as follows:
The sociology of knowledge may be broadly defined as that branch of
sociology which studies the relation between thought and society. It is
concerned with the social or existential conditions of knowledge.
Two world hypothesis, which has been heuristically very useful in positioning
relation between groups and cultures represent fundamentally different
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Property and Scope
orientations. These two worlds are science and the humanities.

To sum up, sociology of knowledge charts out the scope of the subject by
developing a relationship between knowledge and existence, thought and
society, groups and culture, and science and humanities.
In the next sections we shall discuss sociology of science, literature, and reading
in all of which, library and information professionals are vitally interested.
Self Check Exercise
7)
What are the roles of sociology of knowledge?

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4.9.1 Sociology of Science

Sociology of science is the nature of scientific ideas, and their development,
structural organisation, individuals and the groups involved in scientific
activities. In other words, Sociology of science is primarily concerned with a
construction of a set of highly generated systematic and relatively exhaustive
concepts and propositions of relationships. It is interested not only in
fundamental scientific ideas themselves, but also in their applications to
technology. In this process, it uses both historical and contemporary data, drawn
from a variety of cultures, to serve its primary goal of constructing a system of
analytical concepts and propositions.
The Social Structure and Development of Science
Sociology of science sees mans scientific behaviour as his/her response to the
functional problem created by the need to have an adequate knowledge of the
physical, biological and social aspects of the empirical world. In order to explain
the degree of development of science, four general components of science as a
whole are given, each of which has a measure of autonomy. These are: a)
Substantive scientific ideas; b) Scientific methodology, including both ideas
and instruments; c) Scientific roles; and d) Motivational and award for scientific
roles.
Substantive scientific ideas very true dimensions of: i) generality or
abstractness; ii) exhaustive for the relevant aspects of the phenomena. It is
said that the more abstract, systematic and exhaustive, a set of substantive
scientific ideas is the greater of its scientific development.
82
Among the interesting problems that sociology of science tries to explain is

the question of why the physical sciences have developed more rapidly in all
these three respects than have the biological sciences and why these in turn,
have developed more rapidly than the social sciences. Among the social
sciences, there have been more recent developments in economics than in
political science or sociology. This can be explained at least in part by the
greater accessibility of data on a variety of economic phenomena than of data
on peoples political and social norms and actual behaviour.
and Scope
Knowledge about ideas and instruments that make up scientific methodology

varies in its degree of development. Modern science has made great advance
over earlier Science in its development, largely due to the knowledge of essential
methodologies such as the character of concepts and clarification, the logic of
comparison and inference, and the function of contrived and natural
experimentation. An important sociological fact about the development of social
science is their ability to borrow a great deal of the methodological
sophistication from other disciplines of science.
Another factor for the development of science is the motivational and the award/
reward system for the roles of scientists.
Self Check Exercise
8)
State the general components of science in explaining its degree of

development.

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Sociological Characteristics of Science
i)
Structural Differentiation
The degree of structural differentiation in a society and specialisation of roles

between major scientific institutions, provide a set of more favourable
conditions for the development of science. Certain values are much more
favourable to the development of science than others. One such value is
Libertarianism i.e., academic freedom. This is one kind of important
foundation for scientific progress.
ii) Environment
Scientific knowledge is power i.e., power to adjust more or less satisfactorily
to the non-social environment and in the internal and external social
environment. Social and environmental pressures quite often trigger major
scientific discoveries and technological innovations. This is true of all stages
of history. These can be illustrated by examples from national defence for
security, industrial and agricultural growth to withstand competition, health
care, etc.
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Property and Scope
Factors Influencing Scientific Development

A variety of economic needs and resources often combined with one or more
other social factors, have had very large direct and indirect influences on the
development of science. In the modern world, both organisation and
governments have provided many kinds of support for science in order to pursue
economic interests and needs. Direct support exists in the form of governmental
and industrial reseach laboratories; indirect support is given through tax
concessions and incentives, financial and other forms of subsidies to both
universities and industry.
The desirability of using science to meet economic needs and increase economic
resources is no longer in question anywhere among the societies of the modern
world. Political factors, closely combined with economics, influence scientific
research and developments. Research on the nature of metals, on the causes of
chemical reactions and explosives, and on the mathematics of the curves of
ballistic missiles, has been spurred by military needs to maintain a balance of
power.
The maintenance of science is very much facilitated by an educational system
that is sufficiently specialised, geared to growth and development.
Motivation and Award/Reward System for Scientists
Institutionalisation has been a special feature of modern civilisation.
Universities, various government organisations and many industrial firms,
having recognised the value and consequent need for Science, have established
regular and permanent roles and careers for scientists. In addition, a variety of
special research institutes with endowments from foundations, commercial
associations and other special interest groups, are sometimes operated by private
individuals, and they further provide specialised jobs for scientists.
The mere existence of social roles for scientists is not enough for their full
contributions. Adequate and legitimate awards for those who perform very
distinctive roles should be made available to motivate them to give out their
best. Titles, prizes, medals, higher offices and other eponymous (in the name
of a person of outstanding) distinctions, symbolise the existing hierarchy of
differential prestige. Both at the international and national such award/reward
systems exist to give incentive to highest performance in science.
The Nobel Prize in any of the four scientific disciplines viz. Physics, Chemistry,
Medicine and Physiology, Economics in which it is granted is the best-known
hall mark of scientific achievements.
Therefore, the role of the scientist is subject to structured set of motivations
and rewards. Interestingly, it is said that the scientist is no more a selfless
creature above and beyond the influence of his social role.
Communications among Scientists
84
One of the essential ingredients of the development of society is a peer review

group, which validates scientific findings. This is achieved in many ways. All
these involve an effective communication system in the diffusion and
dissemination of scientific research. One of the important objective inventions
towards this, is the creation of learned societies whose essential objective is to
provide a forum for scientists to meet at regular intervals and to promote
scientific activities. The Science Journal is an outcome of such efforts. Through

participation in national and international conferences, informal visits to
institutions, letters, circulation of reprints, mimeographed materials scientists
strive to maintain effective communication without which their activities would
slow down considerably. The computer and communication technologies, the
Internet, e-mails and such other facilities have accelerated the speed of
communication.
and Scope
Self Check Exercise

9)
Enumerate a few of the factors influencing scientific development.

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Science Posing Problems
There are two aspects of science that are perceived as social problems. One
pertinent to scientists sense of interference in their field of activities by
extraneous factors. For example, scientists resent what they define as
unnecessary controls on their work. They complain about insufficient financial
support for their preferred types of research. They wish to throw nationalistic
and other parochial limitations on their research communication activities. A
variety of organised and unorganised means of protest now exists among
scientists to cope up with these problems.
The second aspect of the problem is with reference to the evil effects that
science may bring to society. Some harmful consequences of science are given
as examples for restricting the influence of science or even eliminating it. It is,
therefore, defended that responsibility for harmful social consequences of
science rests not directly with scientists but with the several established social
and political processes for handling social problems. It has also come to be
recognised that scientists can play a variety of social roles in these social and
political processes to ensure that it is not a science problem that harms the
interest of the society. A number of social and political arrangements are now
being worked out, to permit scientists to act as expert advisers on the technical
aspects of the social problems to mitigate the unsocial and harmful results of
science.
4.9.2 Sociology of Literature

Another subset of sociology of knowledge is sociology of literature, which
gives expression to human imaginative and artistic outputs, in relation to the
social environment in which such works are created.
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Property and Scope
Unlike contributions in the physical, natural and social sciences, a literary

work is imaginative, and in its entirety a product of the human mind. A literary
work may take different forms of presentation (poetry, drama, novel, short
stories, etc.) and may reflect social life and environment in all dimensions. It
may have artistic and aesthetic quality, couched in an attractive but simple
language with clarity of thought and ideas. A literary work establishes a relation
between the writer and the readers to whom the work has an appeal. It is a
meeting or sometimes the clashing of two free acts, one of production and the
other of consumption with all their effects and side effects on moral and social
relations. There is always another man in literature, a writer for a reader and
reader. So sociology of literature relates to the study of the writer as a
professional person, the literary work that the person produces, the reader of
the work as a consumer and the publisher and bookseller who promote its use.
Literary Milieu
A work of literature is a product of a literary milieu in which thoughts and
ideas are exchanged, judgment on them passed, and values stated in them are
discussed. The existence of such a milieu is and always has been inseparable
from the very fact of literature. Literary work, is, in fact, conceived as a twoway communication; messages are broadcast by the writer to a community of
readers whose response may bring writers reputation and status in the
community of writers or may do the opposite by bringing him/her disrepute.
Literary milieu, being part of a broader societal milieu, the whole network of
literary intercourse is subject to all conditions imposed by social life. In fact,
the amplitude, the significance, the richness, in short the quality of literature
depends to a large extent on the place a particular literary work occupies in the
literary milieu and consequently by the writers place in the society concerned,
on the awareness of the situation in which the work is produced and other
related factors.
Literary Recognition
A writer invariably seeks recognition for the literary work he/she produces. In
general all writers do not get the recognition they seek. It has been studied that
the number of writers who get recognition and establish, represent only one
percent of the total number who actually write and publish literary works. Of
the several factors that contribute to the selection process of recognition, the
following are some:
l
A certain amount of contemporary literary recognition that a writer already

has;
The place of the literary work in the educational curriculum at all levels
i.e. from the elementary to the advanced levels, reference in other works,
and in encyclopaedias such others; and
The existence of a class and political structure to which the writer belongs.
In sum, the small group responsible for the literary recognition of writers and
for the literary opinion that builds up for a writer, usually rests with university
intellectuals, those belonging to the influential circles, moneyed class and the
upper crust of high political or technical strata of society.
86
Literature and Mass Communication

The printing and publishing of books on a mass scale is an important landmark
in literature dissemination and distribution. Then introduction of paperbacks,
which is comparatively a recent development, afforded a technical means for
a fresh image of the book as a means of mass cultural communication.
Paperbacks as is well known, have become very popular. A sale of a million
copies of booksellers is a normal feature today particularly in the western
countries.
and Scope
Apart from their role of dissemination and distribution, publishers play a very
decisive and significant role in selecting literary works of quality and also
take the risk in investing on their publication. In this process, the publisher is
conditioned by the substantial capital investments. He/She is naturally anxious
to avoid commercial loss, and he does this by limiting the experimental titles
of works to elites or by abandoning the idea of creative publishing and strictly
program his/her production to the functional needs of a pre-selected mass
market.
Self Check Exercise
10) What constitutes of sociology of literature?
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4.9.3 Sociology of Reading

No sociology of literature is meaningful without a sociology of reading and
the cultural impact that reading habits have on the society. While it is rather
difficult to define a reading public precisely, a few attributes of such a group
can be identified. These for a literary work are the actual mass of readers, their
core composition in terms of their educational, economic, cultural and other
related status. However, the case of books reaching unexpected and even
unsuspected public beyond social, national, linguistic, temporal barriers, are
becoming numerous.
This is an area of considerable interest and importance to the library and
information community. Very little work has been done in India to study the
reading public in general or with reference to any particular tiles in English or
in any Indian language. Planned research, is however, essential to get right
results. Some of the organisations like the Sahitya Akadami, the National Book
Trust, the National Library of India, The Raja Ram Mohun Roy Library
Foundation and some leading publishers may also be interested in such studies
to fund research projects. It is for the professional associations to pursue such
efforts.
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Property and Scope
Sociology of literature in the contemporary situation with particular reference

to India may be two fold:
l
Helping persons or agencies responsible for book production in the various

languages and regions to take stock of the new problems created by mass
literary targets set for the country; and
Helping the hitherto ignored masses of readers to gain aesthetic and artistic
consciousness and claim their parts of cultural heritage to mankind.
4.10
KNOWLEDGE UTILISATION
We have known that global, regional and national studies, experiments and
experience in socio-economic development indicate, that as a society moves
from a pre-industrial state (agricultural stage) to industrialisation and on to the
post-industrial state, it tends to utilise science, technology and societal
knowledge in an increasing measure, in all developmental activities. Hence, it
progressively becomes an information/knowledge society. This society is
characterised by the increasing use and utilisation of knowledge in all its process
of growth and development. In the knowledge society, knowledge is the keydetermining factor for innovation, policy formulation and material progress.
As a consequence of this recognition, there have been increasing efforts in
creating new knowledge through institutions exclusively dedicated to research.
Impact of Information and Communication
Any discussion of knowledge use and utilisation would be incomplete if we
do not take account of the unprecedented impact of information and
communication technology (ICT). Today recorded knowledge in whatever
physical form it exists is available throughout the globe cutting across space.
The Internet with its multifunctional facility, incorporating the world wide
web and e-mail and all the other components of electronic information and
knowledge, has made it possible for interactive studies and exchange of ideas
among peers. This extraordinary facility empowers, information-rich countries
to have access to global knowledge. Knowledge being power, the accessibility
and availability has already created the digital divide among the information
rich and information poor countries. Yet the use of the Internet, however, has
very considerably increased among the Asian and African countries. This is
another dimension that needs to be kept in mind while discussing knowledge,
its generation, storing, dissemination and distribution, accessibility and
availability. ICT is not only a facilitator and enabler, but also could be highly
productive.
The Indian Scene
While many of the attributes of an information/knowledge society may not be
present in India, a few features, which are characteristic of the knowledge
society, have surely emerged. The value of scientific and technological
knowledge in the Indian context was eloquently articulated by Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru in the Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR) of the Government of India as
far back as in 1958.
88
This policy has planted the seedlings in India and a very fine infrastructure has
been built in India for knowledge generation.
The setting up of a number of R&D institutions in Science, Technology, Social

Sciences, Humanities, the establishments of educational and training institutions
of higher learning, centres for advanced studies in many disciplines, acquisition
and cultivation of technological and managerial skills and expertise through
institutes of technology and management, creation of learned societies and
professional associations, consultancy organisations to bridge research and
industry, multimedia centers and many others are undoubtedly meant to create
the necessary conducive environment for knowledge creation, use and
utilisation. India is also to become soon a super power in software technology,
which is the soul of information technology.
and Scope
Self Check Exercise

11) What is the infrastructure created in India to generate new knowledge?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below
ii) Check your answer in the answers at the end of the Unit.
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4.11
SUMMARY
In the Unit, we began with the definitions of knowledge, indicating the shades
of differences in their meaning. The nature of knowledge along with its
characteristics is briefly explained. In discussing the types of knowledge, we
distinguish between personal and public knowledge, tacit and explicit
knowledge and Poppers three worlds of knowledge. Knowledge is ever
expanding, sometimes turbulently. This characteristic takes us to the study of
the modes of formation of knowledge. The ideas of knowledge formation as
propounded by Ranaganthan and extended by Neelemeghan are described with
examples. Another view of knowledge is looking at knowledge as a set of
disciplines; its origin, growth and nature are all explained. Another dimension
of its study is its sociology. Sociology of science, literature, and reading which
form the subsets of sociology of knowledge are discussed. Knowledge use
and utilisation are the final goals of generating knowledge for the human
advancement in all directions. The way knowledge use and utilisation are greatly
enhanced by the unprecedented advances in information and communication
technologies are briefly mentioned. The infrastructure built in India for
knowledge generation and use are briefly stated.
4.12
1)
Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual

information, and expert insight and grounded intuition that provides an
environment and framework for evaluating and incorporating new
experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the minds of
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Property and Scope
knowers. In organisations, it often becomes embedded not only in

documents or repositories but also in organisational routines, processes,
practices, and norms.
2)
The characteristics of knowledge are:

l
Knowledge is infinite intangible and difficult to measure.
l
Knowledge is dynamic, continuous, and ever expanding.
l
No final word can ever said of any discipline; they are at best
provisional, subject to criticism; correction, contradiction, change or
modification.
l
A gifted man may acquire wide knowledge, deep wisdom and spiritual
insights but all these are lost when he dies except those that he had
recorded.
l
Knowledge once parted to others, there is no lossto the person who
parts with it. It sometimes increases with use.
l
Knowledge becomes obsolete.
3)
Personal knowledge is the knowledge of the mind of an individual,

although and as such is available only to him/her or through to others if
communicated. Public knowledge is the knowledge possessed collectively
by a society or a social system. It is supposed to be freely and equally
available to all the members of the society. Libraries and information
centers provide this kind of knowledge.
4)
Personal knowledge is short lived because the person who has the tacit
knowledge when passes away, the personal knowledge of that individual
is lost, unless that knowledge is recorded.
5)
Dissection, Lamination, Denudation, Loose Assemblage, Superimposition;

Fission, Distillation of Kind 1, Distillation of Kind 2, Fusion,
Agglomeration of Kind 1 and Agglomeration of Kind 2.
6)
Studies of knowledge about knowledge gets the library and information

professional an insight into the disciplines, to work out intuitively the
strategy for information storage and retrieval, intellectual organisation of
knowledge, collection development and many other users related
information services.
7)
As a theory sociology of knowledge, seeks to analyse the relationship

between knowledge and existence. As historical research, it seeks to trace
the forms that this relationship has taken in the intellectual development
of mankind.
The dual roles of sociology of knowledge are:
To aim at discovering workable criteria for determining the interrelations
between thought and action; and to develop a theory, appropriate to the
contemporary situation concerning the significance of non-theoretical
conditioning factors in knowledge.
90
8)
Academic freedom, environment pressure, direct and indirect support to

scientific research, motivations of scientists for research and creation of
new knowledge, communication of scientific research and evil effects of
scientific research.
9)
Industrial and government support in relation to economic and social need
based research; political factors such as military needs, balance of power,

etc. and increasing specialization in the educational system are some of
the important factors associated with scientific developments.
10) Sociology of literature relates to the study of the writer as a professional,
the literary work that the person produces reflecting the social values
prevailing at a particular point of time in the society, the reader of the
work as a consumer, and the publisher and bookseller as distributors of
knowledge who promotes its use.
and Scope
11) The setting up of a number of R & D institutions in Science, Technology,

Social Sciences, Humanities, the establishment of educational and training
institutions of higher learning, centers for advanced studies in many
disciplines, acquisition and cultivation of technological and managerial
skills and expertise through institutes of technology and management,
creation of learned societies and professional associations, consultancy
organisations to bridge research and industry, multimedia centers and many
others are undoubtedly meant to create the necessary conducive
environment for knowledge creation, use and utilisation.
4.13 KEYWORDS
Aesthetics
Citation
: The theory of the fine arts and the

philosophy of the mind and emotions in
relation to it; that branch of philosophy
which deals with the beautiful, the doctrine
of taste.
: When a reference A is cited in the citing
article B, then the article B is referred
as Citation of reference A.
Discipline
: A branch of knowledge, subject of

instruction.
Libertarianism
: Principles or doctrines of the freedom of

will.
Milieu, Social
: Refers to the mans social environment or

surroundings.
Ontology
: The branch of metaphysics that studies the

nature of existence.
Private Knowledge
: The knowledge of the mind of an

individual and as such is available to him/
her or through him/her to others, if
communicated.
: The knowledge possessed collectively by
a society or a social system and supposed
to be available freely and equally to all the
members of the society.
Social Knowledge
Sociology of Knowledge
: The science or study of the origin,

development, organisation and functioning
of human society.
Subject
: An organised form of knowledge.
91
Property and Scope
4.14
Brookes, Bertram C. (1980). The Foundations of Information Science. Part 1.

Journal of Information Science. 2, 125-35.
Davenport, Thomas H. and Prusak, K. Lawrence (1998). Working Knowledge:
How Organisations Manage What They Know. Boston, MA: Harvard Business
School Press.
Debons, Anthony (et al) (1988). Information Science: An Integrated View.
Boston, Mass.: G K Hall.
Drucker, Peter F. (1999). Management Challenges for the 21st Century. Boston:
Butterworth/Heinmann.
Drucker, Peter F. (1993). Post-Capitalist Society. Boston: Butterworth/
Heinmann.
Haravu L. J. (2002). Lectures on Knowledge Managemeant: Paradigms,
Challenges and Opportunities. Bangalore:Sarada Ranganathan Endowment
for Library Science.
Giddens, Anthony (1993). Sociology. Edn.2 fully revised and updated. Oxford:
PolityPress.
Kemp, D. A. (1976). The Nature of Knowledge. An Introduction for Librarians.
London: Clive Bingley.
McGarry K. J.(1981). The Changing Context of Information: An Introductory
Analysis. London: Clive Bingley.
Neelameghan, A. (1967). Research on the Structure and Development of the
Universe of Subjects. Library Science with a Slant to Documentation, 4. Paper.
Polyani, M. (1997). The Tacit Dimension. In: Prusak, L, (ed.) Knowledge in
Organisations. Boston, MA : Butterworth- Heinmann.
Popper, Karl R. (1981). Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Ranganathan, S. R. (1966). Teaching Library Science. Library Science with a
Slant to Documentation. 3, 293-388.
Rao, Madan Mohan (2003). Leading with Knowledge: Knowledge Management
Practices in Global Infotech Companies. New Delhi: McGraw Hill.
Sharma, Pandey S. K. (ed.) (2003). Electronic Information Environment and
Library Services. New Delhi: Indian Library Associtation.
Weiss, P. (1967). Knowledge: A Growth Process. In: Kochen, M. (ed). Growth
of Knowledge: Readings on Organisation and Retrieval of Information. New
York: Johy Wiley and Sons Inc. Pp.209-215.
Youngs, Gillian and Boyd-Barret, Oliver (2002). Interactive Electronic Media.
In: Bold, Chris New (et al) (eds). Media Book. London:Arnold
Ziman, John (1974). Public Knowledge : The Social Dimension of Science.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
92
UNIT 5 INFORMATION,
COMMUNICATION PROCESS,
MEDIA AND DIFFUSION
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Information
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
Conceptualisations of Information
Information as Commodity / Resource
Information as Data in the Environment
Information as Representation of Knowledge
Information as Part of Communication Process
5.3 Communication: Concept and Genesis

5.3.1 Definition of Communication
5.3.2 Channels of Communication
5.4 Types of Communication

5.4.1 Non-vocal and Vocal Communication
5.4.2 Non-verbal and Verbal Communication
5.4.3 Intra-personal, Interpersonal, Group and Mass Communication
5.5 Communication Process

5.5.1 Communication Cycle
5.5.2 Elements of Communication Process
5.5.3 Communication Media
5.5.4 Models of Communication
5.6 Information Diffusion

5.6.1 Meaning
5.6.2 Diffusion of New Ideas or Innovations
5.6.3 Patterns of Diffusion Process
5.6.4 Factors Affecting Diffusion of Information
5.7 Diffusion of Technological Information

5.8 Models of Information Diffusion Process
5.8.1
5.8.2
5.8.3
5.8.4
5.8.5
Epidemic Model
Economic Theory Model
Stock Adjustment Model
Vintage Model
Information Diffusion Theory
5.9 Information System for Diffusion

5.9.1 R&D Information Flow
5.9.2 Information Services, Information Institutions and Diffusion
5.9.3 Gatekeeping of Technical Information
5.9.4 Information Policy in Support of Information Diffusion
5.10 Summary
5.12 Keywords
95
Information Generation and

Communication
5.0
OBJECTIVES

l
understand the meaning of the term information and its different

conceptualisations;
explain the concept of communication and identify different types of

communication;
describe communication process and analyse the different elements of

communication process;
distinguish the different communication media;
define what information diffusion is;
discuss the patterns of diffusion process;
explain the various factors affecting information diffusion process;
elucidate different models of diffusion; and
discuss the role of information systems in information diffusion.
5.1
96
INTRODUCTION
There is a growing recognition that information and communication are

interrelated in very fundamental ways. The disciplines of Communication and
Information/ Library Studies have a long tradition of common interests and
concepts. This tradition has provided increasing interdisciplinary linkages
between the two fields. But, the intersection of Communication and
Information Studies cannot be explained only, or even largely, in terms of
what might be termed a Scholarly push. Far more crucial to growing interest
in the communication-information relationship, is the momentum and rhetoric
of the market place. These forces give urgency to the need for frameworks that
clarify the theoretical relationship between communication and information
by identifying similarities and differences, exploring ways in which the
differences may be complementary and/or supplementary, and facilitating
theoretical integration in general. In this Unit, an attempt is made to explain
to you the relationship between the concepts information and communication.
In the process, focussed perceptions of information have been discussed.
When considering the nature and role of information, from whatever
perspective, meaning becomes central. Information is something that one person
communicates to another. There is widespread confusion associated with
defining of communication. Not so, however, the attempt to investigate the
relationships between information as a phenomenon and communication as
process. So far as definitions of the concept communication is concerned, the
one employed by Ruben has been commended (i.e.)The process through
which individuals in relationships, groups, organisations and societies create,
transmit and use information to organise with the environment and one another.
This Unit discusses the aspects of definition of communication, types of
communication, communication process and communication media. Also the
Unit describes information diffusion, patterns of diffusion and its implications
to information systems, services and information professionals. It is hoped all

these aspects will be useful in providing adequate knowledge to the participants
of MLIS programme.
5.2
Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
INFORMATION
The question What is information? has eluded answer for a long time. Of
course, definitions proliferate and interpretations multiply even though nobody
has said the last word. The best minds in information science give considerable
importance to the concept and continue to discuss it. As T.D.Wilson observed
it was not so much the definition itself that mattered as the uses to which it
was put [T.D.Wilson, 1981].
The uses to which information is put are countless and therefore, the power of
those metaphors which link the human and the social organisms in describing
information as the life blood of society appear to be justified. Without a regular
and uninterrupted flow of meaningful information, society would quickly run
into difficulties, with business and industry, education, leisure, travel and
communications, national and international affairs, etc. In fact, the advanced
societies increasingly depend on the enabling powers of information and
communication technologies (ICT). It might be stated that information has
been a significant element in the life of all societies. Therefore, it is common
for each society to have its own characteristic information and, knowledge
base. However it may be noted that in the case of developing countries it
might well be that indigenous knowledge rather than that contained in the
Worlds stores of information is likely to be more relevant [Menou, Michel,
1994].
5.2.1 Conceptualisations of Information

Information is a concept that is applied in multiple ways in everyday usage as
well as in the research literature [Mc Credie, etal. 1999]. Here, we identify
and illustrate the range of what is meant by information, hoping to shed light
on assumptions about information.
5.2.2 Information as Commodity/ Resource

Some researchers emphasise information as a thing or resource [Arrow, 1979,
Bates, 1988, Buckland, 1991], a commodity that can be produced, purchased,
replicated, distributed, manipulated, passed along, controlled, traded and sold.
By focusing upon information-as-thing Michael Buckland [1991] brings into
consideration such phenomena as objects and events, seeking in the process to
widen our perception of what constitutes data and documents. Bucklands
approach is useful both for its breadth of vision and of the way it manages to
weave together such concepts as information, knowledge and communication.
Also, by demonstrating information as a thing that is embodied in objects or
information systems information can be tangible, as opposed to knowledge,
which is inherently intangible. By this approach, Buckland sheds more light
on the traditional approach of Machlup who saw information as intangible,
involving either the telling of something or that which was being told. Buckland
points out, in order to communicate knowledge it must be expressed or
represented in some physical way as a signal, text or communication. This
97

Communication
conceptualisation is consistent with a model of sending information as a

message from sender to receiver. It may include an assumption that the receiver
will interpret and understand the message as intended by the sender.
There are, however, difficulties with the treatment of information as a resource.
One such difficulty is associated with its intangible nature and also the fact
that unlike physical matter, information per se is not subject to the kind of
laws that would enable it to be treated in economic terms. Some writers have
also warned against the dangers of a pre-mature acceptance of the arguments
in favour of the resource characteristics of information. For instance, Michael
Menou is rather sceptical of those claims, which would portray information as
a critical resource in all circumstances- individual, organisational and societal.
[Menou, 1994]. He opines that such claims need to be supported by more than
anecdotal evidence and a limited body of empirical research. He emphasises
that information is seldom identified to the level of specificity required to
demonstrate its impact on any given situation or problem. Though, such
criticisms are not taken lightly, they have to be balanced against the fact that
the notion of information-as-resource is by now well-established in fact, most
evidently in recognition of the related concept of a marketplace of ideas, as
reflected in profusion of national and international laws and policies relating
to trade in information and its associated goods and services. This aspect serves
to highlight another practice of viewing information as a commodity.
The notion of information-as-commodity has gained considerable currency in
recent years, commodity comprising all types of information services, as also
transborder data flows. It is stated that the concept of information-as-commodity
is wider than that of information-as-resource, as it incorporates the exchange
of information among people and related activities, as well as its use. The
concept of information as a commodity is connected closely to the concept of
value chains with commoditised information gaining in value as it progresses
through different steps of creation, processing, storage, distribution and use. It
might be stated here that the problems include those of measurement and
appropriability, and with treating information as a public good as just one
more free market commodity.
5.2.3 Information as Data in the Environment

Some writers tend to view information more broadly to include data in the
environment available for interaction with human information processing
capabilities. This data category includes objects, artifacts, sounds, smells visual
and tactile phenomena, activities, events or the phenomena of nature. According
to Buckland, it is easy to assume that all communication is intentional. In
practice, however, one is informed also by perception of things that are
communicated unintentionally. In other words, neither the individual nor the
data unintentionally engage in communication. The discoveries one makes
in the process of casual (non-goal-directed) browsing [Chang Di Rice, 1993]
or the references another makes about an individuals character or performance
based on observation of the individuals behaviour when exposed to view,
particularly when the individual is unaware of being observed, serve as
additional examples of unintentional communication available when one attends
to information as data in the environment.
98
Taylor (1996) specifically uses the environmental approach in his concept of

information use environments, which are intersections of:
a)
sets of people (professors, entrepreneurs, special interest groups, socioeconomic groups);
b)
classes of problems (well- versus ill-structured, complex versus simple,

assumptions agreed upon versus not agreed upon and familiar versus new);
c)
work settings (involving attitudes towards information, task domain,

information access and history/experience, constraints and opportunities)
and
d)
what constitutes problem resolution. These environments are contexts for

various kinds of information needs.
5.2.4 Information as a Representation of Knowledge

Some of the researchers in information science view information as a
representation of, or pointer to, knowledge. The tradition of scientific method
and Scholarly publication is a clear example of this conceptualisation
[Lievrouw, 1988]. Card catalogues or databases of citations to scientific
documents illustrate an abstraction of representation of information, such as
in documents, books and periodicals. Traditionally, this view of information
has been based on the assumption that printed document is a primary
representation of knowledge. Recent years have seen a proliferation of
alternatives to print, such as representation of knowledge available on video
or audiotape, videodisc, CD-ROM, Internet or other electronic or computer
media.
5.2.5 Information as Part of the Communication Process

Some researchers consider information as part of communication process, as
part of human behaviour in the process of moving through space and time to
make sense of ones world. [Atwood and Dervin, 1982]. From this
conceptualisation, meanings are in people rather than words or data and
knowledge is what users do with data rather than what data do to users. An
assumption relating to this conceptualisation is that understanding must be
based on observation of human behaviour in information seeking and sense
making processes and on the meanings intended and interpreted by participants.
In the foregoing paragraphs, different conceptualisations of the concept
information have been discussed and explained to you so that you may be in a
position to understand focussed perceptions of the concept information. Let
us now attempt to know what communication is, and the different aspects
associated with the concept.
Self Check Exercise
1)
Briefly explain the different conceptualisations of information.

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Communication
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5.3
COMMUNICATION: CONCEPT AND

GENESIS
The word Communication is derived from the Latin word Communis, which
means sharing. Communication encompasses all methods used by living
beings to express or to convey a kind of thought or feeling. When we
communicate with someone, we try to establish a certain degree of commonness
with the person we communicate with.
If we look into the evolution of communication, we notice that communication
has taken place in many ways and has taken many forms throughout the history
of mankind. In the beginning sign languages or expressive body languages
were forms of human communication. With the evolution of language, spoken
word became the common form of communication. The invention of scripts
and writing paved the way for the written form of communication. Written
form of communication enabled recording and storing of information for the
future generations. Invention of printing provided major technological
breakthrough for recording knowledge and information in the form of
documents. Other inventions like telegraphy and telephone systems provided
mechanisms for people to communicate over long distances. Over the last
four decades or so electronic and mass media became commonplace methods
of communication.
5.3.1 Definition of Communication

Communication has been defined in many ways. For example, the Oxford
Dictionary defines it as The imparting conveying or exchanging of ideas and
knowledge whether by speech, writing or signs. On the other hand, Columbia
Encyclopaedia defines communication as The transfer of thoughts and
messages as contrasted with transportation of goods and persons. The basic
forms of communication are by signs (signals) and sounds (hearing).
Also, we come across the following explanations for the concept in literature:
l
act or instance of transmitting;
imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions or information by speech,

writing, etc;
something imparted, interchanged or transmitted;
document or message imparting information, opinions, etc;
process by which information is exchanged between individuals or groups

through a common system of symbols, signs or behaviour.
100
If we analyse the above-mentioned definitions and explanations provided for
the concept, we note that they imply that communication refers to transmission
or exchanging of information and that for information to be transmitted, it has
to be first mentally conceived, generated or formed by an individual. Only
then, can information be communicated to another. The transmission process,
could, however, be oral, through visual images or icons, or through written
text in any language, or a combination of all these different modes of
communication. From what has been stated above, it might be inferred that
the media and the method used to communicate ideas through is important.
Therefore, let us try to understand the forms and channels of communication.
5.3.2 Channels of Communication

Basically, there are two ways of communication:
1)
2)
Oral communication,
Written or Documentary communication.
Oral Communication
Oral communication is a method of communication through speech. It is
characteristic of its immediacy and personal touch, which might be difficult to
capture in other forms of communication. In this form, there is often an informal
or flexible setting (atmosphere), which allows the sender and receiver, interact
with questions and answers, comments and response. All this takes place in a
given time and results in immediate feedback and permits an instant reaction.
Written Communication
Some basic characteristics of written communication are that it:
l
has a more formal perspective, suggesting greater authority and trust

worthiness;
can be a potential record, capable of extended life and of being used again
and again;
can be extracted in parts or portions and can be quoted;
it is suitable for reading at an individuals convenience, speed and place;

and
is accessible to a large readership which can lead to the benefit of expert

criticism and review by peers.
5.4
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication systems may be classified or grouped into vocal or non-vocal

or verbal or non-verbal as per the characteristic of physical phenomenon. They
can also be categorised into intrapersonal, interpersonal, group or mass
communication. Let us try to understand each one of these categories.
5.4.1 Non-vocal and Vocal Communication

Non-vocal communication refers to the use of signs, signals and symbols,
gestures, etc in communication process. Signals, signs and symbols are the
three related components of non-vocal communication process. This type of
communication can be found in pre-historic period in all cultures.
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Communication
There is basic difference between signs and signals. A sign contains meaning
of an intrinsic nature while a signal is merely a device by which one is able to
formulate extrinsic meanings. In other words, the meaning of a signal is explicit
while that of a sign is implicit. Signals play a prominent role in communication
systems. In certain situations signals allow the flow of information and in
certain others they prevent. e.g.: use of signals in rail transport system.
Signs usually carry meaning by themselves. The meaning can be understood
only by trained staff. Traffic signs are common example of signs.
Symbols are generally complex and are not easy to understand. They usually
carry seminal meaning. Individuals perception plays a very important role.
Example: Symbols used in classification schemes, such as Colon classification.
Symbol has been defined as a device with which an abstraction can be made.
These three components: signals, signs and symbols have been used in nonvocal communication.
Vocal communication refers to any form of communication that uses the human
vocal chords. It can range from shouting to spoken languages. Mans vocal
apparatus as a device of communication represents an apex of physical and
intellectual evolution. It has the potential to express the most basic instructional
demands as well as a range of highly intellectual processes including the
possible mastery of numerous complex languages, each with a large quantum
of vocabulary. The vocal organs permit the production of sound effects, animal
noises, birdcalls and other amusing high manipulations of speech.
5.4.2 Non-verbal and Verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication includes actions such as gestures, vocalisations,
facial expressions and other behaviour. Whereas, verbal communication refers
to the use of words. The era of verbal communication began with the
development of language. Communication is generally equated with speaking
and writing words (vocabulary) are viewed as the primary means by which
information is conveyed from one person to another. Communication by facial
expression, by tone of voice, by touch etc. falls under the category of nonverbal communication. Non-verbal communication is of seven types. These
are:
102
Para linguistics is a kind of complementary language which includes

meaningful variations in speech corresponding to patterns of loudness,
pitch, hesitation;
Kinesics which includes facial expressions, eye movements, gestures, etc;
Haptics which refers to the use of touch to communicate, for example,

shaking hands, holding hands, patting, etc;
Proxemics refers to the use of interpersonal space, that is to say how far a
person is standing from the other, can communicate different meanings;
Dress and appearance: dress, hair styles, make-up, jewellery, etc, can
also constitute non-verbal code of communication;
Chronemics that is to say how time is considered is sometimes a message in

itself, a form of non-verbal communication and is called Chronemics; and
Iconics, which means interpretation of symbolism, found in objects or

designs can be considered a type of communication. The best example of
this type of communication is international traffic signs.
5.4.3 Intra-personal, Interpersonal, Group and Mass

Communication
Communication can also be classified in terms of its levels. The different levels
of communication are as follows:
l
Intrapersonal communication means communication within one person,

i.e., talking to oneself, reading something, etc. In this type of
communication, the source and recipient of information becomes one
person. Intrapersonal communication includes a persons thoughts,
experiences and perceptions during a communication event. Intrapersonal
communication is of different types which include: i) postures, ii) muscle
tension, iii) sleep, iv) use of tranquilisers, and v) emotions.
Interpersonal communication means communication between two or more

persons. It could be face-to-face, or it could be at a distance with the help
of telephone or letters, etc. For effective inter-personal communication
we must develop certain skills and tactics, which will help us to establish
rapport quickly with new persons. One such skill is to be able to control
the communication situation. This does not mean that we must act in a
dominant way.
Group communication: In this form of communication many people are

involved and the speaker and the listener are shifted among the participants.
This type of communication may take place between small groups usually
not exceeding 25. It may also take place in large groups where there is
communication by one or more persons to an audience of more persons.
Public or mass communication: This generally refers to communication,

which takes place between one person or a group of persons through a
special media to a large audience. Mostly large-scale communication is
disseminated by the media of print, broadcasting, film or the electronic
media to large audiences. This type of communication is referred to public
or mass communication.
In mass communication the relationship between sources and dissemination is

different from that in case of individual or interpersonal communications.
Interpersonal communication is one-to-one exchange, whereas mass
communication is one-to-many exchange in which a few sources transmit to a
great number of destinations.
Self Check Exercise
2) Identify different types of communication with the help of suitable examples.
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Communication
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5.5
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication is not something that happens in a disjointed fashion. It is a

transfer of a cluster of transactional functions of body and mind of one individual
to another. Communication is said to possess the following characteristics:
intention of the communicator, nature of communication, emphasis on action,
measurability of action, comparability of intention and measured action.
Communication process always requires at least three basic elements: the
source, the message and the destination. In fact, source is the point at which
messages originate. It is also referred to as sender or initiator of information.
A source may be an individual (speaking, writing, gesturing, etc.) or a
communication organisation like newspaper, publishing house, television
station, etc. Message may be in the form of written or printed text, sound or
light waves in the air, impulses in the electric current, or in the form of any
other signal which is capable of being interpreted meaningfully. Destination
is the intended target of the message. Again, destination could be an individual
or a group or a mob. Destination is the final link in the communication chain.
It may be stated here that in communication process, we try to establish
commonness between the sender and the recipient of message. For this to
happen, two more steps need to be added in practice. The steps are: the encoding
of the message to be transmitted and a mechanism to decode it at the receivers
end.
The establishment of commonness between the sender and the receiver depends
a lot on the field experience of the two. If the field of experience between the
two is different, it is difficult to establish commonness between the two. In
other words, the source can encode and the destination can decode the message
in terms of experience each has had. It might therefore, be said that
communication process is one of transmission and reception, the passing of
ideas, information and attitudes from person to person. All the steps in
communication process must be accomplished with high degree of efficiency
if communication is to take place.
5.5.1 Communication Cycle

Hither to we have been discussing the linear model of communication process
in which the source transmits message and the destination receives it. In regular
practice, however, the communication process does not end with the receiving
of the message by the destination. It must be stated that communication is a
continuous process in which each individual or institution functions as the
transmitter as well as receiver of messages. In other words, communication
process works in a cycle, in which each individual functions as the encoder,
interpreter and the decoder of information alternatively. In fact, communication
is interactive multidimensional process.
104
5.5.2 Elements of Communication Process
Most of the communication systems, whether sophisticated or not, are perceived

to possess the following basic elements:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Information source
Encoder
Message
Communication Channel
Noise
Decoder and
Receiver/Destination.
In other words, the act of communication has to originate from a source. The
idea/ message of communication has to be encoded using symbols. The process
of translating ideas, feelings and information into a code is known as encoding.
The device/ mechanism used to carry out the message is called a channel. The
success or failures of communication mainly depends on the channel used.
Self Check Exercise
3)
Explain the basic elements of a communication process.

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5.5.3 Communication Media

Media is obviously the plural form of medium which is the conductor, the
channel, and the means by and through which something is transmitted. In
other words, medium is the channel through which messages or information
are transferred to the receiver. A medium could be a spoken word or printed
word or it could be an electronic message. The term communication media is
often used to refer to both the channel and the source.
Communication media can broadly be classified into conventional and nonconventional media. Conventional media mainly comprises print media,
including graphic media while non-conventional media comprises mainly
electronic media including optical and hyper media.
Let us discuss, the most important of the media namely print media and
electronic media.
Print Media
Print media include: books, learned periodicals, conference proceedings,
magazines, newspapers etc. The main function of these media is to provide
105

Communication
information, and in certain cases provide entertainment also. The audience for
the print media could both be specialised, diverse and large. As a means of
communication the book has monopolised for centuries, followed by the
periodical and other forms of communication media, which make available
more information for use. Other types of print media like indexing and
abstracting periodicals, directories, conference proceedings, etc. provide
information about where to find information from primary sources like books,
periodicals etc. Print media still remains a powerful communication media.
Electronic Media
Electronic media refers to such media where messages are sent by such
mechanisms as telephone, telegraph, facsimile, etc. For example, broadcasting
which is carried out by radio and television provides with news and
entertainment to general public. These different media are briefly discussed in
this section.
106
Telegraph: This is one of earliest methods of modern telecommunication.

It was invented by Samuel Morse in 1830. The invention of telegraph has
increased the speed of human communication. It involved the manual
keying of messages using a code known as Morse code. The code is built
up of short and long pulses of current in the telegraph wire, with the
transmitters Morse key. One of the major developments in telegraphy is
the invention of Baudot code system. In this system the sender could use
a sort of typewriter keyboard; each key press would automatically generate
a 5-bit combination (word of current pulses or pulse absence). At the
receiving end with a special output unit could reproduce the message,
either by punching holes in code patterns in a paper tape or by putting
readable characters directly on to a paper tape.
Telephone: The development of the telephone represented a solution to

the technological problem of conversion of the sound patterns of human
voice into electrical patterns. Telephone happens to be one of the largest
established methods of electronic information transfer. It differs from the
telegraph in that the electric current carries the more complex patterns of
human voice over the wire. Originally telephonic communication between
two persons could take place only through a special cable link. The concept
of multiplexing is a major development in the direction. This allows a
number of different signals to pass through the same links at the same
time.
Broadcasting Media: This makes long distance message transmission

possible between sources and receivers without the need of transportation
or a direct physical (wire) link. In case of broadcasting message is
transmitted in the form of energy waves in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Broadcasting includes mass communication devices like radio and
television, through which messages are sent out regularly by professional
communicators through electronic media to large and diverse groups of
audience. Broadcasting as a technology implies transmitting electronically
generated radio waves to receiving devices. Radio and telecasting stations
are the centres for transmission. Recent development in this field includes
the use of satellite communication systems. Space satellites now provide
a worldwide television and telephone network that links every country on

the globe.
l
Electronic Mail: It is conceived primarily as an alternative to the

conventional postal mail service. It is used for the transmission of messages
or documents in an electronic form. In most of e-mail systems, transmission
is accomplished via telecommunications network designed for data
transmission. The greatest advantage associated with e-mail is that it
overcomes the delay connected with traditional postal service. Also,
e-mail is economical compared to conventional mail system. The input to
and output from an e-mail system can be via a video terminal, or a word
processor with a printer, facsimile machine or any data terminal including
computer vision and voice communication systems.
Videotext and Teletext: Both these are interactive information services

and that these allow individuals to request frames of information. But,
they are somewhat different technologies. In other words, Teletext is
delivered over the air while videotext is delivered by wire. In videotext, a
person can request for information from a central computer for delivery
over telephone or cable television lines. Teletext in contrast is a system
that enables the users to view on request frames of information already
being transmitted but invisible on their television screens.
Videotext is a generic term that refers to both Videotext and Teletext.

Teletext and Videotext are the most radical of the new communication
technologies which have brought the powers of computer to the home TV
Set and have transformed the entertainment medium into an information
appliance.
It may be mentioned here that electronically the society has progressed

from the wired era of telephone and telegraph to wireless era of
broadcasting and now stands on the threshold of era of integrated grid.
Integrated grid refers to the communication infrastructure that is now taking
shape world over, with internet revolutionising the communications
network. The developments in ICT are changing the entire nature of
telecommunications.
In the foregoing sessions we have learnt about communication media:

conventional as well as non-conventional. Since the conventional media are
inadequate to cope with the contemporary information environment, the nonconventional media have been developed. These media have not only enhanced
the speed of communication, but also increased the chances of information
access. Computer mediated communication systems have brought in these
advances.
5.5.4 Models of Communication

Models simplify reality, select important elements and indicate the relationships
that exist among key elements. Similar is the case with models associated
with human communication. Many models of communication include certain
basic concepts such as a sender, a process of encoding into signals or symbols,
a message, a channel, a receiver, a relationship, a process of decoding, a range
of things to which message refers (referents) and an actual or probable effect,
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Communication
intended or not. Some models also include feedback mechanism between sender
and receiver.
Communication models help us to understand how communication systems
work. The best-known communication model is that of Shannon and Weaver.
Shannon and Weavers Model
In this model, a message emanates from an information source. It is converted
into a signal or series of signals by a transmitter. Enroute, this signal is mixed
with or contaminated by noise, that is to say, various kinds of unwanted
interference coming from noise sources. The received signal is decoded by a
receiver, being converted back into the original message, more or less, which
is what the receiver (or destination) receives.
Shannon and Weavers model seems straightforward. It recognises that
encoding and decoding occur. It takes into account the problem of interference:
noise is a term from electrical engineering denoting electro-magnetic
interference. Noise arriving with the signal makes it more difficult to decode
accurately, as we all know from everyday experience.
This model has been criticised, however, because it is linear. That is to say, it
accounts only for the act of sending and receiving. It is a one way model,
based on engineering. In fact, this was the dominant model for a quarter century.
The thinking behind it was probably reflected in the thinking of many top
broadcasters, for example, thought of themselves as primarily responsible for
sending out messages, and perhaps for reducing noise to a minimum, but not
for receiving them back. Broadcasting organisations put most of their resources
into production and transmission of programmes, and much less into listening
to audience opinion.
To convert Shannon-Weaver model into a two-way model of communication,
we must add a feedback channel, complete with transmitter, encoder, noise,
decoder and receiver, all to deal with messages running from the receiver to
the sender. It could be said that we are simplifying working Shannon and
Weavers model in reverse, but in fact we are working it almost simultaneously
in both directions. In this two-way model, the feedback channel can be vitally
important to the original receiver as a means of seeking clarification of the
original message. Feedback channels, verbal and non-verbal, continually serve
this purpose in human communication.
It may be stated that Shannon-Weavers model has been criticised because it
did not provide for the complex nature of relationships among humans, some
of the scholars like Schramm and Kincaid have advanced models intended to
fill this need. Let us briefly learn about some of these communication models.
Information
Transmitter
Source
Message
Receiver
Signal
Destination
Received
Channel
Signal
Message
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Noise Source
Fig. 5.1: Shannon Weaver Model of Communication Process
The models that need to be considered are:

l
Lasswells model
George Gerbners model
The Schramm model
Lasswells Model
Lasswell, a U.S. Political Scientist developed this model in 1948. This model
is very useful to split the communication process into different components.
The value of this model lies in its use as a structuring device and in situations
in which the sender has a clear interest to influence the receiver. The model is
summarised as Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?
Who
communicated
Says
what
message
2
In which
channel
medium
To whom
Receiver
With
what
Effect
5
Fig. 5.2: Lasswells Model of Communication Process
Lasswells model can be interpreted in the context of Libraries in the following

manner:
Who?
Authors, publishers, research bodies, translators, professional

bodies, etc.
What?
Symbolic contents of knowledge, use of language notations,

symbols etc.
Which channel? Books, journals, mss, reports, conference proceedings, a.v.

materials, computer media etc.
Whom?
Library users or members of society
What effect?
Knowledge addition to individuals of society or users of

library.
George Gerbners Model

This model is conceptually different from the earlier two models. Gerbner
developed this model in 1956. the essence of this model is to connect the
communication situation and the participants perception of and response to
the situation and the communication process. This model can incorporate
machine as well as human process in different combinations and at various
stages.
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Communication
Selection content
Availability
Perceptional dimension
Relation between
Communication urgent
and word of events.
Means and control dimensions relationship between

communicating agent and communication products.
S E
Fig. 5.3: George Gerbners General Model of Communication
The Schramm Models

Schramm tried to develop a human communication model giving emphasis on
experiences of two individuals and the interaction between those two were
later designed as models. He developed three models to explain the proposed
concept or theory. The three models are diagrammatically represented.
Destination
Source
Encoder
Signals
Decoder
Fig. 5.4: Schramms Model I
According to this model, communication starts from source (i.e. 1st individual)
and it is encoded transmitted through signals. These signals are decoded either
manually or mechanically and reach destination (i.e. 2nd individual). This model
is more or less similar to Shannon-Weaver Model.
Source
Encode
Signal
Decoder Destination
Fig. 5.5: Schramms Model II
In this model, he introduces the idea that only that which is shared in the fields
of experience of both the sources and destination is actually communication
because only that portion of the signal is held in common by source and
destination.
Message
Encoder
Interprets
Decoder
Decoder
Interprets
Encoder
Message
110
Fig. 5.6: Schramms Model III
This model deals with communication as an interaction with both the parties
encoding, interpreting, decoding, transmitting and receiving signals. In this
model feedback and the continuous loop of shared information can be noticed.
Each model is intended to explain certain points, which its creator feels are
relevant in communication process or structure. No model can accomplish
everything that is desired. In other words, it cannot be do it all model.
Therefore, it is essential that we select models that would best suit our purpose
to solve the problem at hand.
In the above paragraphs, an attempt has been made to explain to you what a
communication model is all about and discuss some of the important models
available at present. In what follows let us try to learn about Information
Diffusion.
Self Check Exercise
4)
Discuss briefly the Shannon and Weaver Model of communication. List

other prominent models of communication.

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5.6
INFORMATION DIFFUSION
5.6.1 Meaning
We generally observe that information spreads from person to person in the
society. The phenomenon of spread or dispersion through time and space is
known as diffusion. Ideas and innovations are dispersed from producer to the
user. Innovations are translation of ideas into new practices, processes or
products. The diffusion of ideas and innovations is an essential component of
social and economic change for better or worse. In other words, the diffusion
of ideas and innovations is a source of advancement for the society as a whole.
Because of its wide spread influence, the diffusion process has been extensively
researched and documented. In this entire process, communication has been
found to be a key element.
Research on the diffusion of new ideas has its origins primarily in the field of
rural sociology with studies focussing on the adoption of new agricultural
techniques by farmers in the United States. Subsequently, attention was drawn
to other types of innovations, such as new medical products and new industrial
processes, as a result, a more international scope emerged. Though, earlier
studies were mostly based on desirable changes in society, contemporary studies
on diffusion deal with both harmful and beneficial effects of innovations.
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Communication
Development communication has emerged as a specialised field dealing with

factors affecting the diffusion of innovations and attitudes of populations,
especially in developing countries. Research on diffusion research also focuses
on role of social networks, information flow, demographics and psychological
variables innovativeness and resistance to adoption.
5.6.2 Diffusion of New Ideas or Innovations

The traditional approach to diffusion research was concerned more with social
processes and other demand-related factors affecting the diffusion of
innovations, and not with commercial or supply view point. To fill this gap
Lawrence Brown developed a market and infrastructure model of
information diffusion that focussed on supply-oriented rather than demandoriented factors affecting diffusion. There are three stages in this proposition:
l
First Stage: establishment of public or private agency through which an

innovation is distributed or made available to the population at large (this
provides a special pattern of diffusion)
Second Stage: conceive and implement strategies to promote adoption

among the populations in their service or market areas. This leads to
establishing infrastructures such as service and delivery systems and also
designs of information dissemination programmes.
Third Stage: create different levels of access to an innovation, depending

on individuals economic, locational social characteristics. This ultimately
influences the decision of adoption or rejection.
Thousands of new products are introduced each year.. However, a large majority
of them fail: Failure to gain acceptance may frustrate both private and public
sectors. As public sectors use public funds on R and D, they are more prone to
criticism. The limited effectiveness of technological and social change
programmes is attributed to the failure of public agencies to employ
sophisticated marketing techniques and strategies.
5.6.3 Patterns of Diffusion Process

A variety of temporal patterns have been associated with diffusion processes.
Let us try to understand basic patterns namely: i) temporal pattern of diffusion,
and ii) spatial pattern.
Temporal Pattern of Diffusion
While studying the temporal pattern of diffusion, we come across certain
questions like:
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When does an idea or innovation first begin to spread within a country,

region or organisation?
How quickly does it spread once introduced?
What types of people, organisations or firms tend to be early adopters?
What types of ideas and innovations spread most quickly?
The spread of ideas and innovations generally begins slowly, accelerates as
the diffusion process begins to unfold more fully, slows after some turning
point is reached, and levels of as saturation is approached. A graph of the
cumulative level of adoption over time follows an S-shaped (sigmoid) curve.
Figure 5.7, taken from E. M. Rogers (1983) shows the basic sigmoid curve
and its relationship to the rate of spread of information.
Cumulative percentage of population
100%
Rate of
Awareness-Knowledge
Adoption
Decision
Period
50%
Rate of
Adoption
Time
Fig. 5.7: Diffusion over Space and Time
The sigmoid (S-shaped) curve that describes most diffusion processes: rate of awarenessknowledge (uppermost curve), rate of adoption (lower Curve), and the adoption decision
period (gap between awareness-knowledge and adoption curves). Adapted from Everett M.
Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations (1962), 3d ed., New York: Free Press, 1983.
The graph indicates the fact that an innovation can be accepted by a person
only if the person is aware of the existence of the innovation. In other words,
the behaviour of the population toward an innovation is closely related to the
distribution of information regarding new phenomenon, even though the
availability of information may not, by itself, ensure the acceptance. The graph
also depicts the variable adoption period, which is stated to be the shortest in
case of early adopters. Another concept (i.e. the diffusion effect) is also built
into the curve. It may be observed that when 5% of the individuals in a social
system are aware of innovation, there is little normative pressure to adopt it.
On the other hand, as the rate of awareness of an innovation increases among
the population to 20 to 30 per cent, peer pressure begins to develop, and the
rate of adoption increases. Once this threshold is passed, a diffusion effect
begins to trigger substantial influence from peer networks to accept the
innovation. This diffusion or snowball effect is partially important in social
systems that are highly connected.
Spatial Pattern of Diffusion
In spatial pattern of diffusion, two distinct types been identified. They are: the
neighbourhood effect, and hierarchical effect. Let us try to learn about them.
l
Neighbourhood effect: It has been observed distance affects the rate of

distribution. In other words, the neighbourhood effect refers to the time
elapsed between the introduction and adoption of an idea or innovation
tends to increase with distance from nearest source of information or
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Communication
access. The source may be a near by adopter, the distributor of an

innovation, or some other propagator of information or resource. Distance
to a source affects rates of diffusion. It may be stated that personal
communications occur more frequently across shorter distances when
compared with longer distances. Also, costs of adoption increase with the
distance from the source of an innovation, owing to the expenses incurred
due to transport, delivery, service and repair. In this case, diffusion occurs
in a wavelike fashion as depicted in the figure 5.7. In the first instance,
adoption is restricted to a compact area. As the diffusion process continues,
the circle of acceptance and use expands and distance increases between
the points of origin and the area of most rapid adoption. As distance and
time lapse increase the innovation waves weaken gradually (see the figure
5.7 Diffusion over Space and Time).
l
Hierarchy or Cascade Effect: This effect refers to the tendency of large

urban places adopting an innovation before small urban places do so. The
per capita rate of adoption is also greater as the larger cities have the
capital to introduce innovations. It may also be mentioned that as the
density of population increases, the amount of information also increases.
This phenomenon is known as Hierarchy or Cascade effect. It has
been observed that the Neighbourhood and Hierarchical Effects often
occur in concert. This process is depicted by a schema developed by
Torsten Hagerstrand in 1967 [Figure 5.7]. This schema portrays diffusion
as occurring through a hierarchy of social communication networks. The
national, regional, and local levels of spatial aggregation each contain a
network within which neighbourhood effect principles of contact operate.
Further, a node on one level will have contact with nodes on another
level, providing mechanisms for the filtering of contacts down the urban
hierarchy. It may be mentioned here that if only the national scale is
considered, a neighbourhood effect would be observed, but if nodes on
all three levels were considered together, the pattern could be seen
hierarchical.
5.6.4 Factors Affecting Diffusion of Information

Different ideas and innovations diffuse at different speeds. According to
Marilyn Brown the following factors affect the rate of diffusion:
114
Relative Advantage: If the new innovation is perceived to be the superior

to the product or practice already in existence, it will replace the existing
one. Relative advantage may be considered in terms of cost-effectiveness,
a lessening of social conflict, greater comfort or security.
Compatibility: If a new idea or technology requires less change in the

prevalent sociocultural values, behavioural patterns, facilities, existing
equipment, and procedures, it has greater chances of its rapid diffusion.
Impact on social relations: Many ideas and innovations may lead to

alterations in social relationships. The new ideas may inhibit or promote
adoption and thus help further diffusion process. For instance, the new
agricultural technologies have accelerated urbanisation in some developing
countries, and this in turn affected family and community relationships.
Complexity: The use and understanding of an idea or innovation depends

on how complex the idea or innovation is. In other words, complexity
associated with new ideas or innovations inhibits its adoption and use.
Communicability: If an idea or information about an innovation can be

obtained or communicated to the potential adopter easily, it will be quickly
disseminated.
Observability: If use of an innovation is observable, knowledge of its

existence is facilitated. For example, the diffusion of many agricultural
innovations such new equipment and crops is facilitated by the fact that
they are visible and therefore, easily made known to the uninformed.
- 2sd
- sd
Time
x
Laggards (16%)
Early Majority (34%)
Late Majority (34%)
Early Adopters (13.5%)
Innovators (2.5%)
Number of New Adopters
Divisibility and Reversibility: If an innovation is divisible into smaller

parts, then trials are possible and diffusion is promoted. Also, diffusion is
more rapid, if it is possible to return to the original condition or situation
after its initial trials, in case of failures.
x = mean
sd = standard deviation
+ sd
Fig. 5.8(a): Adopter Categories
Adoption Cycle
Repurchase Cycle
Sales
Further Repurchase Cycle
Time
1 =Introduction, 2 = Growth, 3 = Maturity, 4 = Saturation, 5 = Decline.

Fig. 5.8(b): Innovation Life-cycle stages
Fig. 5.8: (Diffusion) Adoption and Innovation life-cycle curves. a) Adopter Categories.
Adapted from Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, New York: Free Press, 1962.
b) Innovation life-cycle stages. Adapted from David F. Midgley, Innovation and New
Product Marketing, London: Croom Helm, 1977.
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Proportion of Adopters

Communication
T3
T2
T4
T5
T1
Distance from Origin of Innovation.

Fig. 5.9: (Diffusion). The shape of diffusion in space and time: proportion of adopters at
successive time periods as a function of distance from origin of the innovation. Adopted from
Richard L. Morrill, The Shape of Diffusion in Space and Time, Economic Geography 46
(1970): 259-268.
National
Regional
Local
Fig. 5.10: (Diffusion) Schematic portrayal of diffusion networks viewed at three different
spatial scales. Adapted from Torsten Hagerstrand, Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967.
Categorisation of Adopters of New Ideas and Innovations
116
It may be noted when the absolute number of adopters are plotted into a graph
for a distinct time period, a bell shaped approximately normal frequency curve
is obtained. Using this bell or normal curve, it is possible to talk about the type
of people who tend to adopt an idea or innovation during different stages of
the diffusion process (Figure 5.8a, 5.8b). It may be stated that people who
adopt an idea or innovation at similar times tend to have similar characteristics.

Particularly, innovators and early adopters generally are better educated, have
higher social status, are more risk-taking and cosmopolitan, and have greater
social participation and opinion leadership than later adopters. They also tend
to gain more information from impersonal sources and are less reliant on
Interpersonal Communication as an influential source of information. Laggards
the lost to adopt tend to have traditional values and low social status, education,
and income. Their adoption occurs only after information has tickled down,
when pressures to adopt are strong, and when the prices for the new product
have dropped.
Adoption of New Ideas

It may be mentioned here that the adoption of new ideas by organisations and
individuals reveals certain characteristics.
Organisations which adopt innovations more readily reflect certain traits such
as: openness to communication with their surrounding environment,
functionally different subunits, expertise of members, decentralised power,
flexible rules and regularisations, and availability of resources, etc.
Apart from organisational aspects, individuals also play important role in the
adoption of new ideas. The individuals decision making process can be divided
into time periods. E. M. Rogers and F. F. Shoemaker developed a model
describing the stages through which an individual passes from first knowledge
of an innovation to a decision to adopt or to reject it. This model is known as
A-I-E-T-A model of decision-making. As per this model, the decision-making
process comprises the following time periods:
l
Awareness: The individual learns about the existence of a new idea or

innovation,
Interest: The individual recognises that he/she may have a need for this
new idea or innovation.
Evaluation: The individual assesses the idea or innovation in terms of its

benefits and costs and decides whether or not to try it.
Trial: It is an evaluation of an idea or innovation through a small scale or

a limited use. The trial reduces the uncertainties associated with the
innovation.
Adoption: It refers to the adoption or use of new idea or innovation on a

continuous, full-scale basis. Problems associated with the use of the
innovation may emerge at this stage, particularly when the individuals
involved in the adoption decision are different from those involved in or
affected by the actual implementation.
The A-I-E-T-A model of decision-making can be used to describe the role of

different sources and channels of information. In general, mass media and
other impersonal sources of information create awareness or interest, but later
stages in the process require more personal, specific, and local sources of
information.
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Communication
5.7
DIFFUSION OF TECHNOLOGICAL
INFORMATION
In the literature, we come across several studies on the diffusion of technological

information in the society (Chatman). Models of information diffusion are
constructed. These models help us to estimate the number of people with the
information in question at any given point of time. There are different
parameters, which may be estimated if the exact values are known. Such
parameters include the maximum number of information recipients (Nm) and
the number of recipients to whom a transmitter sends information during a
time interval (ni). The diffusion process-taking place is represented in the
diagram (see the Figure 5.11).
Time:
Informed
0
0
1
4
2
16
Fig. 5.11: Person-to-Person Diffusion Process (Source: Losee, R. M.)
When information diffuses, it may be seen as having an origin where only one
person has information as indicated on the left side of the diagram. It may be
noted that in this example population, each information recipient transmits to
three additional people.
Number with Information
At the time t = 2, the person who originally had the information transmits it to
three new people, as indicated by the arrows on the right half of the diagram.
At the end of the transmission cycle the total number of people who have
received the information will be the number of people who had received the
information at the end of the previous transmission cycle plus three times this
number. The total number of recipients, who have received information at
timet is N (t) = 4N (t 1). The total number of recipients, N (t), grows at an
exponential rate. If the population were infinite in size and infinitely dense, so
that one can never transmitted to some one who already had the information,
N (t) could be graphed as a curve A shown in the following Figure 5.12.
118
Population Size
A
B
Time
Fig. 5.12: Diffusion Curve (Source: Losee, R. M.)
Neither of these assumptions is ever fully met. As time progresses, more and
more people will already have received the information and fewer additional
people will be added to the list of informed. The graph of the number of
informed people now looks more like curve B. The rate of difference r for
curve B is of the form r = (t) (Nm N (t)). The component (Nm N (t)) will
be larger att = 0 and will approach 0 when the number of people with
information approaches Nm. If f(t), is Ci N(t)), it may be understood as a
coefficient of internal influence on diffusion process. Diffusion is seen as
occurring only through interpersonal contacts, and the N(t) [Nm N(t)] may
be interpreted as the product of number of people with the information and the
number of people without information.
If f(t) is a constant Ce, the number of people already having information not
being a factor, the diffusion is controlled by factors external to diffusion
environment. When control of diffusion process is mixed between external
and internal factors, the rate of diffusion may be modelled as:
r = [Ce + Ci N(t)] [Nm N(t)]
Where Ce and Ci are factors representing external and internal coefficients of
diffusion, as above.
This entire explanation of Information Diffusion provided above has been taken
from Robert M. Losee. The Science of Information, 1990, pp.250-253.
So far, we have used the term diffusion rather loosely without precise
definition. Mansfield conceives of a three-way definition for diffusion:
1)
Imitation or Interinstitutional diffusion refers to spread of new process

from firm to firm with in an industry.
2)
Intrainstitutional diffusion refers to spread of the process within individual

firms.
3)
Overall diffusion refers to the spread throughout the society as a whole.
Thus, interorganisational diffusion might be measured by the proportion of

institutions that have adopted a new process, interorganisational diffusion by
the proportion of any one firms output produced using the new process, and
overall diffusion by proportion of the total industry output that is produced
using new process. In general, diffusion means Interinstitutional diffusion,
because it is interesting to study adoption and usage process between
institutions.
5.8
MODELS OF INFORMATION DIFFUSION

PROCESS
Interorganisational diffusion surveys, study the adoption and adaptation process

of an innovation, particularly the analysis of variance between firms. It
concentrates on individual innovations diffusing through single type of
industries and attempts to explain differences between institutions in the time
taken to adopt an innovation. This is known as the institutional characteristic
of diffusion. In the international approach, an explanation of international
differences in the speed of diffusion of innovation in terms of the characteristic
of the countries and industries is presented.
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Communication
Rogers argued that the adoption of an innovation mainly depends on

communication and often follows an S shaped curve when plotted over time.
Rogers model is the most well-known and wide spread diffusion model, but
far from the only one. Mahajan, et al (1990) presented an overview of diffusion
models, arguing that the Bass model (1968) had given the most important
impulses to the research on diffusion innovations. Bass identified two forces
behind the diffusion process, mass media communication and word of mouth
communication. Mahajan, et al mentioned nine assumptions that warrant
attention. Four of those considered are of special importance when estimating
the diffusion of computers and Internet to households.
These are:
i)
Diffusion of an innovation is independent of all other innovations;
ii) Nature of an innovation does not change over time;

iii) Diffusion of an innovation is not influenced by marketing strategies;
iv) There is only one single adoption by each adoption unit.
Mahajan, et al presented several other diffusion models, where attempts have
been made to maintain better predictions by handling facts, not fitting the
mentioned basic assumptions. Let us try to understand the significance of some
diffusion models we come across in the research literature.
5.8.1 Epidemic Model

The epidemic model, also known as the learning model, is more popular in
sociological and marketing literatures, but has also been used by economists.
A common feature of this model is the analogy drawn from the spread of
diseases. Consequently, a theoretical tool often used is one of the mathematical
theories of epidemics. As reference to these theories is also often made by
economists working in this area, an exposition of simplest model of epidemics
will provide a useful introduction to the study of this model. The basic
hypothesis of a simple epidemic model is represented by the following equation:
mt + 1 - mt = (n - mt ) mt / n
Where m is the number individuals in a fixed population of n having contacted
the disease, between elapse time epochs t and t + 1. This is proportionate to the
product of the number of uninfected, both at time t. The value of (epidemic
indicator) will depend on a number of factors such as the infectiousness of the
disease, and the frequency of social interaction.
5.8.2 Economic Theory Model
120
As a result of the nascent nature of process innovations and of the imperfect

information, there may be major differences between firms in the expectations
of how profitable the adoption of any innovation will be. This, coupled with
the likelihood that firms differ in their attitude to risk general and new
innovations in particular, leads to the conclusion that different firms react
differently to the same innovation. Specially, the time lag before adopting the
innovations will probably differ significantly between firms within the same
industry. For economic reasons, it was suggested that an important contributor
to interfirm differences would be the difference in their size (i.e., the size of
the firm). This logic has been formalised into a model called Industrial Engel
Curve which relates probability of a firm having adopted the new innovation
to the firms size. When the Industrial Engel Curve was fitted with data
collection, results were encouraging. The sample innovations, on which the
data was based, indicated positive relationships between the speed of adoption
of innovation and the firms size. Many other correlations could be brought in,
such as nature of innovation vis--vis industrial growth, cyclical factors and
growth factors, the role of the firms size and industry concentration, etc.
5.8.3 Stock Adjustment Model

This model is used in the study and analysis of investment behaviour. In fact,
the Stock Adjustment Model was used to study the stock levels of computers
in U.S. and U. K. in the 1960s and 1970s. It helps to indicate the stock level, in
particular, equilibrium stocks in any time period. Although the Stock
Adjustment Model has limited applications, it is of great help to study
interorganisal diffusion process of innovations.
5.8.4 Vintage Model

The vintage model was postulated by Salter and others in 1960 (Productivity
and Technical change, 1960) brings in an economic theory of diffusion. The
basic structure of a Vintage Model may be summarised as follows: New
knowledge assumed to be embodied in new product and so, gross investment
in the vehicle of diffusion. Old product is only replaced or scrapped when its
operating costs exceed the returns it earns. Similarly new equipment is only
installed if its total costs are covered by the revenue it earns. It is usually
assumed, for analytical convenience, that plant is invisible and that new
knowledge cognate be introduced on old equipment. Thus, each vintage of
product embodies the best practice know-how of its date of production and is
then committed to this nascent knowledge until its expiry. The appearance of
a cost saving process innovation within their frame work will have the following
consequences:
It will become profitable to replace immediately some proportion of existing
product because the total costs of the new products are lower than the operating
costs of some old product. The existing capital stock comprises a number of
vintages embodying the old know-how the newer vintages being slightly more
efficient than the old, due to minor improvements in specification over the
years.
However, the simplicity of the model depends heavily on the assumptions of
cost minimisation, on the one hand, and the invisibility of plant and the
embodiment hypothesis on the other. In, principle, each of these assumptions
can be relaxed without destroying the essence of the model. In practice, however
it is doubtful whether the model would retain its productive power if all the
four assumptions were relaxed simultaneously.
5.8.5 Information Diffusion Theory

Elfreda A. Chatman identifies three diffusion models, namely:
l
Elements of Diffusion Model
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Communication
Attributes of Innovation Model
Stages of Adoption Model
She applies these models to study the awareness, use, and diffusion of an
innovation in a job environment among working poor.
The diffusion of information is studied with four elements (1) the innovation,
(2) communication, (3) social structure, (4) time. Attributes of innovation
explain the characteristics that may improve acceptance of innovation or
rejection. Finally, stages of adoption are used to explain the decision making
process of adoption or rejection of an innovation.
Elfreda A. Chatman presents her analysis of the information diffusion from
person, to person, the social structure that helps movement of various models
of communication, the impact of variance of these modes. The study also
analyses the attributes, such as (1) relative advantage, (2) compatibility, (3)
complexity, (4) trialability of innovations. The stages of adoption model,
designed for the diffusion of technological innovation appears to have limited
applicability to the diffusion of job information. According to the study of
information about a job has a finite usefulness when disseminated. Although,
the job adopter experiences awareness, trial and acceptability of information
about a job, the diffusion of the information as useful is limited to the number
persons who can be hired for a position. Information diffusion models are
some times found overlapping in actual practice and they can be theoretically
separated to draw influences.
5.9
INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR DIFFUSION
A nations competitiveness depends on the capacity of industry to innovate

and upgrade. Innovation is based on new ideas, including new combinations
of old ideas, the utility of which is tested with applications of many kinds of
information. Empirical studies have repeatedly found that in more prosperous
enterprises there is greater awareness of information and greater ability to
manage it. Sweeny (1989) reports empirical evidence strongly indicates that
it is the quality of information activities and of the information process by a
firm which makes its innovation commercially successful and gives the
competitive edge. Information plays a large role in the process of innovation
information that is not sought or available to competitors, or information
available to others that is interpreted in new ways. Sometimes it results from
sheer investment in market research or R & D. It is striking, though, how often
innovators of those firms that are simply looking in the right place,
unencumbered by or unconcerned with conventional wisdom [Michael E
Porter, 1990]. It has been observed that innovative ideas are initiated either by
the perception of a need or recognition of technical feasibility. Several studies
suggest that most major technological breakthroughs are initiated by the
discovery of a technological possibility.
Diffusion of innovation happens through the appropriate flow of information.
It begins from the R&D stage itself.
5.9.1 R&D Information Flow

122
Maddock observes that the main function of an R&D establishment as being a
link in the innovation chain to enable the innovation-flow to occur more

efficiently. He defines the role of an R&D in the following terms. Firstly, it
should be in close contact with relevant advances in science and technology.
Secondly, it should provide an opportunity to bring relevant but difficult
disciplines together. Thirdly, it should apply science and technology at the
lowest cost in terms of time and effort. Fourthly, and most importantly, it
should be active in technology transfer and should, therefore, preferably be
located close to the users of R&D work. Fifthly, it should be able to assess
objectively the feasibility of an innovation project. From what has been stated
above it is clear that an R&D establishment has to rely on a large input of
information from external sources as shown in the Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Information in Diffusion of Innovation

INFORMATION IN DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
The Listening Post
The Interdisplinary Role
Science / Technology Application at Lowest Cost
In Time and Effort
Technology Transfer
The Feasibility Appraisal Role
In this connection it is important to note difference the between company and

corporate research and development establishments, on the one hand,
cooperative or national research institutes on the other hand. Whereas the former
have a major commitment to industrial innovation in general, and new product
development in particular, the later tends to pay more attention to process
improvement and to research aimed at improving the technological
infrastructure. The national research institutes, therefore, often act as important
sources of scientific and technical information to research establishments in
industry, although they must themselves rely on other sources of information
(Table 5.2).
Table 5.2: Diffusion and Information Orientation
DIFFUSION AND INFORMATION ORIENTATION
CORPORATE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ESTABLISHMENTS
l
Innovation Oriented
Cost Conscious
l
l
User of Information
Information of Proprietary Nature:
Know-how Commodity
NATIONAL RESEARCH INSTITUTES

l
Infrastructure Oriented
Providers of Advice and Information
Information More of an Open Nature:

Resource
5.9.2 Information Services, Information Institutions and

Diffusion
It may be mentioned here that concepts such as library, information service,
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Communication
extension services, etc. are manifestations within a continuous spectrum with

a shift in the major activity and in the need to adapt to changing requirements.
The physical form of the services is determined by the measure of specialisation,
which is necessary to satisfy the need for which the service is created or designed
(Table 5.3).
Table 5.3: Spectrum of Services
SPECTRUM OF SERVICES
TYPES OF SERVICES
ACTIVITY
RATE OF CHANGE
Archive Library
Special Library
Documentation Service
Information Service
Information Analysis
Information Synthesis
Extension Service
Advisory Service
Storing
Low
Interpretation
Advising
High
Broadly speaking, an information service, as activity, comprises the

interpretation of information in terms of user needs. In other words, it is a
repackaging function. In accomplishing this function of information service,
as an organisation can make use of all possible resources or concentrate more
on documentary information (such as journals, indexing and abstracting
services, monographs, etc.). A typical R&D information service would provide
conventional or computerised current awareness and retrospective search
services to supply the user with necessary documents. (Table 5.4).
Table 5.4: Information Services in Diffusion
INFORMATION SERVICES IN DIFFUSION
Alerting
l
l
l
Broad Current Awareness

(To Group of Firms)
Highly Specific SDI
(To Individual Scientists, Engineers)
Retrospective Searching
(In-Depth Searches. Quick Reference Enquiries)
Document Delivery
l
l
l
Acquisition
Cataloguing. Classification
Lending. Copies
Interpretation of Information
(Analysis of Information in Documents)

l
Specialised (In-House) Databases
l
Extension (Field Liaison)
Depending on the organisation and the size of R&D establishments, as also

the mandate of an information service within such establishment, more
sophisticated information services like information analysis and advisory
services as well as specialised databases would be provided.
124
Where R&D information services also provide information services directly

to industry, it is not uncommon to find field liaison services, especially in the
case of information services forming part of national R&D establishments.

Information services in industrial R&D establishments will probably pay more
attention to patent literature and trade intelligence when compared to
information services forming part of those national R&D establishments, which
are more infrastructure-oriented.
5.9.3 Gatekeeping of Technical Information

Many papers, articles and handbooks have been published on this topic. As
such, only some broad guidelines on what industrial firms can do to use external
information sources to their best advantage are indicated here. These guidelines
concern the establishment of in-house libraries, correspondence information,
monitoring and business intelligence systems, as well as the use of external
information systems (Table 5.5).
Table 5.5: Information Sources and Diffusion
INFORMATION SOURCES AND DIFFUSION
l
Library: Books, Journals , Reports Trade Literature, Newspapers, Cuttings,

Patents, Standards, Manuals
In and Outgoing Correspondence Information Syst em: Technical Subjects

The Use of External Systems for Literature Current Awareness or
Selective Dissemination of Information
l
l
Sharing Facilities for Scientific, Technical and Business Databases:

Bibliography and Numerical
Information Search Unit: Study of Literature to Trigger New Ideas
Monitoring or Early Alert System: Identification of Threats and

Opportunities
Business Intelligence System: Alliances of Information for Decision Support
In this context a distinction can be made between the information needs of

entrepreneurs establishing new industries and those of existing industries. It
may be mentioned here that the small firms may need advice on how to set up
in-house libraries and / or information services mentioned earlier. Many
international organisations as well as national documentation centres are able
to provide such advice.
No mention has been made, till now, of management information systems,
although many firms (especially smaller ones) are in need of unbiased advice
on the creation of such systems. There are clear indications, however, that the
fields of documentary information, management information, records
management, and office automation are converging in a manner similar to the
converging of computation and telecommunication.
It must be stressed at this stage that no amount of information can encourage
innovation if the management of the organisation is not receptive to risk taking
for the sake of innovation, especially in these days of professional
management.
5.9.4 Information Policy in Support of Information Diffusion

Information flow is a necessary condition for diffusion of information related
to innovations. In many countries evidence is available in favour of
governmental obligation to provide innovation support to industry. It has been
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Communication
mentioned that government policies are rather biased to support large industrial
firms. But, resent studies indicate that small firms can also contribute
extensively to innovations. Chico writing on Technonet Project in South East
Asia, lists technical information services, industrial extension services and
entrepreneurial development programs as important ingredients for promoting
innovation, especially in small firms. However, most of the small industrial
firms of developing countries lack these facilities. The developed countries
have well designed policies in this regard. In the USA, the policy is to stimulate
innovation through removal of impediments, while in other countries direct
governmental involvement in the form of subsidies for industrial R&D, based
upon selective industrial strategies, as well as the introduction of other
innovation support programmes is advocated. Several Western Countries, as
well as Japan, have established, or are in the process of establishing formalised
information policies for this purpose.
Self Check Exercise
5)
What is meant by diffusion? Explain the varieties of diffusion.
6)
Discuss the economic theory of diffusion.
7)
Briefly discuss some of the important models of diffusion.

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5.10
SUMMARY
In this Unit, we have attempted to explain to you different conceptualisations

of the term information. The main aspects discussed are: Information as
commodity / resource; information as data in the environment; information as
representation of knowledge and information as part of Communication process.
The second topic covered in this Unit relates to the concept of communication.
In this regard, the idea and meaning of communication, the definition of
communication is explained to you. The form and channels of communication
are described and are represented diagrammatically to have a clear
understanding. The essentials or ingredients of communication are dealt with
briefly. The different functions of communication along with its types are
discussed in detail. Attempt has been made to highlight the significance of
personal communication bringing out clearly the importance of models and
media of communication.
126
The third aspect discussed in this Unit happens to be Information Diffusion.

In this regard, the main aspects discussed are: the meaning of diffusion, which
is a process of transfer of knowledge, or the movement of technical know-how
within a group of users such as farmers, doctors, engineers, etc.; the pattern of
diffusion process occurs in two ways namely temporal and spatial; diffusion
could be interfirm, intrafirm, or spread through out the industry; several factors
such as relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, communicability,
observability, and diversability; affect the information diffusion of innovations;
the process of information diffusion has been studied through four models:
Epidemic Model, Economic Theory Model, Stock Adjustment Model and
Vintage Model, each having its own characteristics. Also, the information
system for diffusion is affected through information units operated close to
R&D establishments. A spectrum of services is offered by information
institutions for the support of innovation, for example Gatekeeping or Technical
Information is a unique service adopted to provide information support to
innovation. Mention has also been made in the Unit about national efforts
providing information support services through a variety of institutions that
activate spreading of information.
5.11
1)
Different Conceptualisations of Information:
Information is not just one thing. It means different things to those who expound
its characteristics, properties, elements, techniques, functions, dimensions and
connections.
In every day life, the word information is closely related to the concept of
communication, more specially with the aspect of communication of ideas,
thoughts, and knowledge bringing forth an understand of information that it
has properties to convey ideas, thoughts, concepts and knowledge.
The table below furnishes different conceptualisations of information.
Conceptualisation
Resource / Commodity
Data in environment
Representation of
Knowledge
Part of process of
communication
Description
Assumptions
A message, commodity,
something that can be
produced, purchased,
distributed, sold, traded,
manipulated, passed along,
controlled.
Assumes sender >

receiver, assumes receiver
makes of message what
sender intends.
Objects, artefacts, sounds,

smells, events, visual and
tactile phenomena, activities,
phenomena of nature.
Accounts for unintentional

communication
Documents, books,
periodicals, some visual and
auditory representations,
abstractions of information
(e.g. citations)
Assumes printed
documents are primary
representation of
knowledge; assumes
primacy of scientific
technical knowledge.
Assumes meanings are in
people, not in words;
assumes human behaviour
is basis of the process.
Part of human behaviour in

process of moving through
time / space to make sense of
world
Buckland identifies three principal uses of the word information:

i)
information as process (i.e. the ability to inform),
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Communication
ii) information - as knowledge (i.e. the knowledge that is imparted in the

process of being informed, and
iii) information - as thing, concentrating on the various properties of
information and its different manifestations and understandings.
By focussing upon information - as - thing, Buckland brings into consideration
such phenomena as objects and events, seeking in the process to widen our
perception of what constitutes data and documents. Buckland's approach is
useful both for its breadth of vision and for the way it manages to weave
together such key concepts as information, knowledge and communication.
Moreover, by demonstrating that as thing, which is embodied in objects or
information systems, information can be tangible, as opposed to knowledge
which is inherently intangible, he sheds light on the traditional perceptions of
information, most notably that of Fritz Machlup who considered information
as an intangible.
2)
Communication systems can be distinguished in the following manner:

i)
Vocal and Non- vocal Communication: Vocal communication refers

to any type of communication where human voice is used; it could
be spoken language, shouting or laughing. Non-vocal communication,
on the other hand, refers to use of signs, symbols, signals, gestures
etc. to communicate something.
ii) Verbal and Non-verbal Communication: Verbal communication

refers to the use of words to communicate something; different
languages come under the category of verbal communication. Nonverbal communication, on the other hand, refers to those different
modes of vocal and non-vocal communication where words are not
used. The examples of non-verbal communication are gestures, facial
expression, vocalisation etc.
iii) Intrapersonal Communication: Communication within one person
such as reading a book.
iv) Interpersonal Communication: Communication between two persons
such as writing letters, face-to-face conversation.
v)
Group Communication: It could be either a small group ranging from

three to about 25 persons or large group where one or several persons
communicate to an audience of 25 or more persons. Social gatherings
and conferences are examples of group communication.
vi) Public or Mass Communication: Any large scale communication that

disseminates through media such as print, broad casting etc. comes
under this category. Broadcasting of news through radio and television
are examples of public mass communication.
3) The basic elements of communication process are:
i)
128
Source: Which generates information.
ii) Encoder: Translates the information or message into words, signals,

signs, etc.
iii) Message: It is the meaningful representation of the thought or ideas

of the information source.
iv) Channel: The medium trough, which the message is transmitted.

v)
Noise: Disturbance that interferes with the message in the

transmission process and degrades or distorts the information or
message.
vi) Decoder: Translates back the message from words, symbols, etc. into
thoughts and ideas of the information source.
vii) Receiver / Destination: The person or equipment, which receives the
information. In oral communication the listener is the receiver as
destination of information. In the case of electromagnetic
communication the equipment e.g., telephone, televisions are the
receivers and the person or group of persons for whom the information
is meant is the receiver.
4)
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication is one of the best-known
models of communication. In this model (depicted in the figure), a message
emanates from an information source. It is converted into signal or series
of signals by a transmitter. Enroute, this signal is mixed with or
contaminated by 'noise', that is to say, various kinds of unwanted
interference coming from noise sources. The received signal is decoded
by a receiver, being converted back into the original message, more or
less, which is what the receiver (or destination) receives.
This model has been criticised, however, because it is linear. That is to
say, it accounts only for the act of sending and receiving. It is a one-way
model, based on engineering. In fact, this was the dominant model for a
quarter of a century.
To convert Shannon and Weaver's Model of Communication into a twoway model of communication, we must add feed back channel, complete
with transmitter, encoding, noise, decoding and receiver, all to deal with
messages returning from the receiver to the sender. It could be said that
we are simply working Shannon Weaver model in reverse, but in fact we
are working it almost simultaneously in both directions. In this two-way
model, the feedback channel can be vitally important to the original
receiver as a means of seeking clarification of the original message. Feed
back channels, verbal and non-verbal, continually serve this purpose in
human communication. New information technology enables us to engage
in far more two-way communication than was possible earlier.
Information
Transmitter
Source
Message
Receiver
Signal
Destination
Received
Channel
Signal
Message
Noise Source
Shannon Weaver Model of Communication Process
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Communication
Some of the other prominent models of communication are:

i)
Lasswell's Model
ii) Gerbner's Model

iii) Schramm Model.
5)
Diffusion is an information transfer process of knowledge. It is the spread

or activation of the usage of technology within a population of users,
usually within a group characterised by some common element of
productive activity viz. farming, mining, etc. Thus diffusion is the
movement of technical know-how within the group of users such as
farmers, doctors, engineers, etc. This is clearly distinguished from the
lateral shift i.e. from one group of users to another e.g. from farming to
mining.
Mansfield has conceived three varieties of diffusion. They are:
a)
Interfirm diffusion: It refers to spread of new process from firm to

firm within an industry. It is also known as imitation diffusion.
b)
Intrafirm diffusion: It refers to the spread of the process within

individual firms.
c)
Overall diffusion: it refers to the spread of transfer through out the

industry as a whole.
However, in general diffusion means interfirm diffusion which reflects

the adoption and usage process between firms within an industry.
130
6)
According to Economic Theory of diffusion there can be major differences

between firms within the same industry of how profitable the adoption of
any innovation will be. This will depend on the nature of innovations,
information about it, and attitude of the firms taking risk. Apart from the
size of the firms may also contribute to the interfirm differences. This
argument has been formalised into a model called Industrial Engel Curve
which relates probability of a firm having adapted to the new innovations
to the firm's size. Data collected to Industrial Engel Curve indicate positive
relationship between the speeds of adoption of innovations to the firm's
size. Many other correlations could be brought in such as nature of
innovation vis--vis industrial growth, cyclical factors and growth factors,
the role of firm size, industry concentration, etc.
7)
There are considerable number of intra and interorganisational diffusion

surveys focussing on the adoption and usage process of innovations. The
time taken for the spread of diffusion of innovation is influenced by the
institutional level characteristics. At the international level the
characteristics of countries and organisations therein affect the adoption
of innovation. The researchers of innovation diffusion have compared
the diffusion process with epidemics, economic theory, stock adjustment
and vintage and devised four models of analogy. Of these, the Epidemic
Model and the Economic Theory Model are considered somewhat
important. Let us try to know what these models are.
Epidemic Model: This model is known as the learning model. It is more

popular in the sociological and marketing literatures, but has also been
used by economists.
A common feature of this model is the analogy drawn from the spread of
diseases. Consequently, a theoretical tool often used is one of the
mathematical theories of epidemics. As reference to these theories is also
often made by economists working in this area, an exposition of the
simplest model of epidemics will provide useful introduction to the study
of this model. The basic hypothesis of a simple epidemic model is
represented by the following equation:
mt+1 - mt = (n - mt ) mt / n
Where m is the number individuals in a fixed population of n having
contacted the disease, between elapse time epoch's t and t + 1. This is
proportionate to the product of the number of uninfected, both at time t.
The value of (epidemic indicator) will depend on a number of factors
such as the infectiousness of the disease, and the frequency of social
interaction.
The second important model is that of
Economic Theory Model: As a result of the nascent nature of process
innovations and of the imperfect information, there may be major
differences between firms in the expectations of how profitable the
adoption of any innovation will be. This, coupled with the likelihood that
firms differ in their attitude to risk general and new innovations in
particular, leads to the conclusion that different firms react differently to
the same innovation. Specially, the time lag before adopting the
innovations will probably differ significantly between firms within the
same industry. For economic reasons, it was suggested that an important
contributor to interfirm differences would be the difference in their size
(i.e. the size of the firm). This logic has been formalised into a model
called Industrial Engel Curve which relates probability of a firm having
adopted the new innovation to the firm's size. When the Industrial Engel
Curve was fitted with data collection, results were encouraging. The sample
innovations, on which the data was based, indicated positive relationships
between the speed of adoption of innovation and the firm's size. Many
other correlations could be brought in, such as nature of innovation vis-vis industrial growth, cyclical factors and growth factors, the role of the
firm's size and industry concentration, etc.
5.12 KEYWORDS
Compunication
: Convergence of communication and

computer technology.
Diffusion
: It is a transfer process in which there is

movement of technical know-how within
a group of users.
Epidemic Model of Diffusion : Diffusion process examined on the analogy

drawn from the spread of diseases.
131

Communication
Facsimile Transmission
: Transmission of an image over

communication line in the form of electric
signals in such a way that the image is
reproduced at the destination using special
equipment and paper.
Industrial Engel Curve
: Relates to probability of a firm having

adopted the new innovation to the firms'
size.
Interfirm Diffusion
: Spread of new process from firm to firm

within an industry.
Intrafirm Diffusion
: Spread of new process within a firm.
Multiplexing
: It is a system of device which takes a

number of data communication channels
and combines the signals into one common
channel transmission.
Optical Fibres
: A thin glass or plastic fibre used to carry

data in the form of light waves.
Teletext
: A generic term for information services

provided by television companies in which
data is super imposed on the television
signal in such a way that a suitably adapted
television can display the data as full
screens of alphanumeric and block graphic
characters.
Videotext
: A generic term for system whereby

computer based information is made
available on an adapted television monitor.
5.13
Arrow, K.J. (1979). The Economics of Information. In: Dertouzos, M.L. and
Moses, J (eds.) The computer Age: A Twenty-Year View. Cambridge: M I T
Press. Pp. 306-317.
Atwood and Dervin (1982). Challenges to Sociocultural Predictors of
Information Seeking. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Baptista, R. (1989). The Diffusion Process Innovations: A Selective Review.
International Journal of Economics of Business. 61, 107.
Bates, B.J. (1988). Information as an Economic Good: Sources of Individual
and Social Value. In: Mosco, V. and Wasco, J (eds.). The Political Economy
of Information. Madison; WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
Brown, L. A. (1981). Innovation Diffusion: A New Perspective. New York:
Methuen & Co.
132
Brown, Marilyn A. (1989). Diffusion. In: Encyclopaedia of Communication.

New York: Oxford University Press. Vol. 1. Pp. 31 - 36.
Buckland, Michael (1991). Information as Thing. Journal of the American

Society for Information Science. 42(5), 351-60.
Charpie, R. A. (1970). Technological Innovation and the International

Economy. Fifth Annual Lecture of the Science Foundation. London: Wiley
Interscience.
Chatman, Elfredn A. (1986). Diffusion Theory: A Review and Text of
Conceptual Model in Information Diffusion. JASIS, 36, 377 - 386.
Davies, S. (1979). The Diffusion Process Innovation. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Dholakia, N., and Bakke, J. W. (1996). Institutional Patterns of Information
Technology Diffusion. In Belk, R [et al.] (eds.). Consumption and Marketing
Macro Dimensions. London: International Thomson Printing. Pp. 324 - 356.
Dutton, William, (ed.) (1996). Information and Communication Technologies:
Visions and Realities. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Geroski, P. A. (2000). Models of Technology Diffusion. Research Policy, 29
(4/5), 603 - 625.
Hall, B. H. (2003). Innovation and Diffusion. Preprint. 46p.
Lennstrand, Bo (1998). Diffusion of Information and Communication
Technology to Households. Paper presented at the Twelfth Biennial ITS
Conference at Stockholm.
Lievrouw, L. A. (1988). Four Programs of Research in Scientific
Communication. Knowledge in Society. 1(2), 6-22.
Losse, Robert M. Jr. (1990). The Science of Information. San Diego: Academic
Press. Pp. 250 - 253.
Mc Creadie, Maureen and Rice, Ronald E. (1999). Trends in Analyzing Access
to Information pt. 1: Cross-disciplinary Conceptualisations of Access.
Information Processing and Management. 35 (19), 45 - 76.
Maddock, Sir Ieuam (1981). Research Organisations and Their Contributions.
In Conference on Innovation in Industry. Pretoria: S233, CSIR.
Mahajan, V., [et al.]. (1990). New Product Diffusion Models in Marketing: a
Review and Direction for Research. Journal of Marketing. 54, 1-26.
Menou, Michael (1994). The Impact of Information: Definitions and
Measurements. (Preprint, 1994).
Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of Innovation. 4th ed. New York: Free Press.
Shannon, C.E. and Weaver, W. (1949). The Mathematical Theory of
Communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Stoneman, P. (2001). The Economics of Technological Diffusion. Oxford:
Blackwell's.
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Taylor, R. (1996). Information Use Environments. In. Auter, E. and Choo, C.,
(eds.) Managing Information for the Competitive Edge. New York: NealSchuman.
Torsten, Hagerstrand (1967). Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process,
Translated by Allen Pred. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Valente, Tom (1995). Network Models of the Diffusion of innovations. New
Jersey: Hampton Press.
Witson, T. D. (1981). On User Studies and Information Needs. J. Doc. 37 (1),
3-15.
Zettlemeyer, F. and Stoneman, P. L. (1993). Testing Alternative Models of
New Product Diffusion. Economics of Innovation and New Technology, 2,
283 - 308.
134
UNIT 6 GENERATION OF INFORMATION:

MODES AND FORMS
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Information
6.3 Generation of Information
6.4 Modes of Information Generation
6.4.1 Observation
6.4.2 Thought Process, Deliberation, Imagination
6.4.3 Experimentation
6.4.4 Processing of Data
6.4.5 Events
6.4.6 Evolution
6.4.7 Dream
6.4.8 Information Generation in some Selected Subjects
6.5 Forms of Information

6.5.1
Oral Form
6.5.2
6.5.3
Information in Sign Language

Hand-written Form
6.5.4
Pictorial Form
6.5.5
Printed Form
6.5.6
Digitised Form
6.5.7
6.5.8
Condensed Form
Coded Form
6.5.9
Simplified Form
6.5.10 Translated Form

6.5.11 Disguised Form
6.5.12 Secondary Form
6.5.13 Tertiary Form
6.6 Impact of Information Technology on Information Generation

6.7 Summary
6.9 Keywords
6.10 References
6.0
OBJECTIVES

l
grasp the concept of information in a better way, realise how the concept
is moulded in different disciplines to suit the respective needs of the
disciplines;
135

Communication
know the various modes of generation of information such as observation,

thinking, experimentation, and so on;
get an interesting overview of the variegated forms of information such

as oral form, written form, printed form, pictorial form, etc.; and
perceive the impact of information technology on the generation of

information.
6.1
INTRODUCTION
The human civilisation has passed through different ages such as stone age,
iron age, industrial age, and so on. Now it has entered the information age.
The countries rich in information are today in a much more advantageous
position compared to those poor in information. In many cases the poor
countries are obliged to purchase information from the vendor sometimes at a
very high cost. The advent of Internet has proved to be a great boon for accessing
any information from any part of the world practically in no time. Even here in
many cases, we are to pay for obtaining information. In other words information
has become a commodity. The generators of information are churning out
various information products, marketing them, and earning profit. The
information age has given birth to information industry. The society we are
living in has already been termed as information society.
6.2
INFORMATION
In your BLIS programme you have already studied about information and
gained some knowledge about it. You have also learnt the meaning of data,
information and knowledge and the subtle differences existing among them.
in Block 1 of this course, several units have dwelt on the concepts data,
information and knowledge providing definition, outlining types and discussing
nature, properties and scope. One peculiarity of information, which you might
not have noticed, is that the meaning of information changes from subject to
subject. Now, let us see the definition of information in some subjects.
Law An accusation or complaint made without the intervention of a grand
jury [The New International Websters Comprehensive Dictionary of the
English language, 1996]. This definition is clear and does not require any
discussion.
Communication theory Any distinct signal element forming part of a
message or communication, especially one assembled and made available for
use by automatic machines, such as a digital computer: usually measured in
bits [The New International Websters Comprehensive Dictionary of the
English Language, 1996]. In this case, information is communicated through
signals. In the receiving end the signals are assembled by automatic machines
and turned into a language comprehensible to the receiver. What the receiver
gets is nothing but information.
136
Computer technology Data that have been processed into an organised,

usable form and are meaningful to the recipient for the task at hand. Any data
that can be coded for processing by a computer or similar device. [Szymanski,
R.A. 1994], A set of data is fed into the computer to generate different types of
information to fulfil the needs of the user. Again, any data can be considered
as information in case it can be coded for computer processing. Thus, we find,

in computer technology, information has two distinct meanings.
6.3
Generation of Information:
Modes and Forms
GENERATION OF INFORMATION
All the while, information is being generated in the world, nay in the universe.
The bursting of a supernova in a particular constellation, discovery of a planetary
system around a star like the Sun, spotting of a river on the Mars, inundation
of areas by a swelling river, eruption of a volcano, invention of a machine,
successful testing of a drug, conquering of a deadly disease, birth of a child,
and millions of other events are generating information every moment. You
may be interested to know whether the generation of information follows any
well-defined rule or it generates at random without any regard to any rule.
If you just take a newspaper and try to find out how the news have generated
you will notice that they have generated following certain modes. The Hindustan
Times of 21 July 2004 contained the following headlines in its first page:
i) HIV vaccine could come from AIIMS; ii) Soften Hurriat with foreign trips
iii) Its almost clear, monsoons a failure, iv) NCERTs recipe for confusion.
On going through the news it will be clear that the first news has resulted due
to experimentation, the second news due to deliberation, the third news due to
observation, and the fourth news again due to deliberation. In many cases,
generation of information involves more than one mode. For example, Newton
saw the falling of an apple from a tree. This observation immediately switched
his thought process on which ultimately resulted in his propounding the theory
of gravitation. In this case, the combination of observation and thought process
gave rise to information.
In the next section we intend to discuss various modes of the generation of
information.
6.4
MODES OF INFORMATION GENERATION
Information usually generates following such modes as Observation, Thought

process, Deliberation or Imagination, Experimentation, Processing of data,
Happening of various events, and so on. In certain cases like language,
information generates following the path of evolution. Now, we shall discuss
all these modes one by one.
6.4.1 Observation
By the word observation here we mean not only seeing with eyes, but also
hearing, smelling, tasting and feeling with skin. We can get information about
the sky whether it is sunny, cloudy or hazy by looking at it. Many a time, an
ornithologist can identify a bird just by hearing its call. Often chemists can
recognise a chemical substance, e.g. phenol, by smelling it. Our tongue gives
us information about the taste of a substance. A simple touch by the hand is
enough to know whether a substance is hot, cold or warm.
Observation may be termed as the most potent mode of generation of
information. Charles Darwin observed nature for years to gather information
for establishing the theory of evolution. Astronomers all over the world gathered
information by observing the celestial bodies for centuries initially with naked
137

Communication
eyes and subsequently with telescopes. Similarly microbiologists gathered

information on all microbes observing them with microscopes. A police officer
has to observe minutely every detail of the venue while investigating an
accident, theft, etc. A scientist conducting an experiment has to observe very
carefully the changes taking place in temperature, pressure, colour, etc. and
faithfully record the changes. A doctor has to observe the condition of a patient
at regular intervals to see whether his condition is improving or deteriorating.
Thus, we find, in every walk of like observation is a prerequisite for the
generation of information.
Self Check Exercise
1)
Explain how Observation helps in the generation of information.

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6.4.2 Thought Process, Deliberation and Imagination

Thought process is the mother of generation of information. Be it observation,
experimentation or data collection, thought process is involved in every case
to generate information. Man has seen the solar and lunar eclipses for thousands
of years and have tried to find out the underlying causes with his limited
knowledge and generated information. The ancients observed that during eclipse
the sun or the moon is gradually swallowed by something and again it comes
out. Hence, the ancient Hindus reasoned that during an eclipse the sun or the
moon is gradually gobbled by the beheaded Rahu. As it gobbles the celestial
body through the mouth it comes out through the cutout throat. Considering
the level of knowledge human beings possessed at that time, the reasoning
was quite logical. After centuries of observation and reasoning, now we know
the real cause of eclipse. The information we generate through our observation,
experimentation, reasoning, etc may not always be absolutely true. In many
cases, it is subject to correction at a later date. In Arthur Conan Doyles novels
we have seen both Dr. John Watson and Mr. Sherlock Holmes have visited
together the site of the crime. It was always the superior thought process of
Sherlock Holmes that was able to pinpoint the culprit.
138
Be it a household, an office, an organisation or institution, the process of

deliberation is encountered everywhere. While studying in class XII, many
students are to appear in a number of entrance tests. When a student qualifies
in more than one test, the student and the parents are to deliberate a lot to
arrive at a decision as to the course the student is going to pursue. The moment
the final decision is taken and is made known to others, information is generated.
Before declaring the dates of a general election, the Election Commission (EC)
has to consider a number of factors like weather (usually rainy season is
avoided), school and college examinations (because schools and colleges are
used for setting up polling booths), availability of security personnel, dates
suggested by various political parties, and so on. After deliberating on all the
factors, when the EC announces its decision, information is generated. In a
parliament or a legislative assembly, after a lot of debates, decisions are taken
giving birth to plenty of information.
Modes and Forms
An artist has to imagine about the art piece he is going to create, a chemical
engineer has to visualise in his mind the chemical plant he is going to install,
an architect is also to picture the building in the canvass of his mind. Once the
art piece is complete, the blue prints of the chemical plant or the building are
ready and handed over to the persons concerned, information is generated.
Self Check Exercise
2)
Explain how imagination helps in the generation of information.

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6.4.3 Experimentation
If we go through abstracting and indexing services devoted to physics,
chemistry, biology, medicine, engineering, agriculture, and other scientific
disciplines, we shall find that about two million articles are being included in
these databases every year. Most of these articles are based on experimentation.
Just from this, one can make out how much information is being generated per
year through experimentation. It is however to be noted that experimentation
is always attended with observation and thinking process. The results of
experimentation usually appear in the form of research papers, short
communications, patents and so on.
6.4.4 Processing of Data

You have already learnt that data collected through questionnaire and other
methods gives rise to information when processed. Now, we shall see how the
processing of data gives rise to information with a concrete example. Let us
take the students of a BLIS class of an Indian university as a sample. The data
collected about the students is given in Table 6.1.
139

Communication
Table 6.1: Particulars of the Students of a BLIS Class
Sr.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Name
Age
Sex
H.Q.
Nirmalendu
Gita
Diana
Aurobinda
Asit
Yogendra
Laxman
Rabi
Rahul
Rajib
Ali
Monica
Rabeya
Ram Bahadur
Dan Singh
Farooq
Latif
Aparna
Renu
Prashant
41
33
24
27
22
23
24
25
23
26
24
23
22
29
23
24
22
23
24
34
M
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
F
F
M
M
M
M
F
F
M
BA
B Sc
BCA
MA
BA
B Com
M Sc
MA
B Sc
M Com
BA
B Sc
M Sc
BA
B Com
BA
BA
BA
B Sc
M Com
Class in
H.Q.
2nd
1st
1st
2nd
2nd
1st
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
1st
1st
1st
2nd
1st
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
Nationality
Religion
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Sri Lankan
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Bangladeshi
Nepali
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Hindu
Jain
Christian
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Buddhist
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Muslim
Hindu
Muslim
Hindu
Sikh
Parsee
Muslim
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Sr. No = Serial No; H.Q. Highest qualification; M = Male; F= Female

Now, one by one we shall arrange the columns of the Table in some order and
see how information generates from each of the operation.
Information Relating to Names
In Table 6.2, we take column 2 and arrange the names in alphabetical order.
Table 6.2: BLIS Students (arranged alphabetically according to names)
Sr.
No
11
18
5
4
15
3
16
2
17
7
12
1
20
13
8
9
10
14
19
6
140
Name
Age
Sex
H.Q.
Nationality
Religion
BA
BA
BA
MA
B Com
BCA
BA
B Sc
BA
M Sc
B Sc
BA
M Com
M Sc
MA
B Sc
M Com
BA
Class in
H.Q.
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
1st
1st
1st
2nd
2nd
1st
2nd
2nd
1st
2nd
2nd
2nd
1st
Ali
Aparna
Asit
Aurobinda
Dan Singh
Diana
Farooq
Gita
Latif
Laxman
Monica
Nirmalendu
Prashant
Rabeya
Rabi
Rahul
Rajib
Ram
Bahadur
Renu
Yogendra
24
23
22
27
23
24
24
33
22
24
23
41
34
22
25
23
26
29
M
F
M
M
M
F
M
F
M
M
F
M
M
F
M
M
M
M
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Sri Lankan
Indian
Indian
Indian
Bangladeshi
Indian
Indian
Indian
Nepali
Muslim
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Sikh
Christian
Parsee
Jain
Muslim
Buddhist
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Muslim
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
24
23
F
M
B Sc
B Com
2nd
1st
Indian
Indian
Hindu
Hindu
Now, from column 1 of Table 2, we find there are four names starting with A,
two names starting with D as well as L, one name starting with each of the
letters F, G, M, N, P and Y, and six names starting with R. It is observed that
the largest number of names is starting with R and no names are starting with
the letters B, C, E, and H to K, O, S to X and Z.
Modes and Forms
Information Relating to Age

Now, we take column 3, and arrange the students in the ascending order of
their ages (Table 6.3)
Sr.
No
5
17
13
18
15
12
9
6
11
3
16
7
19
8
10
4
14
2
20
1
Table 6.3: BLIS Students (arranged according to age)

Name
Age
Sex
H.Q.
Class in
Nationality
H.Q.
Asit
22
M
BA
2nd
Indian
Latif
22
M
BA
2nd
Indian
Rabeya
22
F
M Sc
1st
Bangladeshi
Aparna
23
F
BA
2nd
Indian
Dan Singh
23
M
B Com
2nd
Indian
Monica
23
F
B Sc
1st
Indian
Rahul
23
M
B Sc
2nd
Indian
Yogendra
23
M
B Com
1st
Indian
Ali
24
M
BA
2nd
Indian
Diana
24
F
BCA
1st
Indian
Farooq
24
M
BA
1st
Indian
Laxman
24
M
M Sc
2nd
Sri Lankan
Renu
24
F
B Sc
2nd
Indian
Rabi
25
M
MA
2nd
Indian
Rajib
26
M
M Com
2nd
Indian
Aurobinda
27
M
MA
2nd
Indian
Ram Bahadur
29
M
BA
1st
Nepali
Gita
33
F
B Sc
1st
Indian
Prashant
34
M
M Com
2nd
Indian
Nirmalendu
41
M
BA
2nd
Indian
Religion
Hindu
Muslim
Muslim
Hindu
Sikh
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Muslim
Christian
Parsee
Buddhist
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Jain
Hindu
Hindu
Table 6.3 shows that the minimum age of a BLIS student is 22 and maximum
41. There are three students of age 22, five students of age 23 and another five
of age 24. That means the age of 13 (65%) students range between 22 to 24.
The age of rest of the students range from 26 to 41. The Table indicates that
even slightly elderly students also join this course.
Information Relating to Sex
Now, we move on to the fourth column, and arrange Table 1 according to sex
and get Table 6.4.
Sr.
No
12
19
2
18
3
13
15
Table 6.4: BLIS Students (arranged according to sex)

Name
Age
Sex
H.Q.
Class in Nationality
H.Q.
Monica
23
F
B Sc
1st
Indian
Renu
24
F
B Sc
2nd
Indian
Gita
33
F
B Sc
1st
Indian
Aparna
23
F
BA
2nd
Indian
Diana
24
F
BCA
1st
Indian
Rabeya
22
F
M Sc
1st
Bangladeshi
Dan Singh
23
M
B Com
2nd
Indian
Religion
Hindu
Hindu
Jain
Hindu
Christian
Muslim
Sikh
141

Communication
6
9
5
17
11
16
14
1
10
20
7
8
4
Yogendra
Rahul
Asit
Latif
Ali
Farooq
Ram Bahadur
Nirmalendu
Rajib
Prashant
Laxman
Rabi
Aurobinda
23
23
22
22
24
24
29
41
26
34
24
25
27
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
B Com
B Sc
BA
BA
BA
BA
BA
BA
M Com
M Com
M Sc
MA
MA
1st
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
1st
1st
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Nepali
Indian
Indian
Indian
Sri Lankan
Indian
Indian
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Muslim
Muslim
Parsee
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Buddhist
Hindu
Hindu
Table 6.4 shows that the number of female students is 6(30%), and male students
14(70%). Obviously, there is a preponderance of male students in the class.
Information Relating to Highest Qualification
To generate this information, data of the fifth column has been organised in
alphabetical order (Table 6.5). From the Table we find that as many as seven
students have BA as their highest qualification, followed by B Sc (4); B Com,
M Com, M A, and M Sc (2 each); and one BCA student. It may be noticed that
students belonging to Arts are joining the profession more than the students of
any other discipline.
Table 6.5: BLIS Students (arranged according to highest qualification)
Sr.
No
6
15
12
19
9
2
18
5
1
14
17
11
16
3
10
20
13
7
8
4
Name
Yogendra
Dan Singh
Monica
Renu
Rahul
Gita
Aparna
Asit
Nirmalendu
Ram Bahadur
Latif
Ali
Farooq
Diana
Rajib
Prashant
Rabeya
Laxman
Rabi
Aurobinda
Ag
e
23
23
23
24
23
33
23
22
41
29
22
24
24
24
26
34
22
24
25
27
Sex
H.Q.
M
M
F
F
M
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
F
M
M
F
M
M
M
B Com
B Com
B Sc
B Sc
B Sc
B Sc
BA
BA
BA
BA
BA
BA
BA
BCA
M Com
M Com
M Sc
M Sc
MA
MA
Class in
H.Q.
1st
2nd
1st
2nd
2nd
1st
2nd
2nd
2nd
1st
2nd
2nd
1st
1st
2nd
2nd
1st
2nd
2nd
2nd
Nationality
Religion
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Nepali
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Bangladeshi
Sri Lankan
Indian
Indian
Hindu
Sikh
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Jain
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
Muslim
Muslim
Parsee
Christian
Hindu
Hindu
Muslim
Buddhist
Hindu
Hindu
Information Relating to Class in Highest Qualification, Nationality, and

Religion
142
Arranging the data of the columns six, seven and eight in desired manner, we
find that while obtaining the highest qualification seven students secured first
class and thirteen students second class. Also we find that in the class there are
seventeen Indian students, one Bangladeshi, one Nepali, and one Sri Lankan
student. Of the students, as many as twelve are Hindu, three are Muslim, and
the rest five are Buddhist, Christian, Jain, Parsee, and Sikh, obviously only
one student belongs to each of these religions.
Modes and Forms
Now, you can see how from a single set of data a substantial amount of
information can be generated just by processing it in different ways.
6.4.5 Events
The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines an event as a thing that happens or
takes place [Pearsall, Judy (ed), 1999]. A scholar releasing a book, an artist
inaugurating an exhibition, a philosopher explaining the concept of time, a
saint giving a discourse on a religious matter, a political leader campaigning
for vote, legislators debating in a parliament, a lawyer passing a judgement,
the prime minister of a country taking oath of office, a war breaking out at a
particular region of the world, a patient dying in a hospital due to neglect, a
new train being flagged off by a minister, two buses colliding causing death
and injuries to a number of passengers, a terrorist hijacking a plane, a comet
appearing in the sky, a physicist bombarding an atom with alpha particles, a
chemist conducting an experiment to create a new material, a geologist drilling
a borehole to prospect petroleum deposit, a paleontologist spotting the skeleton
of a dinosaur, a geneticist giving birth to a high-yielding variety of rice, an
inventor filing a patent application, a surgeon performing an open heart surgery,
a director shooting a new film, umpteen number of sports and games being
held every day all over the world, adventurers venturing to conquer a mountain
peak, etc. are all examples of events.
Let us go through some of the headlines figured in The Hindustan Times of
30th July 2004.
1)
IA diverts flight, saves Pakistani baby. (p 1)
2)
Bofors Ardbo dead (p1)
3)
Aravali bio-diversity park takes off (p2)
4)
PM flies, spares traffic (p3) [PMs journey to the airport by a helicopter

while proceeding to Thailand]
5)
16 lockers cleaned out at Safdarjung Enclave Bank (3)
6)
1 killed as bus overturns in NOIDA (p5)
7)
As expected Pak win easily [in Asia Cup ODI in Sri Lanka](p9)
8)
CA examination results on August 4 (p19]
9)
Pakistani hostages killed (p21)
10) Madonna makes peace with Jesus in Portugal (p22).

It can be seen that all these news items have generated out of events. A
newspaper not only provides information about past events but also of future
events (vide headlines against serial no. 8). It is also to be noted that a newspaper
also contains items of thought process, (e.g. editorials); data processing
(prediction about election results); observation (reporting of an accident); and
so on.
143

Communication
It is to be noted that just the happening of an event does not generate information.
The information relating to the event generates only when it is seen by someone
and reported.
6.4.6 Evolution
Man started communicating by speech some 100,000 years ago [Odhams
Colour Library of Knowledge: Language and Communication, 1968]. In those
dizzy old days of human civilisation, the vocabulary of human beings of a
particular race was only limited. They had only that many words which were
required to express their ideas. As they invented newer and newer devices,
encountered objects not known before, they started naming them for the purpose
of easy identification. This led to the enrichment of vocabulary. When they
moved from an old area to a new area they encountered numerous new things
such as trees, animals, fruits, tubers, and so on. They also named them. In the
course of their endless journey sometimes they encountered an alien race, which
resulted either in fighting or friendship. For the exchange of ideas between
two different races, need arose for interpretation. How and when the art of
interpretation came into being is shrouded in mystery. However, this much is
sure that the need for interpretation occasioned the need for linguistic
information. That is, how a particular object is called by the alien group. In
plain words, they needed information as to the equivalent terms in the language
of the alien race. The process of building up of the vocabulary of languages is
as mind-boggling as interesting. Sometimes a word has travelled over centuries
from one language to the other retaining its original form. For example, the
word ginger belonging to a now extinct Middle Indian language travelled
from India to Europe through Middle East. In twenty-four languages of the
world the word has retained its original form. In many cases words have
undergone small changes while travelling from one language to the other. For
example, the word nine has taken the following forms in a number of IndoEuropean languages of the world. It seems as if the word first originated in a
particular language and then moved from language to language with small
changes in its sound and form. It is depicted below:
Dutch
Negen
English
Nine
French
Neuf
German
Neun
Italian
Nove
Spanish
Nueve
Swedish
Nio
Welsh
Naw
Hindi
Nau
In some cases, of course, we find that a word having the same or similar meaning
differs from language to language. Let us take the example of the word science.
In Sanskrit it is called vijnan, in Russian nauka, in German Wissenshaften
and so on. In the development of vocabulary, conquest of a country by another,
international trade, etc. has also helped a lot. The development of languages,
which originated 2,000 or more years ago, is still continuing. Take for example,
the English language. Even today, hundreds of new words are being added to
this language every now and then. Just with e, we have e-mail, e-journal, ezine, e-library, e-librarian, and so on. Similar is the case with cyber. We have
hundreds of words starting with cyber. Even a decade ago most of these words
were unknown. In this way a language has developed over thousands of years
following the path of evolution and still the process is on.
144
Several thousand years ago, man invented the art of writing. Starting from
stones down to leaves were used as writing media. Products of human thought
thus started getting recorded. At one time the art of translation also began. In
the famous Rosetta Stone of 2nd century BC, the decree has been engraved in
three different languages, ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics, demotic (the popular
language of Egypt at that time), and Greek [Odhams Colour Library of
Knowledge: Language and Communication, 1968]. This record bears infallible
testimony to the fact that the art of translation was pretty developed in Egypt
at that time.
Modes and Forms
The requirement of translation necessitated reference tools to provide

information about the equivalent words in the target language in which the
matter is to be translated. In response to the need started appearing bilingual
and multilingual dictionaries. For translating, sometimes we need information
even for a letter. For example, we come across letters like vk in Indus scripts.
Scholars have been trying for about a century to extract information from these
scripts.
6.4.7 Dream
It is common with every human being to dream. Some of the dreams we
remember, other we do not. The dream that we remember and convey about
the same to others or record it in our diary, information is generated.
Psychologists extract a lot of information about the subconscious mind of a
patient through the interpretation of dreams. At times dreams provide the
necessary information or clue for solving a problem. Kekule, an organic chemist,
was trying to find out the structural formula of benzene for quite sometime,
but failing again and again. One night, he dreamt that six snakes had created a
ring by biting the tail of each other. This dream immediately gave him the
information or clue that the structural formula of benzene would be ring-shaped.
6.4.8 Information Generation in some Selected Subjects

Following different modes, information is generated in various subjects. Taking
a few selected subjects, we shall see how information generates in those
subjects.
1)
Classification
Going through any classification scheme like Dewey Decimal Classification

or Colon Classification deeply, we can easily realise the tremendous amount
of mental exercise that has undergone for building up the scheme. Sometimes,
the mental exercise is preceded by observation or an event. For example,
Ranganathans chance encounter with a meccano set sparked in his mind the
idea of a faceted scheme of classification. Moreover, every designer of a scheme
of classification had to think of sound canons, principles, devices and so on to
maintain consistency, provide logical sequence of subjects, meet the present
need and face with confidence the demand of the future. The amount of mental
exercise required to build up a classification scheme can be well realised if we
ourselves undertake building up a small classification scheme. In this particular
subject, information generates mainly through mental exercise.
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2)
Philosophy
Ever since man learned to reason, he started thinking about creation, the creator,
environment, life, and all other phenomena he came across. The Greeks,
centuries before the birth of Christ tried to understand the nature of the world
for the sake of knowledge. In their reasoning, they introduced logical element
thus occasioning the beginning of philosophic and scientific thought. Thales
(c640 546 BC), the Ionian Greek, as well as the first philosopher recorded in
history, speculated about the origin and nature of the universe [Odhams Colour
Library of Knowledge: Religion and Philosophy, 1968]. From then on till date,
the world has seen thousands of philosophers putting forward their ideas on
matter, energy, space, time, cosmos, God, knowledge, morality, beauty, and
so on. All these are the fruits of their fertile imagination and logical thinking.
It will not be very wrong to say that the subject philosophy has borne out of
human thinking.
3)
Religion
In the dawn of civilisation, man with utter helplessness observed numerous

natural phenomena like devastating earthquakes, ravaging floods, deadly forest
fires, thundering storms, awesome volcanic eruptions, and so on. Even with
their limited knowledge, the early men could realise that behind each of these
phenomena, there is someone who is enormously powerful and humans are
not mighty enough to control and overpower him. Thus dawned in them the
idea of supernatural beings basing their imagination and thought process. They
reasoned that when these mighty beings get enraged, all natural calamities
occur. To appease those mighty beings, developed various forms of worship.
Phenomena like diseases, deaths, crop failures, etc. also made them realise
that there are many things, which are beyond their control. These also
strengthened their beliefs in supernatural entities, which at one time took the
form of Gods and Goddesses. In the long journey of human civilisation took
birth great religious leaders like Gautam Buddha, Jesus Christ, and others. All
of them founded religions basing what they realised out of their meditation or
deep thinking about God and related matters. Hence, we find religion is also
the outcome of the brainwork of human beings.
4)
Social Sciences
In social sciences information is generated following various modes. Here, we

shall demonstrate this taking the example of statistics, politics and government,
and law.
a)
Statistics
In this field, information is mostly generated through the processing of data.

In any statistical survey, e.g., census, data is collected usually using a
questionnaire. Once the collection is over, data is cleaned, fed into the computer
according to the predetermined format, and then processed to generate the
desired information. Of course, the statistical theories, formulas, etc. come
into being through process.
Self Check Exercise
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3)
Explain how is statistical information generated.
Modes and Forms
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b)
Politics and Government
In these two fields, information mostly is generated through events. A political

leader inaugurates a conference and delivers a speech that becomes information.
The election process generates a good deal of information encompassing such
events as nomination of candidates by various political parties, filing of
nomination papers, issuance of the manifesto, campaigning, exercising of
franchise by the electorates, and formation of the ministry. However, political
theories, ideologies, etc are the brainchild of political thinkers.
5)
Pure Science
In pure science, information is generated through thinking, observation,

experimentation and so on. Here, we shall discuss the generation of information
in mathematics, astronomy, and physics.
a)
Mathematics
Whatever we find today in mathematics starting from Hindu numerals (1, 2, 3,

etc.) up to any sophisticated calculation has been generated from human
thinking. Of course, in applied mathematics, there might be some exceptions.
By and large, mathematics is a thought-based subject.
b)
Astronomy
Unlike mathematics, information has been generated in astronomy mainly

through observation. Early men observed the sky years after years. The change
in the phases of the moon possibly delighted them. The eclipses obviously
generated in them a sense of fear. They noticed some heavenly bodies move
faster than others. Gradually and gradually they identified the constellations,
zodiac, and the planets visible with the naked eye. At certain point of time,
they realised the return of seasons at regular intervals and the concept of year
dawned in them. Hence, we find that the entire edifice of astronomy was built
on the observation power and the thought process of astronomers. The discovery
of telescope enhanced the observation capacity of human beings manifold as
far as distant objects are concerned. Using telescopes men could discover many
new galaxies, nebulae, stars, and other celestial bodies. When the life of a star
comes to an end, it explodes violently throwing the debris with unimaginable
force into the space. With naked eyes such phenomenon is rarely seen from
the earth. However, in the early morning of 24 February 1987, the phenomenon
of an exploding star, named Supernova 1987A, was observed simultaneously
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by astronomers Ian Shelton of the University of Toronto, Southern Station,

Chile; Oscar Duhalde of Las Campanas Observatory, Chile; and amateur sky
watcher, Albert Jones of Nelson, New Zealand. The explosion took place in
the galaxy called Large Magellanic Cloud and was visible with naked eyes
from the Southern Hemisphere [Britannica Book of the Year, 1988]. The
astronomers informed the media and the entire world came to know about the
astronomical phenomenon. This is how an important piece of astronomical
information generated.
c)
Physics
Generation of information in physics involves events, observation, and

experimentation and thought process. It is, however, not necessary that all the
four factors will be required for the generation of information in all cases.
Newton saw the falling of an apple from a tree. The event led Newton to think
deeply about the phenomenon and his thinking finally gave birth to the famous
theory of gravitation. Here, event, observation and thought process were
responsible for the generation of information. Michael Faraday conducted a
number of experiments by passing electricity through various substances. Once
he passed electricity through a vacuum tube and was astonished to see a beam
of light travelling from the positive electrode to negative electrode. He further
experimented by subjecting the beam of light to strong magnetic field and
amused to see that the beam was attracted towards the positive pole of the
magnet. From the experiment he could make out that the beam was composed
of negatively charged particles. Later on, these particles were named as
electrons. Here also we find that experimentation, observation and thinking
process all these three were involved in the generation of information. In the
propounding of many theories thinking process becomes paramount compared
to observation and experimentation. For example, in propounding the theory
of relativity Einstein did not conduct any experiment. His thinking process
coupled with mathematical calculations gave rise to the theory. Experiments
were conducted afterwards to test the validity of the theory.
6)
Applied Science
Here we take the examples from medicine. Medicine comprises anatomy,

physiology, health, pharmacology, pathology and surgery. Information in these
subjects generates following different modes, which will be clear from the
following discussion.
a)
Anatomy
Information on anatomy has been generating since ancient times. In Ayurveda,

there is clear-cut instruction as to how information is to be gathered about
human anatomy using the dead body of a healthy person. In modern times,
doctors dissected body of a dead person to observe bones, muscles, arteries,
nerves, veins, nerves and so on. They observed and recorded accurately the
exact location, size, shape etc of every part of the body to generate detailed
information about the human body. Veterinary doctors did the same thing to
reveal the anatomy of animals. Thus, it is clear that information on anatomy
has generated mainly based on observation.
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b)
Physiology
Modes and Forms
Generation of information of physiological processes, in many cases requires

a great deal of thinking apart from observation. In some cases experimentation
is also necessary. For example, the discovery of circulation of blood by Galen
required a great deal of thinking besides observation.
c)
Health
World Health Organisation brings out publications providing the status of public
health in the world. For generating the information, data is collected from
various countries of the world through questionnaire and other methods, and
then the data is processed to generate information.
d)
Pharmacology
Every year hundreds of drugs undergo trials throughout the world. The drug,
under trial, is given to a set of patients, and another set of patients is given
placebo [a harmless substance that exactly looks like the drug, but not the
drug in reality]. The result of the drug as well as the placebo is observed taking
into account the process of healing, side effects and so on. Interestingly, many
patients get cured with the placebo! In case, more patients are healed with the
drug than with the placebo, and the side effects are not serious, then the drug is
allowed for use and the information generated is made public. Usually, the
trial goes on for years throughout the world. Generation of information in this
case involves experimentation, observation, and processing of data.
e)
Surgery
In the case of surgery also, in most cases, prior diagnosis is necessary using xray, ultrasound, and pathological and other methods. During surgery,
information is generated about the patients blood pressure, heart condition
and so on to help the surgeon to proceed with the surgery. After surgery, the
condition of patient is monitored and information generated about the progress
of the patient to help the doctor take next step. Here also, several processes are
involved for the generation of information.
Summing up, we find that in the field of medicine also experimentation,
observation, processing of data and thinking is necessary to generate
information.
7)
Arts
An artist using his thinking process gives birth to a painting, an idol, an object
of sculpture, a song or music. Information about many of these is generated
through events such as an exhibition. When the painting called Mona Lisa by
Leonardo da Vinci was stolen from Louvre Museum in Paris, a great deal of
information was generated. When an artist organises an exhibition of his
paintings information is generated.
8)
Sports
Generation of information in this case is mostly event-based. A football match,

a cricket match, or any other sports or games generate information. Needless
to say, international game events like Olympic, Commonwealth Games, Asiad,
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etc. generate a huge amount of information.

9)
Literature
Authors compose poems, write fictions or dramas, script erudite essays, and
so on basing their imagination or thinking capabilities. Information about these
writings are generated usually through some events like the release of a book
at a function, publication of its reviews in a journal, inclusion of its
bibliographical details in a bibliography and so on.
10) Geography
People since time immemorial have gone from one place to another for various
purposes. In the process of their journey they observed new places, came across
new people and their culture. The information they gathered was passed on to
others. Thus, the subject of geography was born. At a later stage, the entire
world was mapped applying scientific method of observation. Hence, geography
is predominantly an observation-based subject.
11) History
Information on history is predominantly event-based. Thinking also plays a
major part. The events like the birth of a kings son, his ascendancy to the
throne, his meetings with dignitaries and VIPs, his decisions, and all other
activities generate information. In a democratic set up, the election of a
president, prime minister and other ministers and their respective activities
generate huge amount of information. Recording of all these activities including
wars create history.
6.5
FORMS OF INFORMATION
We are already familiar with the forms of documents such as books, periodicals,
patents, theses, standards, catalogues, dictionaries, encyclopaedias,
bibliographies, and so on. The form of information is different from the form
of documents. In a document, the information may be in hand-written form,
printed form, coded form, simplified form, disguised form, and so on. Here,
we are going to deal with oral form, hand-written form, printed form, digitised
form, condensed form, coded form, simplified form, translated form, and
disguised form. This is not an exhaustive list.
6.5.1 Oral Form
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When we talk to a person sitting or standing in front of him or through telephone,

the information exchanged between the two is oral form of information. This
form of information is extensively used in our day-to-day conversation, in the
lectures delivered by teachers, speeches delivered by ministers, notes and letters
dictated by officers, cross examination undertaken by lawyers, interviews
conducted by interviewers, commands given by military officers, and so on.
In our Vedic period also this was the most predominant form of information.
People used to listen (shruti) and remember (smriti). They also did not have
any system of writing. Illiterates all over the world use this form of information
to express themselves. Using this form of information does not require the
knowledge of the scripts and the spelling of words. There are tribes in the
world who speak languages that do not have any script. Obviously, those tribes
use oral form of information for communication.
Modes and Forms
6.5.2 Information in Sign Language

Deaf and dumb people cannot use oral form of information. Hence, sign
languages have been developed for them whereby they communicate. In this
case, information is generated using hands, fingers, and other parts of body.
For example, using our forefinger and middle finger we produce the shape of
V to indicate victory. Many a time we indicate our consent with a nod. People
all over the world use sign languages to communicate. Some primitive tribes
use sophisticated sign languages for communication.
6.5.3 Hand-written Form

People of ancient Egypt, Indus Valley, China developed systems of writing
much before the advent of Christian era. With this development the written
form of information came into being. Different languages of the world
developed varied scripts and alphabets. Sometimes a group of languages
adopted the same script and alphabet with slight change here and there. For
example, languages like English, German, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and
Rumanian use the Roman scripts. Even in our country, Roman scripts are used
for writing in languages like Mizo. Some ethnic groups like the Romans
preferred writing from left to right; the Arabs preferred writing from right to
left, and the Chinese from top to down. For recording hand-written information
numerous recording materials like papyrus, parchment, vellum, bhurjapatra,
palm leaves, terracotta tablets, bamboo strips, etc. were used. The advent of
paper extensively reduced the use of other writing materials. Lakhs of
manuscripts preserved in thousands of libraries of the world are all hand-written.
Scribes thrived in those centuries when printing was still a very distant dream.
Copying manuscripts was the order of the day and a respectable means of
earning livelihood.
6.5.4 Pictorial Form

In newspapers, everyday, we see cartoons conveying some message in a
humourous or satirical way. General maps and atlases present information in
pictorial form about places, rivers, lakes, mountains, universe, and so on.
Anatomical atlases present information about various parts of the body. There
are other types of atlases as well. A photograph of Taj Mahal, a portrait of
Shakespeare, a statue of Gandhiji, etc. tell us about their look. Children like to
read comics such as Amar Chitra Katha. In many cases, say in comics and
cartoons, words and/or sentences are also added to make it more comprehensible
and interesting.
6.5.5 Printed Form

The Chinese developed the technique of block printing by 8th century AD or
before since the oldest known example of block printing recording Buddhist
charms dates to around 765 AD. The Chinese and Koreans also developed the
technique of printing from movable types. However, their technique remained
confined within the region. The technique of printing from movable types that
spread the world over was developed by the German printer Johannes Gutenberg
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in mid-1450s [9]. The impact of Gutenbergs technique was so great that by

the end of 15th century some 9,000,000 books comprising mostly religious
writings, and classical works of Greek and Roman authors were in circulation
all over Europe. The world has never seen the generation of so many titles in
just less than 50 years! [Odhams Colour Library of Knowledge: Languages
and Communication, 1968]. Even today, printed information reigns supreme
as maximum amount of recorded information is in printed form.
6.5.6 Digitised Form

With the advent of computers, digitised form of information came into being.
Here information is recorded using only two digits 0 and 1. For digitisation,
there are codes like ASCII and EBCDIC. ASCII stands for American Standard
Code for Information Interchange and EBCDIC for Extended Binary Coded
Decimal Interchange Code. ASCII is 7-bit code, and EBCDIC 8-bit code.
However, extended ASCII is 8-bit code. In extended ASCII, the word
INFORMATION will be recorded as 11001001110011101100011011001
11111010010110011011100000111010100 110010011100111111001110.
This is digitised form of information. Presented in this form, a computer will
be able to easily handle the data.
6.5.7 Condensed Form

We are all aware of abstracts and summaries. These are nothing but condensed
form of information. An article of twenty pages may have an abstract of half a
page only. Abbreviations like ILA, BLA, etc. are also condensed form of
information. In fact, condensed form is secondary form of information as it is
always derived from the primary form of information.
6.5.8 Coded Form

In the coded form of information, usually numbers, letters and symbols are
used. Sometimes, they are used singly, and sometimes in combination with
one another.
We find coded form of information in a number of subjects including our own.
When we represent the subject of a book on science with a class number like
500 or A, we put the information in a coded from. A class number like 954 or
V2 immediately tells the classifier that the number signifies history of India.
The above examples show us that the information can be codified simply with
numbers, letters, or a combination of both.
The information exchanged in espionage is normally in codified form. Each
country has its own codes for the purpose. For deciphering the coded
information there are keys to the codes. Once keys are available, coded
information can be deciphered without much of a problem. There are also
experts who can break the codes even without the keys.
In trade and commerce we use $ to mean dollar, to mean pound, to mean
yen, @ to mean at the rate of, and so on.
We use PIN code in postal communication. For example, 110019 indicates
Kalkaji area of New Delhi encompassing Kalkaji, Nehru Place, Chittaranjan
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Park, Alaknanda and few other places. From the term PIN code itself, it is
clear that the information in coded form.
Modes and Forms
The number written on the number plate of a car or scooter is also coded
information. From the number it is possible to make out whether the vehicle
belongs to the government, an embassy, or an individual. The state wherefrom
the license for the car has been issued can also be identified. For example, the
number TN01S9899 indicates that the vehicle belongs to Tamil Nadu. The
number DL1T 2345 informs that the vehicle is a Delhi taxi.
In mathematics, we encounter symbols like +, , x, , <, =, > etc. meaning
respectively plus, minus, into, divide, less than, equal to, and greater than. In
geometry indicates an angle, a triangle, a circle, ? a square, and so on.
Astronomers also use various symbols like O, ?, O, , , to mean respectively
the sun, mars, full moon, new moon, and star.
Abbreviations and equations in physics are also coded form of information.
The formula that provided the base for the manufacture of atom bomb is as
simple as E = mc2 where E means energy, m means mass and c velocity
of light. It indicates that the annihilation of one kilogram of mass can generate
1 300,000,000 300,000,000 = 9 1016 joules of energy.
Chemists all over the world use coded form of information for representing
names of elements as well as compounds. For example, to them Fe means
iron, Pb lead, Nacl sodium chloride and so on.
In telegraphy, Morse code is being used to send telegrams. As in digitisation,
in Morse code also, two symbols are used to represent all the 26 letters of
Roman alphabet and the numbers. The two symbols are (dot) and - (dash).
For example in Morse code A is represented by -, B by - , and so on. When
a ship or an aircraft in danger sends the distress signal SOS, it is sent with the
following Morse code - - - .
6.5.9 Simplified Form

Writings in many subjects are pretty difficult to understand for a common
man. One requires special knowledge to grasp. Moreover, an expert in a subject
may be a total novice in another. Hence, simplification of information becomes
essential for laymen, school children, and in certain cases even for scholars.
Now let us see how difficult-to-understand sentences can be made simple and
easily understandable. John Keog of Australia patented a circular transportation
facilitation device in the year 2001 and was awarded the Ig (Ignoble!) Nobel
Prize [11] for his novel invention [Australian Patent No. 2001100012]. The
sentence may not be comprehensible to every one because of the jargon used.
If we rewrite the sentence as John Keog of Australia patented a wheel in
the year 2001 and was awarded the Ig (Ignoble!) Nobel Prize [Abrahams, M,
2004] for his novel invention, then everybody will understand the sentence
without any difficulty. Let us take another sentence Mr. Salim Ali was numero
uno in ornithology in India. The sentence may not be comprehensible to a
layman or school-going children because of the two terms numero uno and
ornithology. If we rewrite the sentence as Mr. Salim Ali was the number one
bird specialist in India, everybody will get the meaning of the sentence quite
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easily. Thus we find difficult writings can be simplified to make them

understandable to a layman.
Information is generally presented in simplified form in encyclopaedias meant
for children and laymen. In these encyclopaedias, usually jargons; long, difficult
and highly complex sentences are avoided and whenever a technical term
occurs, its meaning is explained in simple terms.
6.5.10
Translated Form
There are numerous languages in the world, which are extant. There are also
languages, which are extinct. Some of the extinct languages of the world had
even written form, e.g. hieroglyphics of Egypt. The people of Indus Valley
civilisation had also a language in written form.
The need for translation of information from one language to the other was felt
by men even in ancient times. We find in Rosetta stone, the content in
hieroglyphic and its translation in demotic and Greek. It may be noted here
that the translation of the hieroglyphic content into Greek was of great help to
the linguists like Champollion in deciphering writings in Egyptian
hieroglyphics. The deciphering of the Egyptian hieroglyphics opened up before
the world the entire history of Egypt.
We have already discussed about the oral and written form of information.
The translation can be from oral to oral form, oral to written form, written to
oral form, and written to written form. In the written form we include the
printed form as well.
i)
Oral to Oral Form
In the UN Assembly, international conferences, and in many other occasions

the speaker delivers his speech in a particular language and immediately it is
translated into several other languages by interpreters. When two persons do
not know the language of each other, they take the help of an interpreter to
convey their messages. In these cases the translated form of information is
oral.
ii) Oral to Written Form
In Purnea Zila School where I studied in early 1950s, the teachers in subjects
like social studies used to deliver the lecture in Hindi. The Bengali students in
the class immediately translated the same mentally and took down the notes in
Bengali. This was a case of oral to written form of translation.
iii) Written to Oral Form
In India and many other countries of the world an English teacher in a nonEnglish medium school orally translates the poems, short stories, essays, etc
from English language to local language (Bengali, Hindi, etc.) to make the
student understand the thought content of the piece of writing. In this process,
the student understands the thought content of the piece of writing much better.
In bilingual mode of teaching, the practice is quite common all over the world.
iv) Written to Written Form
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Every year thousands of books are translated from one language to another.
For example, Nehrus Glimpses of World History has been translated into
Arabic, Assamese, Bengali, Croatian, German, Gujarati, Hindi, Japanese,
Kanarese, Malayalam, Marathi, Mongolian, Oriya, Persian, Russian, Swedish,

Urdu, and so on. Apart from books journals, articles are also translated. Once
upon a time, INSDOC used to translate articles and books from around twenty
non-English languages of the world to English language. Many Russian journals
are translated from cover-to-cover.
Modes and Forms
There are various other modes of translation such as natural language to digitised
language and vice-versa; sign language to natural language and vice versa;
and so on.
6. 5.11
Disguised Form
In a disguised form of information, sentences appear pretty innocuous to a

common man. Only the person, for whom the information is meant, can get
the real meaning of the sentence. One of our drivers at INSDOC used to stop
the car at a particular point on the road and say, Sir, I am going to fetch my
medicine. Only those close to him used to know that he was going to fetch a
bottle of wine! In 1942 Arthur H Compton, head of the nuclear fission project
at the University of Chicago telephonically told James B Conant, Director of
the National Defense Research Commission of the USA, The Italian navigator
arrived at the shores of the new world and found the natives were quite friendly.
It is a smaller world than he believed [Cane, P, 1961]. The sentences looked
as if somebody like Columbus had found out a new continent. It was not so. In
reality, the information was about the successful achievement of the first nuclear
chain reaction by Enrico Fermi, the very first step towards the manufacture of
atom bomb. In the aforesaid quotation the Italian navigator was Enrico Fermi,
the new world meant the world of atomic energy, natives were friendly
connoted that the reaction could be controlled, and smaller world gave an
idea of the amount of uranium needed [Cane, P, 1961]. I think the example
makes it clear what the disguised form of information is.
Self Check Exercise
4)
How do you differentiate form of documents from the form of information?

Explain briefly.
5)
Why sometimes information is passed in disguised form?

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6.5.12
Secondary Form
So far we have talked about the generation of primary information. Secondary

information is generated basing the primary information. When somebody
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prepares an abstract of a research article, the abstract becomes the secondary

information. Most of the editorials in newspapers are based on primary
information. However, the editorials themselves are secondary information.
Suppose, the railway budget has been presented in a parliament. Some
newspapers have written editorials on the budget. Here, the railway budget
provides the primary information and the editorials on it are secondary
information. Encyclopaedias, dictionaries, indexing periodicals, abstracting
periodicals, etc. usually contain secondary information.
6.5.13
Tertiary Form
In many cases tertiary information is generated basing secondary information.

For example, if a scientist writes a review article basing the abstracts of the
original articles, then the review article provides tertiary information.
Sometimes review articles are based on both primary and secondary information.
6.6
IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

ON INFORMATION GENERATION
Information technology has impacted information generation in a number of

ways. Let us take the case of a fledgling author. The author writes an article
and tries to get it published. In many cases, he has to move from pillar to post
to see his writing in printed form. Sometimes, he is successful, and sometimes
not. Where he is successful, information is generated. Where he is not the
article with the passage of time vanishes from the world remaining totally
unknown to anybody. Now, the author has options. He can place the article in
his own website, if he has one. Otherwise, thre are websites where he can
place his articles. The article will come to the notice of thousands of people.
Thus, information will be generated. To what extent information contained in
the article is authentic is a difficult question. It may be authentic, partially
authentic and may be devoid of authenticity. The user will have to judge it. In
Internet, there are many articles written by school children, where you will
find spelling mistakes, grammatical errors, factual inaccuracies, and so on.
The IT era has given birth to a number of publications in electronic form.
These publications among others comprise books, periodicals, and conference
proceedings. Cybermetrics, an electronic-only journal as well as a virtual forum
is devoted to the study of the quantitative analysis of scholarly and scientific
communications in the Internet. The URL of the journal is: http://
www.cindoc.csic.es/cybermetrics/cybermetrics.html. Nowadays, like books
and periodicals, there are many articles which are available on Internet only.
For example: the article by Kalyane and Sen on Tibor Braun, is available only
on Internet. The number of electronic-only publication is continuously
increasing opening up a new gateway for the generation of information as well
as access to information.
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IT has also helped in the generation of quicker as well as better information.

Before the advent of IT era, information search used to take a huge amount of
time. Moreover, information that could be searched was not very up-to-date.
For example, a journal from US or European countries used to take a month or
more to reach India by sea mail. Hence, in a place like India we used to get at
least one-month old information, sometimes more. Today, the time for locating
and accessing information in many cases has been reduced considerably. In all
probability, this has increased the productivity of researchers and many other
writers. Moreover, they are now in a position to provide more updated
information in their publications.
Modes and Forms
Self Check Exercise

6)
Describe briefly the impact of information technology of the generation

of information .
Notes: i) Write your answer in the space given below.

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6.7
SUMMARY
In the beginning, we have learnt about various objectives of the Unit.

Subsequently, we have seen how the concept of information connotes different
meanings in different disciplines.We, LIS professionals generally deal with
the information that is recorded in some media. Information generates through
various modes such as observation, thought process including deliberation
and imagination, experimentation, processing of data, and occurrence of various
events. The generation of information in different areas follows different modes.
To illustrate this point, the generation of information has been discussed in
areas like classification, philosophy, religion, statistics, politics and government,
mathematics, astronomy, physics, anatomy, physiology, health, pharmacology,
surgery, sports, literature, geography and history. The form of information is
different from the form of documents. In the form of documents, the presence
of a document is a must. In the form of information, document may or may not
be present. In a document, the information may be in hand-written form, printed
from, coded form, simplified form, disguised form and other forms. In this
Unit we have discussed oral form, hand-written form, printed form, digitised
form, condensed form, coded form, simplified form, translated form, and
disguised form of information. Generation of secondary information and tertiary
information has also been mentioned. At the end we have discussed the impact
of information technology on information generation.
6.8
1)

Observation is one of the most potent modes of generation of information.
We observe an object, an event, an experimentation, and so on and record
that in our brain. When we communicate this to other, it becomes
information. We can communicate by speaking, sign language, writing
157

Communication
158
or recording the information in some other media. Suppose, a shpherd

has seen a wolf in the jungle bordering his village. The moment he conveys
this message to a villager, information is generated. Monica has visited
Lakshmi Narayan temple in Delhi. She conveys this fact to ther friend
Sonia through a letter. To Sonia, this is an information. Here, Monica
generated information by recording it in a letter. Astronomers all over the
world generated information by observing the celestial bodies for centuries
initially with naked eyes and subsequently with telescopes. Similarly,
microbiologists generated information on all microbes observing them
with microscopes. A scientist generates information by conducting
experiments. A doctor generates information by examining a patient about
the disease the latter is suffering from. Thus we find, in numerous cases
we generate information by observing.
2)
An artist first of all imagines about the art piece he is going to create, a
chemical engineer also visualises in his mind the chemical plant he is
going to install, an architect also draws a picture of the building he is
going to design in canvass of his mind. As the work of all these starts,
many a time people come to know about these from the person concerned
and information is generated.
3)
Statistical information generates mostly through the processing of data.

In any statistical survey, e.g. census, data is collected usually using a
questionnaire. Once the collection is over, data is cleaned, inputted into
the computer according to the predetermined format, and then processed
to generate the desired information. If the amount of data is small, it can
be processed manually. Of course, for the generation of statistical theories,
formulas, etc. a great deal of thinking is necessary.
4)
Documents are found usually in the form of books, periodicals, patents,

theses, reports, standards, catalogues, dictionaries, encyclopaedias,
bibliography and so on. The form of information is different from the
form of documents. In the form of documents, the presence of a document
is a must, which is not the case with the form of information. Information
in oral form, sign language, etc. do not involve any document. However,
documents are involved in hand-written form printed from coded form,
simplified form, disguised form, etc. of information. Hence, for of
documents are different from the form of information.
5)
Some information needs are to be kept secret. It is as true in the case of a

family as in the case of anation. Information on defence of a country is
usually kept secret. Only a few can have this information. When the secret
information is to be passed on to somebody it is passed either in coded
from or in disguised form. Even if this information accidentally goes to a
third hand, he will not be able to make out what it is, and thus the interest
of the country, organisation or a family will be protected.
6)
Information technology has impacted information generation in a numbe

rof ways. Previously, a budding author had to struggle a lot to get his
writing published. Now, he can straightway place his writing in Internet
to attract the attention of others without wasting any time. The process
will generate information and to a certain prevent information loss.
The IT era has given birth to a number of publications in electronic form.

these publications among others comprise books, periodicals, and
conference proceedings. Cybermetrics, an electronic-only journal as well
as a virtual forum is devoted to the study of the quantitative analysis of
sholarly and scientific communications in the Internet. The URL of this
electronic journal available at Internet is: http://www.cindoc.csic.er/
cybermetrics/cybermetrics.html. The number of electronic-only publicatin
is continuously increasing opening up a new vista for the generation of
information as well as acces to information.
Modes and Forms
IT has also helped in the generation of qucker as well as better information.

Before the advent of IT era, information search used to take ahuge amount
of time. Moreover, information that could be searched was not very upto-date. For example, a journal from US or European countries used to
take a month or more to reach India by sea mail. Hence, in a place like
India we used to get at least one-month old information, sometimes more.
Today, the time for locating and accessing information in many cases has
been reduced considerably. This has helped in increasing the productivity
of researchers and many other authors. Moreover, authors are now in a
position to provide more updated information in their publications.
6.9
KEYWORDS
Coded Form of Information
: In this form, information is recorded

using some codes. For example in the
classification of books we provide
information in coded form.
Condensed Form of Information
: Information in brief provided in the

form of summary, abstract, etc.
Consolidated Form of Information : When scattered information on a topic

is gleaned first and then put together
in a logical order. This gives rise to
consolidate from of information.
Digitised Form of Information
: Presentation of information using the

digits 0 and 1 gives rise to this form
of information.
Disguised Form of Information
: Information is communicated using

common language. The hidden
meaning becomes apparent only to the
person for whom the informationis
meant.
Handwritten Form of Information : Information written on a medium like

paper. Before the advent of paper,
people used to write on papyrus,
parchment, vellum, palm leaves,
bhurjapatras, and so on.
Oral Form of Information
: Information communicated orally.

159

Communication
Pictorial Form of Information
: Information communicated through

pictures instead of alphabets and
symbols. Examples: maps, atlases,
photographs, portraits, etc.
Printed Form of Information
: Information printed on a medium like

paper.
Secondary Form of Information
: Information generated from primary

information e.g. an abstract.
Simplified Form of Information
: Information presented replacing the

jargons, difficult words and long
complex sentences with simple words
and sentences to make it
understandable to children and
layman.
Tertiary Form of Information
: Information generated basing

secondary information, sometimes
primary information as well.
Translated Form of Information
: Original information is presented in

a different language called the target
language retaining the original
meaning.
6.10
REFERENCES
Abrahams M. (2004) Weird Science Discoveries that will make you laugh,
then make you Think. Readers Digest (June). P129.
Britannica Book of the Year 1988: London: Encyclopaedia Brittanica. 136.
Cane P. Giants of Science. Pyramid ed. New York: Pyramid Books, 1961::276.
Odhams Colour Library of Knowledge: Language and Communication.1968.
P54
Odhams Colour Library of Knowledge: Language and Communication.
London: Odham Books, 1968:: 17.
Odhams Colour Library of Knowledge: Religion and Philosophy. P83.
Pearsall, Judy. (ed.). (1999). The Concise Oxford Dictionary. Indian ed. New
Delhi: Oxford University Press. P. 493.
Szymanski, R.A. [et al.]. (1994). Computers and Information Systems. Upper
Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall.
The New International Websters Comprehensive Dictionary of the English
Language. (1996). Deluxe Encyclopaedic ed. Naples (Florida): Trident Press
International.
160
UNIT 7 INFORMATION THEORY
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Approaches to Information Theory
7.3 Information Basics
7.4 Information Measure
7.5 Information Entropy
7.6 Information Communication
7.6.1 Efficient Communication
7.6.2 Reliable Communication
7.7 Semantic Information Theory
7.8 Summary
7.9 Answers to Self-Check Exercises
7.10 Keywords
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to understand and appreciate:
importance of information in the present-day society

recognise the need for information theory
different perspectives of information
different approaches to information theory
a scientific definition of information
information as part of human thought process
how to measure information
what is information entropy
how to calculate information entropy
how to achieve efficiency in information transfer
what is source coding and its purpose
channel coding for reliable information transfer
basics of semantic information theory
relative information content measures
different parameters that define the context
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Quest for knowledge has been a central theme of human evolution.

Information is a key component in the growth of knowledge. From early
civilisation of mankind, information has played a significant role in
societal development and in improving living standards of human beings.
Information is closely linked with the growth of economic, political,
1
health, cultural, educational and other sectors of a nation. It is now well

recognised that effective use of information can turn hitherto nonproductive resources into value added economic resources. Good
examples of this are biogas and fuel pellets made out of human waste.
Information contributes to political strength of countries so much, that we
talk of information-rich nations being more powerful than informationpoor nations. Successful application of science and technology (S&T) to
social and economic developments depends on the effective use of
information. Many countries have set up special purpose S&T information
centres accessible to common man. India has over a dozen such centres.
The increase in life expectancy and the growing population have resulted
in large-scale governmental operations that call for extensive use of
information. Thus, at present times, information has come to occupy a
central role in national development and is reckoned as a driving force for
all human activities. Consequently, the present society is termed as
information society.
Information is useful only when communicated from originators to
other potential users of information. Information communication is as
ancient as information itself. In the early days, messengers used to carry
information from one person to another. Birds were trained to carry
messages. There were other techniques that used free space as the
communication medium. Beating drums, waving flags and lighting fires
are some of these ancient techniques. Inherent in these techniques is the
concept of coding where a particular action conveyed a certain
predetermined message. For example, waving a red flag may be a warning
of an impending danger. The next major step in information
communication is the postal network that is used quite extensively today.
Modern telecommunications started with telegraphy in 1837. These
systems transport information via electrical, optical or electromagnetic
signals. Until about 1950s, the telecommunication systems were based on
analog technology. Principles of digital communication were propounded
in the second half of 1930s and first digital computers were built in mid
1940s. Since then, the digital technology has been advancing leaps and
bounds both in the fields of communications and computers. Binary
coding is used extensively in these systems.
Yet another aspect of information that needs attention is its
enormous volume. In the early days of human civilisation, information
generation was a slow process. The population was small and only a few
individuals were involved in the process of creating new knowledge. The
advent of industrial age accompanied by an increase in world population
has brought about significant growth in information generation and
dissemination. By the year 1800, the quantum of information generated
was doubling every 50 years and by the year 1950, it was doubling every
10 years. The quantum of information generated by industry, governments
and the academic world reached unmanageable proportions by the middle
of 20th century that a need was felt to devise new ways for managing
information. A search in this direction has given birth to the new
information technology (IT).
The amount of information generated by the academic community is
gauged by the fact that there are around 150,000 journals and periodicals
being published at present in the fields of science, engineering,
technology, medicine, social sciences, arts and humanities. This means
that on an average 15 million articles are written by the academic
community every year. Industry is no different. It is said that the weight of
2
the drawings of a jet plane is greater than the weight of the jet plane itself.
Remote sensing satellites gather terabytes (1012 bytes) of information
everyday, which is equivalent to a million books of about 300 pages each.
The banking and finance industry has a large volume of financial and
personnel information stored in its vast data banks. The quantum of
Government information is mind-boggling too. Land records, population
records, voter lists, police records, licensing records, transaction records,
accounting records, policies, rules, regulations, laws, judgements and
other innumerable pieces of information are ever growing.
Thus, information has become the central theme of living these
days. It is treated as a commodity and traded for a price. Information
economics has emerged as a subject of recent interest. The world is
witnessing a phenomenon of information explosion. Consequently, the
present period of human civilisation is aptly called the information age.
Historically, the information age is supposed to have set in since early
1970s and is expected to last for another century or two.
In the context of information society and information age, a number
of questions related to information have arisen. What constitutes
information? How can we transmit information reliably and efficiently
using modern telecommunication systems? How can we store large
volumes of information in a compact form? Is there a measure for
information? Can we evaluate the information content by attaching value
to information? Such questions have led to the development of
information theory that deals with the following aspects:
Concept of information
Information measure
Information content
Information communication
Information storage
This Unit is a study of the various aspects of information theory.
7.2 APPROACHES TO INFORMATION THEORY
Studies in information theory have been pursued using three different

perspectives of information:
Syntactic perspective
Semantic perspective
Contextual perspective
Studies using syntactic perspective concentrate on the source

characteristics and its symbol set usage. These studies do not concern
themselves with the semantic aspects of information. Their primary focus
is on how to represent and communicate information effectively and
reliably via the modern communication systems. They view information
as something conveyed by messages put out by the source. The messages
are constructed using the symbol set of the source. They measure the
information content of messages by analysing the occurrences of the
constituent symbols. Consider the following two sentences:
1. Dr. Jaideep Sharma is co-ordinating the preparation of this Unit.
3
2. The preparation of this Unit is being co-ordinated by Dr. Jaideep

Sharma.
The two sentences are syntactically different but convey the same
meaning. A syntactic analysis may yield different values for the
information content of the two sentences. The values may, however, differ
only marginally. A syntactic technique may code the two sentences in
different ways to achieve efficiency in transmission. For example, let us
consider some form of binary coding and a binary transmission channel. If
it is known that the first syntactic form is used more often, then it can be
coded as a smaller binary string and the second one as a larger string.
Such coding would, on an average, result in less number of bits being
transmitted on the channel and in the consequent efficient utilisation of the
channel.
Semantic perspective is concerned with complete and precise
meaning of the messages as well as relative information content between
messages. Contextual perspective of information derives the meaning of
messages from not only what is contained in the message but also from
the context in which the message occurs. Contextual perspective is also
known as pragmatic perspective of information. Consider the following
three messages pertaining to the same situation:
1. There is a traffic jam on the National Highway No. 3 (NH 3)
between New Delhi and Agra in India. Time: 11:30 Hours. Date: 2
April 2005.
2. There is traffic jam on this highway.
3. There is traffic jam on this highway between Faridabad and Palwal.
The first message is complete and precise and makes sense to anyone in
the world. The second is relevant only to those who are on NH 3 at the
time of receiving the message. This message is context dependent. The
context is place and time. The message does give meaningful information
to those at a particular place (NH 3) and at a particular time (11:30 Hours
on 2 April 2005). The message if seen in isolation is incomplete and
useless. But it is pragmatic information that has value in a given context.
The third message is also context dependent. But, the information content
of this message is higher than that of the second one. (Note: Faridabad and
Palwal are two towns on NH 3). One may speak of relative measure of
information content between messages 2 & 3.
In the case of semantic and context oriented approaches, the
recipient is an important component of the study. If the second message
above were sent to someone on NH 8, it would give wrong information
and may be said to have negative value for a person on NH 8. The third
message is more valuable to a traveller near Faridabad or Palwal than to
one near Agra. (Note: The two towns are far away from Agra on NH 3).
Similarly, the first message is more valuable to a non-resident Indian
(NRI) in USA whose family is travelling on NH 3 at that time than for a
NRI who has none on the highway. Thus, the value of information is
closely linked to the recipient. The recipient being a human being, the
studies involve the disciplines of psychology, philosophy, behavioural
science, biology and logic. Often, recipients are considered as part of the
context itself and all recipient-centred studies are placed under pragmatic
information studies. In this course material, we treat user or recipient as
part of the context itself.
Studies using semantic and pragmatic perspectives have been
carried out predominantly by British scientists. Some of the main
4
contributors include Ackoff, MacKay, Carnap, Bar-Hillel and Hintikka.

Due to British-dominant studies, the semantic and pragmatic approaches
are often termed the British tradition of information theory.
The genesis of the syntactic approach may be traced to a seminal
paper titled 'A Mathematical Theory of Communication' by U.S. scientist
Claude E. Shannon published in 1948. Shannon's primary interest was in
digital communication systems. He addressed two principal questions in
his seminal paper:
1. How to convert analog signals to digital ones optimally without
losing the original information content?
2. How to realise efficient and error-free transmission of digital signals
over transmission channels that are affected by noise?
Semantics was not in Shannon's mind at all. Shannon proposed the now
famous sampling theorem as the solution for the first problem. We study
more about the sampling theorem and analog to digital conversion in Unit
8. For the second problem, Shannon suggested an information measure
and coding at two levels as the solution. Shannon proposes source coding
for efficient representation of information from a given source and
channel coding for error-free transmission. These aspects are discussed in
this Unit. Although Shannon is considered the founder of information
theory, his 1948 paper was based on two important earlier theoretical
contributions by H. Nyquist and R.V.L. Hartley. Nyquist, in 1924, arrived
at the minimal sampling rate required to convert analog signal to digital
without loss of information. Shannon built his sampling theorem on this
result. Hartley, in 1928, proposed a measure for syntactic information for
the first time. Shannon added probability concepts and generalised
Hartley's result to arrive at his information measure. Subsequent to
Shannon's seminal paper, syntactic perspective has been studied
predominantly by U.S. scientists. As a result, syntactic approach is often
considered as American tradition of information theory. One of Shannon's
close associates, W. Weaver presents a holistic view by adding semantic
perspective to Shannon' study.
In summary, we may place approaches to information theory under
four different categories:
1. Semantic-centred approach
2. Context-dependent approach
3. Recipient-centred approach
4. Semantic-independent approach
The first three approaches are in someway connected with the semantics
of information. Hence, some authors place all the three under one heading
semantic information theory. The fourth approach completely ignores
semantic aspects and concentrates on the information communication and
storage aspects. To contrast from the other three approaches, the fourth
approach is usually called syntactic information theory.
Semantic-centred approach is context independent. The main
emphasis of context-independent approach is on the relative information
content of different messages. Relative measures are neither concerned
with the source nor with the recipient. They just treat messages as they
are, without regard to the context that includes the source and the
recipient. They compare different messages and rate their information
content in a relative or normalised way.
Context-dependent approach is also known as pragmatic

information approach. Pragmatic information studies take into account
the contextual aspects like place and time before evaluating the
information content of the messages. Recipient aspects may or may not be
considered in pragmatic information studies.
User-centred approach may be context-dependent or contextindependent. User perspective of information is based on his needs.
Different users may assign different information values to the same
message depending upon the relevance of the message to them and the
value assigned may vary from one context to another.
The main focus of semantic-independent approach is efficient and
reliable information communication and storage of information. This
approach is totally unconcerned with semantic aspects. In a broad sense, it
may be said that this approach looks at syntactic aspects of information. In
a strict sense, this is not true. It is more concerned with sender's choice of
a message and the symbol set that makes up the messages. Hence, it is
also called source-centred or sender-centred approach. A symbol set may
be as basic as the letters in an alphabet or as complex as sentences that are
used to form messages. The term syntactic studies is used widely in the
literature to denote studies that ignore semantic aspects of information. At
present, information theory is dominated by syntactic studies. One of the
main reasons for this is the mathematical approach used in syntactic
studies. In particular, statistics and probability theory play an important
role in these studies. As a result, syntactic studies are sometimes called as
statistical information theory. On the other hand, the semantic-centred
approach is based on abstract disciplines and hence, the studies are more
abstract and somewhat subjective.
This Unit deals with both syntactic and semantic information
theories. We discuss syntactic information theory in Sections 7.4 through
7.6 and semantic information theory in Section 7.7. In Section 7.3, we
discuss certain basic aspects that are applicable to both syntactic and
semantic information theories.
Self Check Exercise
1. Present in a tabular form the different approaches of information
theory along with the corresponding information perspective(s) that
is/are used for studies in each approach.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this
Unit.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.3 INFORMATION BASICS
In Section 7.1, we explained the importance of information and the central

role it plays in the present day society. But, what precisely is information?
In this section, we give a definition of information and place it in proper
perspective in the context of human thought process.
Information has been defined variedly by different authors. Not all
definitions have received wide acceptance. In this Unit, we present and
use a definition that is scientific in nature:
Information is defined as a description of the state of an
object.
There are three keywords in this definition: object, state and description.
The object may be animate and inanimate. The term object here refers to
the entire spectrum of things in the creation: the tiniest particles like
electrons or molecules, living beings like human beings and animals,
inanimate objects like mountains and weather, and large systems like
planets, solar system and the milky way. The second keyword in the
definition is the state. Every object is in one of finite or infinite number of
states associated with it. For example, an electric bulb may be on or off. It
may be mounted in an electric circuit or lying on a shelf. It may be in
working or fused condition. For a very large number of objects that we
encounter in practice, the number of states is finite. In this course material,
without loss of generality, we deal with only finite number of states. The
third keyword is the description. Information describes the state of an
object in some way. The description of the state may be verbal or nonverbal, i.e. written, pictorial etc. Interestingly, the above definition of
information is equally applicable to both syntactic and semantic studies.
Information is a part of human thought process at a certain level of
abstraction. The human thought process is abstracted usually at four
levels:
Data
Information
Knowledge
Wisdom
These levels are depicted in Fig 7.1 in rectangular boxes with the roundended boxes indicating the inputs or the processes that lead to the next
higher level of abstraction. There are no clear-cut boundaries among these
levels. What is considered as a piece of information in one context may be
treated as a piece of knowledge in another context. As a result, these
levels are considered a part of a continuum with overlapping areas. This is
called knowledge continuum. Not withstanding this perception, the fourlevel abstraction model of human thought process is widely accepted. At
the lowest level of abstraction, we have the raw data that is a collection of
facts as observable from nature, or as obtained from experimental
outcomes or values of certain quantities that are measured. Examples of
raw data include population census, temperature values and the outcome
of games played.
When the raw data is processed or value is added to it, data becomes
information. The first level of processing is usually statistical in nature
involving computations like averages, maxima and minima. Value
addition may be qualitative or quantitative in nature. Examples of
7
information include maximum temperature value in a day, percentage of

errors in a text and the number of persons in different age groups. In
general, information creates awareness in human beings. When
Collection of facts
Experimental results
Measured quantities
Analytical processing
Reasoning
DATA
KNOWLEDGE
Intelligence
Experience
Judgement
Statistical processing
Value addition
INFORMATION
WISDOM
Fig. 7.1 Abstraction levels in human thought process.

information is further processed and reasoning is applied to it, information
becomes knowledge. The processing at this stage is usually analytical in
nature involving reasoning, inference, extrapolation and other complex
mathematical operations. A statement in the knowledge domain may be
something like 'Poverty level is decreasing all over the world'. In general,
knowledge implies understanding of a subject. Hence it may be said that a
human being moves from an awareness domain to an understanding
domain when he processes information to acquire knowledge. At the
highest level of abstraction in human thought process is wisdom. When
knowledge is interpreted intelligently taking into account past experience
and sagacious judgements are made, wisdom is said to be in display. It
may be said that experienced experts in particular fields tend to display
wisdom in their respective domains of expertise.
Computers have traditionally acted as tools in performing functions
related to human thought process. They used to be termed as data
processing machines for about 40 years since their inception. Today, they
are termed as information processing machines and are serving the
information society. The information processing machines are more
powerful than data processing machines. In particular, software support is
superior. It is forecast by a number of world thinkers that today's
information society would evolve towards a knowledge society in the
future. At that time, the computers with additional capabilities may be
termed as knowledge processing machines. These machines may support
knowledge bases and intelligent processing.
To illustrate what document material constitutes different levels of
abstraction of human thought process in different contexts, we present in
Table 7.1 some details pertaining to the fields of education and industry.
Table 7.1 Examples of Data, Information and Knowledge
Abstraction Level
Data
Education
Syllabus, References,
Indexes
8
Industry
Market, Sales and
Financial data
Information
Guides, Manuals,
Abstracts, Summaries
Knowledge
Text books, Theses,

Dissertations, Articles
Annual reports,
Business briefs and
digests
Technical reports,
White papers, Design
documents
Self Check Exercise

2. Define information and discuss the different keywords in the
definition.
3. What do you understand by knowledge continuum? Illustrate with
examples as to why a hard and fast boundary is not possible between
different levels of abstraction in knowledge continuum.
Unit.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.4 INFORMATION MEASURE
We now discuss the information measure as defined by Shannon and show

that Hartley's measure of information is a special case of Shannon's
measure. In Section 7.3, we defined information as a description of the
state of an object. For the sake of brevity, from now on, we term the
description of the state of an object as a message, a term used by Shannon
as well. While every message qualifies as an informational statement, the
amount of information contained in a message varies from message to
message. For example, suppose that a person from Delhi rings up the
weather office in Kolkata around noontime and asks for weather
information. In reply, he receives the message: "There is day light here".
Everyone knows that there is day light in a place around 12 noon local
time. Therefore, one may say that the informational content of this
message is zero as it does not add to any new knowledge. On the other
hand, if the message received is "There is thunderstorm here with very
heavy showers", then the informational content of the message is
significant. But, how significant is the informational content of this
message? To answer this question, we need a measure of information.
In order to develop the measure of information, let us consider
another example. A person who is known to have breakfast regularly calls
9
up his friend and says, "I had breakfast today". The information content of
this message is rather low because the information conveyed by the
message is the most expected status of the object in question. If, on the
other hand, the person tells his friend that he has not had his breakfast that
day, then the information content is high because the message conveys
something that is less probable. Thus, intuitively, we may relate the
information content of a message to the probability of occurrence of the
state conveyed by the message. If the probability is high, the information
content is low and vice versa. Hence, we may propose that the measure of
information is inversely proportional to the probability of occurrence of
the message, i.e.
I (1/p)
Where
I = Information content of the message
= Probability of occurrence of the message
(7.1)
Let us suppose that the constant of proportionality is unity in Eq. 7.1.

Then, if = 0, the value of I is infinity and if = 1, the value of I is unity.
If the probability = 1, as in the case of the message "There is day light
here" in the example considered above, we would like the value of I to be
zero rather than unity. To achieve this, we adopt a logarithmic expression
that also serves as the constant of proportionality as in Equation 7.2
below:
I = log2 (1/p)
(7.2)
The value of log 1 is zero. Therefore, when = 1, the value of I = 0 and

when = 0, I = . Shannon chose the base of the logarithm as 2 as he was
interested in binary digital systems. Sometimes the definition uses the
base 10 or natural logarithm with base e. The quantity I is a dimensionless
number, but by convention a unit is assigned to it. When the base is 2, the
unit of information is called bit, when the base is e, it is called nat and
when the base is 10, it is called decit. The unit decit is also known as
Hartley named after R.V.L. Hartley who first proposed a measure of
information. The use of base 2 is especially convenient when binary
signals are used to convey a message. Equation 7.2 can be rewritten by
using the laws of logarithms. You may recall that
Log (A/B) = log A log B
Similarly, log2 (1/p) = log2 1 log2 p = log2 p, as log 1 = 0
Therefore,
I = log2 p bits
Equation 7.4 is the famous Shannon measure of information content of a
message. As an example of application of the information measure that we
have developed above, let us consider the following. If the probability of
occurrence of a message is , then from Equation 7.2 we obtain its
information content of the message as I = log2 (1/()) = log2 4 = 2 bits.
Shannon's approach is source-centric. Shannon was concerned with
the probability with which a source may put out messages and proposed
Eq. 7.4 as a measure of information. But, interestingly, the Equations 7.2
or 7.4 can be applied to recipient-centred approach as well. If we replace
the probability p with the recipient's expectation of information, then the
same expressions in Eq. 7.2 and 7.4 represent the informational value of a
message from the recipient's point of view. In fact, we have used a
recipient-centred reasoning in arriving at Eq. 7.2 without explicitly stating
so. The fact that Shannon's information measure is applicable to both
10
(7.3)
(7.4)
source-centric and recipient-centric studies makes it fundamental to

information theory.
Equation 7.2 or 7.4 is a measure for the information content of a
single message. Now let us consider a set of messages put out by a source
that describes the state of an object like, say, weather. As stated earlier,
the number of states associated with an object may be finite or infinite.
Accordingly, the set of messages put out by the source is finite or infinite.
Without loss of generality, we consider a finite set of N messages for our
further study. Let the N messages m1, m2, mK ... mN originate from the
source with the probabilities 1, 2, K ... N respectively. From the
theory of probability, the probabilities of all possible outcomes must sum
up to one. We then have
1 + 2 + + N = 1
(7.5)
th
The information content of the k message mK is given by

IK = log2 (1/ K)
(7.6)
If the messages are statistically independent, the amount of information

conveyed by two or more messages is the sum of information content of
each message. Thus, for two statistically independent messages m j and m
K, we have
I j ,K = I j + I K = log2 (1/ j) + log2 (1/ K)
(7.7)
The total information content of the source having a repository of N

messages is given by
Isource = log2 (1/ 1) + log2 (1/ 2) + ---- + log2 (1/ N)
= log2 (1/ K) for 1 K N
(7.8)
If all the N messages are equally likely, then 1 = p2 = pj = 1/N, and the
information content of any message Ij is given by
Ij = log2 (1/(1/N)) = log2 (N)
(7.9)
Where, 1 j N. In this case, the information content of all the messages

is the same. Equation 7.9 is the one developed by Hartley and is a special
case of Shannon's expression in Eq. 7.2, where p = 1/N.
There are other cases that are of interest. If N = 1, it means that there
is only a single possible message with probability = 1. In this case, no
useful information is conveyed by the message and the information
content of this message is zero. At the other extreme as j 0 (j tends to
0), Ij (I j tends to ). If N = 2, there are only two messages. If the
probability of occurrence of one message is p, then by Eq. 7.5, the
probability of the other message is 1 p. Applying Eq. 7.4, the
information content of individual messages are log2 p and log2 (1 p)
bits respectively.
Self Check Exercise
4. A weather bureau puts out one of four different messages m1, m2, m3,
m4 predicting the weather for the next day. The probabilities of the
messages m1, m2, and m3 are , , and respectively. What is the
probability of the message m4? Calculate the information content of
each message and the total information content of the source.
5. How many bits of information constitute one nat and how many one
Hartley?
11

Unit.
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7.5 INFORMATION ENTROPY
As mentioned earlier, Shannon's approach is source-centric. It is based on

a simplistic view of the generally observed human communication
process. In everyday life, it is the communicator (source) who decides
what is to be said from all that could be said. In other words, source is the
repository of messages and it is the source that decides what message is to
be put out. Shannon's model assumes that the source acts independently
without regard to prevailing situation or the condition and nature of the
recipient. This is not true in human communication process. A human
communicator, subconsciously or consciously takes into account the
current situation and the capability and interest of the recipient before
saying something.
In section 7.4, we discussed the information content of individual
messages. In this section, based on Shannon's source-centric model, we
discuss the average information content of a message in a sequence of
messages put out by a source over a long period of time. The average
information content per message is referred to as source entropy or
information entropy and is represented by the symbol H. As before, we
consider a source with a repository of a finite set of N messages m1, m2, ...
mN with probabilities 1, 2 N. From this set of N messages, suppose
that L messages have been gathered over a long period of time. If L is
much larger than N, then the sequence of L messages will contain different
messages from the set of N messages in the same proportion as their
probability of occurrence, i.e. m1 occurs 1 L times, m2 occurs 2 L
times and so on. The information content of individual messages is given
by Eq. 7.2 or 7.4. Applying Eq. 7.2, the total information content of a
sequence of L messages is
I total = 1 L log2 (1/ 1) + 2 L log2 (1/ 2) + ---- + N L log2 (1/ N)
(7.10)
The average information content per message is given by

H = (I total/L) = 1 log2 (1/ 1) + 2 log2 (1/ 2) + ... + N log2 (1/ N)
(7.11)
= K log2 (1/ K) for 1 k N
(7.12)
12
Readers are advised to compare and appreciate the differences amongst

Equations 7.8, 7.10 and 7.12.
Applying Eq. 7.4, Eq. 7.12 may be rewritten as
H = K log2 (K) for 1 k N
(7.13)
Equation 7.13 is the famous Shannon's equation for information entropy

which is also called as source entropy. Entropy is the average
information content per message of a source.
We have seen that in the case of individual messages, as 0, I
and, as 1, I 0. But, in the case of information entropy, the
contribution of an individual message to the average information content
tends to zero, if its probability of occurrence is very low or very high. In
other words, the quantity log (1/ ) tends to zero when p tends to 0 or 1.
Thus, the average information content of both an extremely likely and
extremely unlikely message is zero. This is a very interesting result.
Extremely likely message has a very low information content and hence
its contribution to entropy is very low. Extremely unlikely message hardly
occurs to be able to contribute significantly to the entropy. Figure 7.2
shows the variation in the contribution of a message to the information
0.5
0.25
0.5
p
Fig. 7.2 Contribution of a message to the entropy
entropy as its probability of occurrence varies. It may be noted that C = 0
at = 0 and at = 1. The maximum contribution occurs when = 0.5. It is
important to recognise the difference between the maximum contribution
of a message to the entropy and the maximum value of entropy. The
contribution of a message is maximised when its probability of occurrence
is 0.5. This does not mean that the entropy is maximised. Entropy depends
on the entire set of messages and hence on the probability of occurrence of
all the messages. In fact, entropy is maximised when all messages occur
with equal probability. We illustrate this fact in the following.
Consider the case of only two messages in the message set. With N
= 2, let 1 = , then 2 = (1- ). The information entropy works out to be
H = log2 (1/ ) + (1- ) log2 (1/(1- ))
If = 0.5, then we have
H = 0.5 log2 2 + 0.5 log2 2 = log2 2 = 1 bit / message.
For all other values of p, H has a value that is less than 1 bit/message.
Similar results apply for cases where N > 2. The case of N = 2 has special
significance in the context of binary digital transmission systems. If there
are only two messages, they can be represented by '1' and '0' in the binary
13
(7.14)
system. Message m1 is represented by, say, '1' and m2 by '0'. Then, if m1

were to be transmitted, a binary '1' is transmitted and for m2, a binary '0'. If
the two messages are equally probable, then '1' and '0' occur with equal
probability. As we know, for p = 0.5, H = 1. This means that each bit in
the binary system carries one bit of information. This would not be the
case if '1' and '0' do not occur with equal probability. This is an important
result that is used to achieve efficiency in information communication, as
we shall see in the next section.
Self Check Exercise
6. For the data given in Exercise 4, calculate the information entropy.
7. Plot the information entropy for the case of two messages in the set,
when the probability varies from 0 to1.
Unit.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.6 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION
The main focus of syntactic studies as founded by Shannon is information

communication. In information communication, we are concerned with
two main goals:
Efficient communication
Reliable or error-free communication
Information communication is not concerned with the semantics of

information at all. In fact, Shannon states so explicitly in his seminal
paper. The main concern is how to communicate a given piece of
information efficiently in an error-free manner. Shannon developed a
theoretical framework to quantify the problem of communicating with
high efficiency and accuracy. In Section 7.4, we defined information and
developed a measure for information. In Section 7.5, we introduced the
concept of information entropy. Information measure and entropy are
fundamental concepts developed by Shannon as part of the theoretical
framework for information communication. In this section, we apply those
concepts in the context of efficient and reliable communication of
information. We study the efficiency and reliability aspects one by one.
First, we take up efficiency aspect.
14
7.6.1
Efficient Communication
As we know, Shannon's approach is source-centric. Shannon proposed

source coding as a method of achieving efficiency in communication. We
use the model shown in Fig. 7.3(a) for understanding the concepts
involved in achieving efficiency. In this model, the communication
channel is assumed to be error free and reliable. An ideal channel can
S
Source
Coder
Ideal Channel
Source
Decoder
(a) Model for efficient communication

Channel
Coder
Noisy
Channel
Channel
Decoder
(b) Model for reliable communication

Fig. 7.3 Communication system models
transport information with perfect accuracy. It is not affected by noise and
it does not cause impairment to the signal in any way. We now extend the
idea of source entropy to what is called source information rate (SIR).
We know that entropy is the average information content of a message. If
a source, on an average, delivers s messages per second, then SIR is given
by
SIR = s H information bits/second
(7.15)
SIR is the average information rate from a source. SIR is not a bit-rate in
the conventional sense. It does not represent binary digits being
transmitted through a channel. H represents the average information
content per message and sH represents the information rate. To make a
distinction between bits of information and binary digits we use the term
information bits when we talk of information measure. We now turn our
attention to a quantity known as channel capacity C. The capacity of a
channel is defined as the maximum rate at which the channel can transfer
information with perfect accuracy. This definition implies that the channel
is ideal. We can now relate C and SIR as
C SIR or SIR C
(7.16)
Equation 7.16 is the famous Shannon's channel capacity equation and is

based on simple common sense reasoning. If a certain quantity of water is
to be delivered within a specified time, then we need a pipe of appropriate
size. Similarly, the channel must have a minimum capacity that is equal to
or greater than the rate at which information is delivered by the source. It
is important to recognise that Eq. 7.16 is at an abstract level. It does not
concern itself with practical transmission systems. For example, the
determination of the channel capacity of a practical channel is still an
unresolved problem. Shannon and many others have derived expressions
for the capacities of practical channels under different simplifying
assumptions of noise pattern etc. Our next step is to see some practical
aspects of source coding. We do this by taking an example in the
following.
Let us consider a source with four messages with the corresponding
probabilities as , , and . The entropy for the source works out to be
1.75 information bits/message. Readers are advised to calculate the
entropy using Eq. 7.12. Let the source put out messages at the rate of 8
15
messages per second. Then, the SIR works out to be 8 1.75 = 14

information bits per second.
Let us now assume that the messages are to be communicated using
a binary digital transmission system. As you may know, a binary
communication system uses '1' and '0 to represent and transmit
information. [Binary system fundamentals are dealt with in Unit 8].
Source coder performs the function of representing the messages in binary
form. One way to represent four messages in binary system is to use two
bits that give us four unique patterns as 00, 01, 10 and 11. Each pattern
represents a message. Each message is represented by a code of uniform
length of 2 bits. When 8 messages per second are put out by the source, 8
2 = 16 bits per second (bps) are transmitted. The bit rate out of the
source coder (SCR) is 16 bps whereas the SIR is 14 information bits/sec.
In the above example, two binary bits carry 1.75 bits of information.
Intuitively, one may feel that for maximum efficiency, the two rates SIR
& SCR must be the same. As discussed in Section 7.5, each binary bit is
capable of carrying a maximum of 1 bit of information provided the
binary '1' and '0' occur with equal probability. If the source coding is done
in such a way that each binary bit carries maximum information, then the
maximum efficiency will be achieved. In other words, the entropy and the
average length of the coded patterns must be equal. Two source coding
techniques have been proposed to arrive at average code word length that
is close to entropy value: Shannon-Fano coding and Huffman coding.
These schemes are named after their inventors. Both schemes are based on
variable length coding with shorter code length for messages with higher
probability and longer ones for messages with lower probability. A
detailed discussion of these techniques is beyond the scope of this course.
In general, Huffman coding has been shown to be superior to ShannonFano coding.
7.6.2
Reliable Communication
We now turn our attention to reliable communication. In practice, we do

not encounter ideal channels and find that the channels are noisy. Hence,
our problem is that of ensuring error-free transmission of information
using noisy channels. Shannon proposed channel coding as the solution
for this problem. We use the model shown in Fig. 7.3(b) to study this
problem. The output of the source coder is fed to the channel coder that
codes the input bit string for error-free transmission. At the receiving end,
the channel decoder recovers the source-coded information and feeds the
same to the source decoder.
Shannon stated and proved that provided Eq. 7.16 is satisfied there
exists a channel coding scheme that would ensure arbitrarily small
probability of transmission error. Shannon, however, did not work out as
to what that coding scheme was. It was left to his successors to work on
coding schemes. Since then, considerable work has been done in the area
of coding. Today, we have a fairly matured branch of study known as
Coding Theory. Work on coding theory has resulted in the evolution of
two broad classes of codes:
Error-detecting codes
Error-correcting codes
In a binary digital system, error means that when a binary '1' is

transmitted, it is interpreted as '0' at the receiving end and a '0' as '1'. The
error performance of the system is usually indicated by a parameter called
16
bit error rate (BER). BER is specified as 1-bit error in a block of n bits,
e.g. 1 in 104. Both error detection and error correction are done at the
receiving end. Error correction involves the detection of error first and the
correcting the error. Error correction implies automatic recovery from
error. When error detection odes are used, error recovery is done by
retransmission. If an error is detected, the receiver requests the transmitter
to retransmit the information. Most widely used error detection codes
include parity check, checksum, and cyclic redundancy code (CRC). Block
parity and Hamming code are popular error correcting codes. All these
coding schemes take a block of information bits, add some error check
bits according to a mathematical formulation and transmit both the
information and error check bits. We call the information bits and the
error check bits together as transmission block. At the receiving end, the
same or an inverse mathematical formulation is used to determine whether
the information has been received correctly. It may be noted that an error
may occur in any of the bits of the transmission block including the error
check bits. Of the above mentioned coding schemes, we discuss the parity
check and block parity scheme in the following. Other coding schemes are
beyond the scope of discussions for this course.
In parity check, one check bit is added to the chosen block of
information bits. The mathematical operation is simple and involves
counting the number of binary '1s'. The error check bit is set to a binary '1'
or '0' such that the total number of '1s' in the transmission block is either
even or odd. Whether the number should be even or odd is predetermined
and is known both to the sender and the receiver. The sender sets the
desired parity (odd or even) and the receiver checks the received parity. If
the parity is incorrect, then the transmission is in error. Otherwise, the
transmission is assumed to be without error. Parity check failure occurs
whenever one or odd number of bits are in error. If two or any other even
number of bits go wrong, the parity condition would be satisfied and the
errors would go undetected.
In block parity, the information block is arranged in the form of a
matrix and a parity bit is assigned to each row and column of the matrix.
An illustrative example is shown in Fig. 7.4 with 30 information bits
arranged in the form of 5 6 matrix. Both odd and even parities are
illustrated. The sixth row and the seventh column are the parity bits. The
parity bits in the seventh column are called longitudinal parity check
(LPC) bits and the ones in the sixth row as vertical parity check (VPC)
bits. These bits are set according to the parity scheme chosen for the row
and the column information bits respectively. The diagonal bit of the sixth
row and the seventh column (shown in box) may be set to '1' (or '0') as
shown in Fig. 7.4. Alternatively, it may be set as the parity bit for the VPC
row or the LPC column, or as the parity bit for all the other bits in the
transmission block.
17
The error recovery in this case of block parity scheme proceeds as

follows. At the receiving end, both LPC and VPC bits are checked first. If
an error is noticed in both of them, then the information bit at the
101010
001100
111000
110011
000111
1
0
1
0 LPC
1
101010
001100
111000
110011
000111
101010
VPC
010101 1
VPC
(a) Even parity
(b) Odd parity

Fig. 7.4 Block parity
0
1
0 LPC
1
0
intersection of the failing LPC row and the failing VPC column is error.
The bit is corrected by inverting it. If an error is noticed only in LPC or
VPC, then it implies that the corresponding parity bit is error. No
correction is required in this case as all the information bits are in tact.
Block parity scheme can detect and correct all single bit errors. It is also
capable of detecting many two bit and multiple bit errors. In general,
multiple errors result in parity check failures in multiple columns and/or
rows.
Since the parity schemes are ideally suited for recovering from
single bit failures, the information block size must be chosen such that the
transmission block does not experience more than one bit error. This is
done by knowing the BER of the channel. For example, for the BER value
of 1 in 104, the transmission block size should be less than 10,000 bits.
Self Check Exercise
8. Draw a communication model that depicts both efficiency and
reliability aspects of information communication.
9. Given that the BER of a system is 1 in 105, calculate the probability of
one bit being in error and the probability of one bit being error free.
10. Work out the parity bit value for even and odd parity schemes for the
information block 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0. What is the size of the
transmission block in this case?
Unit.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.7 SEMANTIC INFORMATION THEORY
18
As mentioned in Section 7.2, studies in semantic information theory have

proceeded in three different directions:
Semantic-centred studies
Context-dependent studies
User-centred studies
Semantic-centred studies are context independent. They consider both the

sender and the receiver as part of the context and hence ignore their role in
arriving at information values. They are concerned with relative
information content of messages. The content measure is based on
substantial information that a message carries instead of the surprise
element or the unexpectedness of the message as in Shannon's measure. In
measuring content, a message is considered to be composed of a number
of atomic statements or constituents from a set. Atomic statements must
be such that they convey some information. Statements that express truths
or are in the nature of axioms are considered not to have informational
value. For example, the information content of the expression 11 13 =
143 or the statement 'All the sides of an equilateral triangle are equal' is
treated as zero.
Many ways or approaches for assessing the information content of
messages have been discussed in the literature. None of these ways
appears to have an indisputable mathematical basis, with the result that
none has come to be accepted widely. We illustrate the basic approach in
semantic- centred studies in the following. Consider the following atomic
statements:
1. It is raining.
2. The wind is blowing.
3. It is humid.
Let each of these atomic statements have a complement as follows:
4. It is not raining.
5. The wind is not blowing.
6. It is not humid.
Now, a message consists of one or more atomic statements such as:
7. It is not raining.
8. It is raining but the wind is not blowing.
9. It is raining, the wind is blowing but it is not humid.
Clearly, the substantial information content of the statement 9 is the
highest among the statements 7, 8 & 9. The number of atomic constituents
in a message is called its width. The larger the width, the higher is the
information content. In this approach, all known conditions are explicitly
mentioned. Missing conditions constitute lack of information.
Another approach to assessing information content is to accept
implicit representation of information in messages. Consider only the three
atomic statements 1, 2 & 3 without their corresponding negation
statements. A message may now contain one, two or three atomic
statements. The absence of an atomic statement implies its negation. For
example, the message 'It is raining' implies that the wind is not blowing
and it is not humid.
One may consider logical connectives and the probability of
occurrence of the constituents to arrive at a more sophisticated measure of
the content. The logical connective AND provides higher information
19
content than the OR connective. For example, the information content of

the message 'It is raining AND the wind is blowing' is more than the
message 'It is raining OR the wind is blowing'. This approach combined
with probabilities of occurrence yields a result similar to that of Shannon.
If we assume that the atomic statements are statistically independent, then
the AND connective implies joint probability of the atomic statements in
the message. The joint probability is a multiplication of the individual
probabilities and has a value less than any of the individual probabilities.
The larger the width of the message, the smaller is the joint probability
and higher is the information content.
Let us now turn our attention to contextual information studies. The
theory here is based on certain fundamental aspects like laws of nature,
context or situation, events and perception ability of individuals. There are
certain postulates that govern this theory. They are:
1. Laws of nature, like gravitation, exist always. They existed in the
past, they exist in the present and they would exist in the future.
Laws are not created but are discovered from time to time. Some
laws are discovered and some remain undiscovered. What is
discovered may be correct or incorrect. A discovery may be proved
wrong in future. The number of laws is constant all the time.
2. Time, place (space) and environment constitute the context or the
situation. The set of all objects in the universe including human
beings form part of the environment.
3. Information is the measurement and description of the conditions of
the context. Information exists always. It is not created.
4. Governing laws and the context determine the future outcomes called
events.
5. Events can be predicted correctly provided the understanding of the
laws is precise and the conditions of the context are measured
accurately, i.e. the information gathered is accurate.
6. Perception ability of human beings varies from individual to
individual. Every individual is unique. The perception ability of a
human being determines the level of his/her understanding of the
laws and the conditions of the context and hence his/her ability to
predict the future.
The above postulates indicate clearly the philosophical nature of contextcentred studies. Human beings play a central role bringing in subjects like
psychology, biology, behavioural science and even astrology in an indirect
way into the studies. Attempts have been made to characterise individuals
in order to determine their perception abilities. Characterisation of
individuals considers factors like date, time and place of birth, race and
religion etc. apart from factors like educational status and economic status
etc.
In context-centred studies, the human beings are characterised to
determine their perception abilities. In recipient-centred studies the
concentration is on how precisely the recipient gets the meaning that the
sender intends to convey.
Self Check Exercise
11. Given that the probabilities of occurrence of the atomic statements 1, 2
& 3 above are and respectively, apply Shannon's measure and
determine the information content of the following messages:
a) It is raining AND it is humid
20
b) The wind is blowing AND it is NOT humid.

Unit.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.8 SUMMARY
This Unit is a study of information theory. The Unit starts emphasising the
need for a theory of information by bringing out the importance of
information in the present-day society. Different theoretical perspectives
of information and different approaches to information theory are then
brought out. Syntactic information theory, also known as statistical
information theory or mathematical theory of communication, is then
taken up for a detailed study. First, information is defined and placed in
perspective in the context of human thought process. Then, an information
measure based on an element of unexpectedness is evolved. Shannon's
equation for information measure is derived. The concept of information
entropy and the method of calculating the same are then presented. The
issue of efficient and reliable information communication is then
addressed. Source coding and channel coding as techniques for improving
communication efficiency and reliability respectively are discussed.
Finally, the basic aspects of semantic information theory are presented.
Semantic-centric, context-dependent and recipient-centred approaches are
discussed. Different approaches to measuring information content are
introduced. While Shannon's approach does not concern itself with the
semantics of information in messages, semantic information theory places
emphasis on substantial information content in messages.
7.9 ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES
1. There are four approaches to information theory. Some of the

approaches are known by more than one name. There are three
information perspectives. One or more perspectives are used in each of
these studies. The approaches and the corresponding information
perspectives are shown in a tabular form below.
Table: Information theory approaches and information perspectives
Approaches
Perspectives
Syntactic or Semantic-independent
Syntactic or Non-semantic
21
or Mathematical or Statistical
Semantic-centred
or
contextindependent
Context-dependent
Recipient-centred
Semantic
Pragmatic or Contextual
Semantic or Pragmatic
2. Information is defined as the description of the state of an object.

There are three keywords in the definition: Object, State and
Description. An object is anything in the creation: Living things such
as micro-organisms, animal kingdom and human beings; Inanimate
things like man-made objects, earth and mountains; and large systems
like the planets, galaxies and milky way. Each object is in one of
infinite or finite number of states at any point of time. (Illustrate by
giving examples). Description of the state in some way constitutes
information. The description may be oral, written, pictorial etc.
3. Knowledge continuum is a four-level abstraction of human thought
process. (Discuss each level by presenting Fig. 7.1. Illustrate by
examples that what is data for someone may be information for
another, what is information for one may be knowledge for another
etc.)
4. From Eq. 7.5, we know that p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 = 1.
Therefore, p4 = 1 (0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125) = 0.125.
From Eq. 7.2, we calculate the information content of each message
as:
I1 = log2 (1/) = 1 bit.
I2 = log2 (1/) = 2 bits.
I3 = log2 (1/) = 3 bits.
I4 = log2 (1/) = 3 bits.
ISource = 1 + 2 + 3 + 3 = 9 bits.
5. From the laws of logarithms, we know that
If loga x = n1 and logb x = n2, then n1 and n2 are related as
n2 = n1 logb a.
Now, 1 Hartley = log10 10. Let 1 Hartley = n2 bits. Then,
n2 = 1 log2 10 = 3.322 bits. Similarly,
1 nat = 1 log2 e = log2 2.719 = 1.443 bits.
6. Information entropy H is the average information content of a message
of a given source. It is given by Eq. 7.11. In Exercise 4, we have
considered a source with four messages. Therefore, the information
entropy of this source is given as
H = 0.5 log2 () + 0.25 log2 () + 0.125 log2 () + 0.125 log2 ()
= 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.75 = 1.75 bits.
7. The information entropy of two messages is given by Eq. 7.14. H is
calculated for different values of p and plotted with p on the X-axis
and H on the Y-axis. The resulting curve looks similar to the one in
Fig. 7.2 with the maximum value of H as 1 when p = 0.5.
8. A model for both efficiency and reliability incorporates both the
source coder and the channel coder at the sending end, and the source
decoder and the channel decoder on the receiving side as shown
below:
22
Channel
Coder
Source
Coder
Noisy
Channel
Channel
Decoder
Source
Decoder
Model for both efficient and reliable communication

The probability of one bit being in error P1 is given by BER as = 10-5
The probability of one bit being correct = 1 P1 = 1 0.00001 =
0.99999
10. The information block is 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 and has 10 bits. One parity
bit is added and therefore the size of the transmission block is 11 bits.
Even parity pattern: 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
Odd parity pattern: 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
11. Both the messages contain two atomic statements each connected by
logical AND. The probability of occurrence of the messages is given
by the joint probability of the constituents.
The probability of message (a) P1 = = .
Therefore, the information content of message (a) Ia = log2 () = 3
bits.
The probability of message (b) P2 = (1 - ) = = .
Therefore, the information content of message (b) Ib = log2 () = 2
bits.
9.
7.10 KEYWORDS
Bits, nats and hartleys

: Units assigned to dimensionless measure
of information depending on the base of
logarithm used. Bits when the base is 2,
nats when the base is e and hartleys when
the base is 10.
Channel capacity
: The amount of information that can be
carried by a channel with perfect accuracy
in unit time.
Channel coding
: Coding for reliable or error-free
communication via a noisy channel.
Contextual information
: Where informational value of a message is
assessed based on a given context. Also
known as pragmatic information.
Efficient communication : Maximally utilising the capacity of a
channel by the use of coding techniques.
Information entropy
: Average information content of a message
in a set of messages.
Information measure
: Assessing the informational value of a
message by using one of a variety of
techniques.
Message
: An informational statement that describes
the state of an object in the universe.
23
Object
Pragmatic information
Recipient-centred
Reliable communication
Source coding
Source entropy
Semantic information
State of an object
Syntactic information
: Anything in the creation: animate,

inanimate etc.
assessed based on a given context. Also
known as contextual information.
assessed based on the recipient's
perception of the meaning. Also called
user-centred.
: Achieving error-free communication by
the use of coding techniques.
: Coding of source messages to achieve
efficiency in information communication.
: Average information content of a message
from the source.
assessed by the amount of substantive
information contained in it without regard
to the context, sender or recipient.
: The condition in which an object exists.
All objects in the universe exist in one of
finite or infinite number of states.
assessed without regard to the meaning of
the message.
7.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Brewster, R.L. (1986) Telecommunications Technology. New

Delhi: Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd.
Hintikka, Jaakko and Suppes, Patrick. (1970) Information and

Inference. Dordrecht-Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company.
Kasiwagi, Dean. (2003) Information Measurement Theory (IMT).

Encyclopaedia of Information Systems, Volume 2. USA: Elsevier
Science.
Lebow, Irwin. (2000) Understanding Digital Transmission and

Recording. New Delhi: Prentice Hall Of India.
Lubbe, Jan C A van der. (1997) Information Theory. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
Verlinde, Patrick. (2003) Information Theory. Encyclopaedia of

Information Systems, Volume 2. USA: Elsevier Science.
24
UNIT 8 DIGITAL INFORMATION

Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Nature of Digital Information
8.3 Digital Fundamentals
8.3.1 Binary Coding
8.3.2 Binary Numbers
8.4 Digital Text

8.5 Digitising Documents
8.5.1 Scanning
8.5.2 Image Compression
8.5.3 Character Recognition
8.6 Analog to Digital Conversion

8.7 Digital Audio
8.8 Digital Video
8.9 Digital Formats
8.9.1
8.9.2
8.9.3
8.9.4
Document Formats
Image Formats
Audio Formats
Video Formats
8.10 Legality of Digital Documents

8.11 Summary
8.13 Keywords
8.0
OBJECTIVES
186
how digital information is created;
the nature of digital information;
the features of a digital document;
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basics of digital technology;

how digitised information is stored within the computer;
the process of digitising documents;
how to digitise text;
how to convert analog information to digital form;
what is digital sound;
what is digital video;
different multimedia formats; and
legal aspects of digital documents.
8.1
INTRODUCTION
Digital Information
Information is central to our daily activities these days. Advances in computer

and communication technologies have brought about the representation,
recording and communication of information in electronic form. Information
may be put in electronic form using analog or digital technology. For example,
in a conventional audiocassette, information is recorded using analog
technology whereas on a CD-ROM information is recorded using digital
technology.
Analog technology has been known for a long time (100 years or more) whereas
digital technology is relatively new (4050 years). Digital technology is
preferred over analog technology for reasons of efficiency and reliability. At
present, there is a perceptible trend towards the use of digital technology in
both communication and computer fields. Everything electronic is moving
towards digital technology. One may say that there is a digital revolution that
is currently sweeping the world. As a result, electronic information is also
going digital. Even sound and video are being recorded using digital technology.
Many of you may be aware that many cinema theaters have modernised their
projection system and use digital (Dolby) sound systems. Digitally recorded
audio and video CDs are available today.
Electronic information in digital form is called digital information. In many
texts, no distinction is made between electronic information and digital
information. The two terms are used synonymously. You must remember that
electronic information may be analog or digital whereas digital information is
entirely digital. In other words, digital information is electronic but electronic
information is not necessarily digital. This Unit is concerned with
representation, recording and communication of information in digital form.
The Unit also touches upon the legal aspects and the issues of copyright of
digital information.
8.2
NATURE OF DIGITAL INFORMATION
Digital information is created and managed by using three digital technologies:

digital computer, digital communication and digital storage technology. In
addition, there are end devices that acquire information in digital form.
Examples of such devices are digital voltmeters, digital telephones and digital
facsimile. Digital information is capable of being stored inside a computer,
processed by a computer and transmitted over a digital communication system.
A large volume of information in this universe is in non-electronic or analog
form. This information needs to be digitised before it can be handled by digital
technologies. For example, printed information may be digitised and stored
inside a computer using a scanner or a digital camera that is attached to the
computer. The computer controls these devices, and acquires and stores the
digital images produced by them. Alternatively, digital information may be
created directly on the computer by entering information via the keyboard or
other input devices like mouse. For example, this Unit is prepared directly on
the computer by inputting text using the keyboard and making drawings using
the mouse. Thus, we may say that digital information is created either directly
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Communication
on a computer or from other sources with the help of a computer. Examples of

digital information include e-mail messages, computerised files, digital books,
e-news, textual databases, on-line journals and encyclopaedias on CD-ROMs.
Recorded information constitutes a document. Hence, a document that contains
digital information is a digital document. Although digital document is the
precise nomenclature for computer-generated documents, the terms e-document
and e-paper are used commonly to refer to digital documents. We use these
terms interchangeably in this course material. A print document may contain
text, figures, tables, graphs and photographs. Unlike print documents, digital
documents are multimedia in nature. In addition to what is contained in print
documents, digital documents may contain voice, music, animation, and motion
video. Thus, a digital document may contain information in the following forms:
l
l
l
l
l
Digital text
Digital images
Digital sound
Digital video
Computer animation
l
l
l
l
l
Digitised text
Digitised images
Digitised sound
Digitised video
Computer generated drawings
We call each of the above as a multimedia component. It is important to

distinguish between digital multimedia component and digitised multimedia
component. Digital component refers to items directly created on the computer
whereas digitised component refers to items converted to digital form from a
original source that is non-electronic or analog. In general, conversion of nonelectronic information to digital form involves a scanning or a photographic
process. Conversion of analog information to digital form involves the use of
analog to digital converters. We shall study these aspects later in this Unit.
Digital text consists of alphanumeric and special characters. When text is
digitised by a photographic process, an image map of each character is created
inside the computer. These image maps are not processable by the computer
in the same way as the characters of a digital text are done. The image maps
need to be further processed to make them appear as digital text characters for
the computer software. These aspects are discussed later in Section 8.5. Most
computers have facilities for creating simple line drawings and graphs. These
are stored in digital image form. Digitised images and computer-generated
drawings represent what are called static images. Moving or dynamic images
are produced by digital video and computer animation. The representation and
storage formats of different multimedia components of a digital document
vary and follow certain standards. We learn about these in later sections in this
Unit.
Associated with digital documents are certain features that make them very
versatile when compared to paper based documents:
188
Digital text documents are computer searchable. A specified string of

characters may be searched for and located instantly. The string of
characters may be keywords representing subject topics.
Digital image documents can be processed by image processing software

to locate certain features or to compare with an existing image etc.
Digital documents are computer editable which means that the document
can be easily corrected, reorganised, sequence of presentation changed,

etc.
l
Digital documents are linkable to one another. A related document can be

reached via links thereby providing continuity across documents.
Digital documents can be annotated with texts that are searchable.
Digital documents are shareable by many users at the same time.
Digital documents are capable of being transferred from one location to

another by means of communication networks. When transferred, the
original document remains intact and only a copy is sent across.
Digital Information
Self Check Exercise

1)
What is the distinction between digital sound and digitised sound? Give
examples for each case.
Note: i)
Write your answer in the space given below.
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...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
8.3
DIGITAL FUNDAMENTALS
Underlying the representation, storage and communication of information in

digital form is the binary system. In binary system, we have only two symbols,
0 and 1. It is interesting to know that we can represent any information by
using just two symbols. Any two symbols, say P and Q or and , could have
been chosen arbitrarily. But the digits 0 and 1 are chosen because they can
represent both numeric and non-numeric information and binary arithmetic
can be performed on numerical quantities represented by 0s and 1s.
8.3.1 Binary Coding

The underlying idea in information representation is that we form strings of
the two symbols to any desired length and pre-assign a meaning to these strings.
This is called coding, i.e. we are coding known information as binary strings.
Then, a sequence of strings may represent a meaningful message. For example,
consider the following strings with their preassigned meanings:
0001
0011
0000
0100
A
C
P
T
We have listed four strings above. In each string, there are four binary digits.
A binary digit is called a bit. Therefore, we say that each string has 4 bits. If a
sequence is transmitted comprising bit strings 2,1 and 4 in that order, i.e. 0011
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Communication
0001 0100, then the information conveyed is the word CAT. Similarly, the
sequence of strings 2,1 and 3 conveys CAP, the sequence 1,2 and 4 ACT and
the sequence 3,1,2 and 4 PACT.
With four bits, we can have a maximum of 16 unique combinations. Each bit
position has two possible values, either 0 or 1. There are four bit positions
giving us a total combination of 24 = 16. Sixteen combinations are not adequate
to represent even all the letters in English alphabet. We need to choose strings
longer than four bits to represent a bigger character set. Standard coding schemes
for character sets are discussed in the next section.
It is not only characters that we can represent using binary symbols. Literally,
everything in this universe can be represented using binary strings. To illustrate
the ideas involved further, let us consider the representation of days of the
week and rainbow colours inside the computer. In each case, there are seven
items. Three bits would give us 23 = 8 combinations which are adequate to
represent these items. An arbitrary coding scheme for these examples is shown
in Table 8.1. A few observations regarding the coding shown in Table 8.1 are
in order. Of the 8 combinations, the pattern 111 is unused in coding the days
of the week and the pattern 000 is unused in coding rainbow colours. The
selection of patterns is arbitrary. The idea is to choose as many patterns as
required from an available set of patterns. Some days and colours have identical
coded pattern. For example, Thursday and the colour green are coded as 100.
How then do we distinguish between the two items inside the computer? The
coding is context dependent. A program dealing with colours would interpret
100 as green and another program dealing with days would interpret the same
pattern as Thursday. What if a program deals with both colours and days? In
this case, the total number of items is 14 and we would need 4 bits to code the
items. The situation is analogous to student roll numbers in different classes.
Inside a classroom, the roll number uniquely identifies a student. In the context
of the whole school, a student is uniquely identified only when he states the
class, section and the roll number.
Table 8.1: A Coding Scheme for Days of the Week and Rainbow Colours
Day
Code
Colour
Code
Sunday
000
Violet
001
Monday
001
Indigo
010
Tuesday
010
Blue
011
Wednesday
011
Green
100
Thursday
100
Yellow
101
Friday
101
Orange
110
Saturday
110
Red
111
8.3.2 Binary Numbers
190
Let us now turn our attention to see how we represent numbers using binary
digits (bits). As you are aware, we use a place value concept while representing
numbers in decimal system. For example, the number 5657 has a value equal
to
5 103 + 6 102 + 5 101 + 7 100
Digital Information
= 5000 + 600 + 50 + 7 = 5657

Each place in a number is assigned a value that is a power of ten and the digit
in the place is multiplied by that value. If we identify the place of the digits
starting from right, then we have 7 in place 1, 5 in place 2, 6 in place 3, and 5
in place 4. The digit 5 has a value 50 in place 2 and a value 5000 in place 4, i.e.
the value assigned to a digit depends on its place in the number. We use a
similar place value system to represent numbers in binary system. Since there
are only two symbols in the system, the place value is a power of 2. For example,
the string 1101 has a value
1 23 + 1 22 + 0 21 + 1 20
= 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 13
Much as the way in decimal system, very large numbers can be represented by
using a long string of bits. For example, a 32-bit string allows us to represent
numbers upto 429, 49, 67,296; i.e. approximately 430 crore or 4.3 billion.
There are certain binary string lengths that are used widely in information
representation. They are 4 bits, 8 bits, 16 bits and 32 bits. A 4-bit string is
called a nibble and a 8-bit string a byte. The others are referred to by their
actual length like 16-bit or 32-bit word.
Binary arithmetic is similar to decimal arithmetic. Addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division are performed in the same way as in decimal
arithmetic. Since there are only two symbols, addition of two 1s leads to a
carry, i.e. 1 + 1 = 10 much as the way 6 + 4 leads to a carry in decimal system.
When a 0 is added to a 1 or to another 0, there is no carry, i.e. 0 + 1 = 1 and 0
+ 0 = 0. Similar considerations apply to other arithmetic operations.
Self Check Exercise
2)
Devise a coding scheme to represent months in a year.
3)
Add the two binary numbers 1101 and 0101.
Note: i)
Write your answers in the space given below.
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8.4
DIGITAL TEXT
Text consists of alphanumeric and special characters. In English language, we

have 26 upper case and 26 lower case letters in the alphabet. Indo-Arabic
numerals have 10 digits, 0 9. There are special symbols like +, , &, * and
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Communication
%. All these add up to a total of 95 characters. We call this sum total as the
character set for text. With a 6-bit string, we can have a maximum of 64 (26 )
combinations which are inadequate to represent all the characters in the text
character set. If we choose a string of 7 bits, then the maximum number of
combinations we can have is 128 which is adequate to represent all the
characters. Hence, a 7-bit string (code) is used to represent characters inside a
computer.
The most widely used 7-bit code is the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII). We have an equivalent Indian Standard code called Indian
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ISCII). Since we have only 95
characters, we are left with 33 combinations in a 7-bit code which can be used
for some other purposes. In fact, many of the spare 7-bit combinations in ASCII
are used for controlling various aspects of information communication process.
These combinations are called control characters or control codes. Control
characters are non-printable and are invisible on a computer monitor. They,
however, communicate special signals to devices like printers and other
communication devices. The ASCII characters along with their 7-bit codes
are presented in Table 8.2. The entry np in the Table represents special control
characters that are not printable but used to control devices. The 7-bit code is
presented with a space after three bits from the left in order to enhance
readability. In computer representation, there is no intervening space and the 7
bits are continuous. In practice, ASCII is an 8-bit code (byte) inside the computer
with the extra bit being used for error detection. Other than ASCII, there are
code sets that are in use. One such well known code set is Extended Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) used on large IBM computers.
EBCDIC is also an 8-bit representation of characters.
As we know, documents are more than plain texts. They contain formatted
text; i.e. paragraphs, sections, chapters etc. For example, this course material
is a document containing formatted text. Digital text documents are prepared
inside the computer using software packages called word processors, text
editors or text processors. These documents are stored as files inside the
computer. The software packages tend to use their own formatting standards
and own file formats for storing these files. When it comes to transporting a
document from one system to another to be processed by a different software
package, we need standards for conveying formatting information as well as
standard formats for files. The most widely used standard for transporting text
documents across different computers and different software packages is Rich
Text Format (RTF). We learn more about RTF in Section 8.9.
192
Digital Information
Table 8.2: Coding in ASCII

Code
Ch
000 0000
000 0001
000 0010
000 0011
000 0100
000 0101
000 0110
000 0111
000 1000
000 1001
000 1010
000 1011
000 1100
000 1101
000 1110
000 1111
001 0000
001 0001
001 0010
001 0011
001 0100
001 0101
001 0110
001 0111
001 1000
001 1001
001 1010
001 1011
001 1100
001 1101
001 1110
001 1111
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
np
Code
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
010
011
011
011
011
011
011
011
011
011
011
011
011
011
011
011
011
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
Ch
Code
Ch
Code
Ch
sp
!
#
$
%
&
(
)
*
+
,
.
/
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
:
;
<
=
>
?
100 0000
100 0001
100 0010
100 0011
100 0100
100 0101
100 0110
100 0111
100 1000
100 1001
100 1010
100 1011
100 1100
100 1101
100 1110
100 1111
101 0000
101 0001
101 0010
101 0011
101 0100
1010101
101 0110
101 0111
101 1000
101 1001
101 1010
101 1011
101 1100
101 1101
101 1110
101 1111
@
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
[
\
]
^
_
110 0000
110 0001
110 0010
110 0011
110 0100
110 0100
110 0100
110 0100
110 1000
110 1001
110 1010
110 1011
110 1100
110 1101
110 1110 110
1111
111 0000
111 0001
111 0010
111 0011
111 0100
111 0101
111 0110
111 0111
111 1000
111 1001
111 1010
111 1011
111 1100
111 1101
111 1110
111 1111
`
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
x
y
z
{
|
}
~
np
sp = space np = non-printable control characters

Self Check Exercise
4) Write the ASCII code for the character string IGNOU
Note: i)
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..........................................................................................................................
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..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
8.5
DIGITISING DOCUMENTS
Non-electronic documents and analog electronic documents need to be

converted to digital form in order to make them digital documents. In this
section, we learn the process of digitising a non-electronic document. In the
next section, we learn about converting analog documents into digital
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Communication
documents. A non-electronic document may be a paper document or use any

other medium like palm leaves and may contain hand- or typewritten text,
photographs, illustrations, drawings, artwork, graphs etc. The steps involved
in converting a non-electronic document to a digital document are shown in
Fig.8.1. There are two major steps: scanning or imaging and compression.
Non-electronic
Document
Digital Imaging
Compression
Digital Document
Fig. 8.1: Digitising Documents
8.5.1 Scanning
The first step in digitising a document is to image the document. This may be
done by means of a scanning or a photographic imaging process. The scanning
process uses a scanner and the photographic imaging process uses a camera.
The scanner and the camera may be analog devices or digital devices. An
analog device produces wave like electrical signals as output whereas a digital
device produces voltage levels representing binary digits as output. Both the
outputs represent the information contained in the non-electronic document.
If the devices are analog, an additional step of converting analog information
to digital, as discussed in Section 8.6, is required. For the present, we assume
that these devices are digital. A scanner resembles a photocopier and the process
of scanning is similar to that of photocopying or xeroxing. The non-electronic
document is placed on a flat bed transparent surface that is then scanned by
focussing a light source over the document, measuring the reflected light and
presenting the value of the reflected light by means of binary strings. In the
case of photographic imaging, the camera is focussed on the document and it
produces digital output.
194
The scanning or photographic imaging is a microscopic process. The surface

is scanned from the top left corner to the bottom right corner in a sequential
order. The surface is divided into a collection of horizontal lines. Each horizontal
line is conceived to be made up of a large number of dots called pixels or pels.
The word pixel or pel is a short form for picture element. The density of dots
could vary from 75 dots per inch (dpi) to 2400 dpi. The horizontal line density
is also specified in terms of dpi and is usually the same as the density of dots
in a line. The dot density and the line density together are called the scanning
resolution. The commonly used scanning resolutions in the present day scanners
are 600 600 dpi, 1200 1200 dpi and 2400 2400 dpi. For a surface of
given size, the number of dots or pixels on the surface increases as the scanning
density increases. When light is shined on the surface to be scanned, each
pixel reflects light according to its contents. The contents may be in colour or
in black and white (B&W). We will consider colour scanning later in this
section. First, we consider scanning of B&W documents.
In a B&W surface, the content is either white or black of varying shades like
dark, light, etc. The varying shades including white are called grey (gray) levels.
The quantum of light reflected by each pixel depends on the grey level of the
pixel. Each pixel value, i.e. the amount of light reflected by it, is represented
by a binary string. Once the scanning of the surface is complete, there are as
many binary strings in the output as there are pixels on the surface. While
scanning a B&W surface, 16 or 256 levels of shades including white are
recognised. Sixteen levels can be distinguished by using 4-bit string (nibble)
and 256 levels call for 8-bit string (byte). Commercial facsimile (fax) machines,
which also use a scanning technique, recognise only two grey levels, i.e. black
and white, requiring only one bit for representing the value of each pixel. The
number of bits used to represent the grey levels or colours is called bit depth.
Digital Information
The speed of scanning is usually specified in terms of number of pages per

minute and is dependent on the scanning resolution. Higher the resolution of
the scanner, the longer is the time taken for scanning. Some scanners take as
much as a few minutes to scan one sheet of paper.
8.5.2 Image Compression

Scanned image files are generally very large in size. Consider scanning a post
card size (6" 4") photograph using 600-dpi scanner. In six inches there are
3600 pixels and in four inches 2400 lines. If we assume a bit depth of one byte,
the size of the scanned image file works out to be 3600 2400 1 = 86400
bytes. Sixteen such pictures would occupy an entire floppy. Storing scanned
images as they are would need a large amount of storage space. In order to
reduce the storage requirements for an image, scanning is always followed by
compression before storing the image. There are two broad classes of image
compression techniques:
l
Information preserving techniques
Approximation techniques
Information preserving techniques ensure that the integrity of the contents of

the scanned surface is fully maintained. Approximation techniques tend to
approximate the scanned image and in the process may lose some information
aspect of the document. Approximation techniques are able to achieve much
better compression than the information preserving techniques. In general,
information-preserving techniques are used for documents containing factual
data and approximation techniques for documents containing photographs,
pictures etc. The compression efficiency of a technique is measured by a
parameter called compression ratio CR, which is defined as:
CR =
Size of the uncompressed image

Size of the compressed image
(8.1)
Most of the compression software packages produce a compression ratio in

the range of 10 20. Some very sophisticated packages produce a compression
ratio in the range of 40 60.
We now discuss some aspects of colour scanning. Human vision recognises
radiation in the frequency range of 4 1014 8 1014 Hz. It is in this range that
the frequencies of the main colours of the rainbow (VIBGYOR) lie. White
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Communication
light comprises the wavelength of all visible colours. We see an object and
perceive a colour when a specific frequency component (colour) of the white
light falling on the object is reflected and detected by the human eye. Radiation
of different frequencies produces the sensation of different colours in the eye.
In television and colour digital images, different colours are formed by mixing
three primary colours red, green and blue (RGB). Colour scanners measure
the intensity of reflected signals from each pixel at the frequencies
corresponding to these three primary colours. The intensity of each colour is
measured with 256 levels, calling for one byte to represent the intensity value.
Thus, colour scanning produces 3 bytes of digital data for each pixel and a
colour image size is three times larger than that of a B&W image for a given
scanning resolution. High-resolution colour scanners use 16 bits to represent
intensity values and produce six bytes for each pixel.
8.5.3 Character Recognition

Consider scanning one line of text containing 60 characters at 600-dpi
resolution. Let the height of the characters be 0.25" and the line width 8". The
size of the scanned image file works out to be 600 8 600 0.25 = 7200
bytes. In Section 8.5, we learnt that characters can be stored inside a computer
using ASCII bytes. If this line of text were to be stored as ASCII characters,
then we would require a space of only 60 bytes, i.e. 120 times less space than
the scanned image. Clearly, the images take up a lot of computer storage when
compared to text. It makes good sense to store the information in ASCII form
if the document being digitised contains text predominantly. This is achieved
by further processing the scanned image by character recognition software
that has the capability to recognise character patterns and reconstruct a text
file from an image file. The process is shown in Fig.8.2. Since the process
involves optical scanning before character recognition, it is called Optical
Character Recognition (OCR).
Digital
image
Character
recognition
Text file
Fig.8.2: Obtaining Text Files from Image Files
The character recognition is not always hundred per cent correct. If the original
document is typewritten or printed, character recognition is likely to be highly
successful. If, on the other hand, the document is hand-written, character
recognition may only be partially correct. In general, the output of character
recognition software needs to be manually edited to ensure fully correct
recognition. To aid the editing process, software packages that check for
spelling, sentence construction etc. may be used.
196
In Section 8.2, it was brought out that digital documents are far more versatile
than paper documents because of the associated computer processing and
communication possibilities. The idea that paper based information can be
very effectively managed once it is converted to digital image or text has led
to the emergence of what are known as document management systems.
These systems are useable effectively in office environment. Every paper
document is converted to a digital document, which is then used to take follow
up actions. Such documents are easily retrieved, distributed with annotated

instructions and managed in an automated mode. A typical document
management system consists of a scanner, character recognition software, office
management software, a personal computer, a printer and optical storage devices
supporting writable optical disks.
Digital Information
Self Check Exercise

5) Consider a B&W document containing 20 pages of dimension 10" 10"
being scanned at a resolution of 1200 1200 dpi. The bit depth is 4 bits.
The compression ratio of the software is 20. Determine the:
i)
Size of the scanned image file before compression
ii) Size of the image file after compression.

6)
If the document in Q.5 above contains only text and is processed using
OCR software, estimate the file size required and the saving in storage.
Assume that each line of the text contains 100 characters and each page
contains 40 lines of text. What do the results indicate?
Note: i)
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8.6
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
A large number of physical quantities measurable or observable in this world

are analog in nature. By analog we mean that these quantities take on values
that vary continuously with time. For example, the day temperature values
vary continuously over a period of time. When the values of such quantities
are plotted as a graph with time as the X-axis, the curves that represent these
values are continuous. In nature, a large number of information signals are
also analog. For example, human speech and music produce analog signals.
Information may be recorded, processed and communicated using analog
technology. In fact, this was the case entirely in the past. Even today, analog
technology is in wide use. Analog technology suffers from certain
disadvantages. First, analog signals are susceptible to external noise and their
reception becomes unreliable in the presence of noise. Second, analog devices
are temperature sensitive and their performance is affected by variations in the
ambient temperature. Last, analog signals of different quantities such as voice
and video are very different in their electrical characteristics like voltage,
current, frequency and power. This necessitates the design of new systems
whenever new quantities represented by analog signals are to be stored,
processed or communicated.
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Communication
Search for an alternative to analog technology has given birth to the digital
technology. Digital technology is more rugged and reliable when compared
to analog technology. Digital signals have better noise immunity, quality,
consistency of reproduction and ease of processing. Early digital computers
were built in mid 1940s and the first digital communication system became
operational in 1962. Since then, the digital technology has been advancing
leaps and bounds both in the fields of communications and computers. As we
know, todays computers are hundred per cent digital. The telecommunication
networks world over are fast evolving towards digital networks. Information
representation is also fast becoming digital. This is the reason why we are
studying about digital information in this Unit.
As mentioned above, a large amount of information produced in nature happens
to be in analog form. For example, sound is in the form of air pressure waves
that are analog. Our ears are tuned to hear analog signals rather than digital
ones. In order to be able to use digital technology, analog quantities need to be
converted to digital form. Digitising analog information is done by means of
Analog to Digital Converters (ADC). While digital technology is used to
store, process and communicate information, for actual consumption by human
ears and eyes the information needs to be presented in analog form. Therefore
there is the need to convert digital information back to analog form. This is
done by means of Digital to Analog Converters (DAC). The principles
underlying ADC and DAC are similar to converting graphical representation
to numerical form and vice versa respectively. When a point value is read
from a curve, it is a number or a numerical value. The graphical representation
corresponds to analog form and the numerical to digital. If we read off points
closely from a curve, we can form a table of values that represents the curve.
We can reconstruct the original curve from the table by interpolating between
the successive points. Thus, both analog and digital forms represent the same
information and one form can be derived from the other.
How closely do we need to read off points from a curve in order to preserve
the information content and to reconstruct the original curve with full
information content? If we take too few points, we are bound to lose information
content. If we take too many points, the size of the table becomes unnecessarily
large. In other words, we will be overloading the digital system unnecessarily.
Therefore the question is what is the optimum number of points that would
preserve information content, and at the same time reduce load on the digital
system? The answer to the question lies in sampling theorem stated and proved
in 1933 by Shannon and Nyquist. According to the sampling theorem, in order
not to lose the informational content, the analog signal must be sampled at a
rate f s which is equal to or greater than twice highest frequency component f m
of the analog signal as defined in Eq.8.2. The process of sampling is equivalent
to reading off points from a curve.
s 2 m samples/sec.
(8.2)
Sampling time interval, which is the inverse of the sampling rate is given as
Ts 1/(2m) seconds
198
(8.3)
The analog signal is sampled at regular time interval of Ts . The minimum

sampling rate of 2m is called the Nyquist rate. Usually, the sampling is done
at a rate slightly higher than the Nyquist rate. Figure 8.3 shows sampling of an
analog signal. The X-axis represents time and the Y-axis the amplitude of the
analog signal. The sampled values appear as vertical arrows. They look like
pulses or spikes.
Digital Information
The next aspect of digitising analog signals is quantisation. The sampled values
of the analog signals may have any value in a continuous spectrum of values
varying between the minimum and the maximum amplitude of the analog
signals. Digital presentation of continuous values calls for very long binary
Fig. 8.3: Sampling Analog Waveforms
strings of ones and zero. But practical considerations limit the bit string length
to 4, 6 or 8 bits. The number of bits determines the number of discrete values
that can be represented between the minimum and maximum values of the
analog signals. With 4 bits we can represent 16 (24 ) values, with 6 bits 64 (26 )
and with 8 bits 256 (28 ) values. The values vary in steps and are fixed. It now
becomes necessary to approximate the sampled signal values to the nearest
fixed value in the range of specified values. This process of fixing a set of
specific values and approximating the sampled value to the nearest fixed value
is known as quantisation. Obviously, quantisation introduces error in sampled
values. But the design of the system is usually such that the error levels do not
affect the quality of signals in any significant manner.
The next step in digitisation is the coding process, i.e. representing the quantised
values by means of a binary string. Since the analog signal may have both
positive and negative amplitudes, one bit in the binary string is used to denote
the sign and the remaining bits represent amplitude values. The number of bits
used to represent a quantised sample value is called sample resolution.
In the above described A-D conversion process, since we generate pulses by
sampling, approximate their values to previously fixed amplitude levels
(quantisation) and then code them into binary strings, the process is called
pulse code modulation (PCM). When telephone speech is digitised using
standard PCM, quantised sample values are represented by 8-bit strings, i.e.
sample resolution is 8 bits. The most significant bit represents the sign of the
analog signal and the remaining 7 bits the magnitude. There are other techniques
of ADC such as differential pulse code modulation and delta modulation. A
discussion on these techniques is beyond the scope of coverage for MLIS course.
As we have seen above, each sample value is represented by a byte when the
sample resolution is 8 bits. Then a sequence of bytes represents the original
analog signal. This sequence can be stored in a computer or transmitted over
digital communication systems to other destinations. To reconstruct the original
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Communication
signal, we need to feed the sequence of bytes to a discretiser and a signal

smoothening filter. The discretiser takes each byte of digital information and
produces the corresponding quantised voltage level. The sequence of bytes
processed by the discretiser produces a sequence of quantised voltage levels
as pulses. These pulses are then passed through a smoothening filter that
interpolates the values to produce analog waveform. This entire process of
PCM ADC and DAC is depicted in Fig 8.4.
Sampler
Quantiser
Coder
Bit string
Aanlog
Signal
A D Conversion
D A Conversion
Reconstructed
Signal
Filter
Discretiser
Fig.8.4: ADC and DAC of Information Signals
Self Check Exercise

7)
A file containing digitised information corresponding to 5 seconds of

analog signal has a size of 400 kB. The sampling resolution is 8 bits. If
the sampling has been done at Nyquist rate, what is the maximum
frequency content of the analog signal?
Note: i)
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8.7
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DIGITAL AUDIO
Human ear is sensitive to frequencies in the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This

frequency range is called the audio spectrum. Audio information like speech
and music occupy different portions of the audio spectrum. Frequency ranges
for different types of audio information are shown in Table 8.3. Human speech
lies predominantly in the range 300 Hz to 7 kHz. A portion within this range,
300 Hz to 3.4 kHz, is called intelligible speech. By intelligible speech, we
mean that it is both recognisable and understandable. We can recognise the
person speaking and understand what is being said. All telephone networks
are designed only to carry intelligible speech. Hence, intelligible speech is
referred to as telephone quality speech. FM radio broadcasting stations
broadcast music up to 10 kHz or 15 kHz depending on the technology used.
Audio CDs record music up to 20 kHz.
Digital Information
Table 8.3: Audio Frequency Spectrum
Information Type
Frequency Range
Full Audio Range
20 Hz 20 kHz
Speech Spectrum
300 Hz 7 kHz
Intelligible Speech
300 Hz 3.4 kHz
Low Fidelity Music
100 Hz 10 kHz
High Fidelity Music
50 Hz 15 kHz
Very High Fidelity Music
20 Hz 20 kHz
In the digital domain, telephone quality speech, often called toll speech, is
digitised using 8 k samples per second, a little more than Nyquist rate. The
sample resolution used is 8 bits. When we transmit digital speech over telephone
channels, we are actually transmitting 8 kilo samples per second with each
sample represented by 8 bits. On a serial communication link, this amounts to
a bit rate of 8 k 8 bits = 64 kbps. In the context of Internet connections, we
often hear line speeds of 64, 128 and 256 kbps. These speeds come about from
the fact that one or more digital speech channels are assigned for Internet
connectivity. In the United States, 7-bit sample resolution is used for telephone
speech, giving a data rate of 56 kbps.
For different quality of sound signals, digitisation calls for different sampling
speeds and sample resolutions. Table 8.4 gives the sampling rates and sample
resolutions used in different audio products. One major disadvantage of digital
audio is that it produces a large volume of data. For example, a floppy can
hardly hold 10 seconds of digital audio. It, therefore, becomes necessary to
compress digital audio before storage, much as the way it is done with digitised
documents. A number of compression standards are used for this purpose.
One
Table 8.4: Digital Audio Parameters
Media
Channel
Sampling rate Resolution Bit rate
Telephone
Mono
8000
Audio CD
Stereo
44,100
16 bits
1.41 Mbps
Stereo
Stereo
48,000
32,000
16 bits
16 bits
1.536 Mbps
1.024 Mbps
8 bits
64 kbps
Digital Audio
Tape (DAT)
Digital Radio
among them is audio compression-3 (AC-3). When PCM is used for digitisation
and AC-3 is used for compression, the digital sound is known as digital dolby
sound, the name that we come across in cinema theatres these days.
8.8
DIGITAL VIDEO
Digital video and computer animation fall in the motion video class unlike
digitised images which are static and single frame images. The underlying
principle of motion video is that a moving image can be represented by a
sequence of still images that are projected one after another at a certain rate.
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Communication
This principle was first applied in motion pictures using photographic film
technology. The current trend is to produce high quality moving images using
computers applying the same principle. The principle works because of the
persistence of vision property of the human eye. Any image projected on the
human eye persists for about 40 50 ms. If a sequence of still images depicting
progressive stages of motion is projected on the human eye every 30 40 ms,
the eye perceives the sum total of projections as a continuously moving picture.
Each still image is called a frame and we need a frame rate of 25 30 frames
per second (fps) to produce the effect of continuous picture. A higher rate, say
30 fps, produces a smooth picture and a lower rate, say 15 fps, produces a
jerky picture that strains the eyes.
An image captured by a video camera is analog in nature. This needs to be
digitised to form digital images. Analog to digital converters (ADC) are used
for this purpose. The ADC may be placed externally between the camera and
the computer. Alternatively, it may be in-built within the camera in which
case the camera is called a digital video camera.
Compression techniques applied to individual frames are similar to the ones
used in digitised images. In addition, redundancy in neighbouring frames is
used to obtain further compression. Unless there is a scene change, the adjacent
frames differ very little in contents. In principle, a few frames can be recorded
in full and then only the differing aspects of subsequent frames are recorded.
A widely used file standard for storing digital video is Moving Picture Experts
Group (MPEG) format. Stored images are retrieved and decompressed to form
full frames of still pictures that can be projected on a TV screen or a computer
monitor at the required frame rate. These devices require analog signals and
hence digital to analog conversion is carried out before the images are sent to
the monitor. Much as the persistence of vision, computer monitor and TV
screen have the property of persistence of display which gives the impression
of continuous picture on the screen.
Animation is the process of creating a moving image by playing still frame
drawings at 15 20 fps rate. Traditionally, an artist hand draws animation
frames that are then imaged by photographic film process. Presently, the trend
is for the artist to create animation frames using computers. An example of
simple animation is the hourglass displayed on the computer screen when the
processor is busy on a particular activity.
8.9
DIGITAL FORMATS
The prolific use of digital information, witnessed in the last 10 years, has led
to the emergence of a number of formats and standards for storing and delivering
digital information. Awareness of different digital information standards has
become important for the library staff, particularly in the context of converting
conventional libraries to digital ones. This section presents a brief overview of
the standard digital formats that are widely in use for documents, audio, still
images and motion video. In general, the standard formats deal with one or
more of the following aspects:
l
202
l
l
Storage and/or transfer

Information structuring
Information presentation.
8.9.1 Document Formats
Digital Information
Digital document formats fall under three classes: basic text formats,
presentation formats and structured formats. We briefly discuss the formats
under each of these classes.
1)
Basic text formats
Text formats are the simplest form of digital formats and are largely used for
documents containing predominantly textual information. There are three text
formats used for text representation: ASCII, Unicode and RTF. Of these, the
first two are used for encoding characters. We have discussed ASCII in Section
8.4. ASCII is used to represent Western language characters, i.e. Latin
characters. Unicode is proposed as a multi-lingual extension of ASCII to
represent characters in major written languages of America, Europe, the Middle
East, Africa, India and the Asia Pacific region. Unicode is a 16-bit code that
has the capacity to represent 64k characters. At present, 38,885 characters
have been defined. Both ASCII and Unicode are pure character codes and do
not support formatting or page layout features other than those created by the
user using the character set.
Rich Text Format (RTF) is an enhanced text format that supports some minimal
formatting features like font types and sizes, margins, paragraphs, bold, italic
and underlined characters and justification. RTF is widely used for transporting
text documents across different computers and different software packages.
RTF is not a multimedia format. Being pure text format, multimedia contents
and hyperlinks are not supported in RTF. All text processing software packages
accept and deliver RTF files. They have a mechanism to convert own file
formats into RTF and vice versa. While RTF provides a standard file format,
its ability to support formatting features are limited. Advanced features like
columnar text, tables and drawings may not be successfully transported by
RTF. In general, there is this caution that some formatting information may be
lost when converting a word processor file to a RTF file.
2)
Presentation formats
Presentation formats are meant for on-screen display or printing. They are
based on page description languages that preserve the look and feel of the
original layout with precise location of graphical elements. Two well-known
presentation formats are Postscript and Portable Document Format (PDF).
Both the formats are developed by Adobe Corporation and need the special
software package distributed free by the corporation under the trade name
Adobe Acrobat Reader for browsing. PDF is an improved version of Postscript
that supports features like table of contents, internal hyperlinks and thumbnail
views.
3)
Structured formats
Structured formats are somewhat like presentation formats but are more flexible.
They do not retain the original look and feel of the documents but are used for
on-screen display and printing. They are based on mark-up principles that are
practised by the publishing industry. The mark-up, however, takes place in the
electronic domain instead of the conventional markings on paper documents.
There are three structured formats that are in use:
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Communication
Standard Generalised Mark-up Language (SGML)
Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML)
Extensible Mark-up Language (XML)
SGML was first developed by International Standards Organisation (ISO) for

use among typesetting machines used in the publishing industry. The language
definition is very comprehensive and therefore complex. A simplified version
of of SGML is HTML for use by non-experts. HTML is used extensively on
Internet. XML is an enhanced version of HTML. It retains the simplicity of
HTML but offers more features.
8.9.2 Image Formats

There are three commonly used formats for storing and transferring digital
images obtained from a scanning or a photographic process:
l
l
l
Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)

Graphics Image Format (GIF)
Joint Picture Expert Group (JPEG) format.
The first two of these formats use information-preserving compression

techniques and the last one uses a lossy compression technique. TIFF has been
developed as the common format for image scanners and DTP software. Since
TIFF uses loss-less compression, it preserves the original exactly, retaining
layout features, graphics and any character form. Being the bitmap of the
original, it has to be passed through OCR software before the text, if any, in
the original can be made editable. GIF has been developed for use on the
Internet. GIF uses 8-bit representation for the pixels and hence can represent
only 256 colours or grey levels. In this sense, it has limited resolution but the
file sizes are small and can be transported easily across Internet. JPEG format
is an image coding standard that has been optimised for continuous tone
products such as photographs. It supports 16 million colours. It performs lossy
compression by discarding information that is considered non-essential to the
image. Hence, it achieves very high compression ratios but the quality of the
image suffers. Options are available (typically three) to choose between picture
quality and the compression ratios to be achieved. There are software packages
that convert images from one format to another.
8.9.3 Audio Formats
204
There are a number of digital audio formats proposed and used by different
manufacturers and expert groups. Important ones among them are WAV by
Microsoft, AIFF by Macintosh, AU by Sun Micro Systems and MP3 by Motion
Picture Expert Group (MPEG). All these formats use a standard file structure
as shown in Fig. 8.5. In Fig.8.5, Wrapper contains management information
such as licensing conditions from the copyright owner of the product. Header
contains information about sampling rate, sample resolution and the type of
compression used. Certain audio formats support streaming facility. Streaming
enables a user to listen to the early part of the file while the rest of the file is
being downloaded. Playback begins as soon as several seconds of audio data
has been downloaded and stored. Downloading continues while the playback
is on.
Digital Information
Wrapper
Header
Audio Data
Fig. 8.5: Digital Audio File Structure
8.9.4 Video Formats

Digital motion video formats are standardised by Motion Pictures Experts
Group (MPEG) set up by ISO. These standards are used for recording video
on CDs and digital videotapes in compressed form. Standards for transferring
real time video on telecommunication networks are evolved by International
Telecommunication Union (ITU). At present, there are three MPEG standards
in vogue: MPEG-2, MPEG-4 and MPEG-7. Two observations are in order
with regard to motion video. First, motion video is always accompanied by
audio these days. Second, motion video may be visualised as a sequence of
still frames played out at certain rate. As a result, MPEG standards draw upon
digital audio and digital image standards to a large extent. Audio CD standard
at 44.1 kbps and DAT standard at 48 kbps are used by MPEG standards for
recording audio.
8.10
LEGALITY OF DIGITAL DOCUMENTS
Much as the paper based documents, electronic documents must provide for
information integrity, authentication, accessibility, and confidentiality in order
to qualify as a legally acceptable document.
Integrity of an electronic document means that the document is so preserved
as to represent accurately the information originally generated, transmitted or
received without loss, damage or manipulation. The format of preservation
may be the same as in the original document or may be different. If the
preservation format is different, then there must exist a means by which it can
be demonstrated that the integrity of the original information is unaffected.
Accessibility means the ability to gain access to the original document for
subsequent references in future. The requirement in conventional law that
information shall be in writing or in the typewritten or printed form is actually
met by the accessibility criterion of electronic documents. Conventional written
documents ensure non-repudiation by contracting parties at a future date.
Similarly, electronic contracts must also provide for binding the parties
concerned to the document in such a manner that none of the parties would be
able to deny the content of the document.
The requirement of any conventional law that affixing the signature of the
person(s) concerned shall authenticate a document is met by digital
authentication procedures in electronic documents. A digital document is
authenticated by digitally signing or by affixing a digital signature. Much as
the paper based signature, digital signature also identifies the originator of the
electronic document, and conveys the express agreement to the contents of the
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Communication
document. Digital signatures must be reliable enough for a third party to verify
and confirm that the document is actually created by the originator and has not
been tampered with by anyone else.
Confidentiality implies a provision to be able to send documents to selected
persons only. A confidential document can be opened (accessed) and read by
only those who are authorised to deal with such documents. Confidentiality
provision also covers privacy aspects and private communication. It should be
possible to define different levels of confidentiality such as:
l
Confidential
Strictly confidential
Secret and
Top secret
Secrecy in communication systems and digital storage has been almost always
achieved by the use of cryptographic techniques. Cryptography may be defined
as the art of hiding the significance of information while communicating or in
storage. Applying an encryption method and an encryption key to the plain
text produces cryptographed text, known as cipher text in technical terms and
as coded message in popular parlance. The cipher text is decoded by applying
a decryption method and a decryption key. Figure 8.6 depicts a general scheme
of cryptography. In Figure 8.6, if the encryption and decryption keys, KE and
KD are identical, the cryptographic system is known as private key
cryptography or symmetric crypto system. If the two keys are different, but
form a unique pair with certain properties, the cryptographic system is known
as public key cryptography or asymmetric crypto system. The public key
cryptography system is the one used for authentication of digital documents.
KE
KD
C = cipher text D = decryption method E = encryption method

KD = decryption key KE = encryption key M = message
Fig. 8.6: General Scheme of Cryptography
The main purpose of cryptography is to protect user data from intruders or

attackers. In the recent times, the term hacker has come to signify intruders of
information bases. Although the terms attacker and hacker are used
interchangeably, an attacker is one who attempts to break a security system
whereas a hacker is one who attempts to expose or exploit a loophole in the
security system. Hackers are further classified as white hat hackers and black
hat hackers. White hat hackers are usually interested in exposing loopholes
whereas black hat hackers exploit the loophole for personal gains or to harm
unsuspecting victims.
206
Digital information, like print information, needs to be copyright protected. A

digital product is protected from copying by incorporating anti-piracy measures
using techniques like encryption. Copyright provisions of digital documents
treat an attempt to break or circumvent the anti-piracy measures as a crime.
However, anti-circumvention provisions are exempted for non-profit libraries,
archives, educational institutions, academicians and graduate students to
varying degrees and limited extents. Digital products are ideally suited for
distance education. How to promote distance education while ensuring
copyright protection is a subject of study at present.
8.11
Digital Information
SUMMARY
This Unit deals with representation of different kinds of information in digital

form. Information is multimedia in nature comprising text, pictures, drawings,
audio, video, animation and computer graphics. When represented in digital
form, information of any kind appears as a string of ones and zeros. This helps
in building systems that are capable of handling ones and zeros only and such
systems can be made very robust. This is the underlying consideration for
adopting digital technology. After having discussed the nature of digital
information, the Unit places the digital fundamentals in perspective. The two
distinct aspects of digital fundamentals; i.e. digital coding and binary number
system are discussed. Representation of text in digital form is then discussed.
Conversion of textual information in print form to digital text is then presented.
This conversion process involves scanning, compression and optical character
recognition. A large volume of information in nature appears in analog form
that requires to be converted to digital form. The Unit then discusses analogto-digital and digital-to-analog conversion processes. Representation of audio
and video information in digital form is then discussed. The different standards
that are currently used for representing multimedia information components
are then presented. Finally, the Unit touches upon the legal and copyright aspects
of digital information.
8.12
1)
When sound is recorded directly on the computer using a microphone

that is attached to the computer, it constitutes digital sound. Example is
your voice recorded on the computer.
When previously recorded sound in analog form is passed through an
analog to digital converter, it constitutes digitised sound. Example is a
digital audio CD of an old song.
2)
Since there are twelve months in a year, we need 12 binary combinations

to represent them. With three bits we have 23 = 8 combinations which are
not adequate. Four-bit strings give us 24 = 16 combinations and we may
choose any 12 of them to represent the months in a year. The 16
combinations and a coding scheme are given below:
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Communication
3)
Code
Month
Code
Month
0000
Unassigned
1000
August
0001
January
1001
September
0010
February
1010
October
0011
March
1011
November
0100
April
1100
December
0101
May
1101
Unassigned
0110
June
1110
Unassigned
0111
July
1111
Unassigned
We perform binary addition much as the way we do in decimal arithmetic

as illustrated below:
Carry
1101
Number 1
1101
Number 2
0101
Result
10010
4)
From Table 8.1, it is seen that the ASCII code for the letter I is 1001001.
Similarly, by looking up the Table the ASCII code string for the character
string IGNOU is obtained as 1001001 1000111 1001110 1001111
1010101.
5)
Size of the uncompressed file = 20 10 1200 10 1200 0.5 = 1.44

GB.
Size of the compressed file = 1440/20 = 72 MB.
6)
Total no. of characters in the document = 20 40 100 = 80000. Therefore

the size of text file obtained after OCR = 80 kB. Factor of saving in storage
from uncompressed file = 1440000/80 = 18000. Factor of saving in storage
from compressed file = 72000/80 = 900. Clearly, OCR process results in
significant savings in storage.
7)
Digitised data in one second is 400/5 = 80 kB. This corresponds to 80

kilo samples per second, as the sampling resolution is 8 bits, i.e. each
sample is represented by a byte. This rate is given as Nyquist rate.
Therefore, the maximum frequency component in the signal is 80/2 = 40
kHz.
8.13
208
KEYWORDS
Accessibility
: Ability to gain access to the original

document
Analog Information
: Information represented by continuous

signals like curves in a graph
ASCII
: American Standard Code for Information

Interchange
Audio Spectrum
: The frequency range that is audible to the

human ear
Binary Coding
: A system of coding information in binary

form
Binary Number System
: A system of representing numerical

quantities using only two symbols 1 and
0
Compression Ratio
: Ratio of uncompressed image file size to

the compressed image file size
Cryptography
: The art of hiding the significance of

information
Digital Document
: A document that contains digital

information
Digital Information
: Information in digital form represented by

ones and zeros
Digital Signature
: The process of digitally signing a digital

document
Digital Text
: Text represented in digital form
Digitised Text
: Text originally in print or other form

converted to digital form
Grey (gray) Levels
: Different black & white shades in a picture
Integrity
: Preservation of the original contents
Multimedia
: Comprising text, picture, diagram, image,

sound, video, and computer graphics and
animation
OCR
: Optical character recognition
PCM
: Pulse Code Modulation
Primary Colours
: Red, green and blue colours. A mix of

these colours is used for representing
different colours in a colour image
Quantisation
: The process of approximating a sampled

value to the nearest standard value
Sample Resolution
: Number of bits used to represent a

quantised sample value
Sampling Theorem
: A theorem that specifies the minimum

sampling rate for digitising analog signals
Scanning Resolution
: A specification of how closely the dots and

lines are chosen for scanning a document
8.14
Digital Information
Cleveland, Gray (1999). Selecting Electronic Document Formats. Ottawa:

IFLA UDT Core Programme.
209

Communication
Sharda K. Nalin (1999). Multimedia Information Networking. New Delhi:

Prentice Hall of India.
Steinmetz, R. and Nahrstedt, K. (2002). Multimedia Fundamentals. Vol. 1:
Media Coding and Content Processing. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
Vijayashankar, N. (1999). Cyber Laws. Bangalore: Ujvala Consultants Pvt.
Ltd.
Viswanathan, Thiagarajan (2002). Telecommunications Switching Systems and
Networks. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
210
UNIT 9 SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF

INFORMATION
Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Information /Knowledge as Social Wealth
9.2.1 Diffusion and Dissemination
9.2.2 Means and Mechanisms
9.3 Dynamics of Change in Societies

9.3.1 Societal Changes
9.3.2 Rapidity of Change
9.3.3 Agent of Change
9.4 Impact of Information/Knowledge on Different Sectors

9.4.1
9.4.2
9.4.3
9.4.4
9.4.5
9.4.6
Education and Training

Research and Development
Media
Government
Business and Industry
Daily Life of People
9.5 Impact of IT on Libraries, Information Systems and Services and their

Societal Implications
9.5.1 Libraries
9.5.2 Information Products and Services
9.5.3 Information Industry and Business
9.6 Indian Society

9.6.1 Consumerism
9.6.2 Sustainable Development
9.6.3 Towards an Information Society
9.7 Larger Implications of the Impact of Information Society

9.8 Summary
9.10 Keywords
9.0
OBJECTIVES

l
perceive why information and knowledge are considered as social wealth;
note the impact of information/knowledge on societal changes, particularly

the rapidity of changes in the last fifty years, the single agent of change,
being the converging technologies;
observe the impact of information and knowledge in specific sectors;

213
Information and Society
grasp the value of information/knowledge in the changing context of library

and information systems and services;
get an insight into the Indian societal changes; and
note the overall impact on societies.
9.1
INTRODUCTION
Information and knowledge have always been resources for creating material
welfare. Even the primitive man, to survive, has instinctively remained in groups
and sustained by getting to know about water availability, moving to safer
places to avoid attacks from wild animals and where food could be obtained.
Endowed with the divine faculty of intellect, brain-power and astute mind,
humans continuously worked towards better living conditions and improvement
in living standards, by understanding the environment. Initially the progress
towards development was slow because creative and inventiveness were more
a matter of hit and miss method, of a few individuals and also because of the
lack of communication. Although the new ideas, intellectual and creative
abilities were confined only to a few, the benefits of their innovation and
invention accrued to the welfare of the entire community.
The Industrial Revolution in the 15th century, however, opened up new vistas
for creativity, innovation and invention primarily in the western countries.
Scientific and industrial research created an environment to further the frontiers
of knowledge, innovation and invention. S&T information and knowledge and
their dissemination and diffusion helped and accelerated the creation of new
knowledge. The benefits of the application of new knowledge were made
available to all in the society, although not equitably. Mass production and
mass distribution, drastic changes in the workforce and higher standard of
living were the remarkable features of this period of change.
The most dramatic changes, however, occurred in the latter half of the twentieth
century with the advent of Information technology, which was a converging
technology of computers, communication, media and a host of other
microelectronic technologies. There have been remarkable changes in the life
styles of people since then, with all sorts of comforts and facilities. The advent
of Internet and Web technologies has provided great opportunities to
interpersonal interactions for different purposes. All these have percolated to
all levels of people, particularly in the western societies.
This Unit analyses these aspects in some detail with particular reference to
certain sectors wherein information and knowledge are important components,
and also the general life of people.
9.2
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INFORMATION /KNOWLEDGE AS SOCIAL

WEALTH
Information and knowledge are always considered the root cause for the
development of any society, primitive, agrarian, industrial or post-industrial
society. Although the creativity and intellectual faculty were confined to a few
groups of people, the results of the created information and knowledge have
always benefited the society. In this sense, information and knowledge can be
deemed to be social wealth.
Social Implications of
Information
The individual and corporate knowledge and information have been

accumulating throughout the course of human history. The knowledge reservoir
created at different periods of time also includes the continuation, addition or
modification of already existing knowledge. Therefore, the treasury of human
knowledge is in many ways universal, continuous, cumulative, and ever
growing. No final word can ever be said on any aspect of knowledge.
9.2.1 Diffusion and Dissemination

We know how knowledge and information have got to be diffused and
disseminated for validating them initially for quality assurance and later
applying the validated information and knowledge for various developmental
purposes. This process of diffusion and dissemination adds value to primary
information through critical analysis. This type of quality control has evolved
as an established practice in scientific and technological research and
development over the last 300 years. This system of information dissemination
and communication has been a standard model in almost every discipline in
social sciences and humanities also. However, this system of flow of
information and knowledge is not a model in other areas of human activities,
such as in business and industry, wherein information is seen in the context of
competition and profit making. Yet, if information and knowledge is considered
a social wealth and public economic goods, it implies that the stock of
knowledge as well as its flow will have to be streamlined to be made available
to all for use and exploitation.
In fact, the Internet and Web technologies have removed these barriers to a
large extent. Now information is accessible to users irrespective of its location
with the least cost. However to protect the intellectual property of those who
part with their intellectual outputs, laws relating to patents, designs, trade marks,
copyright for books and other intellectual property rights are continuously
being regulated and enforced at the national and international levels.
9.2.2 Means and Mechanisms

In the academic and research fields, information and knowledge that are
generated have both the disseminating means and institutional mechanisms to
make them available to those who want to use them. Institutions that are
primarily meant to create new knowledge such as R & D establishments,
disseminate their research outputs through primary journals, research and
technical reports, conference papers, etc.
Learned societies, professional associations and publishers, both commercial
and non-commercial, take up the responsibility for journal publication with a
peer review system to ensure quality, hold periodic seminars, conferences,
symposia, etc. to get ideas and views exchanged and discussed with peers on
different aspects. A host of secondary periodicals in the form of abstracts,
indexes, annual reviews, progress reports, state-of-the- art-reports, etc. are being
turned out to provide access to primary information. All these processes of
diffusion and dissemination have been greatly improved and enhanced for
instant accessibility and availability by the electronic media, particularly
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Internet and Web technologies. CD ROM facilities have contributed in this

process of socialisation of information and knowledge.
Thus, we find that the concept of information and knowledge as public goods
and social wealth has a general acceptance in the different segments of society,
and investment of resources on the creation of this wealth has been on the
increase, particularly in developed countries.
What is most striking in recent decades is the fact that information and
knowledge have been the chief cause of bringing about drastic changes in
practically every activity in society. We shall examine these changes in society
in the other sections of this Unit.
Self Check Exercise
1)
State the reasons for considering knowledge and information as social

wealth.

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9.3
DYNAMICS OF CHANGES IN SOCIETIES
Change is the very essence of a growing society. Changes can be visible in life
styles of people, their living environments, mode of production of goods and
services, places of work, education and training, culture and in many others.
However, changes in society that are drastic and far-reaching have generally
been identified with three major periods of history viz. i) the pre-industrial
agrarian society, ii) the industrial society and iii) the post-industrial society
which is also referred to as an information or knowledge society
9.3.1 Societal Changes

In the pre-industrial agrarian society, most people were engaged in the activities
of agriculture, fishing and mining. The social structure was fairly simple.
Ownership of land provided the power base. Life for the people centered around
cultivation of land for raising crops for food; cultural and social life were
confined to the environments in which they flourished. In the competition for
scarce resources, the mighty took every thing or a major share of every thing.
216
The industrial society has been organised around energy as the main source of
production of goods and services on mass scale. The majority of the workforce
was engaged in the manufacturing activities and distribution of the outputs.
There was a dramatic change in the social structure. Power and prestige passed
from the landowners to the industrial class. The principle of economic

production was influential in shaping the values and ways of life.
Information
The post-industrial society (Information Society, Knowledge Society) has been

emerging in the last three decades. The most prominent representatives of this
type of society are the United States, Canada, countries of Western Europe
and Japan. The attributes of the post-industrial society are:
l
The centrality of theoretical knowledge as the source of innovation and

polity formulation;
Distinct change from a commodity producing to a service economy; and
The pre-eminence of a managerial, professional, technocratic class and

knowledge workers.
9.3.2 Rapidity of Changes

The speed with which changes have taken place is vividly portrayed by McGarry
in his book entitled The Changing Context of Information.
In order to appreciate the relative rapidity of these changes, he writes, by taking
communication as an example let us use a clock as a model to give ourselves
an idea of the relative time span. We shall take an arbitrary date of 30,000
years ago, when man began the series of carvings and paintings that led to the
cave art. Starting with approximately 30,000 years before the present, let us
take 24 hour period starting from midnight and allowing 1,200 years for each
hour of the clock so that five minutes equal to one hundred years.
For thousands of years, progress is at a glacial speed. The high period of
Paleolithic art coming approximately between 10 a.m., in the morning and 2
Oclock in the afternoon. The following evening we have the beginnings of
cuneiform writing in the Mesopotamian valleys and hieroglyphics in the
Egyptian temples (about 4000 BC). At 9 p.m. (about 1800 BC) we have the
famous code of Hamurabi carved on a stele probably the first example of a
mass medium for public information. At 10 p.m., the beginning of Athenian
and Greek civilisation with its contribution to art, philosophy and mathematics.
At 10.30 p.m., we note the beginnings of the Judaeo-Christian culture in Europe
and for the next hour there is relative stagnation, except for the culture of
monastic libraries. It is 11.33 p.m., before the invention of printing and the
consequent surge of scientific thinking and at 11.48 p.m., Britian is in the
throes of the industrial revolution. The communication revolution has taken in
the last five minutes. The computer has gone through several generations in
the last five minutes. If we speak of the microcomputer we are dealing with
the last few minutes of our time. What will have happened by midnight? Who
can predict?
Changing Trends
The striking changes in the Information Society (Post-industrial Society) are
pictured dramatically by Alvin Toffler in his three books, each book appearing
in three decades 1971, 1980 and 1991.
The Future Shock (1971) portrays the process of change affecting people and
organisations. It speaks about disorientation and stress brought about by trying
217
to cope with too many changes in too short a time. The accelerated speed of
history brings consequences of its own, independent of the actual direction of
change. The simple speed-up of events and reaction produces its own effects,
whether the changes are perceived as good or bad.
The Third Wave (1980) places the revolutionary changes in technology and
society in a historical perspective and sketches the future they might bring.
Terming the agricultural era 10,000 years ago as the First Wave, it describes
the major technological and social changes beginning in the mid 1950s as the
Third Wave of change the start of the new, post-smokestack civilisation.
Among other things, it points at new industries to come, based on computers,
electronics, information and biotechnology, terming these the new
commanding heights of the economy. It predicts such things as flexible
manufacturing, new markets, the spread of part-time work, and the
demassification of the media. It describes the new fusion of producer and
consumer and introduces the term prosumer, talks about new dwellings of
electronic cottages. It speaks of office work being operated from homes and
other changes in politics and the nation-state system.
Picking from the earlier works, Power Shift (1991) focuses on the crucially
changed role of knowledge and information in relationship to power. It presents
a new theory of social power, and explores the coming shifts in business,
economy, politics and global affairs. Toffler argues that while headlines are
on the shifts of power in the global context, equally significant shifts are taking
place in the everyday world. There is a considerable shifting of power in
supermarkets and hospitals, banks and business houses, television and
telephones. A subtle revolution in the balance of power is transforming finance,
politics, the media and even the nature of power.
While these works of Toffler may sound highly exaggerated bordering almost
on science fiction, the importance of knowledge and information is forcefully
highlighted. In fact, some of the ideas that Toffler has mentioned such as
changes in supermarkets, hospitals, banks, business houses, television and
telephones, are appearing to be vastly changing with the power of hightechnology.
Self Check Exercise
2)
State the attributes of a post-industrial society.
Note: i)
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9.3.3 Agent of Change
Information
We have noted that the powerful agent of change is Information Technology

(IT). IT is the convergence of several technologies that provides for interaction
and mutual reinforcement, leading to truly qualitative changes in the entire
range of new achievements and possibilities. It is also a controlling technology,
meaning purposive influence on a pre-determined goal. The goal is socioeconomic development and the controlling tool is IT.
National economies area viewed as concrete processing systems engaged in
the continuous extraction, reorganisation, manufacture and distribution of
various goods and services for final consumption. Industrial revolution brought
about drastic changes in national economies through material processing by
the application of power, energy and other technologies to manufacturing and
transportation. But at this time revolutionary changes in society, innovation in
information processing and communication technologies lagged behind those
of power and energy and their application. This was, seen as a crisis of control
of information processing and communication. But with the advent of IT the
vital link of processing and communication of information has been established.
This convergence, in fact, has ushered the information society, in which the
bulk of labour force in many of the western developed countries and Japan
work primarily at informational tasks such as systems analysis, computer
programming, information processing, storing and dissemination while wealth
comes increasingly from information goods such as microprocessors and from
information services.
While information is now accessible globally and instantaneously irrespective
of location, Peter Drucker asserts that the basic economic resource in the
knowledge society is knowledge and not information. The wealth creating
activities will center around productivity and innovation, both applications
of knowledge to work. It has started in business enterprises but soon will surely
engulf all institutions of society. The ruling work group will be knowledge
workers, knowledge executives, knowledge professionals and knowledge
entrepreneurs who have the insight to apply knowledge to productive use, the
way the capitalists knew how to allocate capital to productive use. Unlike
the traditional employees, these knowledge workers own their knowledge, the
new means of production, and can take it with them wherever they go. The
economic challenge of the knowledge society will, therefore, be the productivity
of knowledge.
Self Check Exercise
3)
Give reasons for considering IT as an agent of change.
4) What is the real agent of change according to Drucker?

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9.4
IMPACT OF INFORMATION/KNOWLEDGE
ON DIFFERENT SECTORS
We have so far considered the impact of information and knowledge on society

in a general way, giving pointed attention to IT as the chief instrument of
changes. In this section, we shall discuss the purposive influence of IT on the
following few sectors which are deemed to have a strong information/
knowledge component.
l
Education and Training at all levels
Research and Development
Media
Government in all its functions and activities
Business and Industry
Life of People
9.4.1 Education and Training

A societys socio-economic growth and development are entirely dependent
on the quality of its members educational prowess that constitutes the
intellectual capital. Education is the process of acquiring general and specialised
knowledge by means of study and learning that develop intellectual powers
and judgement. It also includes acquisition of skills for executing various
professional and vocational functions, development of culture which is an
expression of the mode of thought and feeling, help build up an aspiration
toward and appreciation of high intellectual and aesthetic ideals.
The type of human educational growth and development is indeed a life-long
process and at no point of their age or time in the life of a person, education
really terminates. However, formal education and skills commences at the
primary age level of people through schools and higher educational institutions
at subsequent stages. Concurrently educational processes provide for handson experience to get practical knowledge to handle a variety of tasks both
professional and vocational. In all countries, the educational infrastructure
provides, a range of institutions for different levels to acquire knowledge and
skills in academic, professional and other types of occupational fields.
Educational learning components include curriculum design and development
for various levels, teaching expertise, teaching methodologies, using a variety
of educational aids, tools and apparatus, quality control for turning out the
right products from institutions, creation of new knowledge through research
and development and production of research and scholarly materials, besides
educational materials and similar others.
In all these processes IT has enabled several unprecedented facilities.
220
E-education, the Integrated Internet Educational System, delivers the required

courses to students literally at their doorstep, using various multimedia and
virtual reality. The local teachers have to act as mere facilitators. Course
materials, prepared by experts in the respective disciplines and fields are
available to students through Internet E-mail, chat sessions, videoconferences

and videophones. The student-teacher interactions enable proper guidance to
achieve desired success. There are universities adopting distance-education
systems, providing students course materials, consultation facilities, and even
get the formalities of examinations. Virtual libraries provide at higher levels
access to global knowledge almost instantaneously through innumerable
internet servers.
Information
Self Check Exercise

5)
Describe the facilities of e-education.

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9.4.2 Research and Development

We have learnt that research is a never-ending activity spiral activity. The
inputs as well as the outputs of research are information and knowledge. Today,
Research and Development (R&D) are deliberate and planned activities
undertaken to create the wealth of knowledge. Both government and private
industries are investing in R&D for profit or for the benefit of society. While
basic research continues to be the responsibility of academic and learned bodies,
applied research, which is oriented towards problem solving of various kinds,
is supported by government and private industries.
Research quality has increased phenomenally with the introduction of tested
research methodologies, actively supported by IT, access to information and
knowledge through Internet and a band of highly motivated and talented
researchers with expertise in the areas of their specialisation. Writing about
advances in Science and Technology, Daniel Bell observes, the methodological
premise of the second half of the twentieth century is the management of
organised complexity; the complexity of theories with a large number of
variables and the complexity of large organisations and systems which involve
thousands and even millions of persons. Since 1940 there has been a remarkable
efflorescence of new fields and methods whose concern is with the problems
of organised complexity; information theory, cybernetics, decision theory, game
theory, stochastic processes. From these have come specific techniques such
as linear programming, statistical decision theory, Morkov chain applications.
Monte Carlo randomising and minimax strategies, which allow for sampling
from large members, alternative optimal outcomes. The methods of this
intellectual technology seem to substitute an algorithm (i.e.decision rules)
for intuitive judgements. These algorithms may be embodied in an automatic
machine or computer program, or a set of instructions, a formalisation of
judgements and their routine application to many situations. To the extent that
221
intellectual technology is becoming predominant in the management of

organisations and enterprises, one can say that it is as central a feature of postindustrial society as machine technology to industrial society. [Bell, 1979]
Here again we reiterate that a society really progresses only with new knowledge
created through R&D appropriate to a countrys needs, in particular social
needs and their application to the needs.
9.4.3 Media
The news media, the leisure industry and show business are turning to be the
most fast developing activities since the beginning of the 20th century and it
appears that the 21st century would also be dominated by the media. The
newspaper industry, which includes dailies with their various editions (general
as well business economics) by-weeklies, monthlies, with their respective
supplements, uses all the sophisticated methods of IT for news collection,
presentation, editing, production, distribution, etc. They are also available in
Internet and in their respective websites. News media seems to be dramatically
moving towards a very versatile current awareness service for the masses.
Combined with 24 news telecasts channels and broadcasting, the mass media
are the most powerful means of political and economic power.
The way cinemas, TV serials and other types of TV programmes and
commercial advertisements of all products and services, have a profound
influence on every sections of a society in a country.
E-entertainment, e-sports, e-games extend the features that are already available
in television shows. Thus the media is creating a new life culture both in
developed countries and also in developing countries.
Media being a powerful and influential tool, the western countries dominate
the scene with a number of broadcasting and television networks reaching all
corners of the world. The developing countries are at a serious disadvantage in
this respect. However, in the past few years, Asian and Indian television
networks have successfully started serving the Asian and Indian markets with
news, views and entertainment and other programs of public interest in regional
languages. In a way, these competitive efforts are taking away the monopoly
enjoyed by some western mass media. There have been efforts by the developing
countries to promote the concept of a New International Information and
Communication Order to introduce some balance in the reporting of news and
views between mass media.
Self Check Exercise
6)
Sketch the impact of media on society with reference to IT.
Note: i)
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9.4.4 Government
Information
Governments of almost all countries of the world are the largest and biggest
generators and producers of information; and at the same time they are the
largest consumers of information and knowledge too. The activities of
governments span practically every area of human activity. Their commitment
to society is to improve the living conditions and create a welfare state for then
people.
Governments collect, organise and disseminate statistical data on all activities
which constitute the most important and vital information resource for their
planning, later, implementation and execution. Volumes of factual and
descriptive data constantly released by governments and are published or stored
in computer files.
Government must be able to take quick, timely and correct decisions on all
issues of governance. IT has provided on-line access to all types of information
and data about all matters or events at any time and from any location with
government Intranets and Internets. Movements of files that usually create
unnecessary delays in decision-making, have literally been eliminated with
the files made available online at the same time to all functionaries. This system
prevents files getting lost or misplaced. This system makes the whole of
Government system transparent. E-government also enables direct participation
of a common man in various matters public interest.
Despite the facilities of e-government, government structure and machinery
being too slow, the pace of changes is slow. The work culture in most of the
government institutions does not change as fast as one would wish. Although
the visibility and speed of change is not so striking, particularly in developing
countries, changes appear to be inevitable.
9.4.5 Business and Industry

Enterprising industrial and business undertakings show a greater inclination
to use tools and techniques to modernise their functions, processes and activities,
motivated by either profit or by the desire to be leaders in their fields. Among
the various steps to modernise their enterprises business and Industry have
adopted the most modern management techniques, applications of IT, and also
taking calculated risks in financial investments,
Business and industry were the first to use techniques of management
information systems (MIS), to produce and provide access to internally
generated information using IT. It is increasingly being recognised today that
external information of markets, competitors, customers, social and political
environments, government regulations on trade, tariffs, exports, imports are
invaluable if an enterprise is to thrive. The concept of knowledge management
is new innovative thinking in business and industry. Knowledge is interpreted
to include all internal information of the company, in addition to information
dealing with competitors, sales, markets, etc. A new workforce referred to as
knowledge workers is emerging in business and industry who strategically
plan and execute the various functions and activities of the business so that
they can be successful in a competitive environment.
223
9.4.6 Daily Life of People

An ordinary person in his daily life needs to have access to information on
many of the daily activities. It may be pertaining to the quality, availability or
cost of a number of things like articles of food, health care, education,
entertainment, travel, social security, etc. One may need information on
cooking, gardening, house decoration and maintenance and a host of other
requirements on different subjects. With the advent of IT, access to such
information is now provided through Internet and Web pages.
Modern household in the age of IT is a networked house. The unique feature
of this network is that everything is available within the premises of the sweet
home. Technology has taken away the burden of the routine chores like cooking,
washing, traveling for work, shopping, etc. These facilities have created ample
time for entertainment. As a result of all these extraordinary and unprecedented
conveniences and facilities, life of people in developing countries is totally
different compared to what their life was about a generation ago.
The foregoing is rather a cursory account of the impact of IT in some of the
areas that have been taken discussion. To have a fuller view of the impact of
IT on the areas discussed in the above sections and in addition to other aspects
of life, the overviews of IT given every year by Manorama Yearbook is very
valuable, particularly because the overviews have an Indian orientation. The
pertinent references are given in the section on References and Further
Reading.
9.5
IMPACT OF IT ON LIBRARIES,
INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND SERVICES
AND THEIR SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS
In the foregoing sections of this Unit, we have studied the impact of information
and knowledge in a general way and also in relation to a few areas in the
context of societal changes due to the application of ICT. As libraries and
information systems and services have been an outcome of the social milieu,
their existence and ability to adopt to the changes are vital for our profession
to survive. Not only are they facing a challenge, a new type professional
expertise is also emerging who are in the information field competing with us
in professional work. In the following sections, we shall study the changes
required in our professional systems and services and the challenges we have
to face.
9.5.1 Libraries
224
Libraries and other information institutions have been responding to the

information needs of education, research and development, government
activities, business and industry and by the general public for a long time.
With their collections, responsive and anticipatory services, libraries were able
to meet many of the requests for information for different clients. But these
conventional services have remained largely passive and limited. Now ICT
has provided a new opportunity for libraries to change their approach and
offer a client-based active service to keep our institutions alive. The Change is
to be towards electronic libraries whose two main features are library

management systems, and online search and retrieval systems CD-ROM and
the Internet. This new service environment will lead to changes in the roles of
many of the stakeholders to the information market place. Progress towards
the information society will be influenced by the way in which issues such as
globalisation, standards, intellectual property rights, security and bibliographic
control are tackled.
Information
Schools offering professional and training in library and information service,

particularly in India, should perceive these changes as new opportunities in
the job market and respond to these challenges by developing appropriate
curricula and facilities for learning which should result in the quality services
are expected. The library and information profession will then have an
indispensability and recognition in all developmental activities of a society.
9.5.2 Information Products and Services

Bibliographic activities, providing access to literature in almost all disciplines
is a significant feature of information service in the 20 th century. Learned
societies like the American Chemical Society and publishing houses
specialising in secondary services like Wilson and Co., have been pioneers in
this type of services.
Today, with the advent of Internet and Web facilities, practically every primary,
secondary and tertiary service has been offering access to every requirement
at considerable speed and least cost. Libraries and information vendors have
been taking advantages of these facilities and concentrating their advantage of
these facilities and concentrating their attention on customer-based services.
Knowledge management is a newly developing field, particularly in the business
context, which is a high-tech based activity. Knowledge workers are the new
class of experts who are emerging in this context.
9.5.3 Information Industry and Business

Information industry is defined as a market place marked by the emergence of
information content with hardware, software and communication technologies
to provide products and services, which enhance the capacity of people, to
solve their problems. The Information Industry Association identifies segments
of the information industry as given below:
Information Content Business
Content Services (News, Libraries, Databases, Information Brokers).
Content Packages (Books, Journals, Newspapers, Films, DVDs, etc.)
Facilitation Services (Data processing, Time sharing, Networks).
Information Technology Business
Information Technologies (Computers, Terminals, Office Equipment,

Printing, Graphics).
Integrating Technologies (Packet Switching, Modems, Switch Boards and

Digital Switching).
225
Communication Technologies (Radio, TV, Telephones and Transmission

Systems).
Communication Channels (Mail, Telephone, Satellites).
Broadcast Channels (Radio and TV networks, Multipoint Distribution

Services).
Information companies can be broadly grouped as follows:
Primary Information Companies;
Secondary Information Companies;
Computer-based Information Providers;
Information Retailers;
Seminar and Conference Services; and
Information Support Services.
Self Check Exercise

7)
Name the different segments of information industry and business.
Note: i)
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9.6
INDIAN SOCIETY
Since independence, over a period of five decades, India has reached the stage
of middle-level industrialisation. The developing countries, in general, India
in particular, have been forced by history to try to telescope the process of
economic development in a few decades that has taken the advanced
industrialised countries a few centuries. This is, perhaps, inevitable, otherwise
the transition from a dependent to an independent economy could, never be
possible. But it is obvious that the socio-economic situation is not the same in
developing countries as in the advanced industrialised countries. Our
requirements are different and the priorities are also different.
226
A countrys development depends on the combined force of the economic,

political, social and cultural systems, which are intimately connected, the
economic system being the trigger. It is important to note, however, that the
countrys transition to an industrialised from a pre-industrialised society does
not depend merely on the acquisition of technology but more on the use of
technology for industrialisation. The use of industrial technology has to effect
a change in the society towards economic progress in relation to social

transformation. Without bringing such a change consciously in the human
element, simultaneously with technological and economic structural change,
the process of development will only fall very much short of expectations.
Information
Development is the transition from one stage of social progress to another,

from a simpler to a complex production, economic and political system and
socio-cultural relations. While India is moving towards industrialisation to
provide a higher standard of living for her citizens, India is also on the threshold
of the information/knowledge society. But the impact of all these developmental
processes affects only a segment of the Indian society and not the entire
population of the country. But a consumer market has emerged by these
processes. Sadly one third of our total population is suffering in abject poverty.
All the socio-economic progress taking place currently, do not have any
meaning to them as they are totally out of this orbit of progress. Only 40 to 50
percent of the population of our country is reaping the economic and social
benefits, which of course, have changed their style of living. We shall discuss
some of these changes that we witness today.
9.6.1 Consumerism
Broadly grouping the population who have had the benefits of change, there
are the elite super-rich (super-haves), upper middle class, (have-somes), the
lower class, (near-haves) and the poverty class, the have-nots. The policy of
economic liberalisation of India and the entry of business and industry into
global market have brought a number of changes in the economic growth of
the country. One striking impact of these, is reflected in the Indian society that
it is fast changing into a consumer society. Even the have-nots are getting
exposed to affluent life through TV shows and entertainment films which carry
a great deal of commercial advertisements, leaving alone the advertisements
appearing in Indian language newspapers. These exposures of affluent life
have their own negative impact.
The change from the joint family to a nuclear family has now been further
strengthened by the double-income (husband and wife working) families. This
has caused an increase in incomes and has given some financial strength to go
for consumer durables and non-durables. The facility for bank loans, hire
purchase systems, bank credit cards, etc. has further temptations for the havesomes, and near-haves, pushing them into the fold of consumer society. Today,
most of the middle-income groups do have almost all the kitchenwares and
gadgetries, mirco-ovens, refrigerators, washing machines, air-conditioners, and
many other consumer durables. The general tendency is to desire more such as
seeking exotic food and drink, self-adornment, greater home comforts,
fashionable cars for greater mobility and so on. Experts and observers opine,
There is no doubt that the fast development of a consumer society in India,
inevitable in the present regime of liberalisation, would determine the
investment pattern in the economy, obviously directed towards consumer goods,
both durables and non-durables. Given limited resources, a fast developing
consumer society in India would also reduce household savings, which have
so far been the main source of productive investment. There would be a greater
inclination towards increasing the disposable surplus income to satisfy
consumption desires, by investing in the share market, either directly or through
227
the mushrooming mutual funds. In such situation, it would become necessary

for the government to discipline the economy and the market in some respects,
without going back to the regulatory regime. This would be necessary for the
sake of the overall development of the economy in a balanced manner aimed
at raising the level of living of the 75 per cent outside the consumer
society.(Banerjee)
9.6.2 Sustainable Development

Social development cannot be measured in terms of economic inputs, which
give a superior life style. We should realise that we have a very big gap to be
bridged i.e. all the sections of the society should be brought into the fold of
living conditions that are much above the poverty line. Attention should be
turned to the near-haves and the have-nots and new and innovative strategies
would have to be worked out to raise the standards of life to all sections of our
society. Sustainable development is the goal for the rural and urban poor.
An experiment that Dr. Swaminathan, the renowned agricultural scientist,
towards sustainable development in some parts of rural India, is important to
be noted in our socialisation process, using information and communication
technology. The experiment is designed to provide knowledge to twenty isolated
villages in India, on demand to meet local needs using the World Wide Web
and it does so through bottom-up process. The programme of providing services
include womens health information, advice on raising local crops and
protecting them from diseases, the daily market prices for their crops, local
weather forecast and clear information about the plethora of programmes that
are provided by the Indian Government to aid poor families. To operate the
system, the village provides accommodation. The village gets the needed
hardware and maintenance for the ICT system, specially designed websites in
the language of the rural folks.
9.6.3 Towards an Information Society

India is slowly drifting into a information society with her industrialised base.
A few sample indicators that are characteristic on information society are given
below:
India has developed a universally acceptable software industry, which has
become the fastest growing sector of our economy. The manpower strength in
this sector is such that India is expected to become a software superpower by
2008. The software exports of 50,000 billion US dollars as compared with
manufactured and merchandise products of 45 million dollars. It is expected
that Indias economic growth will be driven by both the conventional services
(Trade, Transport, Tourism, Financial and community Services and IT-related
Services.
The manpower force in the Services sector is 52 per cent, as compared to
agriculture at 26 per cent and industry at 22 per cent, despite agriculture and
industry are also our crucial sectors. This aspect nearly fulfills the attributes of
an information/knowledge society that there is a distinct change from a
commodity producing to a service economy.
ICT has taken deeper roots in India as is evidenced by its application nearly in
all fields. The railway reservations, banks transactions,
228
e-commerce, e-mail and the increasing use of Internet and Web technologies.
The enterprising business and industry competing in the global business are
strengthening themselves with investment in R &D for the creation of new
knowledge. E-government is another indicator that the Central and State
governments are introducing in governance to make it transparent and for better
for interaction with the common people.
Information
These efforts are definite to grow in the future. The 10th Five Year Plan aims at
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth at 8 per cent, a target ambitious in
relation to current trends. Socio-economic observers are, however, hopeful of
a steady growth in the countrys economy, which will bring about better
conditions for social and cultural life of the people.
Self Check Exercise
8)
Sum up the societal changes happening in India, drifting the Indian society
into an information/knowledge society.
Note: i)
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9.7
LARGER IMPLICATIONS OF THE IMPACT

OF INFORMATION SOCIETY
We have analysed and discussed some of the specific aspects of information

and knowledge in the foregoing sections of this Unit. The larger implications
of the impact on all aspects of human life may have far reaching effects. Some
of these, as seen by experts, are listed below:
l
Information and knowledge become the principal generators of wealth in

the form of educational institutions, research and development
establishments, scientific and technological centers and other similar
knowledge-oriented bodies;
Information and knowledge will grow in volume and variety. Criticism,

dialogue and commentary will add value to them;
Changes in resource structure will obviously bring changes in the power

structure. The natural corollary of this is the evolution of a new power
elite, leading to anew power structure at the political level;
An ever-increasing gap will grow between information rich and

information poor among nations and within a nation;
The actual decentralisation of production and decision-making may

provide the basis for a rich, articulate and participatory social system; or
effect purely physical decentralisation, combined with centralised decision-
229
making and organisation, giving rise to an increasingly rigid and

monolithic society;
l
Changes may lead to increasingly rewarding, qualified, creative and

formative, by eliminating repetitive activities (both physical and mental);
or develop highly standardised tailored work, offering only the advantage
of lessening the burden of various activities, without any corresponding
changes in the social structure;
A better man-machine relationship by exploiting increased capacities for

interaction, dialogue, adaptations and intelligence on the part of machines;
or a further alienation of the instrument of work, in terms of both ownership
and ability to dominate them;
Increasingly centralised capitalism with a subordinate peripheral system,

or horizontal diffusion of a rich and diversified form of capitalism with
growing labour participation and, at the outside, direct management by
workers; and
Possibility of increasingly intense interaction between individuals and

groups; or a dramatic deterioration in interpersonal relations.
Self Check Exercise

9)
What is the total impact of information/knowledge on the society, looking

at its impact from a future perspective?
Note: i)
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9.8
SUMMARY
Information and knowledge are considered social wealth that should benefit
all the sections of a society. Information Technology has enabled the wealth
of information and knowledge to become much more easily accessible and
available to all. In discussing these, the following aspects of the impact of
information and knowledge on societal activities with reference to IT have
been discussed in this Unit.
Of the three epoch-making revolutions in human society, the post-industrial
society (information/knowledge society) seems to have been very significantly
affected by information and knowledge. The rapidity with which changes are
taking place figuratively minutes as compared to the time taken for changes in
the agrarian or in the industrial society.
230
The agent of change is primarily IT. But it is only a means to change; the real
change has to be in the sphere of socio-economic development.
Changes are very significant and far-reaching in many of the sectors such as
Education, R & D, Media, Government, Business and Industry, in the life of a
citizen of a country and many othern activities.
Information
The impact of IT on library and information systems and services and

information industry will introduce totally new dimensions in every aspect of
their functioning.
Very far-reaching and significant effects can be visualized in the way IT affords
new capabilities to manage and serve information and knowledge.
Indian Society is also changing fast but the changes are not with every section
of the society. The poor see no changes in their life.
The rich and middle class is becoming a consumer society. To bring in better
conditions to all sections of the Indian society, a strategy towards Sustainable
development is necessary.
Most importantly the power may change with the emergence of a new power
elite.
Centralisation of information may lead to control of many kinds. The gap
between information rich and information poor will widen.
While all these effects are possible social hazards, IT will surely provide far
more facilities to access information and knowledge as never before at every
level of use.
9.9
1)
Information and knowledge are generated by individuals and groups in

the social environments in which they live. These get disseminated and
grow with peer review and criticism to get validated and to ensure quality.
These get cumulated to make a reservoir of knowledge. They are available
to any member of any society through internet facilities. As the benefits
of the application of knowledge to create wealth to the entire community.
Thus we can construe that information and knowledge are social wealth
2)
The attributes of the post-industrial society are:
3)
The centrality of theoretical knowledge as the source of innovation

and polity formulation;
Distinct change from a commodity producing to a service economy;

and
The pre-eminence of a managerial, professional, technocratic class

and knowledge workers.
IT functions as a powerful means to store large volume of information,

store it for instant retrieval, provide ample multiple outputs, transmit
information irrespective of geographical distances, etc. But the quality of
contents has to be ensured by those who input them. While IT provides
very powerful machinery to access information with speed and
effectiveness, it cannot do anything in the use of the information. The real
potential lies in the man-machine interaction with intelligent
231
terminals that provide great help in testing alternatives and provide

adequate facility for decision support. But the means are also invaluable
to the humans in order to make use of information.
4)
While information is now accessible globally and available without any

restrictions, irrespective of their location, Drucker asserts that it is
knowledge which is the real change agent and not information. IT, he
says, has centered on Data their collection, storage and transmission,
presentation, etc., focusing on the T in IT. The focus should be on I
which should be Knowledge, information being the raw material to
create knowledge which Drucker says is in the minds of persons.
5)
E-education, the Integrated Internet Educational System, delivers the

required courses to students literally at their doorstep, using various
multimedia and virtual reality. The local teachers have to act as mere
facilitators. Course materials, prepared by experts in the respective
disciplines and fields are available to students through Internet e-mail,
chat sessions, video conferences and video-phones. The student-teacher
interactions enable proper guidance to achieve desired success. There are
universities adopting distance-education systems, providing students
course materials, consultation facilities, and even get the formalities of
examinations. Virtual libraries provide at higher levels access to global
knowledge almost instantaneously through innumerable internet servers.
6)
Media with the wide ICT applications is introducing a new culture and
life in society both in the developed and developing societies. All the
features of print media available through Internet and provides access to
a variety of information and news. E-entertainment, e-games and e-sports
give add to TV shows and other types of shows.
Advertisements (ads) of products and services seen through TV. Cinema
and heard in broadcasting have profound influence on people, more
particularly children. While advertisements increase sales and marketing,
and welcomed by the business community, some of ill effects on
youngsters and children are viewed with concern.
In his daily life, an ordinary citizen requires a variety of information on
various aspects. No other medium can provide a updated guide to this
type of information. Now Internet has successfully filled this gap.
7)
The different segments of information industry and business are:

Information Content Business
Content Services (News, Libraries, Databases, Information Brokers).
Content Packages (Books, Journals, Newspapers, Films, DVDs, etc.).
Facilitation Services (Data processing, Time sharing, Networks).
Information Technology Business
232
Information Technologies (Computers, Terminals, Office Equipment,

Printing, Graphics).
Integrating Technologies (Packet Switching, Modems, Switch Boards

and Digital Switching).
Communication Technologies (Radio, TV, Telephones and

Transmission Systems).
Communication Channels (Mail, Telephone, Satellites).
Broadcast Channels (Radio and TV networks, Multipoint Distribution

Services.
8)
Structural changes in Indian economy has transformed India from a highly

regulated and inward looking to an outward looking economy in which
the state domination in most spheres of activity is giving way to private
enterprise and contribution. Combined with this economic policy, IT
promises to afford a new opportunity for India to effect a socio-economic
transformation. It is seen in ICT being used in most activities. Economic
benefits, however, have come to only a section of the Indian people. While
the poorer section(constituting one-third of our population) of our society
continues to struggle to sustain themselves with minimal needs, the upper
class and middle class are moving towards a consumer society, acquiring
all durable and non-durable goods. Only sustainable development could
bring some equity in the manner of wealth distribution in the Indian society.
The country is, however, acquiring the necessary economic strength and
bring about a social transformation towards better conditions for all its
people, using fully ICT.
9)
Information and knowledge which will grow phenomenally would be

the principal generators of wealth. This change in the resource structure
will effect a change in the power structure. An ever increasing gap will
grow between information rich and information poor globally and also
within nations. The actual decentralisation of production and decisionmaking may provide the basis for a rich, articulate and participatory social
system or effect a physical decentralisation, combined with centralised
decision-making and organisation, giving rise to an increasingly rigid and
monolithic society. Possibility of increasingly intense interaction between
individuals and groups; or a dramatic deterioration in interpersonal
relations is visualised.
Information
9.10 KEYWORDS
Agrarian Society
: A society in which the work-force is

predominantly from the agricultural class.
Industrial Societry

predominantly from the manufacturing
class.
: A market place marked by the convergence

of information content with hardware,
software and communication technologies
to provide products and services which
enhance the capacity of people to solve
problems.
: The acquisition, processing, storage,

dissemination and use of vocal, pictorial,
233
textual and numerical information by

microelectronics-based combination of
computing and communication.
Post-Industrial Society
9.11

predominantly from the service class.
Bell, Daniel (1979). The Social Framework of the Information Society. In

Dertouzos, M.C. and Moses, J. (eds.). The Computer Age: A Twenty Year
View. Cambridge: MIT Press. Pp. 163-211.
Beniger, James R. (1986). The Control Revolution: Technological and
Economic. Origins of the Information Society. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press.
Chaudhuri, Malay and Chaudhuri, Arindam (2003). The Great Indian Dream,
Restoring Pride to a Nation Betrayed. Delhi: Macmillan.
Drucker, Peter F. (1994). The Age of Social Transformation. Atlantic Monthly.
Nov. 94.
URL:http:/www/key.theatlantic.com/politics/ecbig/sotarans.htm
Drucker, Peter F. (1990). Beyond the Information Revolution. Atlantic Monthly
284 (4), 45-57.
Drucker, Peter F. (1994). Knowledge Work and Knowledge Society; The Social
Transformation of this Century.
URL:http://www.key.ksg.harvard.edu/ifactory/ksgpress/wwwksg-news/
transcripts/draucklec.hatm
Drucker, Peter F. (1999). Management Challenges for the 21st Century. Oxford:
Butterworth, Heinmann.
Drucker, Peter F. (1993). Post-capitalist Society. New York: Harper Collins.
Information Technology. Manorama Yearbook 2001, 31-80; 2002, 129-154;
2003, 130-166.
Martin, W.J. (1988). The Economic Society. In Martin, W.J. The Information
Society. London: Aslib.
McGarry, K.J. (1991). The Changing Context of Information: An Introductory
Analysis. London: Clive Bingley.
Neelameghan, A. (1999). Information Economy and Knowledge Society.
Information Studies. (2 parts). Part 1;107-122; Part 2; 169-196.
Rowley, Jennifer (1998). The Electronic Library: Fourth Edition of Computers
for Libraries. London: Association Pulishing.
Scammell, Alison (ed.) (1997). Handbook of Special Librarianship and
Information Work. 7th ed. London: Aslib.
234
Swaminathan, M.S. (1999). A Century of New Hopes, Towards an Era of

Harmony and Freedom from Hunger. Chennai: East West Books (Madras)
Pvt. Ltd.
UNIT 10 INFORMATION AS AN ECONOMIC RESOURCE
Structure
10.0
10.1
10.2
10.3
Objectives
Introduction
Substance of Economics
Information Economics
10.3.1 Characteristics of Information
10.3.2 Scope and Ramifications of Information Economics
10.4 Micro-Economic of Information
10.4.1 Information and Information
10.4.2 1nformationand Markets
10.4.3 Information and Non-Markets
10.4.4 Information and Measurement
10.5 Information Economy
10.6 Knowledge economy
10.7 Indian Economy
10.8 Economics of Information Systems and Services
10.9 Relevance of Information Economics to Library and
Information Studies
10.10 Summary
10.11 Answers to Self check Exercises
10.12 Key Words
10.1 OBJECTIVES

comprehend the full implications of information
and knowledge as key economic resources;
differentiate Information Economics and
Economics of Information;
become familiar with the nature, scope and
ramifications of Information economics:
get an insight into the difference between information
economy and knowledge economy;
grasp Indian economy in relation to information
and knowledge economies:
appreciate the relevance and value of Information/
knowledge economy to Library and Information studies:
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we will study information and knowledge as the key resources for the
economic growth and development of a country.
The characteristics of information/knowledge are distinctly different from
characteristics of other products and services. The distinction poses problems in
determining their effects on markets, decision making, and other related issues.
It is useful to differentiate Information economics and economics of information
which are the two sides of the same coin. Information economics perceives
information/knowledge resource as a factor of production, growth and
development, both at the micro and macro level economics.
Information Economics at the micro-level deals with problems of information in
terms of uncertainty, asymmetry of information between buyers and sellers in
different types of markets, such as products, insurance, job markets.
In nonmarket situations dealing with public goods and services, information operates as
a vital factor.
These problems are illustrated with examples and analogies.
Generally Information/knowledge Economy of a country deals with issues of
economic growth and development at the national and international levels. But in
recent years, a distinction is made between Information and Knowledge
economies. Information Technology has been the chief instrument that has
transformed all processes that were with all activities in industry, business and
others. But the impact has resulted only in routinizing traditional processes and
has practically no change has been visible in the way major decisions are taken in
business or government. Therefore, a new set of paradigms is evolving keeping
knowledge as the basic economic resource. This aspect is discussed at some
length in this Unit.
Indian economy is said to be moving slowly towards information economy.
There are a few indications to support this view. But to rank on par with the
western developed countries, there are miles to go. There are serious constraints
that slow down the progress of economic growth and development.
Economics of information as distinguished from Information Economics, deals
primarily with the financial management of economic resources in institutions
and organizations. Some of the implications of these aspects with reference to
library and information systems and services are merely cited in this Unit, as they
are dealt with in detail in Units on Management
The study of information economics and information/economy is valuable for
library and information professionals at least for two reasons: 1) the recognition
of information as a key factor for material growth and prosperity of a country,
reinforces our faith, efforts, commitments and involvement in all our studies on
information and knowledge; and 2) the expansion of job opportunities in other
fields for information professionals.
Before we study and analyze these aspects in some detail, let us get a short
summary view of what is economics for the benefit of those who do not have a
background in the subject of economics.
2
10.2 SUBSTANCE OF ECONOMICS

Economics deals with human wants and their efforts to get satisfaction from these
wants. The core of economics is the study of human behaviour and the allocation
of available resources to meet their human wants which invariably involves
choice and selection because these wants, needs, desires, demands, etc. are too
numerous to have all of them at the same time. They are also varied and
constantly changing. Different groups of people perceive their needs, wants,
differently. Even in the basic necessities of food, shelter, clothing, health care,
education, etc. which are supposed to be common for all, there are variations in
getting them fulfilled. The choice or selection of these wants by different groups
and individuals depend upon their priorities, ability or affordability to pay for
them, social status, and other related aspects. All these wants also change with
time. These wants, needs, and such others could satisfy human beings only with
the production of goods and services.
A formal definition of Economics according to Websters International
Dictionary is that it is a science dealing with the different aspects of production,
distribution and consumption of goods and services for the material welfare of
mankind. The material welfare of mankind implies the satisfaction of human
necessities and wants by obtaining appropriate goods and services with whatever
economic resources available.
The Economic Resources required to produce goods and services are of two kinds
viz. human and non-human resources. Human resources constitute knowledge
and information, intellectual and intuitive, creative faculties to innovate, knowhow skills and other capabilities that transform non-human resources into tangible
products and services. Non-human resources generally refer to total surface of
the earth, including oceans, rivers, lakes, forests, mountains, mineral wealth, soil
fertility, fauna and flora and other similar physical/natural resources. Capital is
any resource other than land and human labour that are used in the production and
distribution of goods and services. Organizations and institutions that perform
various economic functions and activities, providing the necessary mechanisms
for production, distribution, etc. are also sometimes included in capital resources.
A number of laws and principles are derived out of studies in human behaviour of
consumption, optimum production of goods and services, markets, (demand and
supply), competition, cost, price, value, monopolies and oligopolies of production
and distribution etc. These laws and principles operate both at the micro and
macro level economics in different proportions.
At the macro-level, Economics deals with economic issues at the national and
international levels to bring about material well being for the people. The
government of a country, being the owner of most of its resources, and also
having the responsibility for the economic welfare of its people, mobilizes the
resources, developing an economic system. The economic system could be a
Free-Market Economy or a Planned Economy.
In a Free Market Economy the market conditions will determine most of the
economic activities, like demand and supply, production of goods and services,
and distribution, cost and price, etc. The actors could be business people and
others of various potentialities.
In a Planned Economy, the resources are allocated usually by a centralized
commissioned body of the government of a country with experts drawn from
different specialties. Setting economic goals and objectives, this body draws
plans for specific periods and set achievable targets in that specific period for the
country.
In a Mixed Economy, the resources are owned partly by private groups and by
government. In this system, the resources are allocated partly by means of the
price mechanism of markets and partly by the government through the centralized
planning body. In actuality the Economic Systems of most countries have both
free market and planned elements in different proportions.
Economic issues like setting goals and targets for national economic growth,
priorities for investments, nationalization and privatization, means of production
and distribution, competition and monopoly, national income, gross domestic
products, international trade and balance of payments, etc. constitute concepts
that are studied at the macro level. Various policy issues with reference to
agriculture, industry, trade, commerce, public finance and taxation, monetary
problems, prices and incomes, supply and distribution and a host of other matters
of public interest are handled by the government to regulate, and to direct and
control the economy to achieve its targeted goals. In all these activities,
information and knowledge have a vital role to play. Experts in economics deal
with these areas of organized complexities.
Outstanding economists have been giving a great deal of thought and attention to
the study of information in economic activities and have a generated a body of
literature of considerable value, particularly in the last three decades.
Information, and in recent years, knowledge has occupied the center stage,
entirely because of the three converging technologies viz. Electronics, Computers
and Telecommunications and software as well as the development of a host of
media, materials, products and services.
Let us study these aspects in some detail in the following sections.
Self Check Exercise

1) Give the salient features of Economics as a discipline.
Note:
Write your answers in the space given below;
Check your answer with the answer given at the end of this Unit.
10.3 INFORMATICS ECONOMICS
Until recently economists had an understandable reluctance to consider

information and knowledge as distinct factors of production, deserving a special
treatment. Information and knowledge were, in fact, considered along with
overheads for the purpose of accounting and budgets. But on account of the
pervasive and influential role of information and knowledge in micro as well as
macro economics, economists have developed Information Economics as a
specialty. Lamberton, a specialist in Information Economics says that the
specialty has emerged, as a response to the deficiencies of economics theory
built on unrealistic assumptions about the richness and sureness of information
available to decision maker, failures of government and business policies and the
spectacular advent of intelligent electronics with its greatly enhanced capacities
for communication, computation and control. In fact, he claims, the emergence
of a new paradigm that is transforming economics and probably other social
sciences.
10.3.1 Characteristics of Information

Information has a number of characteristics uncommon to other resources. Some
of these characteristics are that it is
shareable not exchangeable and can be given away and retained at the same
time;
expandable and increase with use;
compressible, able to be summarized, integrated, etc.
possess a definite value, depending upon their use which may be quantified
and treated as accountable asset;
may vary in value over time in an entirely unpredictable way;
is a source of economic and political power;
Blaise Cronin sums up the characteristics of information as follows:
It is fashionable to speak of information as a commodity, like crude oil or coffee
beans. Information differs from oil or coffee, however, in that it cannot be
exhausted. Over time certain types of information lose their currency and become
obsolete, but equally, certain types of information can have multiple life cycles.
Information is not depleted on use, and the same information can be used by me
and be of value to an infinite number of consumers. Furthermore, information
has the characteristics of a public good, more for me does not necessarily mean
less for you.
10.3.2 The scope and the ramifications of the subject of Economics
Information Economics has been described and reviewed in detail in a publication
entitled The Economics of Information and Human Capital, Volume 3 in a
Series Knowledge: Its Creation, Distribution and Economic Significance by
Professor Fritz Machlup, an outstanding economist, who has made significant
contributions to this new specialty in Economics. A brief summary of the
contours of Information Economics is presented below:
Considering Information and knowledge as human capital, the significance and
effect of this capital are analyzed as a factor of economic growth and
5
development. Information problems relating to markets, trading in commodities,

insurance, labour, finance, etc. are
examined in relation to buyers and sellers. Knowledge and information are
examined with reference to public decisions and public goods, production and
distribution of new knowledge, especially technological innovations, dispersed
knowledge, central planning etc. Economic agencies that are involved in their
respective activities, have an information and knowledge component which
constitute another dimension of study and research.
Empirical research,
theoretical analysis and applied enquiry get special consideration as
methodological aspects of the economics of information and knowledge.
Fritz Machlup has also given a classificatory map for Information Economics.
The ramifications of the subject as depicted here consist groups, divided into 115
subgroups. The seventeen main groups are listed below to get a broad view of the
contours of the new specialization.
1 Economics of knowledge and Information: General
2 Production and Distribution of knowledge; Knowledge industries,
Information Services, Information Machines;
3 Ignorance, Chance, Risk,, and Uncertainty as Factors in the
Explanation of individual Choices and Particular economic
institutions and Phenomena;
4 Uncertainty, Risk-aversion. Venue spirit, Innovativeness and
alertness as factors in the explanation of Entrepreneurship and
Profit;
5 New knowledge (Invention, Discovery) and its application
(Innovation, Imitation as factors in Economic growth;
6 Transfer of Technology and Know-How;
7 Economic Forecasting;
8 Cost and Value of information Private and Social, Alternative
Information systems;
9 Decision Theory and Game Theory;
10 Decision Making by Consumers and Incomplete and Uncertain
Knowledge;
11 Decision making by workers and job with incomplete and incomplete
Uncertain knowledge
12 Decision making by Private Firms, in various markets positions,
with incomplete and uncertain knowledge.
Self Check Exercise

1)
2)
3)
Distinguish between Information Economics and

information.
State the characteristics of information.
What are the basic contours of Information Economics
Economics
Note:
i) Write your answers in the space given below;
ii) Check your answer with the answer given at the end of this Unit.
6
of
10.4
MICRO-ECONOMICS OF INFORMATION
We shall, in this section, deal with some of these micro-aspects of information

economics. These are some of the narrow aspects of Economics concerned with
uncertainty and risks, risk-aversion, information in markets, asymmetry in buyer
and seller information, decision making by varied economic agents. All these are
considered as aspects of study in micro-economics of information i.e., mainly in
the context of individuals, households, firms and institutions.
10.4.1 Uncertainty and Information
Uncertainty is inexorably interwoven into human life, Nobody can with any
degree of certainty predict accurately future events and activities of individuals,
or groups or nations. As events are concerned with human volition, their
behaviour cannot be predicted with accuracy, except in very rare circumstances.
Predictions are largely in the nature statistical probability of an occurence or an
event, the aggregate analysis of which may result in the formation of theoretical
constructs or models. The phenomenon is very much present in Economics, as all
investments are risk prone and need an insurance coverage for sustaining losses.
Information economists say that this type of uncertainty is reduced to a certain
measure by the availability of timely information. Theoretical economics is
changed by the increased emphasis economists place on knowledge, information,
ignorance, uncertainty and so forth, and by computerized methods of simulation
and hence, of ascertaining the effects of different assumptions, underlying the
theoretical models; and empirical economics is changed by the amount of data
available and by the speed, and indeed the practical possibility of processing such
masses of data. (Machlup, 1983, p.39)
Uncertainty is common both to buyers and sellers; both at the stage of production
and at the point of exchange. All markets have informational characteristics.
Usually buyers know less about products and services than sellers. This is a
common experience of many of us when we go out shopping for house hold
appliances, textiles, or even food items. Here there exists an information
asymmetry between buyers and sellers, as the former is not equally informed as
the latter. Recent literature in Information Economics reports that such
information asymmetries cause market failures of various kinds. The emerging
area of consumer protection is said to rely on the informational structure of
markets, since the need for consumer protection usually arises because consumers
are not fully informed.
Currently the principal studies in Information Economics are directed towards
finding ways to incorporate information flows and information gaps into models
of markets in order to assess rigorously the impact of information or its absence
on market performance.
10.4.2 Information and Markets
We shall examine the effects of asymmetry with reference to four different
markets with which we very familiar (a) Consumer products, (b) Insurance, (c)
Jobs and (d) Financial markets.
7
Consumer Products Markets

In this market, in particular, in retail markets, buyers (household) are typically
less informed than the sellers about aspects of product quality such as invisible
defects, risks or malfunction, leakage and decomposition. To build up consumer
confidence in the firm that sells the product, sellers resort to the provision of
guarantee and liability. Consumer protection is also effected through the
imposition of regulatory controls by government. However, one disadvantage of
guaranteeing minimum standards of quality is that the variety of products
available in the markets may be reduced.
Buyers do have the option for ensuring reliable quality of the product through
various kinds of product literature. Two somewhat related activities of market
parties are screening and signaling, the former designed to obtain information and
the latter to transmit information. Sellers wanting to send messages about
themselves and about the quality of their goods and services to potential buyers,
engage in signaling. Buyers intent upon learning more about the sellers and the
goods and services offered, engage in screening. Trademarks, trade names,
brands, besides guarantees and most importantly, the sellers good will earned
through a long period of reliable service, give greater credibility to their product.
Consumer protection activities ensure a certain standard of assured product
quality, prices commensurate with quality and transactions, procedures, etc.
Insurance Markets
In Insurance Markets, it appears there are several kinds of informational problems
such as (i) Adverse selection in which low-risk people leave the pool of those
insured; (ii) Moral hazard where those who area insured, because they are
insured, take actions that increase the risk of the occurrence of the unwanted
events; (iii) Adverse incentives when the insured tend to over purchase a service
such as medical attention as a result of the factor that the insurance pays a
percentage of the cost. As we can see, in insurance, it is typically the seller who
has lesser information, since the buyer is well informed about the risk class to
which he belongs.
The seller takes a greater risk in his business and the
asymmetrical characteristics in these markets are clearly the opposite of those that
are prevalent in a consumer product market. Of course, insurance companies
take several remedial measures to overcome the risk potentials by resorting to
differential premia for personal life insurance by the methods of inspection and
monitoring of plant, equipment, by observation of safety rules, with surcharges
levied for deficiencies.
Job Markets
In job markets, there are problems of information that have a special importance.
Searching, signaling and screening are activities affecting the supply and demand
for workers, the dispersion of wage rates, and the rate of employment, working
age, and such others. The employees and job seekers resort to different methods
of informing themselves of the opportunities and markets to meet their particular
requirements.
Finance Markets
8
This financial markets, information, imperfect knowledge, risk and uncertainty

play different roles, particularly in different credit and capital markets. The
information sought, produced, offered, disseminated and acquired by the parties
involved (lenders, borrowers, buyers and brokers in stock and share markets) is
usually about quite different matters, so that its not easy to formulate general
propositions fitting all financial markets. Some of the kinds of information
generally available to financial investors, particularly with reference to the stock
market are the financial statements of companies at periodical intervals, the
annual statements audited by certified public accountants, balance sheets of
companies, annual reports of the managements of companies, prospectus for new
issues of equity or debt brokerage firms, write-ups of financial analysts, current
news and analysis appearing in newspapers and news magazines, etc.
In all these markets, the Internet with its global spanning technology offers today,
remarkable E-Commerce (E-Business) facilities for exchange of information,
goods, and payments with speed and efficiency irrespective of location. Benefits
to consumers offered by E-biz include:
Benefits of easy shopping (since most intermediaries
are eliminated);
Buyers can reach out to sellers across the country
or even the world;
Bargaining power shifting from sellers to buyers;
Product features of different suppliers can be accessed almost

Instantaneously;
Getting comforts of shopping (including online payments) while at Home.

Non-Markets
There are many contexts and situations in which the market pressures discussed
above do not operate. Yet the information problems are very much present. In
providing public amenities, government at different levels has to take many vital
decisions at different times. These may be social and welfare activities for the
communities and hence regarded as public good and services. With public goods,
if one person has more, there is no reduction in the quantity available to others.
Provision of streetlights, defence activities for the security of a country,
construction of a park are good examples of public goods. In these types of
activities, the peculiar characteristics of information is the presence of
externalities. Externality or external economics are defined as favourable effects
on one or more persons that come from the action of a different person or firm.
Negative externalities occur in the same fashion in that they refer to harm done to
others from external source. In the construction of a park, the person living in the
surrounding areas gets obviously a definite benefit. But investments by
government in higher education may not always result in social benefits to the
community. The often discussed example is the problem of brain drain in
countries like India which takes the human capital from the country after a good
deal of effort and investment in building up this capital. In all these economic
activities information plays a role in obtaining data and analyzing them to provide
appropriate indications for taking appropriate decisions at different levels of
government and institutions.
10.4.3
Information Measurement
A continuing source of weakness in the study of information economics is the

absence of reliable measures for such fundamental elements as cost, price and
value. These elements are very much interconnected. Cost determines the price
at which an information product could be offered.
But price cannot be
determined only on the basis of cost, as the quality of the product or service is a
very crucial factor in fixing the price. Apart from the difficulties of determining
the cost of a product or a service in which a number of inputs are involved, other
costs such as opportunity costs are to be taken into account as an economist
would conceive. Opportunity costs represent the cost of foregone alternatives,
the need to satisfy ones want at the sacrifice of another. For example, forgoing
the chance of a holiday in order to purchase a car.
Price is usually denoted in monetary terms, as the amount of money that has to be
paid for a good or service. But price may have to be according to the different
segments of customers to whom the goods or services are offered. This has to be
so if a product is to have economic viability.
Determining the value is a complex matter, which lies at the heart of information
economics. Value of information is highly subjective as it is to be judged and
measured by the person who is seeking the information. But the problem of
measurement of information is elusive and evasive, as it is difficult to determine a
unit of information. Again attempts at measuring value by means of cost-benefit
analysis may also present the problem of assigning a monetary value for the
benefits.
Self Check Exercise
5 Elucidate the effects of uncertainty in different markets.
6 Examine the role of information in non-markets.
Write
Write your answers in the space given below:
Check your answer with answers given at the end of this Unit.
10.5
INFORMATION ECONOMY
Economy refers to the judicious allotment of resources to the different sectors of a

country, like agriculture, industry, transport, communication, power etc. with a
view to productivity. This implies that the basic problem of an economy is the
prudent management of resources for the optimum production of goods and
services, maximum employment, their steady growth over a period with
provisions for further development. In the last half a century, information and
knowledge have evolved as the key resource for economic development. We
shall briefly sketch how this evolution has come about.
Information, knowledge, ideas, skills, etc., have always been at the heart of the
growth, progress, and developmental processes of a society. Historically all
societies, ancient or medieval, have achieved growth and prosperity on the basis
of information and knowledge in their various stages of development. In the past,
the creation of new knowledge, innovations and inventions has been the efforts of
10
a small band of individuals with a passion and deep involvement and dedication
to such creative activities. Consequently growth of knowledge has been slow.
The economic value of information and knowledge has never been regarded as
important factors of production of goods and services, as they could not be
separately accounted for.
With the advent of industrial revolution in the 18th century, consequent advances
in science and technology (S&T) and the resulting economic growth, prosperity
and standards of living of people in western countries, S&T have come to be
recognized as important contributing factors for economic growth and prosperity.
Institutions exclusively for Research and Development in science were set up to
expand the frontiers of knowledge. While science helped to advance the wave
front of knowledge, science-based technologies advanced the frontiers of
economic wealth.
The burgeoning volume and variety of information and knowledge resulted in the
explosion of recorded S&T information. Consequently new and well organized S
& T information systems and services began to take shape, providing access and
facilitating their use for furthering knowledge.
The arrival of computers with inventions in microelectronics provided new
opportunities to develop information systems and services on a massive scale that
provided universal access to new information to advance knowledge further.
The Internet and the World Wide Web furnished not only unrestricted low-cost
access to information but also facilitated communication among peer groups.
Now acquiring and adapting global knowledge and creating new knowledge;
investing in human capital to increase the ability to absorb and use knowledge;
and investing in technologies to facilitate not only the acquisition and the
absorption of knowledge, but also represent the best possible strategy for the
overall development of any region, or people. All these have been possible
entirely because knowledge generation and information processing are at the root
of new productivity.
With all these unprecedented advances in technology providing instant access to a
variety of information, information and knowledge have taken the central position
and have become key factors for economic growth, productivity and
development. Although information and knowledge have been critical for
economic accumulation and political power throughout history, it is only under
the current technological, social, cultural parameters that they have become
directly productive forces and are imparting the societal growth and development
in a manner not known earlier.
Self Check Exercise
7)
8)
What are the salient features of Information Economy?

What are the factors that have led to the new growth theory of
Economics?
Note:
11
i) Write your answer in the space given below:

ii) Check your answer with the answer given at the end of this unit.
10.6 KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY

We will begin this section with a definition of knowledge for putting our
discussion in the right perspective. A definition of knowledge as given by a
knowledge management expert is that Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed
experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a
framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. It
originates and is applied in the minds of knowers. In organizations, it often
becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in
organizational routines, processes, practices and norms. (Davenport)
While information is now accessible globally and available without any
restriction, irrespective of their location, Peter Drucker asserts that a new
Information Evolution (knowledge) is well under way. It has started in business
enterprise, and with business information. But it will surely engulf ALL
institutions of society. It will radically change the MEANING of information for
both enterprises and individuals. It is a revolution in CONCEPTS. So far, for
fifty years, Information Technology has centered on DATA---their collection,
storage, transmission, and presentation. It has focused on the T in IT. The
new information revolution focus is on the I. (Drucker) What is being referred
to here is Knowledge as the basis of productivity.
To differentiate information from knowledge for the purpose of our discussion
here, although information is said to be the raw material for knowledge,
Information is an unreliable and inefficient method for transferring knowledge
from person to person because the receivers not the senders give the
information its meaning. Information is entropic (chaotic), while knowledge is
not entropic.
Another critical observation on Information revolution is that so far IT has only
transformed processes that were here all along. In fact, the real impact has not
been in the form of information at all. Almost none of the efforts of
information envisaged forty years ago have actually happened. For instance,
there has been practically no change in the way major decisions are made in
business or government. But the Information Revolution has routinized
traditional processes in an untold number of areas.
Some examples of the way computers have routinized processes:
The software for tuning a piano converts a process that traditionally took three
hours into one that takes twenty minutes. There is software for payrolls, for
inventory control, for delivery schedules, and for all the other routine processes
of a business. Drawing the layout of the heating, water supply, sewerages
systems in a big building such as an office complex, hotel or a hospital formerly
took, several highly skilled draftsmen, several days; now there is a program that
enables one draftsman to do the job in a couple of days, at a tiny fraction of the
cost. There is software to help people do their tax returns and software that
teaches hospital residents how to take out a gall bladder. The people who now
speculate in the stock market online do exactly what their predecessors in the
12
1920s did while spending hours each day in a brokerage office. The processes
have not been changed at all. They have been routinized, step-by-step, with a
tremendous saving in time and often, in cost. (Haravu)
While Internet, WEB and other ICT facilities have provided
instant
access and availability of any required information, it has created
also an overwhelming problem of information overload. The excess
of information is a critical factor in the productivity of the newly
emerging knowledge workers. Users are now to contend with
the relationship between information and knowledge. This is
particularly affecting business which has to be (i) constantly alert to
changes in the business environment; (ii) ever ready for competition;
(iii) ability to handle the overload of information and get the best of
information accessibility, getting the right information at the right
time in right proportion. This had lead business organizations to
seek knowledge rather than information.
It is now increasingly realized in business that the key to being innovative is
knowledge that is held with the company or country and outside it. The key is
also in ensuring that knowledge is continuously created, accessed, assessed,
communicated, sustained, and exploited--in short managed, as a resource as much
as other resources like capital and labour. (Haravu) Peter Drucker argues that in
this economy, knowledge is not just another resource alongside the traditional
factors of production, viz. land, labour and capital, but the only resource rather
than just a resource. To quote the World Bank Development Report 1999, For
countries in the vanguard of world economy, the balance between knowledge and
resources has shifted so far towards the former that knowledge has perhaps
become the most important factor determining the standard of living more than
land, than tools, than labour. Todays technologically advanced economics are
truly knowledge-based. (World Bank)
10.6.1 New Growth Theory of Knowledge
A new growth theory of Knowledge is slowly evolving. Paul Romer, Stanford
University, Maurice Scott of Oxford, Jacob T Schwartz of New York University
are some experts working on the new growth theory of knowledge. The thinking
goes as follows:
Knowledge is the basic form of capital. Economic growth is driven by the
accumulation of knowledge.
Technological breakthroughs can create technical platforms for further
innovations and this platform effect is a key effect of economic growth.
Traditional economics predicts diminishing returns on investment in technology.
But the new growth economists argue that the non-rivalry and technical platform
effects of new technologies can lead to increasing returns.
Investment can make technology more valuable and vice-versa. According to this
new growth theory, the virtuous circle that results can raise a countrys growth
rate permanently.
13
Human capital generates the ideas and knowledge that in turn decide how
efficiently and effectively traditional inputs of capital (such as plant and
equipment) and labour are translated into output.
10.6.2
Some characteristics of Knowledge Economy
Knowledge-based economics is characterized by a set of qualitative and

quantitative changes in the last 15 years or so that have transformed the
structure, functioning and rules of the economy.
Knowledge has a high rate of obsolescence of goods, services and ideas.

This calls for a higher rate of generation of new ideas and their conversion
into applications, products and services.
Knowledge sensitive organizations proactively encourage and enable their

workers to take initiatives and to sustain their core competencies to enable
the firm to remain competitive in a fast changing world.
The increased importance of knowledge means that the net stock of

intangible capital (e.g. education and research and development) has
grown faster than tangible capital e.g. Buildings, Transportation, Roads,
Machinery).
While the old economy was fundamentally organized around standardized

mass production, the New Economy is organized around flexible
production of goods and services. The New Economy is a high-tech,
services and office economy.
In the New Economy, where competitive advantage increasingly stems

from customization, design quality and customer service, more of the
value-added is produced in office.
Knowledge-based jobs require post secondary, vocational or higher

education.
A class of knowledge workers is being created although this new class is

not the largest now, but likely to increase.
All that have been said above are in the context of advanced countries of the
West, which have a very strong high-tech industry and currently dominating
global economy.
To sum up the main features of an Information and Knowledge economy are:
The Centrality of theoretical knowledge and knowledge acquired through
accumulated experience, value added, with intuitional enrichment and capacity
for wise application,as the key resource in innovation and policy formulation;
Distinct change from commodity producing to a service
economy;
The pre-eminence of a managerial, professional and
14
technocratic class and emerging knowledge workers.

Let us study now the Indian Economy to assess as to what extent these attributes
of information or knowledge economy are present.
Self Check Exercise
9)
10)
What is the New Growth Theory of Economy?

What are the characteristics features of Knowledge Economy
Note :
i) Write your answer in the space given below
ii) Check your answer with the answer given at the end of this unit.
10.7 INDIAN ECONOMY

The expert economists view is that it Indian economy is currently being
structurally transformed and developing new strengths to become a strong
regional economic power in the new millennium. This transformation has begun
from 1991 from a highly regulated and inward-oriented to an outward looking
economy in which the State dominance in many spheres of economic activity is
giving way to private enterprise. This is a far-reaching economic policy shift.
Although Indias economic strength is derived from agriculture with food selfsufficiency, Industry is no longer shielded from external participation.
Beginning from the last decade, industry has been attempting to restructure itself
in ways that could help India to compete with the rest of the world. What is of
growing significance is the steady rise in the service sector, accounting for 52 per
cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), with agriculture 26 per cent and
industry with 22 per cent respectively of GDP. Information Technology (IT) in
India has developed a universally acclaimed software industry. This is the fastest
growing sector of the economy at 50 billion US dollars, as compared to the
current level of merchandise exports at 45 billion US dollars. Future growth of
the Indian economy is likely to be driven equally by IT related services as well as
by other sectors such as trade, transport, tourism, financial and community
services. The services taking a major share of Indian economy is characteristic of
Information economy wherein the distinct change is from a commodity producing
to a service economy.
10.7.1 Workforce in India
In the changing context of sectoral composition of GDP and workforce, although
agriculture workforce accounts for 65 per cent, the services sector has assumed a
key role and its expansion inluences production, employment and exports. The
share of agriculture of GDP has declined from 52 per cent in 1950s to 26 per cent
at present. This is a clear indication that agrarian economy is shifting towards the
services sector where information is at the center. IT workforce in India is
steadily increasing. But one of the problems India is facing is that this force of
15
economic strength is getting depleted because of the brain drain i.e that the
workforce is going out of the country causing serious loss to the country.
Other indicators that India is moving slowly but steadily towards Information
economy, are seen in many jobs and activities in government, business houses
and other agencies and institutions which are more and more computer-based.
Distinct changes have taken place that are visible are in railway reservations, post
office services, banking and in such other services. Libraries are also switching
over to computer-based services.
There are also indications that Indian business to compete with world markets, are
trying to invest in knowledge management. Infosys, TVS, Dr. Reddys
Pharmaceutical Labs., Samtel (manufacturing TV picture tubes)are a few
industrial enterprises that are looking towards knowledge management for
innovations and creating new knowledge to compete in global markets.
A trend is seen in government policy encouraging software development and
hardware manufacturing in the country by creating appropriate environment.
Government has recommended that each ministry must allocate 3 per cent of its
budget on IT promotion, as a move towards integrating it with government
functioning and E-governance.
There are a number of programs of Central and state governments which have
launched projects on e-governance. To what extent
are they operational and what results have been achieved are not very clear.
Some of these projects are listed in the Reading list in Sec.10.13
10.7.2
Constraints towards progress
While there is a visibility that India is moving towards Information and

knowledge economy, its progress is slowed down by a number of massive
challenges.
Poverty (one-third of the worlds poor are in India), full
employment, universal literacy, health care, drinking water, quality education,
raising the standard of living of people optimally without any discrimination of
caste, creed, gender, heavy import of information and knowledge, corruption at
all levels, are formidable tasks to cope up with and achieve any tangible success.
Quality education and training in vocations, research and development
appropriate to the countrys economic needs and other efforts to create new
knowledge and innovations that would give strength to compete with world
economies are serious constraints in India that need considerable efforts to
overcome.
Critical observers have made well-meaning comments on the vision of India to
drift into knowledge economy. Some of these are:
Indias industrial base has to be strengthened before

moving towards knowledge-based economy. The developed
countries of the West, in fact, had built a strong industrial base before
moving towards a knowledge economy. We cannot leap frog to
knowledge economy without a strong industrial base.
16

Employment in Industrial sector and in infra structural
facilities like transportation, communication, power grids, etc. will be far more
than in the IT sector, despite India becoming a Software power in 2008.
Literacy as we define now having the ability to read and write simple words in
any language is irrelevant in the context of a knowledge economy. High
Quality education and training in different disciplines at all levels are at the
root of building a knowledge-creative manpower force.
Entering global markets also has its plus and minus points.
There is a tendency to protect their business interests by developed countries
to the detriment of developing countries.
IT can be very profitably employed in agriculture and

industry to increase productivity qualitatively and quantitatively.
Self Check Exercise

11) What is the state of current Indian economy?
12 ) State the constraints of Indian economy.
Note :
i)Write your answers in the space given below:
ii)Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
Constructive Efforts
It is worthwhile here referring to a an interesting project launched by Dr.
Swaminathan, the renowned agricultural scientist towards sustaining
development in some parts of rural areas in India is worth mentioning here The
M.S. Swaminathan Foundation has established an experimental network in India
that will soon connect more than 20 isolated rural villages to a wireless internet
service. About half of the population in most of these villages has a total family
income of less than $25 per month. The project is designed to provide knowledge
on demand to meet local needs using the World Wide Web, and it does so through
a bottom-up process. The process starts with volunteer teams that help poll the
villages to find out what knowledge they want. Particularly popular thus far are
womens healthinformation, advice on growing local crops and protecting them
from diseases, the daily market prices for these crops, local weather forecasts, and
clear information about the bewildering array of programs that are provided by
the Indian government to aid poor families. To participate, each village must
provide a public room for the computer system, as well as the salaries for a set of
trained operators. In return, the village receives the needed hardware and
maintenance for the communication system, specially designed Web sites in the
language they convey the requested information, and training programs for those
villages who have been selected to run their local knowledge system. The
network will allow them to easily access the scientific and technical knowledge
that they need to solve local problems and enhance the quality of their lives, as
17
well as to communicate their own insights and needs back to scientists.

(Swaminathan)
10.8
ECONOMICS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM AND SERVICES
The foregoing account of Indian economy preceded by a general presentation of

Information and Knowledge economy gives an idea of the context Indian library
and information systems and services should develop to meet the information
needs of users. IT has, as pointed out earlier, provided the necessary tools to
develop a system and appropriate services with innovative ideas. Library
automation, the development of specialized databases, the opening of online
database search services, the development of consortia and library networks,
electronic publishing, the development of Information Retrieval Thesauri, and
software for one or more of the above mentioned products or services are some of
the initiatives taken to provide easy and wide access to information. The arrival
of CD-ROM in the 1980s paved the way for the mastering of large databases and
their distribution worldwide on stand-alone computers. The Internet and the Web
technologies and all other supporting technologies have strengthened the
accessibility to worldwide information.
Libraries and information systems and services do not exist in isolation. They are
in most cases components of other institutional frameworks. While information
and knowledge are fast changing the work environments out of necessity
everywhere, libraries and information systems cannot remain unaffected. Here
also, innovative thinking to institute new types of services is absolutely essential
to meet various requirements. New skills will have to be acquired by constant
updating of professional knowledge through continuous learning and training,
which are, indeed, lifetime processes. These are challenges, but at the same time
opportunities.
10.9
RELEVANCE OF INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE

ECONOMICS TO LIBRARY AND INFORMATION STUDIES
The specific advantage of the relevance of the study of Information and

knowledge economies can be summed up as follows:
The value and importance of information and knowledge are deemed to be the
key resources for national growth and development. Library and Information
professionals having always been associated with information and knowledge
services, get further opportunities to commit themselves to develop new and
innovative services to stay in the competitive job market ;
The scope and dimension of Information Economics open up new areas of

study and research for us to pursue;
A new type of job market is emerging which expands the scope for
professional opportunities for employment.
18
Self Check Exercise

12)State the new changing situations which demand a new approach to
manage libraries and information institution
13) What is the relevance of Information and Knowledge economies to
the library and information professionals
Note
i)Write your answer in the space given below:
ii)Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
10.10 SUMMARY
This Unit begins with a brief introduction to the substance of economics.
Differentiating Economics of Information and Information Economics, it deals
with the ramification of this specialization, giving some examples of the role of
information in typical markets such as products, insurance, jobs, and financial
markets. Discussing Information Economy of a country brings out the effects
and changes on the different sectors of economies of a country, the chief
instrument of change being ICT. Distinguishing Information Economics from
Knowledge Economy as a new growth theory of Economics, explains the shifting
emphasis from Information to Knowledge. While these changes are very much
seen in the economies of developed countries, the Indian economy has its special
problems, before India can claim to reach the level of growth and development as
the developed countries. The Indian situation is examined with reference to the
constraints India has been facing, although there are attempts to create the
necessary conditions for the progress and advancement of its economy. How far
this changing context affects professionals in library and Information science is
briefly stated. The new skills to be acquired by Indian library and information
professionals are indicated.
10.11 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES
1 Economics deals with human wants, needs, demands and desires and the
means of obtaining them for fulfilling human satisfaction. Goods and services
are the means of achieving this satisfaction. But these are to be produced
utilizing various resources, both human and non-human. This involves a
market wherein the activities of buying and selling are in their place. Markets
are conditioned by value, cost and prices, which influence both buyers and
sellers. The means of production and distribution are controlled and regulated
by governments, which have the responsibility of the welfare of the people.
This brings in the concept of planned or mixed systems of economy and many
related economic issues.
2 Information Economics perceives information as a resource of importance
in its own right and examine it role in all economic activities, as a factor of
19
production, growth and development. All economic issues are studied with
reference to the role of information in markets, decision-making, its cost,
price and value, monopoly, competition, etc. At the macro-level, the national
economy is viewed as an Information Economy with a particular reference to
the contribution of information to the Gross National Product, with
information products and services and Information Technology.
Economics of information is the prudent planning and management of
households, institutions and governments in the deployment of resources so as
to avoid unnecessary waste or expenditure.
3
Some of the characteristics of Information are:
Shareable not exchangeable and can be given away and retained at the
same time;
expandable and increases with use;
compressible, able to be summarized, integrated, etc.
possess a definite value, depending upon their use which may
be quantified and treated as an accountable asset;
may vary in value over a period of time in an entirely unpredictable way;
is a source of economic and political power;
4 The basic contours of of Information Economics are

macro-economics of information dealing with the economics problems of
individuals, households, firms, etc. Some of these economic issues are
indicated below:
Information Economics
Uncertainties and Information
Ignorance, Chance, Risks as factors in the explanation of individual choices
and institutions
Cost, Price and Value
Decision Making
Information Markets
Human Capital
5 Uncertainties are common both to buyers and sellers, both at the stage of
production and at the point of exchange.
In Consumer Product Markets, particularly in retail markets, buyers
(household) are typically less informed than the sellers are about aspects of
product quality such as invisible defects, risks of malfunction, breakage and
decomposition. To build up consumer confidence, sellers resort to the
provision of guarantees and liability. Such guarantees are a form of insurance
against product failures and serve as signal of reliability. Consumer
protection is also effected through imposition of regulatory controls by
government. This sort of information flow would reduce the uncertainty of
the buyers. .
20
In Insurance markets, it is typically the seller who has lesser information,

since the buyer is well informed about the risk class to which he belongs. The
seller takes a greater risk in his business and the asymmetrical characteristics
in those markets are exactly the opposite of those that are prevalent in
consumer product markets.
In job markets, the employers and job market seekers resort to different
methods for informing themselves of their opportunities and markets to meet
their particular requirements.
Internet has now provides much better facilities through its
E-commerce to meet the demands of various market situations.
6
In providing amenities, governments have to take many vital decisions at

different levels and at different times. These may be social and welfare
activities for the communities and hence may be regarded as public goods
and services. Provision of streetlights, defence activities for the security
of a country, construction of a public park are good examples of public
goods.
In these types of activities, the peculiar characteristics of
information, is the presence of externalities. In the construction of a park,
the persons living in the surrounding areas get obviously a definite benefit.
But investments by government in higher education may not always result
in social benefits to the community. In all these economic activities,
information plays a role in obtaining data and analyzing them to provide
appropriate indicators for taking decisions of different levels of
governments and institutions.
Information as a key economic resource has evolved over a period of time.

Industrial revolution, which led to mass production and distribution,
started the productivity growth without any precedent. Information
revolution with its vital component of IT placed information as the key
resource for economic changes. All these present a set of new features of
information economy which are:
Higher productivity as information is being made accessible and available
irrespective of its location at low cost;
The pre-eminence of a managerial, professional and technocratic Class;
Reducing uncertainty and risk factors for buyers and sellers
through the facility of E-commerce;
The centrality of theoretical knowledge as the source of innovative
and policy formulation;
distinct change from a commodity producing to a service economy;
A new theory of economic growth due to the following factors:
While the Internet has made it possible to access information globally with
speed, it has also created the problem of overload of information;
Information has routinized processes but not effected any radical change in
the fundamental concept of growth through innovative ideas and knowledge;
The information revolution focused only the technological part of IT rather
than the need for innovative creation of new knowledge.
21
9 The new growth theory of economics propounds:

Knowledge is the basic form of capital. Economic growth is driven by the
accumulation of knowledge.
Technological breakthroughs can create technical platform for further
innovations and this platform effect is a key effect of economic growth.
Traditional economics predicts diminishing returns on investment in
technology. But the new growth economists argue that the non-rivalry and
technical platform effects of new advances can lead to increasing returns.
Investment can make technology more valuable and vice-versa. According to
this new growth theory, the virtuous circle that results can raise a countrys
growth rate permanently.
Human capital generates the ideas and knowledge that in turn decide how
efficiently and effectively traditional inputs of capital (such as plant and
equipment) and labour are translated into output.
10 Knowledge-based economy is characterized by a set of qualitative and
quantitative changes in the last 15 years or so that have transformed the
structure, functioning and rules of the economy.
Knowledge has a high rate of obsolescence of goods, services and ideas. This
calls for a higher rate of generation of new ideas and their conversion into
applications, products and services.
Knowledge sensitive organizations proactively encourage and enable their
workers to take initiatives and to sustain their core competencies to enable the
firm to remain competitive in a fast changing world.
The increased importance of knowledge means that the net stock of intangible
capital (e.g. education and research and development) has grown faster than
tangible capital e.g. Buildings, Transportation, Roads, and Machinery).
While the old economy was fundamentally organized around standardized mass
production, the New Economy is organized around flexible production of goods
and services. The New Economy is a high-tech, services and office economy.
In the New Economy, where competitive advantage increasingly stems from
customization, design quality and customer service, more of the value-added is
produced in office.
Knowledge-based jobs require post secondary, vocational or higher education.
A class of knowledge workers is being created. Although this new class is not the
largest now, in course it is likely to likely to increase.
11 The current state of Indian economy is as follows:
22
The Indian economy is structurally transformed, developing new strengths to

become a strong regional power in the early years of the new millennium.
Structural changes are that Indian economy has moved from a highly-regulated
and inward-oriented to an outward looking economy in which the state
dominance in most spheres of economic activity is giving way to private
enterprise.
Sectoral share of GDP are Agriculture at 26 per cent, Industry at 22 per cent and
services sector at 52 percent.
Fast growing IT industry, the fastest growing sector of the economy being the
highest export.
12 The constraints of Indian economy, which contain or delay its growth are:
Poverty, full employment, universal literacy, health care, quality of education,
training in vocations, research and development, raising quality of life in all
sections of people, heavy impact of information and knowledge, corruption at all
levels.
The new situation in India depicts an account of sea changes that have taken
place in its economy due to technological advances. All institutions have to
adopt themselves to these changing conditions with new approaches and skills. A
combination of professional competence and subject knowledge coupled with an
ability to adapt to changes, good inter-personal skills and innovation are the
prerequisites for succeeding in workplace, working in a more expanded sphere of
activities.
13 The specific advantage of the relevance of the study of Information and
knowledge economies can be summed as follows:
The value and importance of information and knowledge are deemed

to be the key resources for national growth and development.
Library and Information professionals having always been
associated with information and knowledge services, get further
opportunities to commit themselves to develop new and innovative
services to stay in the competitive job market ;
The scope and dimension of Information Economics open up
new areas of study and research for us to pursue;
A new type of job market is emerging which expands the scope for
professional opportunities and employment.
10.12 KEYWORDS
Asymmetry
: Imbalance of information between a

buyer and a seller.
Externality
: Favourable effects on one or more

persons that come from the action of a
different person or firm.
: Industries involved in the production
and distribution of information.
23
Information Infrastructure : Components of Information economy.

Information Markets
: Markets trading in Information.
Information Workforce
: Occupational force involved in

information work.
Obsolete Information
: Outdated information.
Public good
: Any consumable item meant for public

use.
Searching
: Buyers search for reliable quality

through various kinds of product
literature.
Screening
: Process to obtain information. Buyers

are generally engaged in screening
sources to get right information.
Shareable Information
: Information can always be shared

without any loss in sharing.
Signalling
: Sellers are usually engaged in signalling

wanting to send messages about
themselves and about the quality of
their goods and services to potential
buyers.
Uncertainty
Inadequate information causing

uncertainty in decision making.
Value of Information
: Value of Information not always in

terms of money but in relation to
its
use.
10.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

The references given below include items that are cited in the Unit, titles for
further reading and some Web Sites.
Babu, Satish (2001). The Internet: The Origins: Services Available and
Future Trends. Manorama Yearbook 2001`. 49-69.
Chaudhuri, Malay and Chaudhuri, Aarindum (2003). The Great
Indian Dream: Restoring Pride to a Nation Betrayed. Delhi: Macmillan. 251p.
24
Corrall, Sheila and Brewertob,Antony (1999). The New Professionals

Handbook: Your Guide to Information Services Management. London: Library
Association Publishing. viii,322p.
Cronin B (1986). Information accounting. In Lann,Van der and Winters, A.A.
eds. The User of Information in a Changing World. Amsterdam: Elesevier.
Davenport, Thomas H and Prusak, Lawrence (1998). Working Knowledge: How
Organizations Manage What They Know . Boston: Harvard Business School
Press, ix, 199p.
Drucker, Peter F (1994). The age of Social Transformation. (Originally published
in Atlantic Monthly).
URL. http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/ecbig/soctrans.htm
Drucker, Peter F (1999). Beyond the Information Revolution. Atlantic Monthly
284(4). 45-57.
Drucker, Peter F (1994). Knowledge Work and Knowledge
Society: The Social Transformation of this Century.
URL:http://www.key.ksg.harvard.edu/ifactory/ksgpress/wwwksg_
news/transcripts/drucklec.htm
Drucker, Peter F (1999). Management challenges for the 21st
Century. Oxford: Butter, Heinmann. Vii,295p.
Drucker, Peter F (1993). Post-capitalist Society. New York:
Harper Collins.
E-governance and the Indian experience.
URL:http://www.expresscomputeronlin6/113/2003:06 AM
E*government. India case studies.
URL:http://www I .WorldBank org/pubhi6/13/2003/10.08 AM
Haravu L J (2002). Lectures on Knowledgement: Paradigms,
Challenges and Opportunities. Bangalore: Sarada Ranganathan
Ecdowment for Library Science, viii,204p.
Hindle, A and Raper, D (1976), Economics of Information. In
Cuadra, et al. eds. Op.cit. v.11
Indian economy 2002-93. (2003). Manorama Yearbook 2003.
528-551
A good update on Indian economy. Includes Development
Planning 1951-2001, Services : Dynamic Growth Sector and
Privatisation.
Karnataka - E Governance takes a fast track.
URL:http:www.zdnetindia.com/print.h6/13/2--3/9.56.13 AM
25
King, D W, et al. (1983). Key papers in the Economics of

Information. New York:Knowledge Industry Publication.
Konna, Prabhudev and Balasubramanian, Shridar (2002).
Frontline 18(2), 1-9.
Lamberton, D M (1984). The Economics of Information. In
Caudara, et al. ed. Op.cit. v.19
Krishnan, Riskesha T (2001). Knowledge Management and
Competition Advantages. IIBM Management Review.
Maharashtra: In tune with the Time?
URL:http://www.zdnetindia.com/print.h6/13/2003/9.54:14 AM
Martin, W J(1988). The Economic Society In Martin W J. The
Information Society. London: Aslib.
Matarazzo, James M and Connolly, Suzanne (1999). Knowledge
and Special Libraries. Boston: Butterworth, Heinmann. Vii, 265p.
Neelemeghan, A(1999). Information Economy and Knowledge
Society. 2 parts. Information Studies, 5(2), 107-122; 169-196.
Other E-governance projects around the country.
URL://wwwzdnetindia.com/print.h6/13/2003/9.57 58 AM
Prakash, Naveen (2001). Evaluating the Impacts of the Gyandoot
project.
URL:http://www.uncrd.or.jp/icgt/eworks6/13/2003/10:9?44 AM
Philip, Thomas. (2001) Manorama Yearbook, 2001. 70-80.
Scammell, Alison ed. (1997). Handbook of Special Librarianship
and Information Work. 7th edn. Viii, 479p.
Sethuraman S (2002). Indian Economy: A New Dawn. Manorama
Yearbook, 2002. 26-82.
Swaminathan, S (1999). A Century of New Hopes, Towards an
Era of Harmony and Freedom from Hunger. Chennai: East West
Books(Madras) Pvt. Ltd. V,155p.
Swaminathan, S (2000). Science in Response to Basic Human
Needs. In World Conference on Science. Paris: Unesco 33-40.
Tamil Nadu: Trends and Bottlenecks(2001)
(Market reasons apart, massive government machinery in
developing countries such as India can benefit a lot by using IT for
their growth)
URL:http//www.zdnetindia.com/print.h6/13/2003/9:55:39 AM
26
Vijayaraghavan, G and Nair V S M (2001). One of the Greatest

Discoveries of Our Times. Manorama Yearbook 2001. 32-48
Vittal, N (2001). Cultural Dimensions of E-governance. (Talk
delivered IIIT&M, Gwalior. 6p.
World Bank (1999). World Development Report of 1999.
Washington D C: The World Bank.
World Conference on Science. Science for the Twenty-first
Century. A New Commitment. Paris: Unesco. 544p.
27
UNIT 11 NATIONAL INFORMATION POLICIES

Structure
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Information Policy
11 3.1 Restricted Meaning of Information
11.3.2 Wider Meaning of Information
11.3.3 Meaning of Policy
11.3.4 Designation of Levels of Hierarchy
11.3.5 Definition of National Information Policy
11.4 Need for a National Information Policy
11.4.1 Information as Wealth
11.4.2 Diverse Participants
11.4.3 Use of Information
11.4.4 Organizational Structure
11.5 National Information Policy: Aspects and Issues
11.5.1 Some recent government initiatives
11.5.2 Issues and aspects in the limited area of Library and
Information systems and services
11.6 National Information Policies: India
11.6.1 Overview of Efforts towards National Information Policy
11.6.2 Freedom of Information Act 2002
11.6.3 Information Technology Action Plan
11.7 Information Policy: Efforts at International Level
11.8 Summary
11.9 Answers to Self Check Exercise
11.10 Key Words
11.1
OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, You will be able to

get a clear understanding of the concept of information policy;
recognise the need for and value of a National Information Policy;
identify and delineate the issues involved in formulating a
National Information Policy;
become familiar with the efforts made by for initiating action
towards a National Library and Information Policy;
get an insight into the elements that constitute a
National Information Policy;
absorb the implications of Freedom of Information Act for library and
information systems and service;
grasp the effect the National Informatics Policy and IT Action Plan on
library and information systems and services; and
perceive National Information Policy in global context
11.2 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit we are dealing with National Information Policies, which have
assumed considerable importance with the expanding dimensions of information.
As learnt in the earlier units, the meaning and content of information varies from
one context to another with numerous groups involved in information activities.
A policy with reference to any activity of a country is usually formulated by the
Government and hence a policy statement will have to include all perceptions of
information in all its dimensions. So it will not be just a single statement of
policy on any particular activity.
A discussion, therefore, on the perception of information, as normally understood
in the context of library and information systems and services, is essential to put
our study of information policy in right perspective.
The concept of a National Information Policy as defined by UNESCO
is A hierarchy of Levels of Steps viz. Goals, Strategy and Program is seen as a
series of compatible steps for devising a framework for formulating a National
Information Policy for Information.
The need for and purpose of a National Information Policy is studied from the
point of view of the value of information and knowledge which are the basic
ingredients for transforming natural resources into value added tangible wealth.
The issues relevant to formulating a National Information Policy are: Users and
their Information Needs, Information Resources, Information Technology,
Human Resources, Finance, International exchange, Cooperation, and
Coordination, etc. The implications of all these issues are studied in some detail.
The efforts by the various professional bodies in India, to draw attention of the
government to the formulation of a National Information Policy are discussed.
Some of the efforts of International organizations such Unesco, IFLA and FID in
providing guidance to member countries in formulating national information
policy are discussed. A brief summary of a handbook on formulating national
information policy brought by Unesco is discussed in this Unit.
11.3
INFORMATION POLICY
Information Policy connotes different meanings to the different groups of persons

involved in information activities. The variations of meaning have emerged
largely because of the different perceptions these groups have of the meaning and
scope of the concept information and policy.
To the library and information professionals, Information Policy deals with issues
relating to contents of documents that carry all forms of information, textual,
images, sound, microforms, electronic information and digital information,
institutional and organizational mechanisms to collect, store, disseminate, provide
products and services, according to the needs users.
To the research and scholarly communities, the perception of Information Policy
relates to the data and information generated, disseminated and communicated by
them in different contexts and forms and also the information support facilities
they look for pursuing their respective research and development activities.
The computer and telecommunication group would regard Information Policy as

having to deal with the hardware, software developments, and information
processing packages, transmission of messages, communication networks and
related matters.
Those engaged in mass media would understand Information Policy to cover the
gathering, analysis and dissemination of news views, and general information to
the public, and the freedom to the public at large, and the freedom to access
information generated by governments and other agencies without any
constraints.
For a common man, information is anything that makes him to decide or act or
just to know and be informed. He must have access to the information that he
needs without any difficulty and constraint.
The role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is pervasive,
irrespective of the perceptions of the different groups involved information
activities.
The government, while formulating a National Information Policy (Policies)
should have to take into consideration all these perceptions and evolve an
appropriate policy conducive to the benefit all.
11 3.1 Restricted Meaning of Information
In this Unit, we are primarily concerned with what Information constitutes to the
library and information professionals, with respect to making information and
knowledge available to users according to their needs. In this sense:
Information is viewed as data processing in the broadest sense, particularly in the
collection, storage, processing, servicing organized data and information, that
become essential for all economic and social exchanges.
Knowledge is viewed as an organized set of facts or data, derived from
information and presenting a judgment or an experimental result, which is
transmitted to others through some communication medium in some systematic
form. It appears in the form of monographs, treatises, research papers, etc. which
are collected by libraries and information centers.
These keywords Information and Knowledge are quite often used synonymously
although their meanings are quite distinct.
In accordance with the definition given in the UNISIST Main Working
document,, Information is the symbolic element used for communicating
scientific and technical knowledge, irrespective of their nature (numeric, textual,
etc.) material content, form of presentation, etc. It refers to both substance or
contents of documents and to physical existence; the term is also used to
designate both the message (substance and form) and its communication (act).
Note Refer to Block 1 Units 1 and 3 for the definition and scope of information
and knowledge.
These definitions of information give appropriate dimension to our initial thinking

about the formulation of a National Information Policy as perceived by library
and information professionals.
The Application of ICT have given rise to new organizational structure such as
Virtual libraries, Electronic Libraries. Information professionals also have to
operate in the new environments in which Information technology predominates.
11.3.2 Wider Meaning of Information
In the present changing context, however, information is comprehended in a
much wider sense. Accordingly information encompasses a whole range of
activities that include several overlapping elements.
Thus a National
Information Policy may incorporate a wide range of endeavours such as:
Discovery, Creation, and Collection of Information: This covers work and
activities of scientists, scholars, artists, authors, raw data collectors and many
others.
Storage, Retrieval, Processing, Disseminating and Duplicating Information:
Agencies engaged in these activities are publishing industry, motion films and
television industries, data processing organizations, libraries and cognate bodies
like bibliographic, indexing, and abstracting databases, reviewing and archives
agencies, etc.
Distribution of Information: This category includes broadcasting and television
networks, circulation of newspapers, books and journals, film distributors,
communication channels like postal, telegraph and telephone services, etc.
Hardware Suppliers: These comprise agencies, which produce goods for
hardware industry such as computers and peripherals, telecommunication
equipment, printing presses, paper, ink, electronic sensing devices, translating and
display of equipment, cameras, projectors, and raw films.
Information Markets: This includes enterprises which use information hardware
to support their primary activity not forming a part of the Information Industry,
for example information in education, transportation, business and industry,
health care, demography, public safety, national security, etc. both at the
institutional and individual levels. A number of business enterprises have sprung
up that provide information services through a variety of electronic databases and
networks.
This encompassing perspective of information takes into account a number of
factors that will not strictly fall within the ambit of policy issues of information as
conceived by many other stakeholders or information professionals. These are
areas that may pertain business and trade activities, commerce, education and
training, mass media, etc.
11.3.3 Meaning of Policy
While the word information has such a wide rage of interpretations, the meaning
of the term Policy is also often left vague and undefined.
However, an
examination of some of the existing statements of national Information Policy
shows them to be, in many instances, descriptions of structural, functional and/or
characteristics of governance. In these statements, Policy means an instrument
seeking to concretize or legalize a system design or a plan. Fundamentally, a
policy may be stated to be a statement of guidelines for a course of action.
A course of action is, however, formulated with different levels of generality and
specificity. Depending upon these levels, a hierarchy of steps for a course of
action may exist. Each level within the hierarchy has to be compatible with the
next higher level as components in a system that is interrelated. This system as a
whole has to be conducive to the realization of the overall objectives.
11.3.4 Designation of Levels of Hierarchy
It is useful of designate the components of the levels of hierarchy as series of
steps in the formulation of a course of action to formulate a policy. Goal, Policy,
Strategy and Program represent the levels of hierarchy with the following
characteristics for each of them.
A Goal is the ultimate destination to be reached. It is an enduring statement of
purpose towards actions over an indefinite period of time. The requisite extent of
resources may also be indicated for the realization of the goal.
A Policy is a statement of commitment to a generic course of action, necessary to
achieve the goal. It expresses a determination and an agreement to follow the set
course in realizing the goal. Policies are invariably transitory. In other words,
they cannot remain permanent or rigid. To make them realistic, they should be
flexible enough to adopt themselves to changing environments of political,
economic, social and cultural milieu.
A Strategy is a predetermined course of action, usually selected from a number of
alternatives or options. Responding to politics, strategies are formulated through
a process of planning, which takes into account political, legal, and administrative
realities at any point of time.
A Program is a scheduled set of activities or tasks taken to implement a strategy
in keeping with a predetermined strategy, a program is a set of tactical actions of
a goal-seeking process. As such, it requires specific planning, budgeting and
organizational attention.
With this backdrop let us try to seek a working definition for a National
Information Policy.
Self Check Exercise
1 Give at least two reasons for a restricted meaning of information

for formulating a National Information Policy.
2 Describe the levels of hierarchy of steps to devise a framework

for formulating a National Information Policy.
Note
i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
11.3.5 Definition of National Information Policy
A National Information Policy is a set of decisions taken by a government,
through appropriate laws and regulations, to orient the harmonious development
of information transfer activities in order to satisfy the information needs of the
country. A National Information Policy needs provision of necessary means or
instruments such as financial, personnel, institutional, for concrete
implementation.
UNISIST II Main Working Document)
To comprehend information in the sense the western writers do, and to formulate
a policy there from would, perhaps, cut across the policies of the government
relating to industry, trade, education, research, and many others. Further, groups
involved in activities which are loosely connected with information, may have
conflicting or overlapping objectives., each one having its own world view,
specific interest and political purpose.
Hence, the definition here is restricted to the sense in which library and
information professionals would like to view Information Policy to meet the
challenges of the changing context of information. This changing context is
restricted to information systems and services with reference to education, basic
and applied research, planning and operating experience in different contexts, use
of - information and data relating to commercial and trade activities, social and
economic services and programs and similar others.
Having understood the meanings and interpretations of Information and Policy a
formal definition of National Information Policy, and the levels of hierarchy as
useful steps for the formulation of such a policy, let us examine what type of
policy is needed, with particular reference to India.
Self Check Exercise

3) Define National Information Policy.
Note
11.4 NEED FOR A NATIONAL INFORMATION POLICY
Information is for use. This simple statement encompasses a whole range of

information transfer processes, stemming from the recognition that information is
a basic resource that transforms natural resources into value added tangible and
powerful wealth.
The value and importance of information and knowledge, therefore, demand their
care, harnessing, management and exploitation for use.
The ultimate purpose of information and knowledge is to put them to use, and in
turn, to provide for a higher quality of life to people.
The vital role of
information in national development has to be seen in this perspective.
Seen from this angle, the primary objective of a National Information Policy is to
achieve a progressive upliftment of the socio-economic development of the
country through the provision of access to and availability of information and
knowledge with speed and efficiency to all those who are involved in activities
for national development. In the context of India, a National Information Policy
must necessarily be governed by and form an integrated and harmonious part of
the social, economic, educational, research and development and other related
policies which get formulated at various stages of our national development.
Further, the Information Policy needs is to be compatible with the Five-Year
National Plan of the country.
11.4.1 Information as Wealth
Generation of new knowledge and putting it to use to create wealth, places a
country at a decidedly vantage position in the present context of fierce
international struggle for economic and political power. In an Information
Society, knowledge and technical skills becomes the central base. Education,
training and R & D activities contribute to the building up of the central
knowledge base.
The following table illustrates the sociological changes that take place as a society
moves from pre-industrial to industrial and post-industrial stages and how the
knowledge base evolves into a central force.
Stratification and Posers
Features
Resources
Social Forces
Pre-industrial
Land
Farm,
Plantation
Industrial
Machinery
Business Firm
Dominant
figure
Means of
power
Land owner,
Military
Direct control
by force
Business
persons
Indirect
influence based
on politics
Class base
Property,
Military force
Access to
power
Inheritance,
Seizure by army
Property,
technical skill,
political
organization
Inheritance
patronage,
education
Post-Industrial
Knowledge
University,
R&D.
Institution
Scientists,
Researches
Balance of
technical and
political forces,
franchise, rights
Technical skill,
political
organization
Education,
Mobilization,
cooperation
Investment in Human Resources Planning

In this era of Post-Industrial /Information Society, the industrially advanced
countries which are rich in new knowledge and information, have found it highly
profitable to invest in human resource planning to deliver the much needed
resources of knowledge and information for transforming natural resources into
wealth. Private companies in these countries are increasingly dependent on new
knowledge and information (patents, processes, management skills, technologies,
information about customers, competitors, suppliers, personal experience and
expertise, etc.) to stay and flourish in business. In all these activities, research
and development in areas appropriate to a business interest or a countrys
development programs is considered to be vital to progress. A new subject
knowledge Management is fast developing in the corporate sector.
R & D activities, resulting in new knowledge will have to be disseminated for
wider perusal for acceptance and validation by the peer community.
The
diffusion of such knowledge through a variety of primary, secondary and tertiary
publications (databases), has become a normal feature today. In this process of
transfer of information, a host of institutions of various kinds have sprung up to
constitute a total system. If all these efforts to provide the necessary hones and
sinews to the process of a countrys development are to move in a directed
manner to yield right results, it is essential that an appropriate policy for
information is formulated.
11.4.2 Diverse Participants

We have learnt that the generation, dissemination, transfer, communication,
distribution of knowledge and information take place through diverse channels
and media, in a variety of contexts and environments. Many groups of people
viz. researchers, practitioners, entrepreneurs, technicians, technologists, shopfloor workers, farmers, traders, health-care specialists, planners, bureaucrats,
parliamentarians and legislators, and others operate in an informationcommunication of their own.

Communication takes place between individuals, from individual to groups and
from group to group, person-to-person, dialogue, counseling, demonstrations,
exhibitions, get-togethers, open houses and a number of other methods of
exchanging and transferring information have become common today.
Apart from conventional paper-print media, audio-visual and electronic, digital
forms of communication are becoming common with new advances in
Information Technology.
E-governance, e-commerce, e-education and other
electronic oriented activities in health care and services, consumerism, political
sociology, etc. are bringing remarkable changes in society.
Information Revolution
The cause of these rapid changes is the information revolution which is turning
out to be as fundamental as the industrial revolution a couple of centuries ago is
changing the life-style of people. It is thus seen that the entire range of the
information revolution field cannot be easily comprehended by one single group
of people or institutions involved in the production and distribution of knowledge
and information, so as to take advantage of the information revolution for
securing maximum benefits to all sections of society.
In view of these wide ramifications, information-communication activities call for
attention at macro as well micro levels to develop a total information system.
These efforts can be guided appropriately only through the instrument of a
National Information Policy and Planning.
11.4.3 Use of Information
We have noted that there are several users of information and knowledge to fulfill
whatever need they may have. It is only in the field of education, research and a
few others that information systems have been developed to disseminate, provide
access and availability to information to meet the varying needs of information
users. In many other fields wherein information support facilities are needed,
there are hardly any organized information systems that have been developed in
India. Only a holistic approach on information would ensure the possibility of
giving attention to the needs of other categories of users and their needs.
11.4.4 Organizational Structure

When a variety of institutions are to be involved in the entire transfer process of
information, it is necessary to create structural links between them to avoid
duplication and wastage of efforts and resources. Information institutions have
sprung up in most countries according to the exigencies of circumstances and not
necessarily base on a systematic plan. Therefore, there has been a haphazard
growth of such institutions without proper linkages.
It is only through an
Information policy and program that unplanned growth of information institution
can be checked to enable a harmonious development. Particularly in the present
context of Information Technology, it is possible to link all types of information
institutions through networks so that the resources of all the different types of
institutions could be shared without loss to anyone.
In the light of the discussions above the need for a National Information Policy
becomes self-evident. Now let us examine the issues and aspects that are to be
tackled while formulating such a policy.
Self Check Exercise

4) Explain the need for National Information Policy.
Note :
11.5 NATIONAL INFORMATION POLICY: ASPECTS AND ISSUES

A few groups that have been concerned with the necessity of formulating a
national information policy are:
Scientific, Technical and Societal Information (STSI) for general education,
professional and higher education, research and development, Industry and
Business, and socio-economic development;
Mass Media dealing with the right to access public information necessity for
newspapers, TV, Radio Broadcasts, and such others;
Publication and Book trade dealing with all publications, including electronic
publications;
Information Technology handling hardware and software problems;
General public who need to have freedom of access to government generated
information.
UNESCO has been concerned, beginning from the eighties, with some of these
groups and have set up different platforms for persuading governments to initiate
policy perspectives.
Sean MacBride Report (1980) who came out as a result of a study of an
international Commission of UNESCO gave recommendations specifically with
reference to International Information Order in the context of Mass Media.
The other initiative of UNESCO, has been its effort in the preparation of the
UNISIST Main Working Document for an Intergovernmental Conference in 1979
At Nairobi. This Document speaks about Information Policy for socio-economic
development involving (STST).
11.5.1 Some Recent Government Initiatives
National Information Policies have come to the fore in many countries in recent
years. A research report, funded by Resource, (a UK agency that funds research
into a variety of policy-related matters in library and information services, among
other areas) sought to identify significant Government and Government-funded
agencies in a number of aspects of National Information Policy in a variety of
developed countries. Countries included were Canada, USA, and Member States
of the European Union, South Africa, Hong Kong, Australia and New Zealand.
The activities of certain international agencies and the European Commission,
were also noted which were of particular relevance.
Wide Ranging Topics
The topics covered in the research report were : E-government, Content Creation
and Delivery, Heritage/Legacy, Quality of Information, Social Inclusion,
Universal Access, E-Commerce, Legal Deposit, Intellectual Property Rights,
Freedom of Information, Privacy and Confidentiality, Authenticity/Authorization,
Metadata, Interoperability and Information Literacy.
This Report also referred to a US Government commitment to the concept of the
National Information Infrastructure whose primary purposes of this initiative
were:
Reduction of health-care and in increase in quality of health care services using
tele-medicine
Delivery of high quality lower-cost government services to the public;
Preparation of the nations children for the twenty-first century;
Sending educational materials to homes so that students of all ages no longer
need to travel to college or school;
Promotion of technological innovation;
Development of the electronic information industry;
Extension of Universal Access;
Protection of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR);
Improvement of Federal Information Resource Management;
Support to Lifelong learning;
Creation of a more open and participatory democracy at local, State and
Federal level;
These refer to a variety of areas, which may or may not fall under the purview of
a National Information Policy in all countries of the world.
The references to the above two groups of issues and aspects that could possibly
be covered under a National Information Policy are given here only to indicate
the wide-ranging number of topics that could be treated under a National
Information Policy.
11.5.2 Issues and Aspects in the Limited Context of Library and Information
Systems and Services
As we are, in this Unit, studying those aspects that are limited to issues pertaining
to Library and Information Systems and Services in a country in the growing
recognition of the centrality of Knowledge and Information as primary factor in
national development, we shall identify only those aspects that are more relevant
to our professional perspectives.
We will, therefore, focus our attention to policy issues and aspects within the
framework of our limited library and information area. Broadly they are:
Users, their identification and information needs;

Resources: Document and Non-Document, Information and
Communication Technology (ICT), Institutional, Human and Financial;
Organization and Structure;
Products and Services;
Standardization;
Regional and International Cooperation.
Users, their Identification and Information Needs

All activities and programs of information handling are to be based entirely on the
needs of users, as customer needs and behaviour are central to any business
activity. Different categories have different information needs, depending upon
their functions, responsibilities and duties and the extent of their involvement in
their respective nature of their program of work.
The user groups as has already mentioned include among others;
government officials in a wide-ranging spectrum from the top-policy and
planning levels down to the hierarchy of officials operating at the implementation
levels;
parliamentarians and legislators;
judges and the judiciary;
industrial entrepreneurs and business managers and executives;
R & D persons in science, technology and social sciences;
specialists in the application of technologies;
teachers, students and educational administrators;
practitioners in medicine and health care;
lawyers and other legal professionals;
agriculturists and farmers;
grass root level workers in urban and rural settings; and
the general public
Indeed, information needs very substantially and considerably both in terms of
quantity and quality among these categories of users. Timeliness, speed of the
supply of information, appropriate to needs, are crucial to the credibility of
service.
The matching of information needs with the sources of information, documenting

them for accessibility and organizing responsive and anticipatory services and all
the rest of these are to be based upon a careful assessment of information needs.
Hence set policy guidelines, suggesting appropriate user surveys are essential to
obtain data and information on user requirements.
User Studies
User studies have so far been confined largely to the assessment of needs in the
context of education and research and R & D environments. Very few studies
have been made to assess the needs of users in other contexts, particularly in
India.
Just as there are agencies for market research and studies for assessing customer
preferences and needs in business, institutions specifically devoted to user studies
are to be created and developed. Use of information, gaps in gathering
information, expressed needs of information, lacunae in information supply, type
of information, meeting specific requirements, etc. are some of the studies that
may be undertaken by such institutions. Indeed, the entire information systems
and programs are to be designed and organised on the basis of these types of user
studies.
Self Check Exercise

5) Give reasons for treating information use and users as an important
issues for formulating a National Information Policy.
Note
Resources: Documents and Non-Document Resources
Information resources comprise published and unpublished records of information
in all fields of knowledge. They may be textual, numeric, graphic, images, and
in any other form, in any physical format, in any language, produced within the
country and outside. These types of material may include know-why, knowhow, and show-how information, each having its own set of intrinsic
characteristics. Only a part of this information is available in the market place;
the rest has to be collected carefully in relation to user needs by the respective
information systems in relevant subject areas.
Primary Information
Indigenously published materials like books, journals (the first issues of a title)
are deposited in four libraries in the country by the Delivery of Books Act,1956.
For most other items such unpublished research and technical reports, theses and
dissertations of universities and other cognate bodies, and other types of special
materials, there is no provision of legal deposit.
This makes the task of
collecting these materials very difficult, if not almost impossible for most
institutions that need them. There is, however, an obvious need for a legal
provision or executive orders of a competent authority, whereby these resources
of national origin are available in the country in a few selected institutions.
Besides these, there are other varieties of primary information, non-bibliographic
in character, produced by government departments, public and private bodies,
research establishments and many other non-government organizations. Most of
these are internally generated data and information, numerical and textual, lying
idle and unused in files.
Today, valuable information is also carried through films, videos and audios.
These seldom find a place in service libraries, because their existence and
availability are very often not known. A large volume of information has also to
be imported into the country. Here again, only a part of the information is
obtained through information markets.
Acquisition of foreign sources of
information is beset with a number of problems because of the numerous
complexities of import.
Only through a National Information Policy, which addresses itself to all these
problems of information resource building at a national level, it is possible to
ensure that the country does not suffer from lack of access to recorded knowledge
and information.
Secondary Information
Secondary publications (databases) provide access to primary information in the
form of bibliographies, indexes, abstracts, current awareness bulletins and a host
of others. For indigenous primary publications, there is at present no adequate
bibliographic control for all categories of publications. Secondary publications
of foreign origin, almost all of them are available in electronic modes, in addition
to paper-print. Agreements on the acquisition of bibliographical databases by
some select institutions and making them accessible to others that need them
through regular service arrangements would save cost and effort. Established
procedures would help resource sharing and optimum use of these data bases with
numerous present day telecommunications facilities for transmitting information.
Tertiary Publications
Tertiary sources of information such as referral directories of on-going research,
bibliography of bibliographies, guides, etc. are also available In CD ROMS and
other on-line services which can be a shared by libraries and information
institutions.
Other Sources
Individuals and organizations do serve as good sources of information. Although
these sources of information cannot be brought under the formal categories of
information sources, they are useful and may indeed be vital in specific situations.
Vendors, suppliers, contractors, customers, consultants, advisors, guides, and

such others can be very often as excellent courses of information.
Highly specialized training courses, trade fairs, exhibitions, fashion shows, gettogethers and such other generic information that may not be available anywhere
else.
Traditional skills and capabilities available with rural artisans, farmers and others
may be invaluable sources of information.
Oral communications in formal meetings, seminars, symposia, etc. are important
sources of information. Audio records of contemporary events, activities,
personalities, deliberately captured, also constitute useful sources of information.
While all these types of information sources are not very easy to capture and
record in a formal way, the very recognition of these types of sources would
create awareness among information seekers regarding sourses of information.
All these problems of building up national information sources may have to be
incorporated in an appropriate form in a formal statement on National
Information Policy.
Self Check Exercise
6) What resources other than documentary resources, should be
considered for formulating a National Information Policy
Note
Information and Communication Technology
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) holds the key to the success
in modernizing information services. Not only does ICT introduce new ways of
information handling, it also brings about changes in the very structure of
information and its communication.
Concepts like universal bibliography, accessibility to and availability of
documents, irrespective of location, highly personalized services matching user
needs/interests with document databases, full text searches, storage and retrieval
with speed and accuracy, etc. have all been accomplished to a great extent.
The Internet, the most important communication tool the world has ever had so
far, powerful microprocessors, high-capacity digital services, low-cost memory,
digital storage and retrieval and broadened networks are redefining the world,
more particularly in information handling.
With the confluence of technologies, more fundamental changes in knowledge
exchange systems are expected through research in Artificial Intelligence,
Cognitive Sciences, Brain Sciences and a host of new and evolving disciplines to
introduce sea changes in human communication.
It is very important to mobilize this rich powerful resource. It is perhaps, only

through a National Information Policy that potential use of ICT could be effected.
Institutional Resources
Information institutions in India, today, comprise libraries, documentation centers
and information centers, a few information analysis centers, data centers,
scientific and economic and social statistics publishing houses and similar others
There are other types of information institutions that are likely to spring up in the
future. The existing institutions are also likely to change with the increasing
application of ICT and sooner or later emerge as digital libraries or electronic
libraries and cognate bodies. Various types of information systems and services
networks are also likely to come up when the Freedom of Information Act 2002,
takes concrete shape with new type of information institutions. It is, perhaps,
only through a National Information Policy that a proper grid of information
institutions could be conceived and effected.
Human Resources
Progress and sophistication in the design, development and operation systems in
the country can come about only with a quality manpower, adequate in quantity
and capable of achieving targets in the changing context of information and
knowledge. The National Information Policy statement must give attention to
these resources, focusing attention on the following aspects:
Assessment of manpower needs in terms of types, quantity, levels, for the next ten
years, keeping in view the fast-changing information environment;
Curriculum development oriented to different types of information and
identifying institutions to take up responsibilities and to conduct courses;
Training a high quality faculty to impart instructions at different levels with
library and laboratory facilities for self-development;
Provision for the preparation and production of quality learning and teaching kits;
Attracting candidates with fine academic records, interest in information,
motivation and aptitude, ensuring good career prospects;
Continuing education and training programs to keep pace with the advancing
knowledge and practices, including programs to absorb existing manpower;
Instituting award/reward schemes to recognize and patronize professional practice
of excellence; and
Establishing exclusive research programs, both fundamental and applied research,
in information handling for innovative systems and services.
Self Check Exercise
7 ) State the future applications of ICT for information handling

that might introduce sea changes in society.
8)
What are the different facets of human resources that need

attention in formulating a National Information Policy?
Note:
i) Write your answers in the space given below;
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
Financial Resources
Financial resources required to build, develop and operate information systems
and services at all levels is a critical issue. It is important that the proportion of
investment in the information sector be commensurate with investments in other
sectors of national development programs. Investments in information and new
knowledge development should be in correlation with investments in
R & D, higher education, industrial and technological development, social
services, etc. Without a matching scale of investment in the information sector
with a continuous flow of finance, it will not able to become efficient enough to
provide the expected inputs to the national development efforts. A National
Information Policy is expected to recognize this aspect and other suitable
guidelines to allocate adequate finance to this sector.
Information is no longer available free. Information products have a cost and are
available in the market place only at a price. Price is naturally tagged on to value.
Quality of information is vital to fetch a competitive price. The trends are to be
recognized in the Indian context, in view of the fact that developing countries are
heavy importers of information.
Information systems and services are not any more liabilities or not to be
considered as overheads, but have every potential to become revenue-generating
activities. They do have a significant impact on budgets.
Organisational Structure
Information and knowledge are considered as vital economic inputs and are being
constantly talked about in almost every quarter of planning and development.
Despite this vital characteristics of information in relation to development
planning, very few national development plans of developing countries in
particular have a chapter on information, not even a separate budget line for it.
Even within sectoral plans one may not find separate budget line for information.
Yet it is often reiterated that information is a national resource, and that national
information policy and plan should be coordinated with or be derived from
national development policy and program.
It has been suggested that national development planning should recognize an
information sector just as it does other sectors of the economy agriculture,
industry, science and technology, education, culture, etc. This will help integrate
plans for information infrastructure development with the national development
plans; to contribute to a better understanding of the mutual influences between
information and other sectors, to provide firm data for a foundation of the field of
information economy, to help formulate guidelines and criteria for apportioning
national resources among the elements of the information sector and between its
information activities on the one hand and the other sectors of the economy on the
other; and to lead to a better perspective of the issue that the level of information
handling capability is a socio-economic indicator. (Neelemeghan)
A National Information System for India, should be envisaged as a total
information network with a few central bodies at the apex for planning and
policy-making, monitoring and coordinating, evolving standards and guidelines
for evaluating quality and fine-tuning the system, and a number of second line
centers,
national
in
character
but
oriented
to
a
discipline/
product/mission/problem, and a number of local information units, operating to
meet the immediate requirements of a particular organization or group.
There are integrated parts of a network operating, as far as possible independently
without any red tape and control from any single top organization. The national
network articulates through a variety of components such as libraries,
documentation and information centers, databases, information analysis centers
and similar others. The national network should ensure smooth flow of
information vertically and horizontally with speed and accuracy.
This type macro and micro organizational structure could be possible only with a
National Information Policy, wherein the interests of all who havae a stake would
be adequately represented.
Products and Services
In modern information and knowledge organizations, whether they are libraries or
variations of them, successful innovation both in information and services is
indispensable. Information transmission, dissemination, products and services,
are undoubtedly the prime activities of all information institutions. In the
changing context of information, ICT makes it possible to generate products and
services from national and international databases of information, orienting them
to specific requirements of individuals and organizations by the respective local
information facilitating units.
Standardization
Any plan of coordination, system management, networking, etc. will be meaning
fully functional only if the constituent parts conform to a certain degree of
uniformity in organization and operation. Compatibility of different approaches
ca be achieved only through standardization of techniques, methods, procedures
with reference to their application, using different hardware and software. Only
through effective implementation of national and international standards, sharing
and exchange of resources and facilities can be feasible and be optimally utilized.
Standardization contributes to overall economy of cost, time and effort.
Regional and International Cooperation
Knowledge and information are human social wealth that could permit a fair
amount of exchange among countries. In many scientific disciplines information
is viewed as an international resource. Most of the national and international
science communication and information systems have established free flow of
such information. However in areas such as technology, business and industry,
trade and commerce, development sciences and such other difficult areas,
information flows are never free. Exchange mechanisms are necessary to
introduce free flow of information, at least in areas where such flow does not
interfere with intellectual property rights.
A second aspect concerns exchange of professional experience, expertise and
experts between countries.
These exchanges take place in several forms.
Exchange of products and services, experience in design and modeling of
information systems and services, software packages, sharing of expertise in
education and training, document delivery and translation services are some of the
areas for possible exchange.
A third level of professional cooperation is involvement in programs at
international non-government organizations.
Self Check Exercise
9) Sum up the various issues that call for attention while framing
a National Information Policy.
Note
11.6 NATIONAL INFORMATION POLICY: INDIA

Though vigorous debates and discussions on the desirability of having a National
Information Policy for the country have been going on in India since 1980s, the
recognition of the importance of new knowledge was emphasized even as a far
back as back in 1957, when Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru spelled it out in his
Scientific Policy Resolution by the Government of India in 1958.
11.6.1 Overview of efforts towards a National Information Policy
We are giving below a broad overview of efforts in India towards evolving a
National Information Policy.
It was largely due to the emphasis on and
recognition of a new scientific knowledge and information that the infrastructure
for the creation/generation of this wealth in the nature of a complex of research
establishments in the National and Social Sciences were set up in the country. A
number of related events, such as the establishment of the National Informatics
Center (NIC) and the National Information System for Science and Technology
(NISSAT), (now extinct) in the seventies were significant. The Planning
Commission also set up a Working Group for the Modernization of Library
Services and Informatics in the Seventh Five Year Plan.. The setting up of the
Information and Library Network by the University Grants Commission to link
up the resources of libraries of universities and R & D institutions in the country
to facilitate new library and information services in India. A series of library of
library and information networks like the Delhi Library Network (DELNET) and
Calcutta Library Network (CALINET), etc. were also sprung up to integrate
resources and services of select libraries in major cities of India. All these
developments are indeed essential.
Professional Associations like the Indian Library Association (ILA), the Indian
Association of Special Libraries and Information Centers (IASLIC), the Society
for Information Science (SIS), were urging the government to initiate efforts
towards formulating a National Information Policy, through a number of seminars
and conferences. Separate draft policy statements were prepared by ILA and the
Rammohan Roy Library Foundation and submitted. These were submitted to the
Government of India in1984. As a consequence, the Department of Culture set
up a Committee in October 1984 under the chairmanship of Prof Chattopadhyay
for the formulation of a National Policy for a Library and Information System.
After considerable efforts, the Committee submitted a Draft Policy on Library
Information System in May 1986. The ten Chapters of the document deal with
elements such as Preamble, Objectives, Public Library System and the
Bibliographical services, Manpower Development and Professional status,
Modernization of Library and information System, Central Professional issues
and implementing agencies and financial support. Each chapter makes specific
recommendations with reference to upgrading and coordinating the existing
library and information systems and initiating new programs, relevant to our
national needs, using information technology.
Two important and significant events of far reaching implications have happened
in the last ten years. Although these have not been specifically related to the
information policy efforts of our professional interest, they have a great bearing
on our professional services and systems. The first is the enactment of the
Freedom of Information Act 2002 and the second, was setting up of a high level
Task Force for a Information Technology Action Plan in 1998. In the following
two sections, the salient features of the Freedom of Information Act 2002 and a
summary of the Task Force Action Plan Recommendations are given.
Self Check Exercise
10) Sketch briefly the steps taken by L&I community to draw
attention of the government to initiate a National Information Policy.
Note
11.6.2 Freedom of Information Act 2002
Freedom of Information stems from the recognition of the fundamental principle
of human rights. This right to information is guaranteed in international law, as
part of the guarantee of freedom of expression of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights. Many countries around the world are now giving legal
effect to the right, both by enshrining access to information in their constitutions

and by adopting laws which give practical effect to the right, providing concrete
processes for its exercise.
The Indian Freedom of Information Bill, 2002 was passed into a law in December
2002, after many years of public debate and after freedom of information laws
had been passed in a number of States.
The Right of Access
The Act provides that every citizen of India shall have the freedom of
information, defined as the right to obtain information from public authorities,
subject to certain exceptions stated in the Act. The Act extends to the whole of
India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir, for constitutional reasons. As is
known, the Constitution of India confers a special status on Jammu and
Kashmir and Parliament may make laws for it only with the concurrence of the
State.
Definitions
The Act defines information as material in any form relating to the
administration, operation or decisions of a public authority. The definition is
broad in terms of the type of information but limits the scope of the act to
Information relating to the official work of the public authority in question. The
Act also defines a record as any document, microfilm, microfiche or any material
or any material reproduced by any device.
The Act defines public authority as any body established under the Constitution
or by any law, as well as any body owned, controlled or substantially financed
by funds provided directly or indirectly by government.
Process
Requests for information by any citizen of the country must be made in writing,
wherever individuals have difficulties with this, the Public Information Officer is
required to provide all reasonable assistance to them. Requests must be dealt
with as expeditiously as possible and in any event, within 30 days. Requests may
be accepted subject to the payment of a fee for information that could be provided
which falls within the ambit of the Act. Where a request for information is
rejected, the requester is entitled to be informed of the reasons for the rejection,
the period within which an appeal may be lodged with the relevant information
about to the appellate authority.
Duty to Publish
The Act requires public bodies to publish, at intervals prescribed
government, the following information:
Particulars of its organization, function and duties;
by the
Powers and duties of its officers and employees and the procedure
followed by them in the decision making process;
The norms set by the public authority for the discharge of its functions;
Rules, regulations, instructions, manuals and other categories or records

under its control used by its employees for discharging its functions;
the details of facilities available to citizens for obtaining information; and
the name, designation and other particulars of the Public Information

Officer.
Exceptions
This section sets out exceptions in the Act , most of which are subject to a harm
test. There is no general public interest override. Exceptions where the
information:
If disclosed would prejudicially affect the sovereignty and integrity of the
Country, security, strategic, scientific or economic International relations;
If disclosed , would prejudicially affect public safety and order, the

detection and investigation of an offence, or a fair trial;
If disclosed, would prejudicially affect center-state relations;
Relates to Cabinet papers or the deliberations of the Council of

Ministers;
Contains minutes or records of advice made during a decision-making

process prior to the actual policy decision;
contains trade or commercial secrets protected by law, the disclosure of

which would prejudicially, affect the legitimate commercial interests of a
public authority or which would cause unfair gain or loss to any person; or
may result in the breach of parliamentary privileges or the contravention of
an order of the court.
A requester may make an internal appeal against any decision of a Public

Information Officer within 30 days to such authority as may be prescribed.
Promotional Measures
Public authorities are required to appoint Public Information Officers who are
responsible for dealing with requests, as well as for providing reasonable
assistance to requesters. Individuals who have acted in good faith pursuant to
Law are protected against sanction. In other words, individuals who release
information of wrongdoing-whistleblowers must be protected.
E-Governance and Information Freedom
E-governance (E-G) is one the effective means to provide right information to the
right people at the right time. E-G is the application of ICTs to the processes of
government functioning to accomplish simple, accountable, speedy, responsive
and transparent government. E-G is not merely computerizing existing
government information, it is, in fact, transforming the existing government. It is
the ICT enabled route to achieving good governance. It integrates people,
processes. Information and technology for meeting governance goals.
E-G
represents a journey from passive information -giving to active citizen
involvement. (Vijaya Raghavan and Nair)
With the recommendations of Information Technology Action Plan when fully
implemented, there is a greater possibility of achieving the expected goals of
E-governance. The government has already initiated appropriate steps by
executive orders to start the process of E-Government.
Quite a few state
governments have also initiated action in E-governance. Let us hope that in the
near future, the results of E-governance would become fully effective.
Central and State Governments are the largest producers of information in a
variety of subjects and in many variant forms. As the governments are committed
to a welfare state, they deal with almost all areas of public interest. The
information generated and disseminated and published in any form, get stocked in
a number of libraries and cognate institutions.
Information institutions in our country, therefore, usually stock a variety of
documents of governments and other public bodies and serve them on request.
With the Freedom of Information Act in force now, information institutions
should become fully conversant with the various clauses of the Law and provide
service.
11.6.3 Information Technology Action Plan
Recognizing the potential of ICT for rapid and all-round national development the
Government of India has constituted a National Task Force on Information
Technology and Software development in May 1988. The Report of the Task
Force, the Information Technology Action Plan, contains 108 recommendations
covering both bottleneck areas and broad promotional measures that are crucial
for boosting ICT in India. Extracts from the Task Force Report on some of the
salient points of the recommendations of Task Force are briefly stated below.
The recommendations cover a wide spectrum of issues relating to
telecommunications, finance, banking, revenue, commerce, electronics, human
resource development, defence, and rural development. They address critical
national needs in the areas of information infrastructure, internet access, software
development and exports, hardware manufacture, electronic commerce, R&D in
ICT, manpower training and education.
Software exports get special attention, recognizing Indias competitive advantage

in this area. The recommendations aim at enabling Indian exporters to capture a
large share of the global software market in a short time.
Recognizing Information Technology to be a frontier area of knowledge, and also
a critical enabling tool for assimilating, processing and productivising all other
spheres of knowledge, the Government shall launch OPERATION
KNOWLEDGE. The aim of this national campaign will be to universalize
computer literacy and also to spread the use of computers and ICT in education.
OPERATION KNOWLEDGE shall be developed into a comprehensive policy.
An Indian Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) shall be set up and will have
the status of a deemed university.
A notable feature of these recommendations is the conscious effort of the Task
Force to give information technology a pro-people and pro-development thrust.
These recommendations flow from a perspective that India can become a strong
IT power only if information technology reaches out to the masses in rural areas
and in small towns and if its use in Indian languages can also be given major
encouragement.
Taken together, the recommendations in the Information Technology Action Plan
significantly broaden and deepen the process of economic reforms by
encouraging competition, entrepreneurship and innovation the three principles
which are cardinal for Indias progress in the emerging knowledgedriven global
society.
A National Informatics Policy would eventually get formulated to deal with all
the recommendations of the Task Force.
It could be expected that all the issues and aspects that have been discussed in this
Unit with reference to Library and Information Systems and Services would get
attention in Operation Knowledge.
Self Check Exercise

11) What are main features of the Freedom of Information Act of 2002?
12) State briefly the main points of the Information Technology Action Plan.
Note:
i) Write your answer the space given below.
11.7
INFORMATION POLICY: EFFORTS AT INTERNATIONAL

LEVEL
UNESCO (an international governmental body), IFLA (International Federation

of Library Associations and Institutions) and FID (International Federation of
Information and Documentation (the two non-governmental organizations), are
the three international bodies that have been actively involved in developing
library and information activities in member countries for more than half a
century. While UNESCO has been directly guiding, assisting and providing
experts to member countries to develop their library and information
infrastructures, IFLA and FID have been providing guidance in many forms to
build up library and information systems and services.
IFLA initiated the Universal Availability of Publications (UAP) Program,
supported by Unesco with the objective to provide the widest possible availability
of published materials in any format to users, as an essential element in their
economic, social and educational and personal activities. UAP was also closely
linked to the IFLA UBC (Universal Bibliographic Control) that included issues
such as metadata and international standards. These efforts had started much
before the thinking on providing guidance to member countries for formulating
Two important and far reaching developments affecting the entire gamut of
information systems and services began to take to shape with the advent of ICT
and the evolution of Information Society. This necessitated a total reexamination
of the structures and functions of information systems and services both at the
national and international levels. ICT brought about a sea change in information
systems and services. Internet facilities drastically expanded globally the scope
of searching, accessing and making available, information almost instantaneously.
The concept of Information Society accentuated the vital force of information and
knowledge to bring about material advancement in countries. In this context all
countries required proper guidance to formulate their national information
policies.
Taking these rapid developments into account, FID prepared a Handbook on the
formulation, approval, implementation and operation of National Information
Policies, for Unesco in 1990. This document was completely revised and updated
in 2000 by Victor Montviloff. This was intended for use as a practical tool for
policy level officers of Member States to help them better understand and cope up
with the enormous risks and opportunities being presented by the rapidly
escalating and closely related ideas of (1) the information Superhighway, (2)
Cyberspace and (3) the Information Society. The three paradigms that have been
changing every aspect of information and knowledge are briefly explained below.
International Superhighway is the physical and technical network (Internet) of
information, connected through millions and millions of personal computers.
The content that describes all the information sits somewhere in the memory of
computers and provides access through World Wide Web sites.
Cyberspace is a conceptual and virtual area, where files, data, images, text, video
clips, music, etc. fly back and forth, computer-to-computer, user-to-user. It is
supposed to fill the entire universe through travels of light and other
electromagnetic waves.
This is a basic infrastructure that supports the
cyberspace, consisting of millions of servers, routers, communications satellites,
earth stations, telephone lines and cables, and information superhighways.
Information Society is the concept where in information is the primary force that
activates all other forces in developing all material benefits for human beings.
This detailed and practical handbook, tries to simplify, clarify details and spells
out methodically, comprehensively and systematically, step by step, and describes
exactly how a government should proceed to cope up with the many aspects of
the national information policy challenges.
The handbook is organized into two main sub divisions. Part A Introduction
provides definitions of key terms such as Cyberspace, information infrastructure,
policy, information policy, national information policy, etc. It also sets the stage
and gives the context for the more detailed methodology in the second part.
Part B deals with methodology that provides the procedural framework for
spelling out the steps in details, under each of the four major stages of the
processes of national information policy. It explains from the very first steps
involved in planning new policies to the very last steps in canceling obsolete
policies. Graphic icons are used in these chapters to help readers to place each
step at each of the four major stages of the policy processes. These
methodologies suggested may not guarantee that good policies could be
formulated and framed. It is, in fact, up to the member countries to develop,.
Promulgate, implement and evaluate her own special and unique set of national
information policies in tune with its own special and exclusive circumstances.
It is also suggested that governments entrust responsibility to an expert(s) in their
respective countries to lead and coordinate the development of a set of modern
national information policies that will enable the country to respond
systematically by stages, in the short, mid and long terms, to deal with the many
challenges.
Allowing for differences in perspectives in the approach to National Information
Policy, today all governments of developed as well developing countries operate
some form of national information systems, either as a matter of policy or on the
basis of executive orders. The two major stimuli in the development of these
policies or decisions, has been the need to respond to advances in ICT, providing
new opportunities for developing information networks and the accompanying
political and economic changes. The crucial issues that need attention in this
context are: exchange, encompassing a wide variety of resources, legal problems
of transborder flows, intellectual property rights, sharing of ICT and related
expertise, information markets, all forms of coordination and cooperation and
such others.
The future Scenario is fairly clear. Information and Knowledge will be the key
resource for all human material progress.
Information-rich countries have
grasped the essence of this approach and have been investing heavily in the
information sector. New types of Information Industries are flourishing and are
taking a variety of forms. However, the gap between information-rich and
information-poor countries is widening. Unless this gap gets reduced, the
chances are that the world economic and political conditions will be dominated by
countries that advance in information systems and services. The power shift
would be entirely based on the strength that a country has, in creating new
knowledge and information, and its ability to apply them to all kinds of
development processes. In our country Knowledge Operation: would hopefully
alleviate the conditions of the poor people and get them the basic needs of life.
Self Check Exercise

13) How do you expect the Act for Information Freedom and the Information
Technology Action Plan would contribute to the development of a National
library and information grid for the country.?
14) Comment briefly on the future scenario for the provision of access and use of
information and knowledge.
Note:
11.8 SUMMARY
In this Unit, we have discussed almost all aspects and issues of National
Information Policy, particularly from the point of view of issues relevant to
library and information professionals. But a National Information Policy need
not necessarily be confined to issues of interest of the library and information
community. There are many aspects of information that are of vital interest to
other groups who are in one way or the other concerned with activities related to
information. However, in this Unit, the discussion has been restricted to the
problems and issues of library and information professionals. Hence, the
definition of National Information Policy is with reference to the creation,
storage, retrieval, dissemination and the institutional mechanisms needed to
service-recorded information and knowledge.
The need for a national information policy is examined with reference to (a)
information and knowledge as sources of economic and political power, (b)
diversified groups who have a variety of information needs, (c) Organized method
to develop information institutions.
There are many issues that need attention while formulating a national
information policy. These include information resources, organization and
structure, user categories, standardization and international issues of exchange,
transborder flows of information, Intellectual Property Rights, Cooperation and
Coordination, etc.
A brief account of the efforts made by organizations and professional associations
is given. The two events of the Freedom of Information Act 2002 and the
Information Technology Action Plan of the Special Task Force, which have far
reaching implication in the next decade, have been briefly described.
While describing the contributions of International bodies like UNESCO, IFLA,
and FID, in formulating a National Information Policy in member countries,
reference is made to an important Handbook prepared by FID for Unesco. This
document spells out in detail the methodology for formulating a national
information policy for a country and implementing it.
The future scenario clearly indicates the importance of information and

knowledge as vital and key resource of the future material development. A
country, which realizes this, would hold economic and political power.
1) Information in its wider sense overlaps with a number of other interests, viz.
of ICT, mass media, trade and industry and similar others. Policy statements
have already been evolved in many of these areas. The issues relevant to library
and information systems and services, their infrastructure and related aspects,
would get diluted if they were to become part of policies related to other fields.
To the library and information professionals, information policy deals with issues
relating to contents of documents that carry all form of information,
organizational mechanisms to collect, store, process, disseminate and serve them
to a variety of users according to their information needs. These issues should
get focused in a policy statement on information.
2) The levels of hierarchy of steps involved in devising a framework for
formulating
National Information Policy are (1) Goal, (ii) Policy, (iii) Strategy and
(iv)Program. These four levels have to be mutually compatible, the lower ones
get derived from the upper.
Goal spells out the target to be achieved.
Policy is a statement for a commitment to a course of action to achieve the set
target.
A strategy is a predetermined course of action, usually selected
from a number of alternatives.
A Program is a scheduled set of activities or tasks undertaken to implement a
strategy
3) A National Information Policy is a set of decisions or tasks by a government
appropriate to laws and regulations, to direct the harmonic development of
information transfer activities, in order to satisfy the information needs of the
country.
A National Information Policy for library and information systems and services
needs provisions of necessary means or instruments such as information
resources, institutional mechanisms, information products and services,
personnel, finance, etc. for implementation.
4) Generation of new forms of knowledge and putting them to use to create

wealth place a country in decidedly vantage position in the present context fierce
competition and struggle for economic and political power.
The diverse participants involved in information and knowledge transfer, the
communication that takes place between groups and individuals, the multitypes of
information resources, use of information, organizational structure etc. point
towards the need for streamlining and rationalization all these components in
evolving a National Information Policy.
5) Knowledge and information are created and used by human beings. They are
created by and for human consumption in the sense of their use as fuel for
developing further knowledge. But the user community is so diverse and varied
that it calls for special attention to orient library and information services to
diverse users. Hence, any policy that makes provision for information systems
and services, should give priority and special attention to use and user needs.
6) Non-documentary sources of information such as expertise, experience of a
variety of persons ranging from farmers, artisans, in villages to professional
vendors, suppliers, contractors, customers, consultants, advisors, guides, etc. trade
fairs, exhibitions, get-togethers wherein information is available in a variety of
ways and other communication processes are valuable sources of information.
Many of these types of sources of information are captured in a systematic way
by specialists in this business. They could be stocked in libraries and information
centers. The other aspects that should get attention in formulating a National
Information Policy are Information and Communication Technology(ICT),
institutional, human and financial resources. Organization and structure, products
and services, standardization, regional and international cooperation.
7 ) With the confluence of technologies more fundamental changes in knowledge
exchange systems are on the anvil through research in Artificial Intelligence,
Cognitive Sciences, Brain Sciences and a host of new and evolving disciplines
to introduce sea changes in human communication.
8) Assessment of manpower needs in terms of types, quantity and levels for the
next decade, keeping in view the fast-changing information environment. Other
aspects area education and training including curriculum development,
preparation of learning and teaching materials, good career prospects for
professionals, award/reward system for good performance, research and
development are some of the important facets that need attention in formulating
9) A number of issues are reckoned to be falling within the framework of a
National Information Policy. Some of the most important ones are: assessment of
information and user information needs in different contexts, multi type
documents and their impact on the communication processes, institutional
mechanisms and national infrastructure, manpower requirement in all its
dimensions, application of ICT, not merely for converting the existing paper-print
records in electronic forms, but more fundamentally for changes in the entire
process of storage , dissemination, retrieval, etc. and national and international
cooperation in the free flow and exchange of information.
10) The need to give recognition to the importance of creating new knowledge
and scientific and technological information has been stated unequivocally in the
Scientific Policy Statement of 1958. With this approach as a guiding principle,
many R & D institutions in the scientific and engineering disciplines as well as in
the social sciences have been set up. Along with the complex of R&D
establishments, several special libraries and information institutions have also
been set up to provide information support facilities. Professional associations
have drawn attention of the government to provide stable infrastructure facilities
to library and information systems and services, through a number of seminars
and conferences.
A draft policy statement also has been submitted to the
Government by the Raja Ram Mohan Roy Foundation.
11) The Main features of the Freedom of Information Act of 2002 are as follows:
Every citizen of India have the freedom of information defined in the right to
obtain information from public authorities, subject to certain conditions stated in
the Act.
The Act defines information as material in any form relating to the
administration, operation or decisions of a public authority.
Requests for information have to be made in writing and a fee will be charged for
the service.
Public bodies have to publish details about their functions and activities at
prescribed intervals.
Exceptions to certain types of information that might harm the interest of the
public bodies are to be stated.
Promotional measures including the provision of Information Officers are to be
given.
Individuals who release information on wrongdoing-whistleblowers must be
protected.
12) The 108 recommendations include a wide spectrum of issues relating to
telecommunications, finance, banking, revenue, commerce, electronics,
human resource development, defence, and rural development.They also
address critical national needs in the areas of information
Infrastructure, Internet access, software development and exports,
hardware manufacture. electronic commerce R & D in ICT, manpower
training and education.
Indian Institute of Information Technology with a deemed university status is to
the set up.
A promotional campaign Operation Knowledge aiming at universalizing IT
and I-based education at all levels of the education pyramid in India needs to be
undertaken.
A National Informatics Policy will have to be formulated.
The three principles viz. encouraging competition, entrepreneurship, and
Innovation for economic reforms will be broadened and deepened.
13) Although the Freedom of Information Act as well as the Information
Technology Action Plan does not directly speak about the national system for
library and information systems and services directly, they are implied. Any
system of information should take into account institutional structures and their
activities that would contribute towards the primary goal of information access
and use. Therefore one could expect that the Act as well as the IT Action Plan
would eventually benefit the Library and Information Community and constitute a
tremendous source of economic and political power.
14) The future scenario clearly indicates the accent on information and
knowledge as key resources for all round national development. The extent of
investments on the information sector would determine the strength of economic
and political power of a country.
11.10 KEY WORDS
Documentary Resources
Human Resources
Information as Wealth
inputs of
: Recorded information irrespective of any physical

Medium.
: Human beings as carrier information,
Knowledge, skills and expertise and experience.
: Knowledge and information as basic
economic commodities for transforming other
resources into wealth.
Information Institutions
Information Needs
looking for Information
Information Resources
Information Revolution
: Institutions that generate and store knowledge

and information, service them for those who
need them.
: The requirements of individuals and groups
for their specific work.
: All types of resources that provide information.
: Information as a basic instrument of change
bringing about major changes in society
Information CommunicationTechnology(ICT) :
Convergence of
technologies that
deal with
information processing,
storage, retrieval
communication.
Information Transfer
Information Use
MacBride Report
: The process of flow of information from

generation to use.
: Applying knowledge and
information for accomplishing definite
purpose or goal.
: A report on the New International Information
Order in relation Mass Media. Also known by the
name Many Voices and One World
National Information Policy: A set of guidelines for directing library and

information activities with a proper
infrastructure .
Non-documentary Resources
Forms
: Information not recorded in conventional
Products and Services

services
: Information packed as products and

offering access to information from any source.

Freedom of Information Act 2002 (Act N. 5, 0f 2002).
Horton, Forest Woody Jr., Ed. (2000). Defining and assessing the impact on
development : building research and action agendas. FID Occasional papers
16p.
Gray, J C (1977). Information Policy for Economic and Social Development. A
dynamic Approach. Working Document prepared for Unesco. Reprinted in the
Proceedings of the 11th Iaslic Conference
A Handbook of the formulation, approval, implementation and operation of
National Information Policies Executive Summary(2000) by F W Horton,
revised edition by Victor Montviloff. Prepared by the International Federation of
Information and Documentation for Unesco.
India. (Government of_ ). National Task Force on Information Technology and
Software Development (1998). Information Technology Action Plan.
Kulkarni V P (2004). Cyberspace-Integrity, Security and Law.
Yearbook 2004. 140-46
Manorama
Martin, W J (1988). The Information Society. London: Aslib.

Mendel, Toby (2003). Freedom of Information: A comparative Legal Survey.
Paris: Unesco.
Muir , Adrienne and Oppenheim, Charles (2002). National Information;
developments worldwide 4 parts. Journal of Information Science, 28 (3-6).
Neelmeghan, A (1976). Need for Information Policy. Journal of Library and
Information Science, 1,7,8-18.
Neelmeghan, A (1999). Information Economy and Knowledge Society; An
Introduction. Part 3: Economics and policy aspects. Information Studies 5 (4)
Rajagopalan T S and Rajan T N (1986). National Information Policy for India. A
Perspective. In B M Gupta, et al. Eds. Handbook of Libraries, Archives and
Information Centres in India. New Delhi: Information Industry Publications.
Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation and Indian Library Association (1985)
Documents of National Policy on Library and Information System. Calcutta: The
Foundation.
Unesco (1979). Intergovernmental Conference on Scientific and Technological
Information for Development. Paris: Unesco.
Unesco Regional Office for Communication and Information, Bangkok: Thailand
National Information Policy-Differing approaches.
Vijaya Raghavan, G and Nair, V S M (2003). E-Governance: leveraging IT for
reinventing the Government. Manorama Yearbook 2004
UNIT 12 INFORMATION
INFRASTRUCTURE: NATIONAL
AND GLOBAL
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Information Society
12.2.1 NEIS Goals
12.2.2 Societal Impact
12.3 Information Management Functions

12.4 Infrastructure Overview: GII and NII
12.4.1 Overall Configuration
12.4.2 Key Issues
12.4.3 Management
12.5 Network Access

12.5.1 Access Links
12.5.2 Access Devices
12.6 Home Networks

12.7 Office Networks
12.8 Corporate Networks
12.9 GII Applications
12.10 Security Issues
12.11 Summary
12.13 Keywords
12.0
OBJECTIVES
l
Networked Electronic Information Society (NEIS);
the five different goals of NEIS;
impact of NEIS on various societal aspects;
different functions of information management;
structure of global information infrastructure (GII);
the five key issues in GII;
management aspects of GII;
how GII is accessed;
different types of access links and the access devices;
emerging home networks and trends in office networks;
293
Intranet and Extranet;
difference between private and virtual private networks;
different categories of GII applications;
E-commerce; and
security aspects of GII.
12.1
INTRODUCTION
Quest for new knowledge is the central theme of human existence. All of us,
whether we realise or not, are in the process of acquiring new knowledge all
the time. When we ask a question, we are seeking knowledge. When we answer
to a query, we give information to the person posing the question. When a
person assimilates the given information, we say that the person has acquired
knowledge. Knowledge is spread via information that is communicated from
one person to another in some form, oral, writing etc. Thus, knowledge,
information and information communication are three entities that are closely
inter-related. Research and development on information and its communication
has led to a new branch of study called Information and Communication
Technology (ICT). ICT comprises two major technologies: computers and
communications. In Unit 8, we learnt about digital information and its preeminence in todays society. Computer technology is the tool for storing and
processing information in digital form. Communication technology helps us
transfer and disseminate digital information.
Developments in ICT are bringing about profound changes in our life-style.
The coming together of computers and communications has led to the
emergence of a worldwide computer network, now known as Internet. Internet
is a network of networks. Today, Internet has around 120,000 computer
networks interconnected. With the evolution of such networks, our life-style
is changing. A number of our day-to-day activities are being carried out on the
networks. ICT plays an important role in almost all areas of our activities. The
society is evolving towards a networked community with electronic information
as the central commodity. One might term the society of the 21st century as
the Networked Electronic Information Society (NEIS). It is a society in
which activities are centred around networks and the main commodity on the
networks is electronic information in digital form.
294
What we witness as Internet today is only a minuscule of a network that is

envisioned for NEIS. Todays Internet services are predominantly text and
data oriented with only sprinkles of graphics still pictures and slow motion
video. About one-sixth of the world population is connected to the Internet.
Even with this level of service and connectivity, Internet is having serious
problems of address space and bandwidth capacity. Experience shows that
Internet is slow for many network applications and the quality of services is
far from acceptable level in many cases. Internet is designed for data transport,
and real time services like voice and video transmissions have serious quality
problems. Internet is predominantly built over voice grade telecommunication
infrastructure, its protocols have heavy overheads, and there are too many ad
hoc solutions for problems encountered during operations. All these compound
to almost insurmountable difficulties in bringing up Internet to any meaningful

level of performance. The vision of NEIS calls for transportation of high quality
audio including high fidelity music and high quality motion video apart from
high-resolution graphics. With the present level of development and trend,
support of such services on the Internet is almost impossible. The key to the
evolution of NEIS lies in building global information infrastructure that
would have adequate capacity and efficiency to support full-scale services
envisioned for NEIS. Information infrastructure is the backbone for NEIS.
Much as the road infrastructure on which vehicles run, information centred
services and applications run on the information infrastructure. In this Unit,
we discuss the evolving NEIS and the various aspects of information
infrastructure.
12.2
Information Infrastructure:
National and Global
INFORMATION SOCIETY
Advances in ICT are bringing about new perceptions in our ways of living.
The way in which we do our work, the way we produce goods, the way we
trade, the way we manage our wealth, and our entertainment pattern are all
undergoing major changes. In this section, we present a visionary scenario for
various aspects of our life in the context of evolving NEIS. Before that, we
state and discuss a set of goals for NEIS.
12.2.1 NEIS Goals

The goals of NEIS may be stated as five As:
l
Anyone
Anytime
Anywhere
Any information
Any format
The goal anyone implies the existence of a full-fledged networked society in

which every human being on the planet has access to the global network either
from home, office or from a service outlet like a cyber cafe. In NEIS, connecting
homes on the network becomes an essential infrastructural service much as
electricity or water supply connection. When fully developed, it should be
possible for a man from the poorest of the villages in the world to access
resources in the richest of the cities in the world.
The goal anytime implies that network infrastructure is expected to operate 24
hours a day and 365 days a year without any failure. It is the same case with
services on the network. In this context, time zones and holiday patterns may
become unimportant in the life style of people. Further, persons should be
able to access the network on demand providing greater flexibility to
individuals and communities.
The goal anywhere has implication for persons who are accessing information
as well as for the information resources being accessed. For persons, it implies
access from anywhere in the world irrespective of the persons normal place
of residence. For information resources, the implication is that the resources
295
should be accessible at any place irrespective of where the resources are located
on the planet. To enable persons to access from anywhere, the concept of
location independent access needs to be supported by the network infrastructure.
This calls for a universal identification of individuals, which remains permanent
for the lifetime of the individual. In fact, a child may be assigned a universal
code as soon as he/she is born and is identified by that code throughout his/her
life on the planet.
The modern communication systems are slowly moving towards concept of
location independent access. In 1996, the United States of America introduced
legislation called Local Number Portability (LNP) bill that permits telecom
users to retain their identification numbers irrespective of the network provider
they are attached to. Where there are multiple network operators, they are
identified by a prefix to the telecom identification number (telephone number).
In India, Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) or Bharat Sanchar
Nigam Limited (BSNL) is identified by the prefix 2, Reliance Infocomm by
3 and Tata Indicom by 5. If one changes the service provider, the telephone
number changes even though the person has not shifted his/her residence. The
U.S LNP legislation allows the user to retain the same telephone number and
only change the prefix. In about a decade from now, it is expected that a person
may be able to retain the same telecom identification within a city irrespective
of where he/she lives in the city. Readers may appreciate that this is not the
case at present. If a person moves residence from one locality to another that is
within the same city, but not in the same telephone exchange area, then the
telephone number changes. This, however, is not the case with mobile or
wireless access systems. The problem does not exist in the case of generic
Internet domain addresses. As long as your domain name belongs to one of
the generic domains, it remains the same even if you change your country of
residence. For example, .com, .org and .net addresses are location independent.
The goal any information is closely associated with the democratic concept of
right to access of information to every citizen of the planet. Such a right can
only be applicable to public information. What information is considered public
and what is not is for the governments of different nations to decide. Information
policies of different nations address this issue. But the emphasis in NEIS is
that any public domain information should be accessible to anyone in the world.
Access to some information may be priced whereas access to some others may
be free of charge. The emphasis is also to make more and more information
available in the public domain either for priced or free access.
296
The global nature of the information society makes the goal of any format
important. A networked society cuts across transborder barriers of nations, as
the access is worldwide. Considering that many hundreds of languages are in
use throughout the world, access to information is facilitated by a translation
mechanism. In this context, real time machine translation assumes significance.
Ideally, a text stored in one language should be readable in any other language.
Or, what is spoken in one language should be heard in any other language. For
example, a person accessing a Japanese database from USA may see the
information presented in English. Or, a Russian may converse with an Indian,
both using their respective native languages. Of the 5 As, any format
requirement is the most difficult one to be met. Machine translation being
important in the context of NEIS, we look at certain aspects of machine

translation in the following.
National and Global
Machine translation is better done using an intermediate language than directly

from one language to another. For translation of 500 languages directly from
one another, we require 500 499 translation programs. For each language,
we need 499 conversion programs. With intermediate language, this number
reduces to 1000. We need only two programs for each language. One program
is required to translate from the native language to the intermediate language
(IL) and the other for translating from IL to the native language. A machine
translation model based on IL is depicted in Fig. 12.1. If we have to translate
Japanese into English, first we translate Japanese into IL and then from IL to
English. The question then arises as to what should be the characteristics of
such an intermediate language. In an article in AI (Artificial Intelligence)
magazine in 1984, Briggs, a NASA scientist, states that Sanskrit is better suited
as an IL for machine translation than English or many other Western languages.
L1
L2
Ln
Intermediate
Language
L1
L2
Ln
L = Language
Fig. 12.1: Intermediate Language Based Translation Model
When compared to English, Sanskrit has many advantages. For example,

Sanskrit is free from word ordering whereas English is not. The following
Sanskrit sentences mean only one thing irrespective of the order in which the
words appear:
Lisa pustakam pattati
Pustakam Lisa pattati
Pustakam pattati Lisa
Pattati pustakam Lisa
Pattathi Lisa pustakam
Lisa pattati pustakam
The above sentence in English is Lisa reads a book. The meaning of the sentence
changes completely if the word order is changed in English. For example, A
book reads Lisa! This one property of Sanskrit alone leads to significant
simplification in language processing on the computer. There are also other
properties of Sanskrit that make it suitable for computer processing. Sanskrit
words are self-expressive as they all are derived by combining two or more of
about 4000 basic roots. Once the meanings of the roots are known and a word
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is split into its basic roots the meaning of the word becomes derivable and thus
is self-expressive. In effect, this amounts to saying that the dictionary of Sanskrit
can be limited to 4000 words as long as the rules for combining roots and
splitting words are unambiguous which, in fact, is the case. In contrast, a
dictionary for English language may contain as many as 200,000 words or
more.
Clearly, there is a need to search for or design a suitable intermediate language
for machine translation. English does not appear to be the ideal language. The
structural, grammatical and semantic properties of Sanskrit make it a better
candidate than English for machine communication.
12.2.2 Societal Impact

Advances in information technology are changing and shaping the basic
structure of our societal life. New perceptions are placing knowledge,
information and connectivity at the centre-stage of human endeavour. What
would life be like in the networked society? What occupations will people
pursue? Will there be offices for people to go and work? Will there be schools
for children to gather and learn? Will the networked society automatically
solve some of the problems of environment such as pollution that threaten the
very existence of humanity at the present time? What will be the impact of the
networked information society on the culture of people all over the world?
With the networks spanning the entire globe, will the concept of border-less
nations become a reality? These are major societal issues to be addressed and
debated, but certain macro shifts appear to be visible. We discuss some of
these in the following paragraphs.
In the networked society, homes rather than offices are likely to be the activity
centres. The NEIS is expected to bring about radical changes in the work culture.
Persons may be able to receive or render services on the network without
having to attend office everyday. Such of those persons are termed
telecommuters. The trend of telecommuting is already visible in countries like
the United States where about 40% of the corporate workers are estimated to
be telecommuters as on year 2004. Telecommuting tends to promote homecentred activities. In telecommuting environment, the physical location is
unimportant to receive or render services. A direct result of networking and
telecommuting is the emergence of a less-travel society if not a travel-less
society. It is estimated that, on an average, working persons in the world spend
over 20% of the active time in a day on travel. With travel time saved, homecentred activities would lead to better creativity, innovation and productivity.
Home centred activities can be carried out in a relaxed atmosphere in the absence
of the stress of daily travel and strict timing constraints. Flexible hours of
working coupled with innovative management of resources and manpower
promise to enhance productivity. Telecommuting culture with home-centred
activities would eventually lead to a home-centred economy.
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The very concept of education as understood today may change. From the
institution-based education, the emphasis may shift to home-based education
with every home connected to a variety of educational resources, libraries and
teachers. In other words, distance education via the network may become a
way of life rather than commuting to colleges and schools. For example, you
may pursue MLIS course via a network from the Indira Gandhi National Open
University in New Delhi irrespective of where you are located physically in

the world. True education as a personalised process of gaining knowledge in
the area of direct interest may become a reality.
National and Global
Let us now turn our attention to environment. The direct impact of less-travel
society is less polluted cities in the world. In major cities of the world, about
two-third of the atmospheric pollution comes from vehicular traffic. If there
were a reduction of 25-30% in vehicular traffic on account of telecommuting,
the people in the major cities of the world would breathe much cleaner air.
Home-centred occupation would leave much time for the people to turn their
attention to plantation, gardening and environment. A natural concern for
environmental protection may re-emerge and the environmental problems
addressed through more efficient use of resources and energies. Sustainable
human development while preserving the Ecosystems may become a way of
life. Telecommuting also opens up the much-desired possibility of women
being able to contribute to national development without having to sacrifice
family responsibilities.
The present society is characterised by community formation based on work
centres. Persons who work in the same office or factory tend to form a bond
such as an association, a union or a club. Social activities are usually centred
on such formations. In a home-centred environment, the communities will
comprise groups from among people pursuing different vocations and
professions in life. Under those circumstances, a true social community is
likely to emerge.
The last few centuries have been characterised by mass production with large
industrial houses being set up. This has led to power brokering between work
force and the management characterised by strikes, lock outs etc. In NEIS,
small community dwellings that are self-contained may emerge. The
community needs may be met locally from products available in its natural
surroundings. The concept of associations and unions may vanish in the
networked society. This would also imply that production would take place
locally with a large number of persons engaged in producing goods that are
required. This is an interesting scenario for large-scale employment and for
overcoming the present problems of unemployment.
There is a variety of other perceptible macro shifts that may be discussed at
length. We, however, list only some of these and leave the discussions to the
readers:
l
Centralised to Distributed
Driven Society to Driving Society
Competition to Co-operation
World as a Corporate
Libraries as Electronic Knowledge Storehouses
Broadcast to Interactive
Readers are advised to exercise their minds about possible scenario in the
areas listed above.
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12.3
INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
FUNCTIONS
With electronic information being the central commodity in NEIS, information

management functions become the core of technological capability in networks.
There are seven functions of information management that are important:
1)
Generation
2)
Acquisition
3)
Storage
4)
Retrieval
5)
Processing
6)
Transmission
7)
Distribution
In general, information is generated by human thought process, human acts

and by happenings in nature. Whether technology generates information is a
debatable point. When data is processed in a computer, the output is considered
as information. In that sense, it may be said that computers generate information.
But the basic data comes from nature or human activity. Information
acquisition is done by instruments, sensors and transducers. Instruments
measure quantities like temperature, wind speed and voltage and current.
Sensors record as well as detect variations in quantities such as temperature
exceeding a certain threshold value. Transducers are used for conversion of
energy from one form to another for certain purpose. For example, microphone,
which is a transducer, converts speech energy to electrical energy for
transmission over a communication system. A major class of sensors is remote
sensing satellites, also known as earth observation satellites. Remote sensing
satellites are a major source information. The quantum of data collected by
remote sensing satellites in a day runs into terabytes (1012 bytes). This is roughly
equivalent to 300 million pages of printed information.
Storage, retrieval and processing functions are well known. In ICT, current
storage devices are capable of storing tens of gigabytes of information in a
small disc using blue laser optical technology. A new storage device based on
a technology called electronic beam technology is capable of storing 800 GB
of information on CD-ROM like disc. The transmission and distribution
functions may be collectively called as information dissemination. Transmission
refers to bulk transfer between two main points. Distribution refers to transfer
to end points like user terminals.
12.4
INFRASTRUCTURE OVERVIEW: GII AND

NII
Information infrastructures are evolving at three different levels:

l
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National
Regional
Global
Concrete plans to construct National Information Infrastructure (NII),

Regional Information Infrastructure (RII) and to interconnect them to form
a Global Information Infrastructure (GII) are being launched by a number
of countries at present. While considering information infrastructure, one speaks
of information pipes that are classified as highways and super highways. The
speed with which information can be transported defines a highway or a super
highway. Table 12.1 gives the different categories of information highways
according to the speeds supported by them. It may, however, be kept in mind
that there is no agreed or standard definition of these categories. What is
presented in Table 12.1 is a category definition evolved by the author over the
years.
National and Global
Table 12.1: Classification of Information Pipes
Category
Footpath
Highway
Super Highway
Ultra Highway
Nominal Speed
9.6 kbps
128 kbps
2 Mbps
155 Mbps
Maximum Speed
64 kbps
2 Mbps
155 Mbps
>10 Gbps
Depending upon the economic conditions, different nations have varying

proportions of different types of information pipes suitably interconnected.
Poor developing countries have a long proportion of information footpath and
a small or no segment of ultra highways. The situation may be the reverse in
the developed countries. Incidentally, the concept of information footpath was
first advocated by India in its own context and in the context of the poor
developing nations.
12.4.1 Overall Configuration

At an overview level, the GII may be considered a 4-layered one. At the
foundation is the telecommunication infrastructure that spans the globe.
All other layers rest on it. At the second level, there is the application
infrastructure such as the Internet. At the third level is the access
infrastructure. At the fourth level, we have the user infrastructure. The
overview configuration of the global information infrastructure is shown in
Figure 12.1. There are five different types of user infrastructure as shown in
Figure 12.1. A mobile station may be a simple mobile phone, a Personal Digital
Assistant (PDA), or a laptop, notebook or palm-size computer. Cybercafe is a
well-known service outlet with computers that are part of GII. A user may
access GII services via one of these computers on payment basis. We discuss
in detail other user infrastructural components, home networks, office networks
and corporate networks, in later sections. All user infrastructural components
access the GII via access networks to which they are connected via a variety of
access links. The access link options are discussed in Section 12.5.1. Access
networks are basically the end segments of telecommunication networks. They
are connected to the high-speed infrastructure via transmission links.
Transmission links are high-capacity links and run at much greater speed than
access links. It is important to recognise that Internet is an applications network
that is built over the traditional telecommunication infrastructure. It is one of
the main application infrastructures that exist today. Another example of
application infrastructure is the SMS and downloads facility offered by mobile
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networks. In NEIS, we may have many more such application infrastructures.

The telecommunication infrastructure is in the form of four major networks:
1)
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
2)
Packet Switched Data Network (PSDN)
3)
Mobile Network
4)
Integrate Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Telecom Networks
PSTN
PSDN
Mobile
ISDN
Application Networks
(Internet)
Transmission
links
Access Networks
Access
links
Mobile
Stations
Cyber
Cafe
Home
Networks
Office
Networks
Corporate
Networks
Fig. 12.1: Configuration of Information Infrastructure
The most stupendous telecommunications network in existence today is the

public switched telephone network (PSTN) or sometimes known as Plain Old
Telephone System (POTS). In standards documents, PSTN is often referred to
as General Switched Telephone Network (GSTN). PSTN has evolved over a
period of 120 years since the beginning of telephony in 1879. There are over a
billion telephones in the world connected via landlines (copper cables) to the
network as of year 2004. The length of wiring in the telephone network is
estimated to be over 12 times the distance between the earth and the sun. In
other words, the world is estimated to have buried about 1.8 billion kilometres
of copper cable in the earth since the beginning of telephony in 1879.
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The principle of switching is central to all telecommunications networks.

Switching signifies the fact that a connection is established between two chosen
ends by turning on one or more switches. Telephone networks use the technique
of circuit switching where a communication path is established between the
source and destination before the actual information transfer takes place. This
path and the associated resources remain dedicated between the source and
destination for the entire duration of information transfer. When one of the
two communicating entities initiates a disconnection, the information transfer
ends.
Packet Switched Data Networks (PSDN) are sometimes referred to as Public

Switched Data Networks. They are also known as computer networks. They
are relatively of recent origin (45 50 years old) and have emerged as a result
of coming together of computer and communication technologies. These
networks enable sharing of hardware, software and data resources of computer
systems. Data networks may be viewed as telephone networks where telephone
instruments are replaced by computers that are then made to communicate
with each other. However, making computers communicate demands much
more than mere physical connection. It needs a set of protocols and software
mechanisms to exchange data, files and programs and to route data traffic.
Switching technique used by data networks is different from the one used by
telephone networks. Circuit switching is designed for continuous traffic. Data
traffic is generally bursty in nature. To suit this traffic pattern, data networks
adopt another switching technique, known as packet switching.
National and Global
At this point, a few words about Internet are in order. Internet is an applicationoriented network built over the infrastructure of data networks. It is conceived
to be a network of all data networks scattered all around the globe. The rapid
growth of Internet was made possible because of the massive
telecommunication infrastructure that existed when Internet was conceived
and Internet was built over it. Rapid expansion in Internet introduced problems
of scale unanticipated in the original design. In particular, management of
names and unique addresses of all computers connected to the Internet turned
out to be a serious problem. New protocols were developed and a naming
system, known as Domain Name System (DNS) was put in place to enable any
user to resolve the name of a remote machine automatically. DNS runs on
machines called name servers located in various parts of the world. The current
Internet addresses are part of the definition of version 4 of the Internet Protocol
(IPv4) which uses a 32-bit address providing for four billion Internet host
computers. This was considered a large number when IPv4 was defined about
20 years ago. But the way in which address space is structured has resulted in
serious wastage of address space. Today, Internet is running out of address
space. The latest version of IP, Version 6, (IPv6) provides for an address space
of 128 bits. IPv6 is likely to replace IPv4 all over the world in the next one or
two decades.
Mobile communications have emerged in a big way in the 1990s. The first
thing to recognise about mobile communication is that the concept of mobility
is applicable only to the end segments of the telecommunication infrastructure.
Beyond the end segment, the communication takes place via the normal
terrestrial telecommunication infrastructure. Mobile networks are based on
the principle of cellular communication. Here, a geographical region is divided
into smaller areas called cells. Each cell has a radio station called base station
through which users are connected to the telecommunication infrastructure.
Over a period of time, it became clear that management and maintenance of
separate telephone and data networks were turning out to be expensive. Out of
this experience, arose a natural question: Is it possible to design a single
switched network that can carry many services? The current trend in
telecommunications is to design multi services networks. The core idea in
multi services networks is the digital representation of information signals, be
it voice, video or data. If all the signals are in digital form, a network capable
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of transporting digital signals can carry a multitude of services. This approach

is leading to the evolution of the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
which is the first major multi services network being planned and implemented
all over the world. ISDN is capable of carrying multi media services like voice,
data, video and facsimile. ISDN is pioneered and guided by International
Telecommunications Union (ITU). ISDN as envisioned in 1984 provides for a
digital pipe at the customer premises with a minimum capacity of 144 kbps
and a maximum of 2048 kbps. The realisation of the inadequacy of these rates
in the context of NEIS soon led to the definition of broadband ISDN (B-ISDN).
Although ISDN is just moving from planning stage to prototype and
implementation, ITUs vision of the networked society has resulted in much
of the present planning and design being directed towards broadband ISDN. It
appears that some parts of the world may skip the implementation of ISDN
and move directly to B-ISDN. The switching technique used in B-ISDN is
known as cell switching. B-ISDN also uses an information transfer mode,
known as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) that is well suited for a
variety of services including real time audio and video transmissions. It is
important to recognise that cell switching in B-ISDN, and cellular
communication in mobile systems are very different.
Managing multiple services on a single network calls for sophisticated
signalling facilities. The common channel signalling proposed in mid 1970s
has now grown into a full-fledged signalling network. The large scale use of
computers in B-ISDN coupled with a powerful signalling network is leading
to the concept of intelligent networks which are pre-programmed to be
adaptive, algorithmic, resourceful, responsive and intelligent. As an example
of the possible capabilities of such intelligent networks, one may cite real time
machine translation. A telephone conversation originating in German may be
heard in French at the receiver end and vice versa. A telex sent in Hindi in
Delhi may be delivered in Kannada in Bangalore. Such examples, although
somewhat far fetched now, may become a reality in the coming decades. The
switching techniques, telecommunication networks and Internet are discussed
in detail in Units 5 and 6, Block 2 of MLII-103.
Self Check Exercise
1) Present a layered architecture for GII and discuss the different layers
functionality.
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Global Information Infrastructure
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What does this expression Global Information Infrastructure (GII) connote?

Let us try to understand its meaning and significance.
The presence of a global information infrastructure is that government; business,

communities, and individuals can cooperate to link the worlds
telecommunication and computer networks together into a vast constellation
capable of carrying digital and analog signals in support of every conceivable
information and communication application. The premise is that this
constellation of networks will promote an information society that benefits
all: peace, friendship, and cooperation through interpersonal communications;
empowerment through access to information for education, business and social
good; more productive labour through technology-enriched environments; and
stronger economics through open competition in global markets.
National and Global
Of course, the premise is exciting and appears somewhat rational. Information

technologies are advancing at a very rapid rate and ubiquitous. Many scholars,
policy makers, technologists, business people contend that these changes caused
by these new technologies are revolutionary and will result in profound
transformations of society. It is stated that physical location will cease to matter.
More and more human activities in learning, conducting commerce, and
communicating will take place via information technologies. Online access to
information resources will provide a depth and breadth of resources never
before possible. Most print publications will cease; electronic publication and
distribution will become the norm. Libraries, archives, museums, publishers,
bookstores, schools, universities, and other institutions that they rely on artefacts
in physical form will be transformed radically or will cease to exist.
Fundamental changes are predicted in the relationship between these
institutions, with authors less dependent on publishers, information seekers
less dependent on libraries, and universities less dependent on traditional models
of publication to evaluate scholarship. Networks will grease the wheels of
commerce, improve education, increase the amount of interpersonal
communication, provide unprecedented access to information resources and
to human experience, and lead to greater economic equity.
It must be mentioned here that the scenario described above is vehemently
contested by many who argue that we are in the process of evolutionary, not
revolutionary, social change towards an information- oriented society. People
make social changes, which lead to the development of desired technologies.
They contend that computer networks are continuation of earlier communication
technologies such as telegraph, telephone, radio and television and similar
devices that rely on networked infrastructures. All are dependent on institutions,
and these evolve much more slowly than do technologies. Digitised and digital
media are extensions of earlier media, and institutions that manage them will
adapt them to their practices as they have adapted many media before them.
They agree that electronic publishing will become more important, but only
for certain materials that serve certain purposes. Print publishing will co-exist
with other forms of distribution. Although relationships between institutions
will evolve, publishers, libraries and universities serve gate-keeping functions
that will continue to be essential in future. More activities will be conducted
online, with the result that face-to-face relationships will become more valued
and precious. The new ICTs will supplement but not supplant the traditional
way of conducting all activities. It is felt that communication technologies
increase, rather than decrease, inequalities, and we should be wary of the
economic processes of a global information infrastructure. Which of the two
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scenarios depicted above is more likely to occur? It must be emphasised that

the arguments for these scenarios, the underlying assumptions, and the evidence
offered must be examined. Upon close examination, it will be found that strong
claims about the effects of information technologies on society, and vice- versa
are based on simplistic assumptions about technology, behaviour, organisations,
and economics. None of these factors exist in a vacuum; they often interact in
complex and often unpredictable ways. In fact, it is stated that the future scenario
lies somewhere between the two scenarios. People select and implement
technologies that are available and suit their practices and goals. As they use
them, they adapt them to suit their needs, often in ways not anticipated by
their designers.
In summary access is among the primary arguments for constructing a global
information infrastructure. Information resources are essential for manner of
human affairs, including commerce, education, research, participatory
democracy, and government policy and leisure activities. Access to information
for all these purposes is at the centre of the global information infrastructure.
An information infrastructure is built upon an installed upon an installed base
of telecommunication lines, electrical power grids, and computing technology,
as well as available information resources, organisational arrangements, and
peoples practices in using all these aspects. When information infrastructure
works well, people depend on it for critical work, education, and leisure tasks,
taking its reliability for granted. When it breaks down, then people may resort
to alternative means to complete the task, if those means exist.
National Information Infrastructure
In recent years the subject of National Information Infrastructure (NII) has
been receiving greater attention in both scholarly and trade publications. The
issue is expected to have significant implications for the use of electronic
communication in education, business, industry, and government. The NII is
expected to provide for the integration of software, hardware and skills that
will make it easy and affordable to connect people with each other, with
computers, and with a vast array of services and information resources (form
Information Infrastructure Executive Order 1993). It is anticipated to be
seamless web of communication networks, computer databases, and consumer
electronics that will put vast amounts of information at users fingertips.
(Information Infrastructure Task Force, 1993). This seamless web of
communication networks including computers, televisions, telephones and
satellites is expected to forever alter the way people live, learn, work and
communicate with each other both within the country and around the world.
The U.S. administration has indicated its commitment to build NII to meet the
information needs of its citizens. This infrastructure is expected to expand the
level of interactivity, enhance communication and allow access to various kinds
of services. It is expected to accelerate the transformation of this society to the
Information Age, and provide increased accessibility to a vast array of electronic
information resource and services.
12.4.2 Key Issues
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Whenever a major development takes place, a number of issues crop up. NEIS
is no exception. The main issues concerning NEIS may be characterised by
five Cs:
Connectivity;
Capacity;
Content;
Culture; and
Cost.
National and Global
At present, less than one-sixth of the world population is connected to

telecommunication infrastructure for some service or the other. The connection
may be for a simple service like telephone, dial-up Internet access or a multitude
of services offered by ISDN. A parameter called teledensity is used to express
the connectivity level in a country. Teledensity is the number of teleconnections
per hundred in the population. It is not the percentage of the population that
has connectivity. It is because one person may have more than one connection
or one connection may be shared by more than one person. The connectivity
level is fairly high in developed countries and it is very low in developing and
under-developed countries. For example, in the United Kingdom, the teledensity
is 143 whereas in India it is 6.6 as of year 2003. How do we then increase the
connectivity level? Laying cables to every village, home and office in the
world is a formidable task and it may take many centuries if this were to be
achieved. Clearly, it is not the approach to achieving connectivity in a short
time frame. There are two communication technologies that offer solution to
the connectivity problem: short-haul radio for urban areas and satellite
communication for rural areas.
Mobile communication is the forerunner of short-haul radio technology. Since
the introduction of mobile telephony in 1992, over one billion mobile
subscriptions have been registered as of 2004. There is a discernible trend that
indicates that new users prefer mobile connectivity to landline connectivity.
Today over 90% of the countries in the world have mobile networks and over
100 countries have more mobile subscriptions than fixed landline subscriptions.
Three reasons may be identified for the rapid growth of short-haul technology.
First, the radio links are fairly reliable. Second, once the radio network is in
place, adding a new subscriber involves very little installation effort and time.
The third reason is commercial. The availability of prepaid card facility without
having to be a regular subscriber is extremely attractive to small time users or
masses. Thus, clearly, short-haul radio technology is raising access to
telecommunication networks significantly. It must, however, be remembered
that mobile or short-haul radio connectivity is feasible only if there is a radio
network in place. At present, radio networks are being installed only in urban
areas where there is a concentration of population. Habitation in rural areas is
spread out with thin population. Radio networks are not suitable for rural areas
for two reasons. First, they have a limited range, typically a radius of 50 kM.
Second, they depend on landline infrastructure for interconnecting base stations.
In the context of remote area connectivity, ITU had suggested that every village
in the world be brought on to the connectivity map by the end of year 2003.
This has not happened. Satellite communication presents a practical solution
for connecting remote areas. Establishing connectivity via satellite links is by
far the quickest. Even remotest areas can be brought on to the world network
map in a matter of a few hours by installing a satellite terminal. Local cabling
307
may distribute information from the satellite terminal to houses in the village.
Satellite links do not need any landline infrastructure. At present, efforts are
on to develop satellite mobile systems wherein a hand-held device may connect
to a satellite directly without the help of a terminal. This also offers an elegant
solution to rural area connectivity even though the capacity of the hand-held
terminals may be very limited.
Let us now turn our attention to capacity issue. We have seen that satellite
communication provides quick remote area connectivity and short haul radio
instant connectivity in urban areas. But, are these technologies capable of
providing the required bandwidth? A typical present day communication
satellite offers a bandwidth of about 800 - 1000 MHz. Similarly, a commercial
short haul radio link may offer data rates of the order of a few Mbps. The
actual bandwidth required is dependent on the services that are to be supported
on the network. The services envisaged for the NEIS are placed under two
categories: interactive and distributive. They demand transmission and
distribution of high fidelity voice, high quality video and other forms of
information on interactive basis. This calls for a broadband communication
pipe supporting data rates of the order of 100 Mbps or more to be extended to
the customer premises. Only high speed copper cables and optical fibres can
offer such high bandwidths. The bandwidth capacity of optical fibres is, of
course, orders of magnitude higher than that of copper cables.
We now have a paradoxical situation. Short-haul radio and satellite
communication enhance connectivity but have limited bandwidth capabilities.
High speed copper cables and optical fibres can offer very high bandwidth but
have serious connectivity limitations. Hopefully, these technologies are poised
to play complementary roles in shaping the networked information society of
tomorrow. Clearly, the goal of telecommunications in the years to come is to
establish a wide band multi-services network reaching out to as large a
population of the world as possible.
There is no use having a large infrastructure without applications to run on it.
Content, applications and services creation is an area that is receiving wide
attention at present. Standardisation in media coding is an important requirement
for content development. With the likelihood of transborder barriers being
broken in NEIS, serious concern is being expressed about the cultural impact
on the nations. In particular, some nations are worried about their tradition and
culture being swarmed by that of other powerful nations. The cost aspect of
GII has two aspects: capital cost and operating cost. Realisation of GII requires
large capital investment. The cost of services on the GII must be affordable by
a large section of the population.
Self Check Exercise
2)
Given the population of India as 1024 million, calculate the number of

teleconnections in India.
3)
Given the population of France as 59.7 million and the number of

teleconnections as 75.2 million, calculate the teledensity of France.
Note: i)
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12.4.3 Management
The global and national information infrastructure is being conceived as a
massive network with very high capacity and capability. Evolution of such a
massive infrastructure calls for important managerial processes that must be
set in motion. For ICT based systems, some important components of
management process have been identified:
1)
System availability
2)
Performance and tuning
3)
Change management
4)
Network management
5)
Configuration management
6)
Capacity planning
7)
Strategic security
8)
Disaster management
9)
Facility management
System availability is a critical parameter in GII. Reliability and availability

of GII systems are highly demanding. As a matter of routine, people would
expect the GII systems to work, much as the way they expect a bulb to light up
when they turn on the switch. They would also expect the systems to work
year after year for many decades. To meet this requirement, GII systems are
designed as high availability systems with an availability figure of over 99.99%
and a life span of about 30 years. The availability figure of 99.99% means that
the system may be down for 36 seconds in a week.
12.5
NETWORK ACCESS
In GII, network access is expected to be in digital form. A basic assumption is

that all devices at the subscriber end are digital devices. However, the access
networks may be analog. Access to GII is obtained via any of the
telecommunication networks, viz. landline telephone network, landline packet
switched data network, mobile telephone network or ISDN. In many parts of
the world, the traditional telephone network has been changed to digital mode
of operation with the installation of digital exchanges. However, the subscriber
end may not be digital. The Subscriber Line Interface Card (SLIC) at the
exchange may be still designed for receiving analog signals.
Mobile networks have undergone two generations of development and the
third generation is evolving. The first generation mobile systems are analog
309
systems and are already being phased out. The most commonly used mobile
communication system today is the second-generation system that follows a
standard called Global System for Mobile communications (GSM). These
systems are inherently digital cellular systems. An integrated system of personal
communication via satellites and mobile networks supporting subscriber access
both via satellites and base stations would result in a truly universal
communication facility. Such systems are categorised as third generation
mobile systems and are currently being studied and standardised.
Connectivity to data network is usually via dedicated lines, as the data switches
operate in store and forward mode and not in connection-oriented mode. There
is nothing like direct dial up access with data switches. If there is a dial-up
access, it goes via a conventional telephone exchange. ISDN, as the name
implies, is a digital network end-to-end. Subscriber end equipments are digital,
access to ISDN exchange is digital, transmission throughout the network is
digital and signalling is also digital. Thus ISDN is an out and out digital network.
Access to any of the above said four-telecommunication networks is via access
links, which we discuss next.
12.5.1 Access Links

Access links are those communication lines between the subscriber premises
and the nearest point of telecommunication infrastructure. The nearest point is
called the Point-Of-Presence (POP). The POP may be an analog or a digital
telephone exchange, a data switch, a mobile base station or an ISDN exchange.
It may be remembered that a basic assumption in GII is that subscriber end
equipments are digital and as such generate digital data. A variety of access
links are available for connecting subscriber premises to the POP:
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1)
Analog lines with modems
2)
Leased lines
3)
Digital subscriber lines (DSL)
4)
Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
5)
High speed DSL (HDSL)
6)
Cable modem
Analog lines are used for connecting customer premises with analog telephone
exchanges. Digital transmission via analog lines calls for the use of modems
at both ends. At the subscriber end, digital to analog conversion is done for
transmission and analog to digital conversion for reception. Inverse functions
are performed at the exchange end. Since the cable infrastructure is available
throughout the telecommunication infrastructure a user may obtain on lease
between two end points a dedicated or private line on which point-to-point
information transfer can be organised. These lines are non-exchange lines and
are permanently available for the user. Leased lines can be obtained for different
speeds of operation and charges vary accordingly. A user may also obtain a
leased line between his premises and POP. Such lines are generally used for
connection to data switches that operate in packet switched mode without
establishing source-destination connection.
In the last couple of decades, signal processing techniques have been developed
by which it is now possible to send high speed digital data over voice grade
lines that are normally available between the subscriber premises and POP.
Such lines are called digital subscriber lines (DSL). The standard interface in
the case of ISDN is DSL. In a variety of applications on the GII, the data rate
from the user to the application server is much lower than the data rate between
the server and the user. Taking this fact into account, technology has been
developed to provide an economical solution that offers high download speeds
up to 2 Mbps but limited upload speeds, typically 64 or 128 Kbps. Lines used
for this purpose are known as Asymmetric DSL (ADSL) lines. High Speed
Digital Subscriber Lines (HDSL) are symmetric ones supporting high bit
rate data transmission both ways.
National and Global
Yet another way of accessing GII is via the television cable infrastructure. A
device called cable modem connects a personal computer to the television
cable. This connectivity offers very high speeds. Once again asymmetrical
configuration can also be obtained on television cables. Such a configuration
typically offers upload speeds up to 256 kbps and download speeds up to 10
Mbps.
12.5.2 Access Devices

Access devices are the devices that need to be installed at user premises in
order to access POP. These devices are different for different types of POP. In
the case of a data switch POP, the access device comprises two components:
Channel Service Unit (CSU) and Data Service Unit (DSU). Channel service
unit protects the POP from improper voltages and signals that a subscriber
might accidentally transfer. The data service unit interfaces with the user system
and formats the user data to suit the type of line (line speed, asymmetric
transmission, etc.).
In the case of ISDN, access devices are of two types: network termination
Type1 (NT1) and network termination Type 2 (NT2). NT1 performs the
functions similar to that of CSU and DSU. NT2 device additionally handles
errors and also performs certain routing functions. This is useful for connecting
a LAN to the POP. Non-ISDN devices may be connected to NT2 interface via
devices known as Terminal Adapters (TA).
12.6
HOME NETWORKS
Traditionally, we are used to different levels of telecommunication facilities

at home and in the office. While the house has a simple telephone, the office
has a PABX, a fax machine, an e-mail facility and so on. In the last few years,
we have seen computers entering homes and many households have Internet
connection these days. Some have fax machines too. Slowly,
telecommunication facilities are being added to homes. This has led to the
idea of home networks. Home networks are a vision at this time and it would
be a couple of decades before they become a reality in a big way.
The central idea behind home networks is that all electrically operated devices
at home can be networked and made accessible on the data network
infrastructure. They can then be controlled remotely. Home networks open up
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very interesting possibilities in our life-style. For example, a person on way to

home can turn on the air conditioner from his car. A baby left alone at home
may be monitored via cameras by parents in an adult party. Burglar alarms
may alert a nearby police station in case any part of the house is break opened.
To realise home networks, it is predicted that most homes in future will be
built with networking infrastructure. Home appliances will be designed with
networking interfaces.
Significant enhancements to home telecommunication facilities come with
ISDN. Usually, the minimum configuration of network termination units (NTU)
of ISDN allows eight devices to be connected to it. The minimum data rate is
144 kbps configured as two basic channels of 64 kbps each and one signalling
channel of 16 kbps. The basic channel is called B-Channel and the signalling
channel as D-Channel and the configuration itself as 2B + D basic rate interface
(BRI). The B-channels can be dynamically configured to operate as circuit
switched or packet switched channels. Circuit switched channels may be used
for real time services like voice and slow motion video and packet switched
channels for data services. If there is spare capacity in D-channel, the same
may be used for data transfer. A variety of interesting combinations of services
are possible. Two telephone conversations and many data transfer applications
may be active simultaneously. A telephone conversation, a fax transmission,
and two Internet connections can co-exist. One telephone and many Internet
connections may be active. More than one telephone can be connected to the
NTU with each having different access permissions. For example, a teenagers
phone may debarred for STD and may be set for a maximum phone amount
per month. Telephone instruments may come with magnetic card facility to
accept credit or debit cards so that payments can be effected from home. Truly,
ISDN introduces the concept of home networks. Home networks may also be
configured as local area data networks.
There are certain characteristics that are essential for home networks:
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1)
Easy installation: Home networks must be such that a householder can

easily install new appliances on the network. Plug-and-play approach is
essential for network connectivity. It must be as easy as plugging in an
electrical appliance.
2)
Reliability: Once installed, the network and the associated devices must
operate without failure for many years. The level of reliability must be
the same as one gets from general household appliances. Only then, the
concept of networks at home will be acceptable by householders.
3)
Affordability: The cost networking must be at an affordable level for the

average householder.
4)
Durability: The network standards and interfaces must be durable over

long years. For an average householder, investments in home appliances
are one-time or at best two-time investments in lifetime. Hence, home
networks must remain stable for 20-30 years.
5)
Multimedia support: The most likely application at home is multimedia

entertainment in addition to day-to-day activities like utility bills payment
etc. Hence, good quality multimedia support is called for.
6)
Security: People need safe and secure homes. Privacy at home is also
important. It should not be possible for intruders to interfere with the
operation of networked devices. Home networks must be designed taking
these factors into account.
National and Global
Home networks may be wired or wireless. Wireless networks are less secure
than wired networks. It is fairly easy to jam or to eavesdrop on a wireless
communication. Frequency allocation without interference between adjacent
residential buildings is also a problem of management. As it is, the frequency
band is a scarce resource. While future homes may be wired for networking,
the existing ones may go in for wireless networks.
12.7
OFFICE NETWORKS
At present, office networks are predominantly Local Area Networks (LAN).

A LAN is distinguished from other data networks in three aspects. LAN
communication is usually confined to a moderate-sized geographic area such
as a single office building, a warehouse, or a campus. Data communication is
via physical or wireless communication channels that can support moderate to
high data rates. The communication channels must have consistently low error
rates.
The most popular LAN configuration used in offices is Ethernet that comes in
three speeds: 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps. There are many options with
regard to medium of transmission and modulation techniques. The most widely
used transmission medium is Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables. They are
cheap and come in different categories to support different speeds. Category
(Cat) 3 cables are used for 10 Mbps rate, Cat 5 for 100 Mbps and Cat 6 for 1
Gbps.
Office networks are characterised by three features:
l
Distributed computing
Server environment
Managed devices
Distributed computing emerged in a big way with the advent of personal

computers (PCs) in early 1980s. PCs brought computing power to the desks of
office workers. An office functions in a co-ordinated manner. Therefore, soon
after the PCs arrived on the desks, a need was felt for interconnecting them.
Thus was born office networks. There are many centralised functions in an
office. This led to the idea of servers on the office networks. Adding managed
devices to office networks is a recent development and is yet to catch on in a
big way. Managed devices are items like air conditioning units, water coolers,
Xerox machines etc. which are connected to the network and managed via the
network. Typical servers in an office include the following:
l
Printer server (laser)
Printer server (colour)
E-mail server
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File server
Database server
Fax server
Directory server
Internet Access server
Web server
The functions of the above servers are self-explanatory. Servers are centralised
resources and, in general, are accessible to everyone on the network. Access
to server resources may, however, be restricted under certain access permission
policy put in place by the management. Whenever an expensive resource is
added to the network, a server is associated with it either to make the resource
sharable or to control the access to it. Access to servers is done normally using
client-server architecture. Servers may be implemented using a personal
computer, a workstation or a mainframe. Mainframe based servers are
sometimes called enterprise servers .
12.8
CORPORATE NETWORKS
A Corporate body is different from an office. It is a group of offices that are

geographically far apart. It has a head office and a number of regional or branch
offices. Each office has a LAN. A corporate network is a set of interconnected
LANs, all belonging to the same management and working to meet a set of
corporate objectives. There are three types of corporate networks:
l
Intranet
Extranet
Virtual Private Network
All the above three corporate networks are community networks in the sense
they serve a particular user group. Security is an important consideration in all
these networks. As a result the community is often called closed user group.
The word closed implies a secure network that is not open to persons outside
the group.
In Intranet, a corporate uses Internet technology including transmission
standards and applications to interconnect the LANs at different corporate
sites. The corporate sites are geographically far apart. In this case, the corporate
staff and the employees of the company at different locations form the
community. Persons from outside the corporate community cannot access the
Intranet. Intranets may also include a web server. However, for security reasons
the corporate may have a separate web server that is not part of the Intranet.
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Extranet is an extension of Intranet. Here the community not only includes the
employees of the corporate but also suppliers and distributors of the corporate.
Extranet involves multiple companies that have some business association
under a set of rules or a contract. This network is also secure and serves a
closed user group.
Prior to the emergence of Intranet, corporate bodies used leased lines to

interconnect their sites. These networks were known as private networks.
Private networks were very secure, as the physical access was totally restricted
to authorised corporate users only. But the cost of leased lines turned out to be
too expensive for corporate bodies to afford. Intranet uses Internet instead of
leased lines for interconnecting different corporate sites. Intranet solution is
very cheap, as the Internet communication costs are low. But the problem is
that Internet is a public network that could be accessed by anyone and hence,
on Intranet, the corporate faces information security risks. Risk avoidance has
come in the form of Virtual Private Network (VPN). The term virtual implies
that the network uses shared public infrastructure and yet acts like a private
network.
National and Global
VPNs are either Intranets or Extranets with additional security mechanisms.

Intranets and Extranets have security built in them by way of access permission
or access denial policy. But, when the data moves on the Internet there is no
security. Anyone can easily intercept the data on the Internet. VPN ensures
that the data that moves amongst corporate sites on the Internet is also secure.
A process called tunnelling that is implemented in secure Internet Protocol
(IPsec) accomplishes the required security level. In tunnelling, the data delivered
to the Internet at one corporate site is encapsulated with additional header and
some form of encryption. Such encapsulated data is then moved on the Internet
without access to the original packet and using only the additional header
information. This is like using two envelopes while communicating confidential
information. Only the outer envelope is used for address processing. At the
receiving end, the data is de-capsulated.
Self Check Exercises
4)
Define Internet, Intranet and Extranet.
5)
Distinguish between private networks and VPNs.
6)
What is tunnelling?
Note: i)
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12.9
GII APPLICATIONS
GII applications may be placed in the following categories:

l
Entertainment
Information Repository
Trading and Commerce
Information Distribution
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Video on demand and music on demand are examples of entertainment

applications on GII. Quality services in this regard can only come when the
information pipes have very high capacity. In this context, B-ISDN
infrastructure is very important. Information repository involves both
information storage and retrieval. This is broadly achieved by World Wide
Web type technology. High capacity is required to support multimedia
information services. Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is a major
commercial and trading application envisaged on GII. We present more details
of e-commerce in the following paragraphs.
Electronic commerce may be defined as a mode of business in which business
transactions like selling and buying, and commercial activities like advertising
and marketing take place via telecommunication networks. It must be possible
to carry out the complete range of business activities on the network. These
include:
l
Advertising
Marketing
Sales
Buying
Delivery
Payment
After sales service
Business on the GII may deal with tangible products, information products or
services. Tangible products can not be delivered on the network. Similarly,
purchase of certain items may require a visit to the concerned showroom. Taking
such factors into account, the products may be placed under four categories.
Table 12.2 summarises these categories with example products.
Table 12.2: Product Categories on GII
Product Category
Online advertising and marketing
only
Online advertising, marketing,
sales and payments, but physical
delivery
Online advertising, marketing,
sales, payments and delivery
Examples
Cars, Furniture, etc.
Books, CD-ROMs, music & video
CDs, branded items, etc.
Electronic products like music, ejournals, software, etc.
Benefits of e-commerce are many in number and include the following:
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Reduced cost;
Reduced cycle time;
Increased revenues;
Elimination of intermediaries;
New sources of revenue;
Large customer base;
New and innovative products and services; and
Improved customer satisfaction.
National and Global
Four types of e-commerce have been identified and each one of them has
some special requirements. The types of e-commerce businesses are
summarised in Table 12.3. B-to-B e-commerce is built around Extranets. The
business details are determined in advance and the business represents an
ongoing relationship involving multiple transactions.
Table 12.3: E-commerce Business Types
Notation
B2B or B-to-B
B2C or B-to-C
C2C or C-to-C
C2B or C-to-B
Business Type
Business to Business
Business to Consumer
Consumer to Consumer
Consumer to Business
B-to-C type is based on electronic market infrastructure built around public

access networks. There is no fixed or long-term relationship between the
business and the customer. The number of business transactions is limited to
one or a few. C-to-C type is carried out on market makers infrastructure such
as online service providers. The infrastructure may be an auction site or productadvertising site. C-to-B type is a new business type envisaged in e-commerce.
Here, a consumer advertises his requirements and business houses respond to
the requirements by making offers.
Self Check Exercise
7) Give an example of C-to-B type of e-commerce.
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12.10
SECURITY ISSUES
Security in GII concerns physical resources like network devices, network

nodes, computers and communication systems and intellectual resources like
software, knowledge, data and information bases. It also concerns
communication security, i.e. protection of data while being transferred from
one place to another. The main aspects of security may be listed as:
l
User authentication;
Message authentication;
Communication security;
317
Storage security;
Access security;
Application security; and
Protection from malicious contents like viruses.
User authentication is done via information keys like password and personal
questionnaire, physical keys like magnetic cards and smart cards, and
biometric keys like voiceprints and fingerprints. A variety of user
authentication protocols have been developed for this purpose. Some among
them are challenge handshake authentication protocol (CHAP) of Microsoft
and Kerberos of MIT. While CHAP authentication takes place directly from
the server that the user wishes to access, Kerberos authentication takes place
via a central Kerberos server.
Message authentication is done via digital signatures. Digital signature is a
technique for digitally signing a digital document much as the way a
conventional document is affixed with a signature. The contents of the digital
document are in plain text and can be read by anyone. The document contains
an encrypted signature that authenticates the signer, the contents and a proof
of dispatch by the signer.
Communication security deals with protection of data while in transit. Secure
communication systems use cryptology for ensuring confidentiality of messages
transported through them. Cryptology or cryptography involves three aspects:
encryption, decryption and crypt analysis. Encryption is a form of coding
that transforms the original understandable message into a bit string that does
not make any sense. The encrypted bit string is transmitted over the
communication system. Decryption is the inverse process of encryption, which
extracts the original message from the encrypted bit string. Crypt analysis is
used to study the efficacy of the encryption scheme and by intruders to decipher
the encrypted message. Both encryption and decryption processes use a key
along with their respective algorithms. If the encryption and decryption keys
are identical, the cryptosystem is said to be symmetric. If the keys are not the
same, the system is asymmetric. Symmetric crypto systems are also known
as private key cryptography systems, and the asymmetric ones as public key
cryptography systems. A widely used symmetric system is Data Encryption
Standard (DES) and asymmetric system is RSA algorithm. The asymmetric
system is named after its inventors Rivest, Samir and Adleman. Storage security
also uses cryptography. In fact, many encryption/decryption algorithms have
been developed and they are used in a wide variety of applications like secure
e-mail etc.
Access security is applicable to databases and networks. Databases are protected
by access control mechanisms and networks by firewalls. A firewall sits
between a public access network and a private protected network. It examines
the incoming messages, permits legal messages to enter the protected network,
and discards suspicious or illegal ones. Application security is enforced by
using application firewalls that are also known as proxies.
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Malicious contents enter networks in three forms: viruses, worms and Trojan
horses. Viruses infect programs and files. Worms creep across systems. Trojan
horses are programs that promise to do one thing, like a new game, but actually
execute undesirable functions on the victim system. Finally, there is spam
that arrives as email containing unsolicited commercial information. Malicious
contents are rejected by using suitable inspection and screening programs like
anti-virus and anti-worm programs.
National and Global
Self Check Exercise

8)
Name any two biometric keys other than fingerprint and voiceprint.

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12.11
SUMMARY
This Unit is about the information infrastructure that is required at the national
and global level to support the emerging electronic networked information
society (NEIS). First, the emerging NEIS is placed in perspective. The five
goals of NEIS, viz. anyone, anytime, anywhere, any information and any format
are discussed. Possible impact of NEIS on various societal aspects like
education, work culture and environment are discussed. Different information
management aspects like acquisition, storage, dissemination etc. are
enumerated. The overall architecture of the GII is then presented. The five key
issues of GII like connectivity, capacity, contents etc. are brought out.
Management components of GII are then enumerated. Different components
of GII like access networks, home networks, office networks are discussed.
The three types of corporate networks, viz. Intranet, Extranet and VPN are
placed in perspective. GII applications, in particular e-commerce, are then
discussed. The Unit closes with a discussion on the security aspects of GII.
12.12
1)
GII architecture has four layers as shown below:
Layer 4
Layer 3
Layer 2
Layer 1
User infrastructure
Access infrastructure
Application infrastructure
Telecommunication infrastructure
Discussions as in Section 12.4.1

2)
Teledensity of India is 6.6 as given in Section 12.5. Population is given as

1024 million.
Therefore, the number of teleconnections = 1024 6.6/100 = 67.58 million.
319
3)
Teledensity of France = 75.2/59.7 100 = 126
4)
Internet is a network of networks. Intranet is a corporate network

interconnecting networks at different corporate sites via Internet. Intranet
serves a closed user group and is not open to outsiders. Access to Intranet
resources is governed by the security policy of the corporate. Extranet is
an extension of Intranet, which includes the Intranets of the business
associates of the corporate. Access by business associates is governed by
a set of business rules.
5)
Private networks use leased lines for interconnecting different sites. PVNs
use Internet infrastructure instead of leased lines.
6)
Tunnelling is the process by which corporate information is whisked

through Internet in a secure manner.
7)
A consumer states his holiday tour requirements and tours & travels
companies respond.
8)
Palm structure and eye features.
12.13 KEYWORDS
320
Access Devices
: Devices used at user premises to access

GII
Access Infrastructure
: Comprising access links, access devices

and networks through which users access
GII
Access Links
: Communication lines used between

subscriber and telecommunication pointof-presence.
Closed User Group
: Community of users whose network is not

accessible to others.
Cryptography
: The art and technique of transforming a

legible message to a meaningless binary
string.
Digital Subscriber Line
: An access link in which information is

transferred in digital form.
Intermediate Language
: A language used in machine translation,

which acts as an intermediary.
Leased Line
: A dedicated or private line hired by a user

from a network provider.
Machine Translation
: Translation from one language to another

using computers.
Malicious Contents
: Program code or data that enter computers

or networks and affect the normal
operations.
Media Coding
: Representation of multimedia information

in electronic form.
Point-of-Presence (POP)
: The
nearest
point
on
the
telecommunication infrastructure to which
a user is connected.
Remote Sensing
: A technique of information acquisition

using satellites.
Telecom Infrastructure
: Infrastructure provided by telecom

networks.
Telecommuting
: Rendering and receiving services on the

networks without having to attend offices.
Teledensity
: Number of teleconnections per hundred

persons in the population of a country.
Tunnelling
: The process of transporting information on

Internet in a secure manner.
User Infrastructure
: Mobile stations or networks at homes and

offices
12.14
National and Global
Chen, Ching-Chih (1995). Planning Global Information Infrastructure. New

Jersy: Abex Publishing Corporation.
Clinton, W.J. and Al Gore Jr. (July 1997). A Framework for Global Electronic
Commerce. (www.iitf.nist.gov/ecomm/ecomm.htm).
India. Ministry of Finance. Economic Division (2005). Economic Survey. New
Delhi: Government of India.
Panko, Raymond R. (2002). Business Data Networks and Telecommunications.
New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
Schiesser, Rich (2003). IT Systems Management. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
India.
Schneider, Gary P. and Perry, James T. (2000). Electronic Commerce.
Cambridge: Course Technology.
Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (2002). Computer Networks. 4th ed.. New Delhi:
Prentice Hall of India.
Viswanathan, Thiagarajan (2004). Telecommunications Switching Systems and
Networks. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
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UNIT: 13: INFORMATION SOCIETY

Unit Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Information Society Concept
13.2.1 Definition and Meaning of Information Society
13.2.2 Different Perceptions of Information Society
13.2.3 Factors Determining the Arrival of Information
Society
13.3 Economic Structure and Information society
13.3.1 Measurement of Economic Value of Information
13.3.2
Information Economy
13.4 Impact of Information Society on Information Profession
13.4.1 Technological Absorption and Determinism
13.4.2 Social, Cultural and Educational Mission
13.4.3 Information Mediation and User Empowerment
13.4.4 Information Literacy and IT Literacy
13.4.5 Information Society: Developing Countries
13.4.6 Brazil
13.4.7 India
13.5 Information Society and Public Policy
13.6 Summary
13.8 Key Words
13.0 OBJECTIVES:
After reading this unit you will be able to:
13.1
identify the origins of the concept Information Society, understand its

definition and meaning;
determine the main factors for its arrival;
distinguish different perceptions associated with the concept Information
Society,
explain if the concept has some economic connotation as an Information
Economy or Information Sector;
examine the impact of Information Society on Information Profession,
and
discuss the impact of this concept on transformation of Indian Society into
an Information Conscious Society.
INTRODUCTION:
Society is not static. In the language of general systems theory, it is an open

system, a dynamic set of interrelated social systems, institutions and individuals
that act upon and react to the various aspects of the world around it. Open systems
exist in a state of flux, continually reacting and adjusting to changing conditions
and developments from both within and outside the system. Generally these
changes are evolutionary. But, at times factors or influences may arise whose
impact is truly revolutionary, forcing a more abrupt and drastic modification in
the social system, resulting in wholesale transformations in social institutions and
relationships.
Scholars, philosophers and scientists have been predicting such a revolutionary
transformation of modern industrial society almost since the Industrial Revolution
was accepted as an example of revolutionary social transformation (Matchlup
1962). There have been hundreds of predictions and discussions about the
implications of such a transition in a number of articles across different
disciplines. Despite the popularity of such concerns about the next stage of
societal evolution, there has been little consensus as to the causes and results of
the predicted social revolution. Hence, there are almost as many levels for the
resulting society as there have been treatments. Though different causes have
been identified as transformations, most of the authors agree that the driving force
behind the social transformation as being the result of or related to, rapid
development and diffusion of Information Technologies. Information
Technology, as many researchers have stated, is in the process of evoking
fundamental change in the character of our society. After a period of uncertainty,
during which it was perceived that the shift was taking place from industrial to
post-industrial society, the nature of the society has become apparent. The basic
aspect that has been emphasised is that since information is rapidly becoming the
driving force behind the industrial development of nations, the most appropriate
characterisation to depict that process in the community is by the expression
Information Society. However, a careful examination of literature concerned
with emerging forms of social organisations reveals considerable debate on the
precise nature of Information Society. Although, most people concede that
Western industrial nations and Japan have experienced dramatic social, economic,
and technological changes, there is little consensus on the nature and direction of
the change.
While people all over the world continue to talk about the Information Society,
and some would even claim to be living in it, there seems to have been little, if
any, real progress made in establishing either some form of metrics for this
phenomenon or in marshalling the kind of evidence that would result in
credibility. Indeed, the absence of such criteria, might lead to doubts about its
status. In fact, some question what it is? Is it a useful social analytical tool, merely
utopian forecast or what? There are some who believe that the Information
Society concept at present provides neither a coherent tool for social analysis,
nor an adequate set of social goals (David Lyon). There was always an element of
symbolism about the term, with information serving as a talisman for a new kind
of society, a society in which reason and consensus set the tone rather than raw
power and materialism.
In this unit, it is proposed to discuss the Information Society concept, its origin,
the main factors determining its arrival, the question whether the concept has
some basic economic connotation as an Information Economy or Information
Sector, and its impact on public policy and information profession. Since the term
has been used to describe socio-economic systems that exhibit high employment
of information-related occupations and wide diffusion of information
technologies, the unit also presents some data on the size and internal structure of
Work-force in developing countries like India, and includes a brief discussion on
the transformation of Indian Society into an information conscious society.
13.2 INFORMATION SOCIETY CONCEPT: EVOLUTION

The concept of Information Society emerged during the 1970s and through out
the 1980s and rapidly gained popularity and currency, its proponents ranging
from scholars and academic authors to popular writers. Prominent among the first
group of writers were Masuda, who in the Japanese context, perceived an
eventual transition of the society to the point at which the production of
information values became the driving force for the development of the society.
The second writer belonging to this group was Tom Stonier, who perceived the
dawning of a new age for Western Society. He draws explicit parallels and
contrasts between industrial and information societies. Although not very
comfortable with the term Information Society, Daniel Bell did much to sustain
it through his work on post-industrial society. Daniel Bell, the classical exponent
of post-industrialism, also theorised the Information Society (Bell 1980).
In The Coming of Post-industrial Society (1972) Bell argued that the increased
part played by science in the productive process, the rise to prominence of
professional, scientific and technical groups and the introduction of computer
technology, are all evidence of a new axial principle at the core of socio
economic system, namely, the centrality of theoretical knowledge. The emerging
social frame work of Information Society builds upon this base. Information
increasingly becomes a source of added value and thus of wealth. A growing
portion of workers is employed in the information sphere. The important factor,
enabling discourse to shift from post industrialism to Information Society is the
massive growth in the economic significance of Information Technology.
Although, in its current form it is something of a novelty, it would be a mistake to
think that the idea of Information Society is entirely of recent origin. Alongside
the analytical strands of thought about social change, we also find another theme,
technological utopianism. In fact, the writings of Masuda, Stonier and Naisbitt
depict a new kind of society which on one hand, to empirical analysis but, on the
other, is full of good society imagery. Technological utopianism is especially
powerful in the U.S.A. It was felt that the USA would realise through a marriage
of nature and mechanics, an unprecedented solution to the problem of
industrialisation, allowing us to transcend the typical evils of industrial society.
The ideals of decentralised democracy, community participation, an end to
hierarchy and class, and of plenty for all, which inspired an earlier generation of
technological utopianism, re appear in the literature of Information Society.
Alvin Toffler and John Naisbitt have done much to popularise the concept of
Information Society. Naisbitt contended that the United States made the
transition from an industrial to an information society as early as 1960s and
1970s, and that in this process the computer played a significant role. On the other
hand, Toffler talked of an information bomb exploding in our midst and a power
shift in society, which will make it depend on knowledge.
The newness and attraction of these ideas and the vigour with which they were
expressed, fired the public imagination and helped to sustain the interest in the
concept of the Information Society and its literature.
13.2.1 Definition and Meaning of Information Society:

Information Society is a much used expression. The term has been characterised
by various dimensions. Several authors have tried to define and interpret this term
according to their own perceptions. What strikes one in reading the voluminous
literature on the Information Society is that so many writers operate with
underdeveloped definitions on their subject. They write copiously about particular
features of the Information Society, but are vague about their operational
criteria. Eager to make sense of changes in information, they rush to interpret
these in terms of different forms of economic production, new form of social
interaction, innovative process of production, or whatever. As they do so, they
very often fail to set out clearly in what ways and why information is becoming
more central today, so critical indeed that it is ushering in a new type of society.
One wonders just what is about information that makes so many scholars to think
that it is at the core of modern age! Let us try to examine some of the significant
definitions provided for the term Information Society in the literature and analyse
their main attributes.
Blaise Cronin:
Blaise Cronin defines Information Society as one in which labour has been
intellectualised; one in which the expression to earn ones daily bread by the
sweat of ones brow sounds decidedly anachronistic. He further observes that
what began life as a sociological construct and then became a feature of
futurologists clumsy jargon before degenerating into a media clich, has finally
achieved respectability through endorsement by economic and political analysts.
Manfred Kochen:
Manfred Kochen writes that the simple notion of a society in which information
rather than material flows constitute most of its communication and control
exchanges is extended to stress that:
i)
ii)
iii)
most members generate knowledge by knowledge-based procedures that

are knowledge-intensive;
information consistently reflects social invariants;
reason and human values rather than strength and expediency manage
conflicts between pressures to conserve invariants and pressures for
adoptive change.
Having stated all this, Manfred Kochen goes on to say that an Information
Society is a stage in the evolution of community brains, towards a world
brain. This is probably most likely to be the essence of the great transition that
futurists seem to agree on. When enough people begin to believe it as likely to
happen if it is a stage in natural cultural evolution, then this belief may contribute
to its self fulfilment It will take some decades before this idea is sufficiently
wide spread and the first information society appears.
Martin:
On the other hand according to Martin, Information Society is a society in which
the quality of life, as well as prospects for social change and economic
development, depends increasingly upon information and its exploitation. In such
a society, living standards, patterns of work and leisure, the education system and
market place are all influenced by advances in information and knowledge. This
is evidenced by an increasing array of information-intensive products and
services, communicated through a wide range of media, many of them are
electronic in nature. In this definition, the intention of the author was to broaden
the focus from the merely technological or economic, and to portray the
Information Society as a society. In other words, the term has come to represent
societies at an advanced post-industrial stage, characterised by a high degree of
computerisation, large volumes of electronic data transmission and an economic
profile heavily influenced by the market and employment possibilities of
Information Technology.
Branscomb:
According to Branscomb Information Society is a society where the majority of
people are engaged in creating, gathering, storage, processing or distribution of
information.
13.2.2 Different Perceptions of Information Society:

Frank Webster:
Frank Webster in his Theories of Information Society distinguishes at least five
different definitions of an Information Society, each of which presents criteria for
identifying the new. These criteria are: technological, economic, occupational,
spatial, and cultural. Let us try to examine each in turn.
Technological Perception:
The most common definition of the Information Society lays emphasis upon
spectacular technological innovation. The key idea is that breakthroughs in
information processing, storage, and transmission have led to the application of
Information technology (IT) in virtually all areas of society. The major concern
here is the astonishing reduction of the cost in computers, their prodigious

increase in power, and their consequent application every where. Although
Information Technology occupies a central role in all literature on Information
Society, this perspective emphasises the technological infrastructure to the
exclusion of other social, economic and political attributes. Martin provided a
number of scenarios detailing life in the Information Society specially the spread
of digital networks as the key element.
The convergence of computing and telecommunications resulted in the linking of
computers enabling the establishment of global networks. The development of
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) will provide the infrastructure
supporting the key ingredient of post-industrial society-information. The rapid
growth of Internet appears to bring about precisely this change. In other words,
the technological perspective of Information Society effectively draws attention
to the potential benefits of information technologies for the society. However,
with such weighty emphasis on technology, generally removed from a social,
cultural and political context, it is unable to provide adequate foundation for
defining the attributes of Information Society. Also, the problem of measurement
and the associated difficulty of stipulating the point on technological scale, at
which a society is judged to have entered an information age, is surely central to
any acceptable definition of distinctively new type of society. It is ignored by
popular futurists. The authors of this school of thought are content to describe in
general terms, technological innovations, presuming that this is enough to
distinguish the new society. There are some serious scholars who encounter two
problems. First, how does one come to measure the rate of technological
diffusion, and second, when does a society cease to being industrial and enter
into the Information category? These objections have not been convincingly
answered.
Economic Perception:
Some of the authors who write about Information Society point to the growth of
service sector in the industrialised nations and to the decline of employment in
manufacturing. For some, the dominant characteristic of an Information Society is
the nature of its economy. Machlup (1962) initiated this research perspective by
analysing the growth of the knowledge sector in the U.S. economy. In
Machlups analysis, industries primarily concerned with production and
distribution of knowledge (Knowledge Industries) were examined separately,
rather than as a part of the overall service sector. The knowledge industries
included such areas as the educational system, the media and other
communication activities, libraries and other information activities and research /
institutes. The contribution of this sector to the gross national product (GNP) was
found to be significant (estimated at about 40% for the early 1960s) and growing
at a rate considerably higher than the industrial sector. Machlup included that
knowledge industries would soon outpace the industrial sector, leading to the rise
of a Knowledge Society. A similar conclusion was reached at about the same
time in Japan, as Umaseo (1963) predicted the rise of the spiritual industries
over material and agricultural sectors in economies that were more developed.
These earlier studies distinguished knowledge or information from other
economic sectors.
The best known and often cited study on the emergence of an information
economy conceived on these lines is the report from Marc Porat (1977). Porat
(1977) initiated much of this work, by broadening the view of information work
to apply to more than those jobs falling within the information or knowledge
sector as defined by Machlup. Porat began by defining information activities as
including all resources consumed in producing, processing and distributing
information goods and services. He defined primary information sector as
including all those businesses involved in the exchange of information goods and
services in the market place. In addition, however, Porat noted that a great many
jobs in other sectors of economy can be thought of as information work. Nearly,
every organisation produces processes and distributes information for its own
internal consumption. Thus, a secondary information sector includes these
information activities. Porat estimated that overall information activities
amounted for 45% of the gross national product in 1967, and that half of the
labour force was employed in information-related work. This study has been used
to justify references to United States as an Information Society. Several authors
have attempted to refine Porats analysis and apply it in other contexts
(Komatsujaki, 1986, Schement, Lievrouw, and dordick, 1983). This perspective
focuses on the economy as the primary attribute of the Information society. It
may be stated that examining the economic structure alone provided a limited
view of the social and cultural implications associated with information societies.
Also, several critics contend that Porats classification of information workers is
too broad to be meaningful, and does little to suggest social implications of the
shift to Information Society (Bates, 1985, Wizard, 1984). Bates, for example, has
noted that according to Porat, factory workers assembling information
transmission equipment are considered information workers; just as are university
researchers. This does not appear to be logical. He felt that such a categorisation
may weaken the social distinctiveness of the information sector. There are other
types of objections and criticisms on Porats analysis. However, such objections
may not entirely invalidate the findings of Porat and are not intended to that. But
they are the reminder of the unavoidable intrusion of value judgements in the
construction of their statistical tables. As such, they lend support to a healthy
scepticism towards ideas of an emergent information economy. Marc Porat has
been able to distinguish two information sectors: primary and secondary, then to
consolidate them, separate out the non-informational elements of the economy.
Porat, by re-aggregating national economic statistics, is able to conclude that 46%
of the U.S. GNP is accounted for by the information sector. The United States is
now an Information based economy. As such, it is an Information Society
(where) the major arenas of economic activity are information goods and service
producers, and the public and private (secondary information sector)
bureaucracies.
It may be mentioned at this stage that the search to differentiate between
quantitative and qualitative indices of an Information Society is not pursued by
Machlup and Porat. It is distinction that suggests the possibility that we could
have a society in which, as measured by GNP, information activity is of great
weight, but that in terms of springs of economic, social and political life, is of
little consequence. Of course, the economists are concerned solely with
developing quantitative measurements of the information sector, so the issue of
qualitative worth of information would be of limited relevance to them. However,
even on their own terms there are problems. For example, the question at which
point on the economic graph does one enter the information society? when 50%
of GNP is dedicated to information activities? This may seem to be a reasonable

point, one at which, in straight forward quantitative terms, information begins to
predominate. Often, even this point is not taken into consideration. In a large
scale up date of Machlups study Rubin and Huber concluded that, in the United
States, the contribution of knowledge industries to GNP increased from 28.6%
to 34.3% between 1958 and 1980, with virtually no change since 1970, this
constituting an extremely modest rate of growth relative to the average rate of
growth of other components of total GNP. If we take these economic studies into
account these studies do not prompt us to conclude that the U.S. has entered
into the Information Society.
Occupational Perception:
A popular measure of the emergence of an Information Society is the one that
focuses on occupational change. In other words, the contention that we have
achieved an information society when the predominant occupations are found in
information or information related activities. That is to say, that in Information
Society, the number of people employed in occupations such as teaching, research
and development and activities associated with creative industries (media, design,
arts, etc.) out number those employed in factories and other industries. The
intellectual ground work for this conception of Information Society was done by
Daniel Bell during 1960s. However, it may be pointed out that this definition is
presently enjoying much popularity because concern has shifted from a
technological measure towards an occupational notion. The emphasis here is on a
specific group of people called symbolic analysts people who do the
thinking, planning, innovation and organisation of the new economy. They may
be employed in creative industries (media, design, arts), consultancy or general
management, but a popular idea is that such information workers are the key to
future prosperity. The occupational definition of the Information Society is often
combined with an economic measure. Porat for example, calculated that by the
late 1960s, a little less than half the U.S. labour force was to be found in the
information sector. Porat connects the growth in economic significance of
information with changing occupational patterns.
It must be mentioned here that the shift in the distribution of occupations is at the
heart of the most influential theory of the Information Society. This aspect has
been emphasised by Daniel Bell. But, some authors (Robins and others) have
criticised Bell. However, it is appropriate to raise some general objections to
occupational measures of Information Society. For example, one of the important
aspects relates to the methodology for allocating workers to specific categories.
The end product-mere statistical figure giving a precise percentage of information
workers hides the complex processes by which researchers construct their
categories and allocates people to one another. Porat for instance develops a
typology to locate occupations that are primarily engaged in the production,
processing or distribution of information. His scheme encompasses over 400
occupational types and has been published by the U.S. Census Bureau of Labour
Statistics. It is interesting to note that Gouldner (1979) identifies a new type of
employees that has expanded in the twentieth century, a new class that is
composed of intellectuals and technical intelligentsia who, while in part self
seeking and often subordinate to powerful groups. According to Gouldner, The
new class can provide us with vocabularies to discuss and debate the direction of
social change.
In conclusion it may be stated that the challenge to definitions of an Information

Society on the basis of a count of raw numbers of information workers should be
clear. The quantitative change is not the main issue. Indeed, as the proportion of
population, the groups they lay emphasis upon, while they have expanded, remain
distinct minorities, at best ranging 20-25% of the workforce. Therefore the
measure of workforce as criterion for judging the arrival of the Information
Society is liable to be questioned.
Spatial Perception:
This conception of the Information Society though draws on sociology and
economics, has its core the distinctive stress on space. Here, the major emphasis
is on the information networks that connect locations and, in consequence, have
dramatic effects on the organisation of time and space. This aspect has become
the most popular index of the Information Society in recent years. It is largely
because of the impact of the work by Manuel Cartells entitled the Information
Age (1996-1998) in which he describes a network society. In addition to above
mentioned influence, Goddard (1991) identified many interrelated elements in
transition to an Information Society. Some of these are:
information is coming to occupy centre stage as the key strategic resource

on which the organisation of World economy is dependent;
computer and communication technologies provide the infrastructure that

enables the information to be processed and distributed, these technologies
allow information to be processed and distributed. These technologies allow
information to be handled on an unprecedented scale, to facilitate
instantaneous and real time trading, and to monitor economic, social and
political affairs on a global stage;
their has been an exceptionally rapid growth of the tradable information

sector of the economy, by which one can highlight the explosive growth of
services such as new media (Satellite broadcasting, cable, video) and online
databases providing information on a host of subjects ranging from stock
market dealings, commodity prices, patent listings, currency fluctuations, to
scientific and technological journal abstracts.
Complimenting to these developments has been the radical reorganisation of the
Worlds financial system which led to the collapse of traditional boundaries that
once separated banking, brokerage, financial services, credit agencies, and the
like. In fact, immediate and effective information processing and exchange
economics has become truly global, and with this has come about a reduction in
the constraints of space. Companies now can develop global strategies for
production, storage and distribution of goods and services; financial interests
operate continuously, respond immediately, and traverse the globe. In other
words, the boundaries erected by geographical locations are being pushed
further and further back and with them too the limitations once imposed by
time. Developments of this nature emphasise the centrality of information
networks linking together locations within and between towns, regions, nations,
continents, and indeed, the entire world.
In many writings, emphasis is put on
network. With the accounts of an
attention is given to advances in and
infrastructure. Most of the thinkers
the technological bases of the information

emerging network society, considerable
obstacles to the development of an ISDN
are concerned with the emergence of a
network market place emphasise on ways in which networks underline the

significance of flow of information. The basic idea here is of information
circulating along electronic high ways. In fact, no one has been able to quantify
how much and at what rate information must flow along these routes to constitute
an Information Society. Interestingly no one has produced reliable figures capable
of giving us an overall understanding of information traffic.
Though no one could deny the fact that information networks are a significant
feature of modern societies and facilitate instantaneous communications round the
globe and enable databases to be accessed from any place to any place, still some
would ask why should the presence of networks lead analysts to categorise
societies as Information economies? It may be stated that the question what
actually constitutes a network is a serious one and it raises problems not only of
how to distinguish between the levels of networking but also how we stipulate a
point at which we have entered a network / information society.
Cultural Perception:
Of all the criteria employed in the description the Information Society, those
which entail changes in cultural values and mores are the most difficult to
identify and measure. Each of us is aware, from the pattern of our everyday lives,
that there has been an extraordinary increase in the information in social
circulation.
Developments such as invention of radio, television, and computers coupled with
the recent advances in telecommunication networks and media technologies are
having great impact on the life styles of people as a whole. All this testifies to the
fact that we inhabit a media-laden society, but the informational features of our
world are more thoroughly penetrative than a short list of television, radio, and
other media systems suggests. The new media surround us, presenting us with
messages to which we may or may not respond. But, in fact, the informational
environment is a great deal more intimate, more constitutive of us, than this
suggests. For example the informational dimensions of the clothes we wear, the
styling of our hair and faces, the ways in which we work at our image (from body
shape to speech, people are intensely aware of the messages they may be
projecting and how they feel themselves in certain type of clothes, with a
particular hair style, etc).
This intrusion of information into the most intimate realms of our personal lives is
complimented by the growth of institutions dedicated to investigating everyday
life with symbolic significance. According to Webster, contemporary culture is
manifested more heavily information laden than its predecessors. We exist in a
media-saturated environment that means that life is quintessentially about
symbolisation, about exchanging and receiving or trying to exchange and
resisting reception messages about us and others. It is acknowledgement of this
explosion of signification that many writers conceive of our having entered an
information society. But, no writer attempted to measure this development in
quantitative terms but only described our living in a sea of signs, one fuller than at
any earlier epoch. In other words, we are surrounded by more and more
information and less and less meaning.
It may be observed that reviewing these varying definitions of information

society, makes us feel that these definitions are either or both underdeveloped or
imprecise. Whether it is a technological, economic, occupational, spatial, or
cultural conception, we are left with highly problematical notions of what
constitutes, and how to distinguish, an Information Society. It is essential that we
be aware of these difficulties. Though, as a heuristic device, the term Information
Society might have some value in helping us to explore the features of the
contemporary world, it can not be accepted by all as a definitive. In other words,
though one may acknowledge that information plays a vital role in the
Contemporary Society, one has to remain cautious as regards the Information
Society scenarios and in asserting that information has become the chief
distinguishing feature of modern times.
13.2.3 Factors Determining the Arrival of Information Society:
When we use the phrase Information Society, we usually mean society as a
whole. The problem is how to distinguish an Information Society and know
whether it has arrived? For this, we have, but to listen to the commentators and
leaders to perceive the signs all around us. The Information Society is a direct
consequence of:
the data explosion;

the growing information consciousness and information
dependence of society at large;
accelerating developments in computing and communication
technologies.
However, Cawkell opines that the pre-requisite for an Information Society is a

telecommunication based information service infrastructure, which gradually
builds up until at some point a critical mass of terminal users will be connected to
a more or less universal network. According to Daniel Bell the term refers
mainly to the social structure of the post-industrial society. It describes the
characteristics and the structure of a society of which the driving force will be
the production of information values and not material values. In considering
when it will be realised it is necessary to look at the four stages of technological
development which have to be achieved:
Science-based computerisation, where computer is used extensively in

national-scale projects;
Management-based computerisation in both government and business;
Society-based computerisation in which computer will be used for the benefit
of the society as a whole
Individual-based computerisation where each individual will have access to
the terminal and computer information to solve problems, creativity will
flourish in this high mass knowledge creation society.
In other words, the most advanced stage of Information Society appears to be

high mass knowledge creation society. From the above discussion, it may be
inferred that a high degree of computerisation, large volumes of electronic data
processing and employment of Information Technology with telecommunicationbased information infrastructure are considered to be the main criteria, which
signifies whether a society or a nation has entered into Information Society or not.
It is also stressed that an Information Society is one in which the use of

information is central to social development and organisational management.
Strictly speaking the absence or presence of a high degree of automation is not
the determining criterion, though in practice there tends to be a strong positive
correlation between the amount of information in use and the degree of
technology penetration.
Self Check Exercise: 1
1) Identify the essence of an Information Society as can be gleaned
from the conceptual analysis.
Note:
13.3
ECONOMIC STRUCTURE AND INFORMATION SOCIETY:
For nearly three decades, the popular theme in social sciences has been that
technologically advanced economies are in the process of moving beyond
industrial capitalism to information-based economies that will bring profound
changes in the form and structure of economic system.
The growing awareness that information behaves as an active economic resource,
like capital, plant, or human resources, has focussed attention on shifts in
occupational activity within developed nations. The state of information in
economy has pervasive effects on the working of the economy generally. It has
intensified impacts on those sectors that provide information products or services,
such as press, television, radio, film, mail, libraries, banks, and other information
providers. The establishment of information markets brings about changing
conceptions of public and private information as well as the property rights
associated with marketable information.
13.3.1 Measurement of Economic Value of Information:
In 1983, Jonscher examined the causes of growth of information sector. He
argued that the increased complexity of the production process and the increased
output from it, required rapid growth of information sector. The number of
information workers grew much more rapidly than the number of production
workers.
Attempts to measure the information sector in terms of economic value were
made by a few economists like Matchlup (1962) and Porat (1977). Matchlup
estimated that in the U.S.A. 136,436 billion dollars or 29% of U.S. Gross
National Product (GNP) was spent on knowledge production, processing and
distribution. He also found that 29% of adjusted GNP consisted of the output of
the knowledge industries. Matchlup estimated that knowledge production has
been increasing at an annual rate of 8.8 to 10.6 percent more than thrice the rate
of production of other goods and services.
Marc Porat attempted to break down the National Income Accounts for the year
1967 in order to observe that portions may be attributed directly or indirectly to
information activities. In doing this he used three measures to compute the GNP.
One is final demand, which estimates the intermediate transactions that would add
up double counting; the second is value added which is the actual value added by
a specific industry or component of an industry to the product; and the third is the
income or compensation received by those who create these goods and services.
Porats conclusion was that in 1967, 21.1 percent of the USAs GNP originated
with the production, processing and distribution of information goods and
services sold in the markets. In addition, the purely informational requirements of
planning, coordinating and managing the rest of the economy generated 21.1
percent of GNP. These information activities engaged more than 46 percent of
work-force, which earned over 53 percent of all labour income.
13.3.2 Information Economy:
Researchers seem to indicate that the Information Economy can be defined as the
total value occurring from information activities through the production,
processing and distribution of information goods and services that are sold by
markets and consumed internally by organisations. A research perspective that
places its focus on the Information Economy as the primary attribute of the
Information Society has both conceptual appeal and empirical support.
Examining the economic structure alone provides only a limited view of the
social and cultural implications associated with Information Societies. More
over, the concept and methods employed by these researchers has received
substantial criticism. For example, several critics contend that Porats
classification of information workers is far too broad-based to be meaningful, and
does little to suggest social implications of the shift to an Information Society.
We have discussed the significance of Machlup and Porats seminal analyses in
the section relating to the economic perception of Information Society.
In concluding this section it may be emphasised that the contribution of
information to successful economic functioning is beyond question, but that is not
quite the same as saying that information has become the primary output of
developed economies. We are moving towards information based economies, but
are a long way from being wholly dependent on the production, sale and
exportation of information goods and services for the preservation of our
economic well being(Cronin). At the same time, we must remember that we are
about to embark on a new economic order the knowledge based economies,
playing by a new set of rules.
2) Tabulate the different definitions given for an Information Society by different
authors cited in this section. Bring out the similarities and differences in their
approach.
3) State the attributes of Information Society.
Note:

13.4 IMPACT OF INFORMATION SOCIETY ON INFORMATION

PROFESSION:
The information profession is the body of people engaged in the generation,
collection, codification, storage, retrieval, manipulation, management,
dissemination, packaging, evaluation and marketing of information. The primary
function of the information profession is to ensure that society will have the
information it needs to function. This information should be available to all, to
guarantee an equitable distribution of power and the autonomy of individuals.
Perhaps no where else, the impact of Information Society more acutely felt than
in the information profession. Until recently, the professions strength came from
the fact that it is operated as societys institutionalised information retailer. The
universal non-availability of information allowed the profession to play a useful
role at societal, organisational, and individual levels. In many cases, access to
information was and is via designated institutions, such as information centres
and/or libraries. This pattern has begun to change as a result of fast developments
in computing and communication technologies. Technology appears capable of
deinstitutionalising information and handing over access to individuals, thus
cracking the mould of the library. This situation led to what is known as
information business. As a result the new information-related industries
commonly referred to as Quaternary industries came into being. An idea of the
work-force employed in these industries could be obtained from studies
conducted by Marc Porat and others.
The many challenges facing the information profession in Information Society
can be divided into two main categories:
technological absorption and determinism;
social, cultural and educational mission.
4) What are the economic implications of the Information Society?
Note:

13.4.1 Technological Absorption and Determinism:

Technological absorption and determinism refer to the tendency to assume that
the shape of the things to come will be inexorably conditioned by the pace of the
technological innovation. The fundamentalists view is that the rate of
development in computer and communication technology will soon make the
traditional librarian / information worker obsolete. The most important action that
the members of the profession need to take now is to ensure the human face of
technology, and to give their profession the value, form, status and identity it
needs to meet the challenge asserting that human beings come first, and
technology comes second. In other words, whenever a new technology is
introduced into the society, there must be a counter balancing human response. In
fact, this has to surface in a greater measure to avert the misuse of technology.
13.4.2 Social, Cultural and educational Mission:

The societal role of the information profession in Information Society is being
challenged. How can the profession meet this challenge? What should be its
strategy? One of the important roles that the profession might take up is to aid a
massive expansion of updated education system to provide new, mainly
information skills, which will be useful in a smooth transition from an industrial
to information economy. That is to shift the labour from manufacturing to
knowledge industries.
In todays information society, the citizens might face a variety of challenges to
make the most of their role in the knowledge economy. The role of information as
knowledge capital means that there is a danger of inappropriate
commercialisation of information, which can militate against the optimal social
use of this resource. Also, low levels of information literacy can exclude the
individual from full membership of and participation in the Information Society.
Information professionals are in a prime position to address these problems.
In Information Society, it is stated that information and communications
technologies are of increasing importance in many aspects of our lives, and the
ability to access and to comprehend information are valuable skills. Particularly
the growth of Internet and the World Wide Web is a significant feature of the
Information Society. It acts as a microcosm of Information Society trends,
influences, and issues. Its main purpose as a medium of electronic communication
was appropriated by various interest groups, personal, professional, community,
government and business. The potential of the web seemed limitless and many
Utopian Information Society visions seem to have grown from this sense of raw
potentiality. However, the commercial sector has been quick to harness the
potential of the medium. This resulted in commercialisation of information. The
information seeker is forced to enter into a Faustian bargain with information
provider.
In other words, to access the required information, the information seeker must
handover his / her personal details which might be misused. Also, the ubiquitous
use of the Internet in study and work creates new areas of concern to information
professionals. The proliferation of content across many areas namely the sheer
volume of information creates information anxiety in the minds of information
seekers. This bewilderment is doubled when the user encounters large arrays of
electronic sources of information. Of course, for the user the use and the
immediacy of retrieval becomes as important as the quality of the resource
retrieved. This poses most significant challenge to the information profession in
the Information Society, to map and signpost the information landscape. This has
been traditionally the responsibility of the librarian and whilst the information
domain is changing the core principles of the profession remain as important to
the society. Therefore, there is a need for information mediation and user
empowerment.
13.4.3 Information Mediation and User Empowerment:
There are different ways in which the information profession may carry out the
process of mediation. One way is creating databases and systems which use
technology to assist the user in searching, for example, by providing appropriate
metadata for electronic resources to ensure that they are retrievable, or by using
technology to group information of different types and different locations.
Despite advances in technology, this mediating role seems important. Machines
cannot understand the semantic complexities and subtleties of language which
may be vitally important in retrieving appropriate resources, therefore, humans
have to play a significant role in this process. Alternately, the information
profession can mediate by providing access to resources which are free of a
commercial hook. The mediation role in this context involves carrying out
financial negotiations with publishers and other electronic information providers,
and in ensuring that appropriate technology is in place to allow seamless access to
resources.
One more area in which the process of mediation would be required is working
towards the use of agreed open standards in content and information formats for
the digital environment. There is growing digital divide between the information
rich (with access to technology, information networks and appropriate skills to
manipulate them) and the information poor (locked out of the digital environment
through lack of skills and access points). This divide exists at local, regional and
international levels. At all levels, this divide becomes more and more significant
as the ability to manipulate information becomes increasingly important in an
economic context. As the government and other public sector organisations race
to deliver services online, there is a danger of increased social exclusion unless
there are agents operating within communities who can offer not only access to
the digital environment but also the skill in information literacy required to
benefit from them. The information profession can contribute some sort of
solution to this problem: that is the information and library community can
challenge the inequalities, injustices and chaos of post modern capitalism by
building new path ways to knowledge based on values of social justice, universal
literacy and the right to know. (Muddiman, 2003).
13.4.4 Information Literacy and IT Literacy:
One of the steps towards Information literacy and IT literacy is to understand the
difference between information skills and technical skills. Information skills are
the skills required to evaluate the quality and relevance of information on the
other hand, technical skills are those skills required to work with the computer
and access electronic information resources. In a knowledge economy both sets
of skills are essential. Acquisition of one skill does not guarantee the acquisition
of the other. Perhaps, in some sense, due to a pervasive utopian vision of
technology as a symbol of social progress, information obtained through a
computer seems to acquire validity simply from the medium of its delivery. As an
example of this one may cite the content of chain of e-mails, which is of dubious
informational value, yet is consumed by some as if it were a public statement of
the same reliability as a news paper article.
The speed of communication flows enabled by constant developments in
technology demands information literacy rather than simply a narrower set of IT
skills, in order to process volumes of information that we receive. The role of
information mediation is as important now as it ever has been, if we are to avoid

becoming an information-saturated and simultaneously ignorant society, a
scenario that would be not only educationally undesirable but also socially
disastrous.
5) Examine the impact of the Information Society on Information Profession.
Note:

13.5 INFORMATION SOCIETY: DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

The term Information Society has been used to describe socio-economic systems
that exhibit high employment in information related occupations and a wide
diffusion of information technologies.
Many of the developing countries are also starting to show, if only partially, some
of the traits of Information Society. Even so, research on analysis and explanation
of this trend among developing countries, is rather scarce. In one such study Katz
observes the information work-force in developing countries is driven by the
combined impact of three factors:
the expansion of the government;
the over supply of educated labour; and
the managerial complexity.
As per the above observation, expansion of information sector in developing
countries is mainly driven by demand function integrated with supply function.
In the following paragraphs let us study the situation prevailing in some of the
developing countries.
13.5.1 Brazil
In the group of countries, which are advancing towards the Information Society
Taiwan, Singapore and Brazil merit mention. While Taiwan and Singapore are
Asian countries Brazil happens to be Latin (South) American Country.
From the point of view of development, Brazil presents a contrasting picture.
Although an educated, well-to-do and predominantly white population is actively
involved in the consumption and production of high-tech goods and services, a
great portion of the population lives below poverty-line and has no access to basic
living conditions, not to mention information and communication technologies
(ICT). [ ]
Internet statistics high light such disparity. The Internet Software consortium
shows that the top-level domain name for Brazil ranked 9th in host count in Jan.
2003 with a total number of 2,237,527 hosts which are well above some of the
developed countries. On the other hand, the figures for access are considerably
less. The United Nations Statistics estimate that 14.3million people were on-line
in Brazil in the year 2002, indicating that only 8.22% of the population were
Internet users [ITU estimates].
It may be stated that the socially and economically backward communities are
alienated from the benefit of digital revolution. With a view to reducing the
magnitude of the digital gap and to avoid intensifying the social gap, national,
regional and local governments are proposing and implementing projects for
digital inclusion of the less favoured communities. In the year 1999, the
Brazilian Information society Program, sponsored by the Ministry of Science and
Technology was launched. The Program envisages the following:
construction of more just society, where principles and goals are observed
for the preservation of Brazilian cultural identity, based on wealth of
diversity;
sustainability of standard of development that respects differences and
pursues regional equality;
effective participation of society, the corner stone of political democracy.
All this is to be achieved through actions for integrating, coordinating and
fostering in the use of ICT. However, not many concrete steps were taken towards
the implementation of the Information Society in Brazil. It was left to the Ministry
of Science and technology which took office in Jan.2003, to take steps towards
the reorganisation of digital inclusion programs. Digital Inclusion is not only
about access to ICT, although ICT happens to be an important concern. Digital
Inclusion is about skills necessary to communicate and collaborate with other
people over the network in order to make sense of the World around and possess
the knowledge generated in the process. The document produced by the
participants of the International Work shop on Digital Inclusion in its preamble
states:
to all the population should be guaranteed the right of access to digital

World, both in its technical / physical extent (sensitisation, contact and basic
use) and in its intellectual extent (education, training, generation of
knowledge, participation and creation).
Telecentre Concept:
In Latin America, an important movement has been promoting ways of applying
ICT in the region. Somos@Telecentros is a regional network whose objective is to
strengthen the digital inclusion initiatives in Latin America. In a recent document
that reports the state-of-the-art of telecentres in the region, the network supplies a
definition for telecentre. This definition encompasses the community aspect in
addition to considering the economic marginalisation of the communities and the
power of the technology to reduce the digital divide. Delagadillo (2000) defines it
as a space where people have access to make use of ICTs as means to impact the
development of their communities, improving the quality of their lives and
influencing public policies in telecommunication access. Telecentres are places
that offer public access to the Internet and try to accelerate this process to reach
people that do not have resources to buy a telephone line or a personal computer.
Facilitating access to the Internet is sought to reduce the enormous technological
gap of many third-world countries.
In case of Brazil the understanding is that a telecentre should provide more than
just training, which is often the first and main activity. A definition for telecentre
proposed by the International Workshop on Digital Inclusion is that telecentres

are initiatives that make use of ICT, connected to the Internet, to guarantee public
and universal access in order to promote acquisition, generation, mining and
distribution of knowledge, aiming at facilitating and stimulating community
participation. Knowledge exists when individuals are able to appropriate
information and transform it into experience. In order to accomplish it, the
individual must be able to find the information needed, evaluate it and use it
effectively. Access to and training in, ICT skills are essential to achieve this goal.
However, unless they develop information skills to the point of becoming
information literate, people may not be able to grasp anything but data.
The government of Brazil is alive to the fact that the idea of access to information
via ICT is a new social right and undeniably necessary to the realisation of the
citizenship. Hence, the state has an obligation to develop public policies to
accomplish this social right. To fulfil this obligation, it initiated the community
telecentre project. It is characterised by:
a bond with a city neighbourhood where the population clearly suffers
from the consequences of social exclusion;
the identification in communities of leadership and a degree of social
organisation;
the community autonomy to decide about the technology applications
required and the services offered;
the responsibility of the community involved to attain sustainability of a
telecentre;
an educational program aimed at empowering telecentre monitors to fully
exploit the potential of the medium for social inclusion; and
a management committee representative of the local community, the
municipality, and partners.
A community centre includes a room in a public and easily accessible place,
equipped with 12 microcomputers connected to the Internet, fax and copy
machines, printer and scanner. The acquisition and installation of equipment plus
the connection charges to the Internet are funded by the municipality. In addition,
the local government pays the staff that could consist of an administrative
coordinator and a number of monitors, all members of local community. The local
community is to meet other operational costs. The first community centre has
been established in Port Alegre.
One of the problems faced in the implementation of community telecentre is
provision of appropriate monitors with necessary skills. For this purpose, the
partnership of the Federal University of Rio Grande do sul was sought and the
Faculty of Library Science and Communications has been entrusted with the task
of developing suitable manpower. In fact, training was provided to the first group
of monitors comprising 20 persons. This program has been ranked by the
participants as successful and highly rewarding for allowing the interchange of
academic knowledge and practicing knowledge. However, evaluation of
telecentres project as a whole has not yet been undertaken by the government.
At the World Summit on Information Society, Brazil succeeded in pushing
progressive solutions for the realisation of the Information Society. One of the
significant suggestions was that the construction of an Inclusive Information
Society requires the consolidation of broad and flexible concept of intellectual
property that takes into account not only of the need for protection, but also, the
imperative of universal access,
so that we avoid condemning the developing countries to backwardness and their
population to ignorance. In other words, Brazil advocated development of
solutions based on free software.
In conclusion, it must be emphasised that Brazil is taking decisive steps to ensure
that its people will be able to fully participate in the benefits of new technologies.
The government has established a bold and wide-ranging programme called
Information Society aimed at putting all Brazilians in touch with new
developments in information technology.
13.5.4 India
After achieving independence in 1947, India has embarked on industrialisation.
However, the industrialisation has not been accompanied by a structural shift of
labour force from the traditional occupational categories. Industrialisation has
been grafted on to a society that continues to function to a large extent in its
traditional mode. As a result, many occupational roles in services sector that
could be contributing to the efficiency and productivity of the primary and
secondary sectors have not been created. Also, the significance of information
technology (IT) as an important contributor to the achievement of national
developmental goals did not receive adequate attention of the government. As a
consequence, there has been low level of information consciousness in the people
compared to the people of developed countries.
It may be stated that in India, only 10% of the work-force constitute white collar
workers, and approximately 60% are farmers. An estimated 65% of the
population are illiterate and their lack of education prevents them from widely
sharing the benefit of information sector in society. Even so, within the huge
population exceeding over 800million citizens, several million urban educated
individuals are there whose life-styles are similar to those of the information
workers in developed countries. Information workers in India, while still a small
percentage of the population, are steadily growing in numbers and importance.
The reason for this is the governments policies towards IT. The use of IT
increasingly being seen as a powerful agent for economic development through
products and service industries generated directly or indirectly. Also, the
government feels that use of IT can help enhance the working of markets and
reduce transaction and coordination costs within and across firms and institutions,
and this is of particular relevance to developing countries which are characterised
by very high transaction costs and slow moving logistics. Further applications
involving IT have also been considered a source of productivity gains and quality
improvements in areas as varied as agriculture, manufacturing, infrastructure,
public administration and services such as finance, trade, distribution, marketing,
education and health. In other words, IT has become a critical infrastructure for
competing in an information-intensive global economy.
Government policy has played a significant role in the creation and development
of Indias IT industry. Policies based on the economic philosophy of import
substitution during the seventies and eighties have given way to those aimed at
liberalising and globalising the economy in the 1990s. The criticism against
Indias IT policies is that in general, policies have tended to ignore IT
consumption and diffusion issues as well as the need for domestic orientation in
software. To fully exploit the developmental potential inherent in IT, both the
government and industry need to pursue strategies that rapidly develop the
domestic market for IT and emphasise IT consumption and diffusion, as against
mere production or exports. (Harindranath)
The salient features of developments taking place in Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) sector in India are briefly discussed in the
following paragraphs of this section.
During the last one decade or so good progress has been made on many
dimensions relating to the ICT sector in the country. For example, the IT market
as share of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) has increased from 1.22%in 1997 to
an estimated 3.15% in 2003. The size of IT market has increased from US $
5billion to US $ 16.4billion over the same period. The success of Indian ICT
sector has also enhanced Indias export performance. While the software exports
accounted for 5% of the countrys total exports in 1997, this share has grown to
more than 20% in 2003. In other words, the ICT sector has made significant
progress in establishing a global reputation for itself.
During the period 1970-1980, the Indian ICT sector thrived by selling its
abundant supply of low cost skilled programmers to firms in developed nations.
Much of the work was done at customers sites and the tasks largely involved
programming legacy applications. However, during 1990s the focus in the ICT
sector shifted to software quality and project management. Indian ICT companies
invested in creating high quality software processes and in pioneering a model of
reliable global delivery. Firms embraced innovating quality techniques such as
the Capability Maturity Model (CMM).
The shift from being seen as a low cost provider of routine programming skills to
a high quality supplier of advanced applications was really a great shift. Though
ICT revenues have fallen globally during 2002-2003, the Indian market indicated
a growth of 25% (i.e. the domestic market recorded a 13% and export revenues
30%). Much of this growth has been attributed to the increase in the export of ITenabled services such as Business Process Outsourcing (BPO). Business
pressures for increased productivity are facing global firms to outsource many of
their business processes and India has benefited from this ongoing shift. At the
same time Indian firms are engaging with customers in more complex projects
and are in many cases moving up the value chain by Providing IT consulting and
value-adding domain knowledge.
The development of Indian ICT sector is unbalanced across major lines IT
services. From a global perspective India has a significant presence in only two
of the ten major IT services custom application development and outsourcing.
In 2001, India had a global market share of around 14-16% in these two service
lines account for only around 10% 0f the global IT services market. In other
major IT services lines, such as system integration (accounts for 22% of the
global services market), IT outsourcing (18%), packaged software installations
and support (13%) and hardware support and installation (13%), the Indian
market share is less than 1 % (NASSCOM Strategic Review, 2003, p.34).
It must be mentioned here that while most leading Indian ICT companies are
poised for rapid growth, few have invested in creating their own intellectual
property (IP). The revenue potential of native IP is usually illustrated by
comparing the revenues / employee. Microsoft (approximately US $ 560,000) and
Infosys (approximately US $ 59,000). In the absence of home-grown IP, the
fundamental business model of revenue growth remains the function of the total
number of employees. Given the growth targets set by NASSCOM (US $
77billion in revenues by 2008) the Indian ICT sector will face a short fall of more
than 250,000 knowledge workers in five years time. Tight labour markets will
accentuate the annual increase in the ICT employee salaries and decrease the
competitiveness and margins of Indian firms.
It is of interest to note that the domestic investment in ICT has been stunted. India
currently spends a small fraction of its GDP on IT- about 1.1% when compared to
US which spends about 5% of its GDP on IT. As per NASSCOM estimates, it
was mentioned that the domestic software market might decline to around 13% in
2002-2003 from about 18% of the previous year. Other interesting points that
emerge are: in India, the penetration of PCs (9 per 1000) and the Internet (about
16.5million subscribers) is very low even when compared with the other
developing nations such as China (PCs 36 per 1000 and Internet users
68milliopn). One of the reasons for this appears to be the high hardware costs. It
is stated that India has one of the highest tariffs rates for PCs. It is interesting to
note that while it would take about 12 days of per capita income to buy a PC in
USA; it would take four months per capita income in China, and two years worth
of per capita income to buy a similar PC in India! The low level of PC and
Internet penetration in Indian society combined with low investments in domestic
ICT by Indian companies has retarded the growth of electronic commerce in
India.
The authors of Indias Information Revolution, Singhal and Rogers having
analysed and interpreted the factors leading to information revolution observe that
whether the information workers will ever out number farmers and other
industrial workers is a problematic, as it will depend on government policies,
world-wide competition in microelectronics and other unpredictable factors as
India moves towards becoming an Information Society. On the face of it, this
observation may sound to be a tall claim, but, on closer examination of Indias
ICT base, and the progress it has made during the last decade, it may not far from
truth to believe that india is on its way to becoming an information conscious
society and Indian Economy might exhibit some traits of information based
economies, at least by the second decade of 21st century.
6) Briefly describe the traits of the Information Society as reflected

in the developing countries like India.
Note:

13.6 INFORMATION SOCIETY AND PUBLIC POLICY

The claim that we are entering the Information Society has some important policy
implications. If that claim is mistaken or incorrect, it is surely the task of social
analysts to draw attention to this and to suggest modifications or alternatives.
In his book Social Science and Public Policy, (1976), Martin Rein observes that
Social Science is a form of story telling dependent upon analogy, metaphor, and
so on. The Information Society concept is part of such story. It depends up on
analogy (with the familiar image of industrial society) and metaphor (social
activities being predominantly bound up with information and its technological
objects like computers). However, in this story what is observable appears as
more or less inevitable trends which are also desirable.
The validity of the received Information Society Story has been tested in several
ways and found wanting. Nonetheless, as a problematic which alerts us to crucial
social trends (and may be transformations) it may still have a significant policy
related role. This aspect is clearly revealed from the following actions of different
governments. The British Department of trade and Industry, for instance, uses a
booklet entitled Information Technology : The Age of Electronic Information to
encourage firms in their use of microelectronic based technologies. It will, they
say revolutionise the handling, storing and processing of information. It will
also transform our way of living.
This conviction about the social transformation is at the back of the other policy
background documents as well. The Science Council of Canada produced a report
for the Ministry of Supply for Science and Technology, entitled Planning Now
for Information Society: Tomorrow is too late, (1982). More recently the same
body issued The Uneasy Eighties : The Transition to an Information Society,
(Cordell, 1985). Microelectronics advances are causing a world wide
technological revolution which all societies must accommodate; (Science Council
of Canada, 1982, p.10). In Canadas case the ability to make a successful
transition to an efficient, integrated Information Society depends on the strength
of telecommunications infrastructure.
Many similar reports (including the Canadian) quote the well known French study
by Simon Nora and Alain Mins The Computerisation of Society, (1980).
Interestingly, this report, while stressing the revolutionary nature of new
technologies, along with their social and political impacts, also calls for a more
cautious and measured approach: In order to make the Information Society
possible, it is not only necessary to have knowledge but also to have time. The
reciprocal learning process of the disciplines and aspirations takes place
slowly (Nora and Minz, 1980).
Japan was probably the first to use the term Information Society in the context of
technological change and policy formulation. In the 1970s several commentators
wrote about Johoka (Information Society) as the social equivalent of biological
evolution. Yoneji Masuda wrote The Plan for Information Society : A National
Goal towards the Year 2000 and many of the ideas / it contains have been
adopted by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) in Japan.
Masuda sees his work on Information Society as both an analysis of what is
happening, and a blue print for policy information.
As a conclusion to this section it may be stated that a number of different
observers analysts and policy makers insist that the diffusion of information
technologies will bring about an Information Society. The production, processing
and distribution of information is becoming a central activity of the society. Thus,
it is not surprising to hear the claim that the concept of the Information Society
proposed in the works of such American writers as Machlup, Bell and Porat is
providing the foundation for a new paradigm for policy research and analysis
(Edgar and Rahim, 1983).
7) State the policy implications of an Information Society.
Note:

13.7 SUMMARY
From the detailed discussion contained in this unit of Information Society, we can
draw some general conclusions. Though many scholars agree that we are in the
process of transformation to an Information Society, there appears too little
consensus on the inherent nature of such society. The writings certainly reveal
some dimensions of Information Society. The degree of emphasis given to these
dimensions, the context in which they are used, and values given to them may
differ. It is unlikely that any single perceptive of Information Society may
accurately represent the many manifestations to be found in the advanced nations
of the World, which are alluded to as Information Societies. However, the
following aspects may be considered:
I. The Information Society theory emerged as a social forecast or as a model
of social possibilities and that these have some how been translated into
views of reality and perceptions of actual societies, measured against
conditions in the real world.
II. Most of the authors who have written about the Information Society, have
projected the growth of service sector in the industrial nations and the
decline of employment in manufacturing, high-lighting the fact that the
dominant characteristic of an Information Society is its nature of economy,
which is rapidly transforming from an industrial based economy to an
information based economy. It may, however, be stated that economic
structure alone provides only a limited view of the social and cultural
implications.
III. A second perspective of Information Societies that emerges out of the

literature is concerned with the consumption of information goods and
services rather than their production. This research perspective is primarily
concerned with the behavioural patterns of consumption of information
goods and services.
IV. The third perspective emphasises diffusion of computer and
telecommunications technologies (ICT) as the defining characteristic of an
Information Society. In other words, this approach emphasises the
technological infrastructure almost to the exclusion of other social,
economic and political attributes.
V. Some authors recognise that technologies are a political and cultural product
and that their implementation and use will serve the interests of those in
power. The Information Society in the view of these authors, is
characterised by economic and information inequities, unemployment
among masses, deskilling of jobs to weaken the power of workers and
domination of governments by large multinational organisations.
VI. Bangemann Report pictures a particular perception of Information Society
an information market-based society in which the competitive survive and
the consumer pays, if one is unable to pay or to operate effectively with in
the system, then social Darwinism takes its course and one joins the
underclass.
VII. In the final analysis, acceptance of the idea of society as Information
Society is still largely a matter of faith, or at least of perception. Proponents
of the concept appear to have taken the sheer volume information in
circulation and its undoubted worth in economic terms, as evidence of
Information Society. Hence, says Webster, we have an assessment of
information in non-social terms it just is but we must adjust to the social
consequences. Therefore, if we are to understand the nature of Information
Society and what makes it different from previous social systems, we need a
much deeper understanding of the qualitative dimensions of information.
We also need the ability to recognise Information Society when we see it!
For the foreseeable future therefore, it seems advisable to treat the
Information Society as a concept rather than an actuality. It serves a useful
purpose both by helping us focus attention on the nature of social change
and as a device by which change can be assessed. It remains on the horizon,
rather more idea than entity but with these qualifications, it is none the
less valuable for all that.
In conclusion, the idea of Society as Information Society continues to exercise
certain amount of appeal. It somehow captures the feel of modernity and of
society moving
along exciting technological trajectories which are freeing mankind
from the tyranny of time and distance!

1) A number of scholars, scientists and philosophers have been
predicting a revolutionary transformation of modern industrial
society. Many causes have been identified and attributed as forming
the driving force behind such a transformation. However, most
people opine that information is the defining feature of modern
world. We are told that we have entered an information age and are
rapidly moving towards global information economy. Many
writers identify an entirely new phenomenon called Information
Societies the examples of which are found in the United States,
Britain, Japan and Germany.
Information Society is a concept which sees the transition of an
Industrialized Society into one in which information in its broadest
and most diverse forms is the key driving force.
Two major factors underline the Information Society claims. Firstly,
that the society is becoming increasingly centered on information
handling, processing, storage and dissemination using micro
electronics based technologies, made available through the
convergence of computer with telecommunications, namely ICT.
And secondly, that this shift is reflected in an emerging occupational
structure, in which the category 0f information workers has
become predominant. In other words, the Information Society
appears as an out come of technological and economic changes.
2) Different definitions of Information Society and their approaches:
Blaise Cronin
Martin
Manfred Kochen
* Labour has been

intellectualised;
* Represents societies at an * Information rather than

advanced
post-industrial material flows constitute most
of its communication and
stage;
control exchanges;
* to earn ones daily

bread by the sweat of
ones brow sounds
anachronistic;
* Information consistently
reflects
basic
societal
invariants;
* high degree of computerisation, large volumes

of electronic data transmission;
* started as a social
construct and became
a feature of the
futurologists and now
gained respectability
from economic and
political analysts.
* reason and human values

rather than strength and expediency manage conflicts;
* an economic profile
heavily influenced by
market and employment
possibilities of IT.
* a stage in the evolution
of community brains
towards a world brain.
3) Attributes of an Information Society are:

i] shift from an industrial economy to an information economy.
That is to say that in industrial economy capital is the strategic
resource, while in Information Economy information becomes the
strategic resource;
ii] a telecommunication based information service infrastructure;
iii] a high degree computerization, large volumes of electronic
data transmission and employment of IT;
iv] characterised by the fact that the rapid and convenient
delivery of needed information is the ordinary state of affairs.
4) Economic Implications of Information Society:
Information Society might be characterized by different dimensions.
One of these relates to the economic structure. We come across
several references in literature of the economic implications of the
Information Society.
The state of information in the economy has pervasive effects on the
working of the economy generally. It has great impacts on those
sectors that provide information products and services such as press,
television, radio, film .. libraries and other information providers.
Matchlup initiated studies analyzing the growth of knowledge
Sector in the US economy. The knowledge industry included such
areas as the educational system, the media, and other communication
activities, libraries and other information activities and research
institutions. Machlups finding was that the contribution of this
sector to the Gross National Product (GNP) was 40% for early 1960s
and is growing at a rate which is higher than the industrial sector.
Marc Porat, who continued the research in this direction, enlarged
the scope of information work to include all the jobs falling with in
the information or knowledge sector as defined by Matchlup.
According to Porat information activities included all resources
consumed in producing, processing and distributing information
goods and services. Porat estimated that these activities amounted
for 45 % of the GNP in 1967.
In conclusion, it may be emphasized that the contribution of
information to successful economic function is beyond doubt.
However, it is not quite the same as saying that information has
become a primary out put of all developed economies. We may say
that we are moving towards Information based Economies, but not
wholly dependent on the production, sale and exportation of
information goods and services for the preservation of our economic
well being.
5) The information profession is the body of people engaged in the

generation, collection, codification, storage, retrieval, manipulation,
management, dissemination, packaging, evaluation and marketing of
information. The primary function of the information profession is to
ensure that society will have the information it needs to function.
This information should be available to all, to guarantee an equitable
distribution of power and the autonomy of individuals.
Perhaps no where else, the impact of Information Society more
acutely felt than in the information profession. Until recently, the
professions strength came from the fact that it is operated as
societys institutionalised information retailer. The universal nonavailability of information allowed the profession to play a useful
role at societal, organisational, and individual levels. In many cases,
access to information was and is via designated institutions, such as
information centres and/or libraries. This pattern has begun to
change as a result of fast developments in computing and
communication technologies. Technology appears capable of
deinstitutionalising information and handing over access to
individuals, thus cracking the mould of the library. It is also being
stated that the rate of development in ICT might make the
information workers obsolete. The social role of information
profession in the Information Society is thus being challenged. In
view of such challenges, the information profession has to
reformulate its strategies and programmes giving value, form, status
and identity to the profession. One of the important roles that the
profession might take up to aid a massive expansion of updated
education system to provide new information skills, which will be
useful in a smooth transition of the society from an industrial to
information economy. That is provision of skill-oriented education
enabling the labour to shift from manufacturing to knowledge
industries.
In todays Information Society, the citizens might face a variety of
challenges to make the most of their role in the knowledge economy.
The role of information as knowledge capital means that there is a
danger of inappropriate commercialisation of information, which can
militate against the optimal social use of this resource. Also, low
levels of information literacy can exclude the individual from full
membership of and participation in the Information Society.
Information professionals must address these problems. In
Information Society, it is stated that information and
communications technologies (ICT) are of increasing importance in
many aspects of our lives, and the ability to access and to
comprehend information are valuable skills. The growth of Internet
and its use by many people in study and work creates new areas of
concern to information professionals. The proliferation of content
across many areas, namely the sheer volume of information creates
information anxiety in the minds of information seekers. This
bewilderment is doubled when the user encounters large arrays of
electronic sources of information. For the user, the use and the
immediacy of retrieval becomes as important as the quality of
resource retrieved. This poses most significant challenge to the

information profession in the Information Society, to map and
signpost the information landscape.
To over come the above mentioned problems, and to help the
information seekers, the information profession must engage itself in
Information Mediation and User Empowerment. There are different
ways in which the profession may carry out the process of
mediation. One way is creating databases and systems that use
technology to assist the user in searching, for example, for providing
appropriate metadata for electronic resources to ensure that they are
retrievable, or by using technology to group information of different
types and different locations.
The second type of activity that the information profession might
engage in is Information Literacy and IT Literacy. In fact, this
involves distinguishing between information skills and technical
skills. Information skills are the skills required to evaluate the
quality and relevance of information, on the other hand, technical
skills are those skills required to work with computer and access
electronic information resources. In a knowledge economy, both
sets of skills are essential. The information profession should not
only specialise in these skills and also impart these to people at
large.
In conclusion, it may be emphasises that the above discussed aspects
are the impact of the Information Society on the information
profession.
6) The term Information Society has been used to describe socioeconomic systems that exhibit high employment in information
related occupations and wide diffusion of information and
communication technologies (ICT).
Many of the developing countries are starting to show partially some
of the traits of the Information Society. Let us briefly discuss the
situation obtained in developing nations like India.
India:
Though India has embarked on industrialisation after its
independence in 1947, the industrialisation has not been
accompanied by a structural shift of labour force from the traditional
occupational categories. Also, the significance of IT as an important
contributor to the achievement of national developmental goals did
not receive adequate attention of the government in the beginning.
As result, there has been low level information consciousness in the
people of the country compared to the developed countries.
But in recent years, the government realised the fact that IT has
become a critical infrastructure for competing in an informationintensive global economy. In fact the government has adopted a
proactive policy, which played a major role in the creation and
development of IT industry in India. During the last decade or so
good progress has been made on many dimensions relating to ICT
sector in the country. The IT market share of GDP (Gross Domestic
Product) has increased and the ICT sector made significant progress
in establishing a global reputation for itself. Even though, the
information sector in India forms a small portion of the total workforce, it is steadily growing in importance, and started to contribute
to the growth of GDP in a small measure. It must be mentioned that
the IT policies of the country tended to ignore IT consumption and
diffusion issues as well as the need for domestic orientation in
software. To fully exploit the development potential inherent in IT,
both the government and the industry need to pursue strategies that
rapidly develop the domestic market for IT and emphasise IT
consumption and diffusion, as against mere production or exports.
When this happens, the IT infrastructure will certainly improve and
the employment in information related occupations will record an
upward rise. This will surely pave the way to the transition of Indian
Society towards the Information Society. These developments are
the indicators or traits of India moving though partially, towards the
achievement of information-based economy.
7)
Despite various national and cultural variations, the idea that
the advanced societies are entering a new phase of history is a
common theme of economic and political discourse. The concept of
Information Society is intended to evoke a new image, contrasting
with the old image of industrial society.
There are many hints in policy of out comes this revolution is
expected to bring forth. The validity of Information Society has been
tested in many ways and has been found wanting. However, as a
problematic which alerts us to crucial social trends, it may have a
significant policy related role. This aspect is clearly revealed from
the actions of different governments. The British Department of
Trade and Industry, for instance, uses a booklet entitled Information
Technology : The Age of Electronic Information to Encourage Firms
in their Use of Microelectronics-based Technologies. It will, they
say, revolutionise the handling, storing and processing of
information. It will also transform our way of living.
The conviction about social information is at the back of other policy
background documents as well. The Science Council of Canada
produced a report of the Ministry of Supply which advocates the use
of microelectronics, and emphasises the significance of the strength
of telecommunications infrastructure in transforming Canadian
Society into an Information Society.
The well-known French study by Nora and Minz, while stressing the
revolutionary nature of the new technologies along with their social
and political impacts, also calls for a more cautious approach. In
order to make the Information Society possible, the report maintains
that it is necessary to have knowledge but also to have time. Japan
was probably the first to use the term Information Society in the
context of technological change and policy formulation. The Plan
for Information Society : A National Goal towards the Year 2000
by Masuda has been adopted by the Ministry of International Trade
and Industry (MITI) in Japan. Masuda sees his work on Information
Society as both an analysis of what is happening, and a blue print
for policy information.
Thus, it is not surprising to hear the claim that the concept of the
Information Society proposed in the works of such American
writers as Machlup, Bell and Porat is providing the foundation for a
new paradigm for policy research and analysis.
13.9 KEY WORDS
Information
Economy
Information
Profession
Information Ratio
Information Workforce
The total value of accruing from information

activities through the production, processing and
distribution of goods and services that are sold by
markets and consumed internally by organisations,
is defined as Information Economy. Advanced
countries are evolving as information economies in
which information is the key factor in the
economic growth of the nation. The major
components of such an economy are:
i)
information work-force;
ii)
information goods and services;
iii)
emergence of Information Industry and
markets; and
iv)
information infra structure.
The Information Profession is the body of people
engaged in the generation, collection, codification,
storage, retrieval, manipulation, management,
dissemination, pack-aging, evaluation and
marketing of information. OECD categorised
information professionals as:
i)
information producers;
ii)
information processors;
iii)
information distributors; and
iv)
information infrastructure.
Based on the work of Machlup and Emaseo, the
Japanese initiated a series of studies attempting to
measure the degree of Johoka in Japanese Society.
One of the indices developed for this purpose by
RITE was Information Ratio; which was defined
as the ratio of household expenditures for various
information-related activities to total household
expenditure.
The term Information work-force has acquired a
wider connotation and includes many groups who
are involved in a variety of information-related
occupations. The OECD categorisation includes:
Information producers, Information processors,
Information
distributors
and
Information
Infrastructure occupations under this category,
while Marc Porat defined three sub-sectors of the
work-force as:
i)
Workers whose
information;
final
product
is
ii)
Post-industrial
Society
quality of information activities, as well as

the information ratio are the main attributes
of Information Society. The Johoka
perspective advises us to look beyond the
occupational structure, and incorporate the
communication and information behaviors
of people into our definitions of
Information Societies.
The concept emphasises the centrality of theoretical

knowledge as the axis around which new
technology, economic growth and the ramification
of the society will be organised. Empirically, one
can try to show that this axial principle is becoming
more and more predominant in advanced industrial
societies.
In the writings of Masuda, Stonier and Naisbitt we

come across a dreamy picture of a new kind of
society which on the one hand appeals to empirical

Bell, D. (1973). The coming of Post-industrial Society: A venture in
social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books.
Bell, D. (1979). The Social Framework of Information Society. In

Dertouzos, M.L and Moses, J. (eds), Computer Age: A Twenty Year
View. Cambridge, MSS: MIT Press. pp. 163-211.
Beniger, J.R. (1986). The Control Revolution: Technological and
Economic Origins of the Information Society. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Branscomb, A. (1986). Law and culture in the information society.
Information Society. Vol 4(4). pp. 279-311
Branscomb, A. (1994). Who owns Information? From Privacy to
Public Access. New York: Basic Books.
Cawkell, A.E. (1987). Evolution of an Information Society. London: ASLIB.
Cronin,B. (1985). The Information Society. Keynote Paper
Presented at Interact 85. Annual Convention of the British Computer
Societies. New Castle, Nov. 1985.
Dutta, S. (2002). India: Information and Communications
Technologies. A Blueprint.
Feather, J. (2003). Theoretical perspectives of the information
society. In Homby, S., and Clarke, Z., (Eds). Challenge and change
in information society. London : Facet Publishing. Pp.3-17.
Gibbons, M. etal. (1994). The New Production of Knowledge : The
Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies.
London : Sage.
Giddens, A. (1990). The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge :
Polity.
Harindranath, G. (1995). State policy and the development of
information technology industries : India and East Asia in
comparative perspective. Asia Pacific Business Review, 2(2), 48-59.
High Level Group on the Information Society (1994). Europe and
the Global Information Society : recommendations to the European
Council (The Bangemann report). Brussels.
Katz, R.L. (1988). Information
Perspective. New York: Praeger.
Society:
An
International
Kochen, M. (1987). A New Concept of Information Society.

London: ASLIB. pp. 141-154.
Lyon, D. (1988). Information Society: Issues and Illusions.
Cambridge: Polity Press.
Machlup, F. (1962). The Production and Distribution of Knowledge
in the USA. New Jersey: Princeton University.
Martin, W.J. The Global Information Society. 2 rev. ed. London:

ASLIB Gower, pp 1-16.
Masuda, Y. (1982). Information Society as a Post-industrial Society.
Bethesda, Md: World Futures Society.
Muddiman, D. (2003). World gone wrong? Alternative conception
of the information society. In Homby, S., and Clarke, Z., (Eds).
Challenge and change in information society. London : Facet
Publishing. Pp. 45-49.
Porat, M.U. (1977). The Information Economy: Definition and
Measurement. Washington: US Department of Commerce.
Rein, M. (1976). Social Science and Public Policy. Harmondsworth :
penguin.
Rubin, M. R. and Taylor, M. (1981). The US information sector and
GNP : an input output study. Inf. Process. Manag., 17(4), pp. 163194.
Science council of Canada (1982). Planning Now for the
Information Society : Tomorrow is too late. Ottawa : Ministry of
supply.
Stehr, N. (1994). Knowledge Societies. London : Sage. Pp. 99-101.
Town, J.S. (2003). Information literacy and the information
society. In Homby, S., and Clarke, Z., (Eds). Challenge and change
in information society. London : Facet Publishing. Pp. 83-103.
Webster, F. (1996). The Information Society: Conceptions and

Critique. Encyclopedia of Lib. and Inf. Sci.,Vol.58 (21), pp. 74-112.
New York: Dekker.
Webster, F. (1999). Knowledgeability and Democracy in an
Information Age. Library Review 48(8) pp. 373-383.
Webster, F. (2002). Theories of the Information Society. 2nd ed.
London: Routledge.
Webster, F. (2003). Information Society. In Encyclopaedia of LIS,
pp. 1338-1357.
UNIT 14: KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY
ucture
2
3
6
7
8
9
Objectives
Introduction
Social Transformation
Features of Emerging Knowledge Society
14.3.1 Accelerated growth of Knowledge
14.3.2 Knowledge Economy
14.3.3 Globalization of Trade and Commerce
14.3.4 Polity, Power Structure and Shift, Policy Issues
14.3.4 Life and Culture
Impact on a few Sectors
14.4.2 Information and Knowledge Support Systems
Indian Society
14.5.1 Digital Divide: The Indian Scenario
14.5.2 Indian Planning and Targets to be achieved
Summary
Answers to Self Check Exercise
Keywords
References and Further Reading
OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to
perceive knowledge as a basic resource for material advances in modern

societies;
get a good grasp of the factors of social transformation;
describe the causes and the instruments of changes with reference to the
emergence of a knowledge society;
comprehend the impact of changes on the education and Information and
knowledge support systems
perceive the effect of Digital Divide caused.
assess these changes influencing or affecting the Indian Society.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we are discussing the emerging knowledge Society wherein

knowledge is the power that advances the material well-being of a society. The
study is on the basis of different factors that have effected sweeping changes in
society. Social transformation itself has been an evolutionary process and has
taken several millennia to reach the current stage wherein knowledge assumes the
central role in bringing about a radical change in societal progress. The early two
landmarks in the transformation of societal changes were caused by the
Agricultural revolution and the Industrial Revolution.
In the Agrarian Society, agriculture was the predominant occupation of people
who created the knowledge base. The process and the progress were quite slow.
The social structure was fairly simple. The power foci were the landed gentry.
Life for the people was centered on cultivation of crops and animal husbandry.
Village life provided a settled life for people. In their leisure, people developed
rural crafts, folk arts and music. In the competition for scarce resources, the
mighty had a large share.
The Industrial Society was triggered by the Industrial Revolution that started in
Great Britain and moved to most part of Western Europe. The changing society
was organized around energy as the main source of production of goods and
services on a mass scale. The majority of the workforce was engaged in the
manufacturing activities and distribution of outputs. A new class of blue collared
factory workers emerged. Trade and commerce flourished. Colonialism and
capitalism provided enormous wealth for most of Europe. Power and prestige
moved from the landowners to the wealthy owners of the manufacturing
industries and factories. There was a dramatic change in the social structure.
There was a remarkable improvement in the standard of living of people. The
principle of economic production was influential in shaping the values and ways
of life.
While the effects of agricultural revolution lasted for 10,000 years, within 300
years of the industrial revolution, life and things started changing phenomenally
in the industrial society. .
In the emerging Knowledge Society, the time span of changes is within decades.
In this Society, it has been observed that human knowledge is the source of power
that has been instrumental in ushering astounding changes in society. Different
authors have named this emerging new society differently. As: the Post-industrial
Society, the Third Wave, the Information age, the Electronic Era, Scientifictechnological revolution, Information Society and so on. While material
advancement of a society has always been effected by information and knowledge
in all societies, why is the modern society termed as a Knowledge Society?
We shall study what are the different factors that have contributed to the changes
that have led to the emergence of a knowledge society. . Some of the factors are:
unprecedented growth of new knowledge, its dissemination, distribution,
accessibility and availability; Globalization of Trade, Commerce and Business;
Polity, governance, shifting power foci and levers of power; Development
planning and process of Implementation; Emergence of a professional class
named as knowledge workers and their predominant role and many others. One
running thread of great strength that has affected every aspect of change is the
spectacular advances of Information and Communication Technologies, caused
by synergising science and technology, convergence of computers and

communication technologies, microelectronics, media technology, etc. We shall
also observe all these changes in the different institutional mechanisms, which
actually have been effecting the changes. The Information and Knowledge have
created a considerable division in their benefits to the world population,
particularly in the developing countries. This digital divide has been a major
issue of debates and discussions.
We shall also comment as to how the Indian Society is evolving in the context of
the phenomenal changes that are taking place, primarily in the western societies.
14.2 SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION

Commenting on the sea changes taking place in Knowledge Society, Peter
Drucker observes, No century in recorded history has experienced so many
social transformations and such radical ones as the twentieth century. They, I
submit, may turn out to be the most significant events of this, our century, and its
lasting legacy. In the developed free-market countries --- which contain less than
a fifth of the earths population, but are a model for the rest --- work and work
force, society and polity, are all, in the last decade of this century, qualitatively
and quantitatively different not only from what they were in the first five years of
this century but also from what has existed at any other time in history and in
their structures.
He further says that in earlier periods of history, changes have taken place
triggered by civil wars, rebellions, and violent intellectual and spiritual crises. In
striking contrast to this, the social transformations of this century have caused by
nothing more than a stir. They have proceeded with a minimum of friction, with
a minimum of upheavals, and minimum of attention from scholars, politicians, the
press and the public. In fact, the Twentieth Century has been the cruelest and
most violent in history, with two world wars, its mass tortures, ethnic cleansings,
genocides and holocausts. But the social transformation was not due to any of
these events. It has been, in fact, caused by an intellectual activity resulting in
new knowledge arising out of research in science and technology, innovative
thinking, and more precisely their application in an organized manner towards
material advancement.
The main points that flow out from these observations about the Knowledge
Society are:
The amazing speed and rapidity with which these changes have taken
place in the twentieth century.
The changes have affected each and every aspect of the life of people.
The changes have been triggered by great advances and development of

the synergizing science and technology.
The converging computer and communication technologies have provided

unprecedented facilities for knowledge recording and dissemination.
These changes are seen in the western societies most conspicuously;
A new class of knowledge workers is emerging, considered as the

intellectual capital of an organization.
Most importantly the power foci is shifting largely on account of the

substantial economic transformation of wealth, its distribution and
concentration.
There has been an unequal distribution of wealth, power and benefits even
in the industrially developed countries.
In the following section, we shall study the attributes of a Knowledge Society on

the basis of the observations made so far.
Self Check Exercise
1 What are the main points that flow out from the observations on social
transformation.?
Note
1 Write your answer in the space given below/
2 Check your answer with the answer given at the end of this unit.
14.3 FEATURES OF A KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY

In a knowledge Society, knowledge comprehends a wide range of human skills.
Knowledge arising out of research in science and technology, social sciences,
humanities, Individuals who are endowed with special skills, experience, and
expertise, that may be tacit or explicit, embedded knowledge in nature and
artifacts of various kinds and similar others constitute knowledge in our study in
this Unit.
14.3.1 Accelerated growth of Recorded Knowledge
Beginning with the 18th Century, research has been a major pursuit for the
creation of new knowledge. However, the creation of new knowledge,
innovations, and inventions has been largely due to the efforts of individuals with
a flair for research, intense passion and total dedication. They created the
necessary research environment. themselves. Therefore growth of knowledge
was sporadic and slow. The time lag between the creation and application of this
newly generated knowledge to various productive activities was quite long.
But with the beginning of the twentieth century, more particularly in the later half
of this century, research has been a corporate activity by specialized research
institutions, supported by governments, industries, UN Specialized agencies and
other international organizations. Most western countries have built up excellent
infrastructure facilities for conducting research.

A class of professional
researchers, with career opportunities has evolved, with liberal funding facilities
from governmental and non-governmental bodies for taking up research projects.
Almost along with these developments, research communications in the form
research papers gained momentum with the arrival of research periodicals and
research reports and similar other products. With the advent of computer and
communication technology, dissemination and research results have acquired
tremendous speed in diffusion and accessibility, triggering new ideas for further
work in any discipline. Today this pool of accumulated knowledge is available
through Internet and web pages almost instantaneously throughout the world,
irrespective of geographical location, economically rich or poor region, to almost
all. Every subject or discipline in all its dimensions is represented in Internet,
which has been a boon for the creation of new knowledge, by research specialists.
This phenomenal growth of new knowledge, its accessibility, organized through
very well structured Information and knowledge industry, in almost every microdiscipline, has been one of the most important causes for the change towards a
Knowledge Society. Besides these, ICT has also enabled a number of other
facilities such as e-mail, teleconferencing, chat sessions, speeding up the process
of creating new knowledge.
14.3.2 Knowledge of Individuals

In todays fierce competition in business, knowledge of individuals is considered
a vital resource, which is obtained by careful nourishing of experts in companies
who employ them. This is considered as the intellectual capital of the
organization. Knowledge engineering and Knowledge management, backed by
artificial intelligence, expert systems, decision support systems, are new
disciplines emerging in this context. The knowledge engineering process
involves the capture, representation, encoding and testing/evaluation of expert
knowledge. As such, a knowledge base is built containing the set of facts and
heuristics (rules of thumb) relating the experts well-defined task of knowledge.
Knowledge management involves identifying or locating and capturing
knowledge. Once the knowledge is captured, including tacit knowledge, which
deals with what is in the heads of individuals, and explicit knowledge, which can
be easily codified, the knowledge, can be shared with others. The individuals will
apply this shared knowledge and internalize it using their own perspectives. This
may produce new knowledge, which then needs to be captured, and the cycle
starts over gain.
Intelligence systems, which are software programs, a product of human brains,
have given a cutting edge to companies to combat the fierce competition in
business.
This type of knowledge is the exclusive property of an organization and hence
will not be available in the public domain.
14.3.3 Embedded knowledge
Knowledge and know-how are also embedded in things natural and man-made.
For instance, the study of natural resources, their occurrences, compositions, how
they may be extracted, manipulated, converted, applied and preserved, applied
(e.g biodiversity studies) for human benefit, is an exercise in knowledge
generation and application. By gaining such knowledge, it may become possible
to synthesize or recreate or simulate some of natures offerings. Knowledge is
also embedded in machines, tools and devices by those who design, develop and
innovate them. In all these cases, there is considerable investment in knowledge
and therefore, those who make the investments would want to obtain returns on
them and prevent unauthorized use of the knowledge. Thus arise issues relating
to intellectual property rights, patenting, piracy, etc. This type of knowledge is
hidden and not always available in the public domain. (Neelameghan)
From the foregoing account of the nature of knowledge and its comprehensive
scope, one can glean the value that knowledge acquired in all production and
distribution activities of material advances for enriched human living.
Self Check Exercise
2 Mention the types of knowledge that get generated in a Knowledge Society.
. Explain embedded knowledge.
Note:
1 Write your answer in the space given below.
2 Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this unit.
14.4
KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY
Another aspect of far reaching changes towards Knowledge society is the new
thinking that is giving a new dimension to the factors of economic production. To
the conventional factors of economic products viz. land, labour, capital and
organization, is added information and knowledge. A new economic theory is
evolving with knowledge as a prime factor of production.
Until a few decades before, economists had an understandable reluctance to
consider information and knowledge as a distinct factor of production, deserving
a special treatment. Information and knowledge was, in fact, considered along
with overheads for the purpose of accounting and budgets. But perceiving the
pervasive and influential role of information and knowledge in micro and
macroeconomics, economists have developed information/ /Knowledge
economics as a speciality.
Lamberton, a specialist in Information Economics, says that the speciality has
emerged as a response to the deficiencies of economic theory built on unrealistic
assumptions about the richness and sureness of information available to decision
makers, failures of governments and business policies and the spectacular advent
of intelligent electronics with its greatly enhanced capacities for communication,
computation and control. In fact, he claims, the emergence of this new
paradigm is transforming economics and probably other social sciences.
In fact, information and knowledge with a number of intangibles, has a number of

characteristics uncommon to other economic resources. Some of these
characteristics are:
Shareable, not exchangeable and can be given away and retained at the
same time;
Is expandable and increases with use;
Infinite and ever expanding, dynamic;
Is compressible, able to be summarized, integrated, etc.
Is acquired at a definite measurable cost;
Possesses a definite value, depending upon its user which may be
quantified and treated as an accountable asset;
May vary in value over time in an entirely, unpredictable way;
Has consumption rate which can be quantified;
Is amenable to the use of cost and accounting technique; and
Is a source of both economic and political power.
Self Check Exercise

3 What are the characteristics of Knowledge economics that distinguish it from
of the factors of economic resources.?
Note:
2 Check your answer with the answer given at the eand of this unit.
The brief outline of scope and ramification of Information Economics given
below has arisen out of the fact that today information and knowledge have
become the most significant factors of production. As against the other factors of
production, information and knowledge are intangible source and cannot be
measured in terms the benefits and returns that accrue on all production aspects.
However investments on information and knowledge generation and their
dissemination, accessibility, use have been increasing. It is in this context that
information economics has emerged as a new discipline. Several aspects such as
value, risks, uncertainty, pricing and costing at the macro and micro level are
being studied and researched today. In order to appreciate and understand their
implications, the following account gives a quick glimpse of the scope and
ramifications of Information Economics. However this section can be skipped
without any loss to understand the features of Knowledge economy.
14.4.1 Scope and Ramification of Information Economics
In order to appreciate and understand the value of Information Economics in the
production of wealth, a brief overview of the scope and contours of this subject is
given below, as delineated by Prof. Fritz Machlup, a pioneer in this study.
Considering information and knowledge as human capital, the significance and
effect of this capital are analyzed as a factor of economic growth and
development. The role of information and knowledge of markets is studied in
the formation of market prices, information problems, relating to markets, trading
commodities, insurance, labour, finance, etc. are examined in with reference to
buyers and sellers. Knowledge and information are examined as public goods,
especially technological innovations, dispersed knowledge, central planning, etc.
Economic agencies that are involved in their respective activities have an
information and knowledge component, which constitutes another dimension of
study and research. Empirical research, theoretical analysis and applied enquiry
get special consideration as methodological aspects of the economics of
information and knowledge.
Matchlup has also given a classificatory map for Information Economics. The
ramification of the subject, as depicted here, consists of 17 groups, divided into
115 sub-groups. The seventeen main groups are listed below:
Economics of knowledge and Information, in general;

Production and Distribution of knowledge. Knowledge Industries,
Information
Services, Information Machines.
Ignorance, Chance, Risk and Uncertainty as Factors in the Explanation of
Individual choices, and Particular Economic Institutions and Phenomena.
Uncertainties, Risk-aversion, Venue spirit, Innovativeness and Alertness
as factors in the Explanation of Entrepreneurship and Profit.
New Knowledge (Invention, Discovery) and its Applications (Innovation,
Imitation) as factors of production.
Transfer of Technology and Know-how.
Economic Forecasting.
Cost and Value of Information Private or Social, Alternative Information
Systems.
Decision Theory and Game Theory.
Decision making by consumers with incomplete and uncertain knowledge.
Decision making by Workers and Job seekers with incomplete and
uncertain knowledge.
Decision making by Private Firms in various market positions with
incomplete and uncertain knowledge.
Policy making in Government and Public Agencies with incomplete and
uncertain knowledge.
Formation of Revision of Expectations and their Role in Economic
Dynamics.
Role of Information, Knowledge, Expectations. Risks and Uncertainty in
the functioning of Markets and the Formation of Prices.
Prices as Information System for Resources Allocation and Product
Distribution in Market Economics and Planned Economics, National
Progamming and Planning.
Human Capital. The Accumulation of Knowledge and skills.
With this background of the ramification of Information Economics, let us study

how these concepts operate at the macro and micro level of Economics of
production and distribution.
14.4.2 Knowledge Economy at the Macro Level
At the macro level, Economics deals with economic issues at the national and
international levels to bring about material well being for people. The
government of a country being the owner of most of its resources, and also having
responsibility for the welfare of its people, mobilizes the resources, developing an
economic system. The economic system could be a Free Market Economy, or a
Planned Economy. In a Planned Economy, the resources are allocated by a
centralized administrative process. In a Mixed Economy, the resources are
owned privately and publicly in parts. In this system, the resources are allocated
partly by means of the price mechanism and partly by government through
centralized planning. Although every economy has both free market and planned
elements, these elements are found in different proportions indifferent economies.
Economic issues like setting goals and targets for national economic growth,
priorities for investments, nationalization and privatization, means of production
and distribution, competition and monopoly, national income, gross national
product, International trade and Balance of payments, etc. constitute concepts that
concern governments in formulating economic policies. Various political and
social factors influence or bind governments in finalizing economic policies.
Information and Knowledge has a vital role to play in sorting out all these issues
in the formulation of national economic policies. Information Economic theorists
profess that Knowledge is basic form of capital. Economic growth is driven by
the accumulation of knowledge. Traditional economics predicts diminishing
returns on investment. Increasingly, it is said, there is less and less return on the
traditional resources land, labour and capital. The main producers of wealth have
become information and knowledge.
Among the major components of the national economy exemplified by economic
surveys indicate that 1) Information Workforce, 2) Information goods and
services (3) Emergence of Information Industry and New Markets 4) Knowledge
and information infrastructure area prime factors that determine economic growth
and production.
A few economic indicators vouchsafe these assumptions. The Gross National
Product (GNP) in USA account for 65 to 75 per cent from the service sectors.
The workforce engaged in service sectors constitutes nearly 80 per cent.
14.4.3 Knowledge Economics at the Micro Level
Micro-economics of Information Economics deal with narrow aspects of
Economics concerned with uncertainty and risks, risk-aversion, information in
markets, asymmetry, in buyer and seller information, value, cost and pricing of
information, decision making by various economic agents. All these are
considered as aspects of study in microeconomics of information, concerned
mainly in the context of institutions, firms, individuals, households. For details of
this study consult Unit10.
14.4.4 Emergence of Knowledge Worker
The new class of Knowledge Workers includes engineers, programmers, and
designers whose major output is research that translates into new products and
services. This group constitutes the workforce as given below:
Knowledge Workers
Information producers
.
Occupation
Create new information/Knowledge
and package on existing information
into appropriate form.
Information Processors
Receive and respond in information inputs

as the basis for further action.
Information distributors
Convey information from the initiator to the

recipient.
Information infrastructure
Installation, operation and repair of the

machines and technologies used to support
information activities
In the context of Knowledge Management, this group constitute knowledge

Manager, chief knowledge officers, directors of intellectual capital, knowledge
analysts, knowledge engineer, Intelligent System manages, etc.
To what extent this group would become a power lobby, remains to be seen as the
society advances to towards a knowledge society.
Self Check Exercise
4 What are the groups that make up Knowledge workers?
Note:
1 Write your answer in the space given below
2 Check your answer with the answer given at the of this unit.
14.4.5 Information and Knowledge Industry

Examples of products and services of the information and knowledge workers of
the information industry and business that contribute to the enhancement of the
efficiency and productivity of various sectors of the economy and the trade which
can contribute directly to GNP, are given below:
1
Content Services
Electronic and non-electronic databases, indexes, libraries,
information broking, database distribution/marketing, videotext,
news services
Content Packages
Newspapers, directories, periodicals, books, reports, films, records,
tapes, videodiscs, micropublishing
Facilitation services
Time sharing databanks, bank services, electronic fund transfer,
software services, advertising services, video conferencing, system
design services, management consultancy services, market and
business research facilities management services, services
bureaux.
4
Information Technologies
Computers; peripherals, office information equipment, micro-forms,
business forms, printing and graphic equipment, time sharing.
Integrating Technologies
Packet switches, switchboards, modems, digital switches, routers,
facsimile equipment.
Communication Technologies
Radio, Television, videodisc and tape players, telephone,

transmission systems, mail equipment, switch bands.
Communication Channels
Physical delivery of message, post-office, telex, international recordCarriers, computer mediated communications (e-mail), satellite
carriers, cable television, mobile services, paging services, valueadded services, INTERNET services
Broadcast channels
Radio networks, multipoint distribution system, TV networks, Telecast.
In the final analysis of asserting Knowledge an an economic force, Peter

Drucker says, How knowledge behaves as economic resource, we do not
yet fully understand; we have not had enough experience to formulate a
theory and to test it. We can only say that we need such a theory. We need
an economic theory that puts knowledge into the centre of the wealthproducing process. Such a theory alone can explain the present economy. It
alone can explain economic growth. It alone can explain why newcomers,
especially high tech fields can, almost overnight, sweep the markets and drive
out all competitors, no matter how well entrenched they are.
There are different methods of developing knowledge. (1) By continuing
improvement of process, product, service; (2) By the continuous exploitation
of existing knowledge to develop new and different products, processes and
services, and (3) By genuine innovation. These are equally necessary to build
up knowledge reservoir. But their economic characteristics, viz. their costs
as well as their economic impacts, are qualitatively different. So far at least,
it is not possible to quantify knowledge. We can, of course, estimate how
much it costs to produce and distribute knowledge. But how much is
produced --- indeed, what we might mean by return on Knowledge we
cannot say. Yet we have no economic theory or a model that expresses
economic events in quantitative relationships. Without it, there is no way to
make a rational choice and rational choices are what economics is all about.
(Drucker)
14.4.6
Globalization of Trade, Commerce and Business
Globalization is the process of integration of Worlds economies for creating

conditions of free flows of trade and commerce and movement of persons across
borders. This has been facilitated by ICT for instant communication of
information and knowledge. Internationalization of production has been taking
place over the last few decades through Multinational Corporations (MNCs),
operating with tens and thousands of affiliates. Their sales in 1998 were of the
order of two trillion dollars, almost one-third of the world trade in merchandise.
Global trade rose to 6.2 trillion dollars in 2000 as against 3.4 trillion in 1990.
World trade and commerce has been growing faster than the world outputs.
Though market forces are taking over some of the effects of economics, and the
role of public sector is diminishing in most countries, the state can intervene
effectively and play a positive role in promoting optimum production, improving
access to markets, facilitating technological advances, and providing the
necessary conditions for the healthy functioning of markets which could be wellregulated.
Globalization has been a major outcome of Information and Knowledge economy
with all the advances in ICT. E-Commerce is creating a new and distinct boom,
rapidly changing economy, society and politics.
One example of the effect of e-commerce is illustrated. A middle-sized company
in US, founded in 1920s, run by the third generation persons of the founder, used
to have some 60 percent of the market in inexpensive dinnerware for fast-food
service for schools and office cafeteria, hospitals within a hundred-mile radius of
its factory. Chinaware is heavy and breaks easily, and hence cheap chinaware is
traditionally sold within a small area. Almost overnight the company lost more
than half of its market. One of its customers, a hospital cafeteria where someone
went searching the Internet, discovered a European manufacturer who offered
chinaware of apparently better quality at a lower price and shipped by air.
Within a few months, the main customers in the area shifted to the European
supplier. Few of them, it seems, realized that the material came from Europe.
(Haravu).
In the words of Peter Drucker, In the new mental geography created by the
railroad, humanity mastered distance. In the mental geography of e-commerce,
distance has been eliminated. There is only one economy and only one market.
He further adds, One consequence of this is that every business must become
globally competitive, even if it manufactures or sells only within a local or
regional market. The competition is not local anymore in fact, it knows no
boundaries. Every company may well become obsolete. Its manufacturers and
distributes in a number of distinct geographies, in which it is a local company.
But in e-commerce there are neither local companies nor distinct geographies.
Where to manufacture, where to sell and how to sell will remain important
business decisions. But in another twenty years they may no longer determine
what a company does, how it does, and where it does it.
Two important aspects of modern industry and business are manufacturing

customer-need based products, largely due to Multinational involvement,
products in a limited quantity to suit small markets. In other words, the trend
today is de-massifying of products as against mass scale manufacture. Thus
smaller units compete with larger general products units or obtain contracts from
the latter to produce value-added products and services. The price mechanism is
also suitably modified.
Self Check Exercise
5 What do you understand by globalization of trade, commerce and business?
6 What are the two aspects of production and international markets?
Note:
1 Write your answer in the space given below
2 Check your answer with the answer given at the of this unit.
14.3.4 Polity, Power Structure and Shift, Policy Issues

In a knowledge society, the political form of a country is conditioned by its
changing economy. The investment priority is on the need for generation of new
ideas and their conversion into applications, products and services. This is
accentuated because of the high rate of obsolescence of goods, ideas and services.
The increased importance of knowledge means that the net stock of intangible
capital viz. education, research and development, innovation, etc. has grown
faster than tangibles viz. Buildings, transportation, roads and machinery, etc.. In
US, the investment has been increased on intangibles. for instance, from 60 per
cent of the value of federally financed capital in 1970 to 93 per cent in the 1990s.
This is equally true in business.
This policy of governments creates a change in the power foci. In an information
and knowledge society the power foci shifts to those who possess or have access
to information and knowledge, know-how and the ability and skill to apply and
use. In the second wave industrial economy, mass strikes by groups or workers is
a demonstration of their bargaining power, in the knowledge economy, the
bargaining power shifts to knowledgeable individual specialist. Knowledge
workers, though not, constituting the majority in a knowledge society, being the
largest single population and workforce group, will be the most powerful lobby.
They may not be the ruling class in a knowledge society, but they will be the
leading class. In their characteristics, social positions, values and expectations,
they differ fundamentally from any group in history that has ever occupied the
leading position.
Another implication of a knowledge society is how well, a country, an individual,
an organization, an industry does in acquiring and applying knowledge. As
knowledge is equally shareable and never lost in use by any, there will be no
excuses for non-performance. There will not be poor countries but only ignorant
countries.
In fact, developed societies, individuals, organizations, etc. have
become infinitely more competitive than were societies of the beginning of this
century, leave alone earlier ones.
An interesting observation by Toffler on the nature of power shift in a knowledge

society is illustrated by the physicians in US who dominated health care for years,
suddenly losing their position of power.Throughout the heyday of doctordominance in America, physicians kept a tight chokehold of medical knowledge.
Prescriptions were in Latin, providing the profession with a semi-secret code, as it
were, which kept most patients in ignorance. Medical journals and texts were
restricted to professional readers. Medical conferences were closed to the laity.
Doctors controlled medical-school curricula and enrollments. Contrast this with
situation today, when patients have astonishing access to medical knowledge.
With a personal computer and a modem, anyone from home can access data bases
like Index Medicus and obtain scientific papers on everything from Addisonss
disease to zygomycosis and in fact, collect more information about a specific
ailment or treatment than the ordinary doctor has time to read. In short, the
knowledge monopoly of the medical profession has been thoroughly smashed.
And the doctor is no longer a god.
In many other fields, too, closely held specialists knowledge is slipping out of
control and reaching ordinary citizens. Similarly, inside major corporations
employees are winning access to knowledge once monopolized by management.
And as knowledge is redistributed, so, too, is the power based on it.
What is obtained in US, even if a little exaggerated, may not be applicable to
many other countries. Even so, the power shift is a phenomenon that needs to be
kept in view in fast changing power structures.
Self Check Exercise
7 Explain the effect of e-commerce in business and trade in Knowledge
economy?
Note:
! 4.3.5 Life and Culture in a Knowledge Society
The life of a common person, in a Knowledge Society has changed very
drastically due to the cumulative effect of industrial and information revolution.
These changes are reflected in practically every aspect of life. The most
conspicuous changes are 1) The high standard of living 2) Almost instant access
to information and knowledge through Internet 3) Increasing trend towards
consumerism 4) Influence of mass media, leisure industry and show business.
The High Standard of living is indicated by the per capita income of the western
societies. It ranges from 25000 to 35000 US dollars (Approximately 15 -16
lakhs in rupees), compared to 1000 to 2000 US Dollars in most developing
countries (50 thousand to 1 lakhs in rupees). This easily explains the high
standard of living in western societies.
Another very significant aspect of life of people in western societies is their
accessibility to information and knowledge through Internet. This has a
tremendous effect on their quality of life. Access to information for daily
activities such as to food and recipes, health care, education, entertainment, travel,
social security, news on current events, activities and personalities, weather, and
on a host of other subjects could be had for people in the western societies
through Internet. Naturally living conditions today in developed countries quite
different from what they were about a generation ago.
Consumerism
An interesting feature of persons in a modern affluent society is consumerism.
In the words of the well-known British Economist John Robinson, there is an
ever-rising consumption of industrial products by the middle class of farmers,
small business, professionals, including personnel of the techno-structure itself,
and that part of the working class which has become absorbed into the system; the
system has come to be known as the consumer society.
Advertisements in the ubiquitous media encourage people to keep on increasing
their wants endlessly. It creates new wants through built-in obsolescence of
existing products or services and by projecting changing fashions.
Advertisements then encourage emulation and competition among individuals.
Thus, as the eminent American economist Galbraith puts it, the pressure of
emulation and competition in adornment and display has no clear terminal
power.
Leisure Industry
Another conspicuous feature of a modern affluent society is leisure that people
have with all the modern standards of living.
The mass media, the leisure industry and show business are providing the most
advanced level of E-entertainment. A new culture is developing on account of
both consumerism and e-entertainment, which is resulting in a new style of living
in the western societies. This culture is getting emulated in developing countries.
To have an idea of western homes can be illustrated by smart homes as explained
below:
Smart Homes: Houses automated to control the environment and do such tasks
called Smart Homes are becoming popular. Smart Homes store the users profile
and act depending on that in any given situation. For example, if the user prefers
to drive and the spouse prefers to take the public transport, the direction given to
both of them would be totally different and would be stored with their preferences
in their individual profiles. These profiles would be automatically updated
depending on their direction in various circumstances.
The smart home could update them with good deals on merchandise of their
interest and of course the shortest way to get to the place to buy it or how to order
if it is an online deal. It would adjust lighting, temperature and could start their
car for them. The possibilities of endless, given enough money to implement
them. Variations in behaviour of the resident could be measured and beyond a
tolerance level the house could automatically call the doctor, police, or insane
asylum.
Currently smart homes do direct movement in a house where the owners are
known to be out. The house then alerts the owner via cell phone. The owner
could, over the Internet, check the images from the security camera installed in
the room where the movement was detected and take appropriate action.
Hotels offer another kind of service. Restaurants in some large hotels carry
tablets, which enable patrons orders to be communicated directly to the kitchen.
The tablets, display multilingual descriptions and photos of menu items, in the
hotel itself, staffs carry Personal Digital Assistance (PDAs) around to access
information. They add information, like the preferences of a particular patron,
into the database instantly.
These are some of a few novel facilities offered by business institutions to people,
using ICT to be in competition in the business environment.
So far we have been discussing some of the features of the emerging Knowledge
society, which have tremendous influence on the developing countries. In the
next section, we shall see how these impact some of the organizational
mechanisms that have been built-up.
Self Check Exercise
8 Describe briefly the life and culture of people in modern society.
Note
Check your answer with the answer given at the end of this unit.
14.4 IMPACT OF THE SOME OF THE FEATURES OF KNOWLEDGE
SOCIETY ON A FEW SECTORS
While every sector of an economy is affected by the fast changing dimensions of
the emerging knowledge society, we shall discuss below 1) the education and
training sector, as this sector is primarily going to be the basic feeder to the class
of knowledge workers and 2) the information support infrastructure that makes
information and knowledge provide the means for further development of
knowledge. Only these two sectors are taken up here to assess the impact of
knowledge society mainly because these are the most vital sectors in developing
the knowledge sector, which contributes wholesomely to the growth of new
knowledge.

A societys socio-economic growth and development are entirely dependent on
the quality of the educated class whose knowledge forms the intellectual capital.
Education is the process of acquiring general and specialized knowledge by
means of study and learning that develop intellectual power and judgment. It
also includes acquisition of skills for executing various professional and
vocational functions, development of culture, which is an expression of the mode
of thought and feelings. All these are accomplished by the educational system at
different stages and levels of study and learning. In the knowledge society, it is
envisaged that this process of education should get the highest priority in terms of
investment. The proper channeling of it is sure to create the necessary conditions
for further developing knowledge skills at all levels of society.
In the western society today, the information and communication technologies
have become part of the teaching and learning tools in schools at all levels. Peter
Drucker says that this would change the economics of education. From being a
labour intensive, it will become more capital intensive. More importantly, as
embarking in knowledge society, a new vision of learning institutions will have to
be conceived and operated. Education should produce persons who will function
in a knowledge society to deliver yields out of knowledge. While technology is
the tool, the philosophy of education should focus on substance contents, and
focus. In knowledge society people have to learn how to learn.
Drucker prescribes a set new specifications for an eaducational system for a
knowledge society::
The school (standing for education an educational system from primary to the
highest level of advanced and professional learning), has to provide universal
literacy of a high order --- well beyond what literacy means today which is the
very foundation. Universal literacy, besides the three Rs, at the school levels,
should include numeracy, a basic understanding of science and of the dynamics of
technology, acquaintance with foreign language and skills to be effective as a
member of an organization. These contents would vary according to the levels of
schooling.
An Educational System has to inspire students at all levels and of all ages with
motivation to learn and with the discipline of continuing learning.
An Educational System has to be an open system, accessible both to highly
educate people who for whatever reason did not gain access to advanced
education in their early years.
It has to impart knowledge both as substance and as a process.

An Educational System can no longer be a monopoly of the conventional
education institutions. Education in a knowledge society has to permeate the
entire society.
Employing organizations of all kinds --- business houses,
government agencies, and non-profit organizations--- must become institutions of
learning and teaching as well. Schools, increasingly, must work in partnership
with employers and employing organizations.
As knowledge becomes the primary source, the social position of an educational
system as producer and distributive channel of knowledge and its monopoly are
bound to be challenged. And some of the competitors are bound to succeed.
What will be taught and learned, how it will be taught and learned, who will make
use of schooling; and the position of the school in society --- all of this well
change greatly during the ensuing decades. Indeed, no other institution faces
challenges as radical as those that will transform the school.
But the greatest change --- and the one we are least prepared for --- is that the
school will have to commit itself to results. It will have to establish its bottom
line, the performance for which it should be held responsible and for which it is
being paid. The school will finally become accountable. (Peter Drucker)
What has been quoted above may sound more a vision rather than an actuality
that may come. Nonetheless, the feeder to the Knowledge Society namely the
Educational System may have to reorient itself towards producing results to
justify and prove that knowledge is the primary source for material development.
Self check exercise
9 What is the focus on education in a knowledge society as envisaged by
Drucker?
Note
14.4.2
Information and Knowledge Support Systems
With the cumulative advances of the technological revolutions, the western

society has built up a strong and powerful system of information and knowledge
Support System. The information Chain from the point of generation to the point
of use, that provides an effective link to every point in the chain, has been
established. Institutional mechanisms, tools and techniques have been developed
to disseminate, distribute, provide accessibility, document delivery, etc. The
newly created knowledge, dovetailing it with already existing knowledge has also
pooled up to create a reservoir of knowledge.
Impelled by the phenomenal proliferation of computers and information devices,
closely linked to an explosion of processing and access speeds, convergence of
images, sounds, and writing on one digital medium, and propagated by a
worldwide network to satellites and broad band fiber, optic cables, the
Information and knowledge Age is already a reality to millions in countries all
over the world.
Thus everything has been set to the emergence of a knowledge society to advance
the people of the western society to move further in their material advancement.
14.5 INDIAN SOCIETY
In the foregoing sections we have learnt about the evolution of the knowledge
society that pertains mainly to the western industrialized societies and Japan.
However like all technological revolutions, the Information and Knowledge

revolution also inspired hopes and aspirations that the Digital Age would bring
benefits to the people all over the world. But unfortunately this has so far
touched a tiny minority of the worlds population. If we take the access to the
World Wide Web as a criterion for joining the Information Age, less than 5 per
cent of the worlds population of 6 billion had gained access. This disparity has
been a subject of debate and discussion beginning from 1999, under the rubric
Digital Divide.
14.5.1 Digital Divide
The term digital divide describes the fact that the world can be divided into
people who do and people who do not have access to and the capability to use - modern information technology, such as the telephone, television, or the
Internet. The digital divide exists between those in cities and those in rural areas.
For example, a 1999 study showed that 86 percent of Internet delivery was to the
20 largest cities. The digital divide also exists between the educated and the
uneducated, between economic classes, and globally, between the more and less
industrially developed nations.
This subject of Digital Divide was debated and discussed in a Workshop in 2003,
organized at the National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of
Science at Bangalore. The workshop brought together 30 invited participants
comprising activists, academics, politicians and administrators and journalists.
The papers and a report on the discussions have been published with the title
IT Experience in India bridging the digital divide, edited by Kenneth Keniston
and Deepak Kumar. (Kenneth Keniston , Professor and Director of MIT Indian
Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. USA.).
In his introductory paper, Keniston, identifies four different kinds of Digital
Divide. They are that
It exists within every nation, industrialized or developing, between rich
and poor, educated and uneducated, powerful and powerless.
Even US where households with incomes $ 75,000, have 20 times more Internet
access than those in the lowest income brackets; 80 percent of the rich and 5
percent of the poor have access to Internet. University educated persons own 69
percent of computers as compared 8 percent to less educated persons; Internet
access to the former has 49 percent versus 3 percent to the latter.
According to estimates in 2002, In India with a population 1 billion and more,
less than 1 percent had home access to computers and just 0.5 percent had home
access to Internet.
The Second digital divide is linguistic and cultural. In many nations this
separates those who speak English or another Western European language.
In India only 50 million or so Indians speaking English who are also rich,
prosperous, urban, highly educated and concentrated in technical fields, own
home computers and have access to Internet.
The third digital divide follows closely from the first two, is the growing
digital gap between the rich and the poor nations.
The international disparity in access to ICTs is of course a reflection of other

disparities between rich and poor nations. But so far as ICTs are themselves
enabling, facilitating and wealth creating, the international divide in information
technology widens the already great gulf between Industrialized and developing
countries.
The fourth digital divide is the emergence of a new elite group, which
Keniston calls the digirati
These are the beneficiaries of the enormous successful IT industry and the other
knowledge-based sectors of the economy such as biotechnology and
pharmacology. Unlike older Indian elites, the privileges of the digirati are based
not on caste, inherited wealth, family connection or access to traditional rulers,
but on a combination of education, brainpower, special entrepreneurial skills and
ability to stay on the cutting edge of knowledge.
The consensus Kenniston could discern from the discussions, a set of consensus
on the discussions, although they were not officially accepted consensus are
stated below:
Information technologies should be introduced when (and only when),

they constitute the most effective available away of meeting basic human
needs and fulfilling fundamental human rights.
The most creative uses of ICTs in development may not entail computers,
e-mail or Internet access, but rather the use of other computer-based
technologies, including embedded chips, satellite based information, etc.
in order local needs.
Information and communication technology projects must build on an

assessment of local needs, as locally defined by local people.
Beware of inflated rhetoric and grandiose plans; look for results.
Do not simply assume that a flourishing IT sector will trickle down to the
rest of the people.
Be sure that ICT programs actually reach and really benefit their intended
beneficiaries.
Information and communication technology for development efforts ned

to share experience within and between nations, especially actual
successes and failures at the grassroots level,
In summary, Keniston says that Information poverty of developing nations is not

the cause of their deficiencies. It is rather the consequences of other forms of
poverty, social inequalities of resources, illiteracy, corruption, injustice, poor

health and lack of basic public services.
Self Check Exercise

10 What do you understand by the expression Digital Divide?
11 What are the four types of digital divide mentioned by Keniston?
Note:
14.4.2 The Indian Scenario
With the backdrop of digital divide given above, let us look at the Indian scenario
vis--vis ICT and Knowledge Society.
In a very thought provoking contribution, (published by Frontline of the Hindu in
2002) commenting on the Indian vision of knowledge-based economy, two US
based Indian specialists have made some insightful remarks. A summary of their
observations is given below:
Proponents of the new growth economy have forcefully and convincingly
argued that human capital generates the ideas and knowledge that in turn, decide
how efficiently and effectively the traditional inputs of capital and labour are
transformed into wealth. This is a function of education levels and the skills of a
workforce. The real progress into a knowledge economy will not come without a
substantial development of Indias human potential.
The reality is that 79 percent of Indias population lives in villages with very
limited basic infrastructure for any kind of growth. Over 60 percent of the Indian
population is considered literate. But literacy defined as the ability to read and
write simple words in any Indian language, acquired with or without formal
schooling. This criterion is so basic that it is almost irrelevant in the context of
knowledge economy.
The value of ICT depends greatly on the existing level of economic growth and
development. ICT can indeed make existing assets and processes more effective
and efficient but cannot compensate for lack of a basic infrastructure.
Industrial growth derives from investments in large infrastructure such as
railways, roadways, power grids, and dams. Such infrastructure supports the
growth of physical assets intensive industries such as steel and transportation
industry. These create and move physical entities such as goods, water and
people. These ventures employ numerous workers with limited education and
skills and uplift large sections of society.
In contrast, ventures in the knowledge economy usually involve the production of
knowledge-intensive goods and products (like software) and the large-scale
capture, movement and utilization of information using sophisticated network
infrastructure such as computers, cable, fiber, and routers. All these efforts
require initial construction, building and maintaining and such infrastructures

based on specialized knowledge.
It should be stressed here that the new Knowledge economy is an outcome of the
cumulative technological advances. The industrial economy made agricultural
economy more productive. Industrial economy, in turn, had created great wealth
and improved living standards across social divides. This progress, in fact, had
set the western countries in an ideal position to create and exploit knowledge to
transform the society into a knowledge economy. Crucially, the great source of
productivity and growth attributed to the knowledge economy derives not from
the knowledge economy itself, but from its effects on the industrial economy.
What is appropriate for a developed economy is not necessarily appropriate for
India, where basic elements of infrastructure including quality education,
healthcare, electricity and drinking water remain in short supply.
Therefore India should aggressively pursue manufacturing and agriculture-based
industries to build a robust industrial economy. It can be made effective with
applications of ICT.
The most striking examples of ICT in two major sectors of Indian economy are
the railways reservation system and the public banking system. There are also a
few other areas where ICT have performed with great success.
The conclusion drawn in the Frontline contribution is that The Indian vision of a
knowledge-based economy will be realized when it is based on the foundation of
a robust industrial economy. To be truly beneficial, the rain of ICT must fall at
the right place, in the right quantity, at the right time and for the right purpose.
14.4.3 Indian Planning and Targets to be achieved
The Government of India has set targets through its planning, policies and
implementation processes. Its initiation of e-governance, and related ICT
applications are positive steps towards progress. As these aspects are described
in detail in other units of this course, here these aspects are not elaborated.
What is of relevance and very important for library and information professionals
is that they should rise to the occasion in making their contribution to the task of
nation building. The skills to be acquired by information professionals are a
combination of subject/discipline oriented knowledge, computer skills at a fairly
advanced levels, management skills to operate new and emerging information
institutions, and communication skills both written and oral. These skills should
find their results in adding value to information services. Value-added
information products and services could be obtained by the techniques of
filtering, validation, analysis, synthesis, presentation and ease of use.
Professional requirements in India currently required are also elaborately treated
in other units of this program. Hence not detailed here.
Self Check Exercise
12 How could the Indian Economy be prepared to move it to a Knowledgebased economy?

Note
14.6 SUMMARY
This Unit examines primarily the features of emerging Knowledge Society. which
have been a result of Agrarian, Industrial and information revolution of the past.
The features of Knowledge Society include the cumulative knowledge of
discipline-based knowledge, personal knowledge of individuals and embedded
knowledge. Knowledge economy derives its strength from this knowledge,
which is, currently, considered the main factor of economic growth and
production. Proponents of Information economics are involved in studies and
research on this powerful factor of economic growth and development as the
national, international and local levels.
Indian economic growth and
development derives its strength from the western model, adopting ICT as the
main operating mechanism. But the digital divide of ICT points that it is on the
basis of industrial economic strength, ICT could provide adequate scope for
development. The conditions obtained in India in its efforts to get for people the
benefits of ICT are briefly described. The Planning process for this process and
the role of Information professional in the national building taks are briefly
mentioned.
14.7 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISE

1 The main points that flow out from these observations about the Knowledge
Society are:
The amazing speed and rapidity with which these changes have taken
place in the twentieth century.
The changes have affected each and every aspect of the life of people.
The changes have been triggered by great advances and development of

the synergizing science and technology.
The converging computer and communication technologies have provided

unprecedented facilities for knowledge recording and dissemination.
These changes are seen in the western societies most conspicuously;
A new class of knowledge workers is emerging, considered as the

intellectual capital of an organization.
Most importantly the power foci is shifting largely on account of the

substantial economic transformation of wealth, its distribution and
concentration.
There has been an unequal distribution of wealth, power and benefits even
in the industrially developed countries.
Conventional/traditional recorded knowledge resulting from R & D

activities, Tacit Personal knowledge and Embedded knowledge,
hidden in nature
Knowledge and know-how are also embedded in things natural an
man-made. For instance, the study of natural resources, their
occurrences , compositions, how they may be extracted, manipulated,
converted, applied and preserved, applied (e.g biodiversity studies) for
human benefit, is an exercise in knowledge generation and application
3. Some characteristics of information and knowledge are that they are:
shareable, not exchangeable and can be given away and retained at the
same time ;
Is expandable and increases with use;
Infinite and ever expanding, dynamic;
Is compressible, able to be summarized, integrated, etc.
Is acquired at a definite measurable cost;
possesses a definite value, depending upon its user which may be
quantified and treated as an accountable asset;
may vary in value over time in an entirely, unpredictable way;
has consumption rate which can be quantified;
is amenable to the use of cost and accounting technique; and
is a source of both economic and political power.
4 The new class of Knowledge Workers includes engineers, programmers,

and designers whose major output is research that translates into new
products and services.
5 Globalization is the process of integration of Worlds economies for creating
conditions of free flows of trade and commerce and movement of persons
across borders. This has been facilitated by ICT for instant communication
of information and knowledge.
6 The two important aspects of production and international markets are demassification and need-based production
7 E-Commerce has created a new and distinct boom, rapidly changing
economy, society and politics
8 Life and culture of people in a modern society of a western economy is
characterized by a high standard of living, consumerism, and leisure time
spent in entertainment offered by show business.
9 Education in a Knowledge society should focus on a new philosophy of
education. This philosophy should be based on continuous learning for
every person, irrespective of age, already educated persons and the

involvement of all organizations of society.
10 The term digital divide describes the fact that the world can be divided into
people who do and people who do not have access to and the capability
to use -- modern information technology, such as the telephone, television,
or the Internet. The digital divide exists between those in cities and those
in rural areas. For example, a 1999 study showed that 86 percent of
Internet delivery was to the 20 largest cities. The digital divide also exists
between the educated and the uneducated, between economic classes,
and globally, between the more and less industrially developed nations.
11 Keniston, identifies four different kinds of Digital Divide. They are that
It exists within every nation, industrialized or developing, between rich
and poor, educated and uneducated, powerful and powerless.
The Second digital divide is linguistic and cultural. In many nations this
separates those who speak English or another Western European language.
The third digital divide follows closely from the first two, and is the
growing digital gap between the rich and the poor nations.
The fourth digital divide is the emergence of a new elite group, which
Keniston calls the digirati
12 The Indian economy is to concentrate on building a strong Industrial

Economy, using ICT effectively for this process.
14.8 Keywords
Agrarian Society
predominantly

from the agricultural class
: Human knowledge, information, experience,
Skills, expertise
Human Capital
Industrial Society
predominantly
Information
: A society in which the workforce is
from the manufacturing class

: (No single definition is possible) Information is
The building blocks of knowledge is generally
Relevant in library and information studies.
Information and Communi- The acquisition, processing, storage. diseminacation Technology

: tion and use of vocal, pictorial, textual
and
numerical information in digital form by
a
micaro-electronic based combination of
computing and communication.

Information flow:
: Information transfer through established channels
Information infrastructure : Mechanisms built for information flow and

organization
Knowledge
: Knowledge is an organized set of statement of
ideas, presenting a reasoned judgment or an
experimental result which is transformed to
others through some communication medium
in a systematic form.
Knowledge Economy
: An economy where information and knowledge

are the prime factors of production.
Knowledge society
: A society in which the society derives its form

From a knowledge economy
Knowledges
: The aggregate knowledge of conventional

research outputs, tacit personal knowledge,
and embedded knowledge hidden in nature
Social wealth
: Wealth available freely to all the sections of a

Society

Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo (1992). Top Management Forum.
Knowledge Management for Corporate Innovation.
Davenport, Thomas H (1998). Some Principles of Knowledge Management.
Drucker, Peter F(1994). The Age of Social Transformation. Atlantic Monthly,
November, 1994.
Drucker, Peter F (1994). Knowledge Work and Knowledge Society: The Social
Transformation of This Century. The Godkin Lecture .
Drucker, Peter F (1993). Post-capitalist society. New York: Harper Collins.
Evans, Philip B and Wurster, Thomas S (1997). Strategy and the New Economics
of Information. Harward Business Review, September-October.
Haravu ,Jairam (2002). Lectures on Knowledge Management: Paradigms,
Challenges and Opportunities. Bangalore: Sarada Ranganathan Endowment for
Library Science.
http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/ifactory/ksgpress/www/ksg_news/transcripts/druckle
c.htm
http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/digitaldivide/
Krishnan, Rishikesha. (2002). Knowledge and Innovation: A Strategic

Perspective.
Kenniston, Kenneth (Eds.) (2004). IT Experience in India: Bridging the Digital
Divide. New Delhi: Sage publications.
Konna, Prabhudev and Balasubramanian, Sridar(2002) India as a Knowledge
Economy: Aspirations and Reality. Frontline (02), Jan.19-Feb.01.
Lamberton, D M (1984). The Economics of Information.
Liebowitz, Ja (2001). Knowledge management, learning from knowledge
engineering. London: CRC Press.
Luther, Machiavelli and Salmon (1999). Beyond the information revolution.
Machlup, Fritz (1983). The Economics of Information and Human Capital.
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Neelameghan, A (1999). Information economy and knowledge society: an
introduction, Information Science 4 parts.
Preston, Paschal (2001).Reshaping communications. Technology, Information
and Social change. New Delhi : Sage Publications.
Ribeiro, John (2002). India tackles the digital divide.
Smart, Barry (1992). Modern conditions, postmodern controversies. London:
Routledge.
Skyrme, David (1998). Knowledge management solutionsthe IT contributions.
Toffler, Alvin (1970). Future Shock. New York:: Bantom Books.
Toffler, Alvin (1980). The Third Wave. New York: William Morrow and Co.
Toffler, Alvin (1990). Power Shift. New York: Bantom Books.
Vittal N 2001). Cultural dimensions of e-governnance. Talk delivered in the IIIT
&M, Gwalior, 20.10.2001.
UNIT 15 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT:

CONCEPTS AND TOOLS
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Data, Information and Knowledge
15.2.1 Types of Knowledge
15.3 Knowedge Management (KM)

15.3.1 Interest in Knowledge Management
15.3.2 What is Knowledge Management?
15.3.3 Changing Scenario and Driving Forces
15.3.4 Impact of Information and Communication Technologies
15.4 Knowledge Management Systems

15.4.1 Characteristics
15.4.2 Practical Approaches and Strategies
15.4.3 Richness versus Reach
15.5 Knowledge Products

15.5.1 Need
15.5.3 Architecture
15.6 Data Mining and Text Mining

15.6.1
15.6.2
15.6.3
15.6.4
Knowledge Discovery in Data Bases

Data Mining
Text Mining
Text Analysis and Mining Techniques
15.7 Summary
15.9 Keywords
15.0
OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to understand:

l
the evolution of the concept of Knowledge Management (KM);
the practice of KM especially in enterprises;
the strategies of KM in enterprises;
tools and techniques, such as, data mining, text analysis, and text mining;
and
facets of preparing knowledge products.
15.1
386
INTRODUCTION
Management as a discipline with its own theories and normative principles

evolved during the 20th century although management-in-practice has existed,
that is management has been practised, for centuries. Managers, as a distinct

class of professionals, began to emerge as a societal necessity, with the
formation of joint stock companies in the 15th and 16th centuries in Europe,
more particularly to organise and manage expeditions, explorations, and the
growing trade with countries across the oceans. The manager also played (and
continues to do so) an important role in the smooth functioning of an enterprise,
in the interactions between the workers on the one hand and the investors /
shareholders on the other. From the experiences in managing companies,
factories, and various other types of corporate entities and services over several
decades, commonalities of practice were identified and guiding principles
formulated. Such distillation of normative principles led to theories of
management applicable to the whole gamut of management practices. Articles
in periodicals, new periodicals devoted mainly to the subject Management,
education and research programmes, associations and institutions with focus
on management were started and the new discipline of Management has come
to stay. Sub-branches or specialisations of management financial
management, human resources management, services management, public
relations management, marketing and sales management, technology
management, etc, and now Knowledge Management (KM) have also evolved.
Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
For an information professional, understanding KMthe concept, its practice,

tools and strategies is important for two reasons: firstly to design and develop
information systems, products and services that support KM practice in the
enterprise he/ she serves, and secondly to apply KM efficiently and effectively
in the information resource system of which he/ she is the incharge It may be
mentioned here that the learner is familiar with the concepts like knowledge
economy and knowledge society and their characteristics. These have been
already discussed in Unit 14.
15.2
DATA, INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE
There are numerous definitions of data, information, and knowledge in the

literature. However, as Davenport and Prusak note, knowledge is neither data
nor information but it is related to both. However basic it may sound, it is still
important to emphasise that data, information, and knowledge are not
interchangeable concepts. The terms data, information and knowledge
have been defined and distinguished in the write-up for other units of this
course. We shall not repeat it here. It is useful to recall that there are three
elements involved in the knowledge process: the knowee, the knower, and the
process of knowing or cognition (operating in the knower). Knowledge is
created when the knower knows the knowee. It implies that knowledge is what
a knower knows; and there is no knowledge without someone knowing it:
Outside of the knower only embodied knowledge (resource) exists.
Information becomes knowledge once it is processed in the mind of an
individual. This knowledge then becomes information again once it is
articulated or communicated to others in the form of text, computer output,
spoken, or written words or by other means. Knowledge is embodied in nature
and its manifestations, in man-made artifacts, documents of all types (including
the digital forms) as text, images, sound, and multimedia, and most importantly
387
Knowledge and Society
in people, not only what is in their brain, but also their skills, cultural practices,
traditions, conventions, laws, etc. For an enterprise, it is strategic to focus on
proprietary corporate knowledge, intrinsic to its core competence / expertise
and is often protected by patents, copyright, non-disclosure policies, and its
other intellectual properties
In brief, knowledge is information integrated with experiences, reflected upon
and interpreted in a particular context. Knowledge is a renewable, re-usable
and an accumulating asset of value to an enterprise that increases in value with
employee experience and organisational life. It is intangible, boundary-less,
and dynamic, and if it is not used at a specific time in a specific place, it may
be of no value otherwise. Although knowledge can be represented in and often
embedded in organisational processes, routines, and networks, and in document
repositories, it is only the cognitive process and intellection of a person(s) that
can generate knowledge or apply it.
15.2.1 Types of Knowledge

It may be noted from the literature that knowledge can be thought of in many
ways, and indeed there are a number of different types discussed [Teece, 1998].
From a knowledge management perspective, it is useful to be able to identify
and categorise types of knowledge as it may help to indicate which of the
categories are more amenable to management than others.
A typology of knowledge is: core, advanced and innovative knowledge.
Core knowledge is the minimum level of knowledge required for daily
operations; advanced knowledge enables a firm to be competitively viable;
and innovative knowledge enables a firm to lead the industry to which it belongs,
and competitors.
Knowledge is also categorised as explicit and tacit knowledge. Explicit
knowledge is expressed in words and numbers and shared in the form of data,
scientific formulae, specifications, manuals, and the like. This kind of
knowledge can be readily transmitted between individuals formally and
systematically. Tacit knowledge is highly personal and hard to formalise,
making it difficult to communicate or share with others. Subjective insights,
intuition, experience and hunch fall into this category of knowledge. Tacit
knowledge is deeply rooted in an individuals actions and experience as well
as in his/her ideals, values, and emotions. Tacitness may be considered as a
variable, the degree of tacitness being a function of the extent to which the
knowledge is or can be codified and abstracted. Knowledge may dynamically
shift between tacit and explicit over time although some knowledge always
will remain tacit. Codification is the degree to which the knowledge is fully
documented or expressed in writing at the time of transfer between individuals.
The complexity of knowledge increases with lower levels of codification.
Another categorisation of knowledge is practical, experience-based
knowledge and theoretical knowledge derived from reflection and abstraction
from experience.
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15.3
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT (KM)
Concepts and Tools
15.3.1 Interest in Knowledge Management

The level of interest in KM has been building for several years and this is
partly because of the recognition that knowledge has become increasingly
important to an individual firms successs. As pointed out by KPMG (1998)
We are in an era where the traditional pillars of economic power capital,
land, plant, and labour are no longer the determinants of business success.
Instead an increasing number of organisations depend for their value on the
development, use and distribution of knowledge- based competencies.
15.3.2 What is Knowledge Management?

Just as there are many definitions of knowledge, there are also numerous
definitions of knowledge management. To date, no general approach to
managing knowledge has been commonly accepted- although several isolated,
and at times diverging notions are being advanced. According to Malhotra
(1998) academic notions of knowledge and management are split between the
various camps of psychologists, technologists, and organisation theorists, and
that the trade, press, or practitioners follow a techno-centric approach (looking
at how various IT systems can facilitate knowledge management) or they take
a human- resource oriented approach (for example looking at the cultural issues
that are relevant to knowledge management). However, a simple way of defining
Knowledge Management is that KM is the process of organizing and sharing
the diverse forms of business information created within an organisation. KM
can include managing enterprise document libraries, discussion databases,
Intranet websites, and other types of knowledge bases. KM is the application
of enterprise portals to organise, manage, and share the diverse forms of business
information created by individuals and teams in an organisation.
We shall be discussing KM in the framework of an enterprise or organisation
a company, a research centre, an educational institution, a project or any
other corporate entity.
KM in general relates to unlocking and leveraging the knowledge of individuals
so that it becomes available as an organisational resource independent of
particular individuals. Many authors view KM from an information systems
perspective and is based on the belief that KM systems can be used to capture
and store workers knowledge and make it accessible to others through a
searchable application. In this perspective KM should enable an organisation
to effectively store, manage, retrieve, and enlarge its intellectual properties.
The repository view of KM emphasises the gathering, providing, and filtering
of explicit knowledge as the information held in a repository can easily be
transferred and shared. Nevertheless, it is neither easy nor appropriate to use
de-contextualised information. Knowledge managers often need access to
human experts, for their tacit knowledge. This expert sharing dimension of
KM emphasises the human aspects cognitive, social, cultural and
organisational - aspects, in addition to information storage and retrieval. Rather
than focusing on the management level of an organisation, expert sharing
focuses on the self-organised activities of the organisations members.
(Ackerman, Pipek and Wulf)
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There are computer systems that can route queries, assemble people and work,
and augment naturally occurring social networks within organisations
Self Check Exercise
1)
Define knowledge. State its characteristics.
2)
Differentiate between tacit and explicit knowledge.

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15.3.3 Changing Scenario and Driving Forces

Over the past few decades, the economy of industrialised societies evolved
from industrial economy to information economy and on to knowledge-based
economy wherein the level and extent of activities relating to the generation,
accessing, retrieving, processing, communication, application and use of
information and knowledge are deemed to be an important parameter for
measuring the socio-economic development level of nations. The individuals
and corporations that possess and/or have access and the means to exploit
knowledge resources become the more powerful entities in society. In brief
we notice:
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Worldwide shift to information economy and on to knowledge economy.
Rapid growth in knowledge and information-intensive products and

services.
Intensification of knowledge utilisation in the production of traditional

products as well.
Manual production workers being substituted / replaced by information /

knowledge workers in various sectors of the economy.
New types of knowledge / information-intensive organisations devoted

mainly.to the production, processing, and distribution of knowledge-based
products.
The significant impact of the rapidly evolving ICTs (information and

communication technologies) on enterprises.
Enterprises need expertise in KM to sustain and enhance their competitive

advantage of the organisation in an environment of growing competition for
resources finance, human, and physical resources, markets, etc. The
knowledge manager, at all levels, is expected to posses special capabilities for
creating, mobilising, and communicating knowledge available with the
organisation as well as elsewhere. Knowledge embedded in the organisations

business or work processes and in the employees including their expertise,
skills, experiences, provide the enterprise capabilities to create, produce and
deliver customers what they need, when and where they need it.
Concepts and Tools
KM is introduced to help an organisation of whatever nature to create, share,

and use knowledge effectively because it pays off in fewer mistakes, less
redundancy, quicker problem solving, better decision making, reduced research
and development (R&D) costs, increased worker independence, enhanced
customer relations, and improved services to customers. Knowledge support
functions are needed to implement KM in an organisation.
Another perspective that accelerated the enthusiasm for KM and the
development of knowledge products is the richness versus reach thesis [Evans
and Wurster, 1997]. It is pointed out that the nature of communication has
drastically changed. Until now, one had a choice of richness or reach, but one
could not achieve both simultaneously. A face-to-face conversation, for
instance, is rich in content, nuance and interactivity but poor in reach. A radio
or TV broadcast has great reach but is poor in interactivity and nuance.
Communication strategies were always an either-or choice. With the Internet,
it is argued that we can craft systems that provide both richness and reach.
This has necessitated a rethink on how information and knowledge are shared
within organisations, an important concern of businesses wishing to harness
knowledge. Knowledge products targeted to specific domains, together with
the use of the web as the delivery medium, it is possible to provide the richness
and reach sought for in organisations.
Crucial and value-adding knowledge: The decision to invest in knowledge
depends upon knowing what knowledge is relevant and crucial to the
organisation and what knowledge adds value. Crucial knowledge includes the
ever-changing dynamic knowledge necessary to operate within the industry at
an acceptable level. It may be obtained through consultation with experts,
their tacit knowledge that manifests as problem-solving behaviour. The
continued availability, development, and retaining of experts in the organisation
with such problem-solving proneness and capability is an important aspect of
human resources management.
Much of the literature views KM from an information systems perspective
and is based on the belief that KM systems can be used to capture and store
workers knowledge and make it accessible to others via a searchable
application.
KM is more than collecting and feeding data and information into a computer
database or website. Effective KM ensures that individuals at all levels of an
organisation have access to the information they need to accomplish the tasks
assigned to them at the same time helping to achieve the organisations overall
goals.
KM calls for combining the appropriate advanced elements of technological
resources and the indispensable input of human response and decision-making.
It is also about revaluing work and changing the way people perform. The
outcome is a shift in the way people work, and in the way leadership is defined.
To implement KM system, persons involved and affected need to understand
391
why they should undertake a KM system initiative, how it will affect their
work and why the organisation needs to change.
Self Check Exercise
3)
Define knowledge management from an information system perspective.
4)
Discuss the advantages of KM in an organisation.

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15.3.4 Impact of Information and Communication

Technologies
An enterprise is a purposeful system, that is a system created to accomplish a
mission or objective. The goal of the mission is usually embodied in a mission
statement. An enterprise may consist of one or more subsystems. It has
attributes of a thermodynamic system as well as those of a biological system
e.g. purpose, entropy, requisite variety, viability, homoeostasis, adaptation,
equifinality, etc.
In a knowledge society environment, application of the emerging ICTs is
perceived as an instrument that can contribute to the enhancement of its
competitiveness. ICTs offer opportunities as well as pose challenges to
managers. Keeping these in view appropriate policies and strategies have to
be adopted to derive optimal benefits. Briefly the various opportunities and
added value that ICTs can provide to an enterprise management include, for
example, better customer response, better management information, timely
information about changes in the operational environment of the enterprise,
productivity increase, cost control, factor replacement, improved quality of
products and services, increased sales, better market intelligence and market
share, assist in developing new products for new markets, and systems
integration and coordination. There are threats and problems to be faced by
non-planned selection and application of ICTs.
15.4
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
A Knowledge Management System (KMS) has a knowledge base as a major

component of computer-based information systems. A KMS uses its knowledge
base about a specific, complex application area to act as an expert / consultant
to end-users. Such a system can be used either for management or for operational
392
applications. Thus a KMS can be classified conceptually as either a operation

or management system, depending on whether it is used for expert advice to
control operational processes or for assisting in managerial decision making.
Concepts and Tools
KM, as already mentioned above, attempts at the holistic application of the
complexities of human intellectual processes, including tacit knowledge,
learning and innovating processes, communication cultures, values and
intangible assets to assist decision making and control processes. It also
recognises the subjective, interpretive and dynamic nature of knowledge. At
the same time KM draws from the developments in ICTs for effective and
efficient organisational management and development.
In developing a KMS it is necessary to take into account the following factors:
1)
KM does not come cheap.
2)
Effective KM requires hybrid solutions using people and technology.
3)
KM is highly political, has socio-cultural and human implications.
4)
KM requires development of knowledge managers.
5)
KM benefits more from maps than models, more from markets than from
hierarchies.
6)
Sharing of knowledge may be perceived as an unnatural act
7)
KM entails improving knowledge-based work processes and providing

knowledge-based products and services.
8)
Accessing knowledge is only the beginning
9)
KM is a never-ending continuous process.
10) KM requires a knowledge contract.
15.4.2 Practical Approach and Strategies

As mentioned above, in the emerging knowledge society, knowledge is being
recognised in an increasing measure as a primary source of wealth production.
Economies that can efficiently exploit their knowledge resources are doing
better than those that have abundant natural resources but lack the knowledge
to exploit them.
The vast and deep impact on the social and economic environment caused by
technology and globalisation has forced organisations worldwide to make
significant changes to their objectives, strategies, and organisational structures
in order to adapt, survive and succeed in the 21st century. Organisations need
to become wired, retooled and networked; but also need to change both the
extrinsic elements of their products, activities and/or structures and their basic
intrinsic way of operating-values, and mind-set, and sometimes even their
purpose. Organisations must learn very quickly in order to adapt to rapid
environmental changes to survive and succeed. Thus, todays organisation has
little choice but to transform itself into learning organisation, one of the
393
principal purposes will be the expansion of knowledge that comes to reside at

the core of what it means to be competitive and productive. The organisation
should develop the capacity to collect, store and transfer knowledge and thus
continuously transform itself for corporate success. Technology should be
judiciously utilised to optimise both learning and productivity.
The knowledge subsystem is designed for the acquisition, creation, storage,
transfer and utilisation of knowledge.
Acquisition involves collection of existing data and information from within
and outside the organisation via environmental scanning, consultations,
networks, staff suggestions, etc. Creation of new knowledge is mainly through
problem solving, innovative programmes and conversion of implicit knowledge
to explicit knowledge. Storing is the coding and preserving of value-added
knowledge for easy access. Transfer and utilisation refer to the mechanical,
electronic and interpersonal movement of information and knowledge
throughout the organisation as well as its application and use by members of
the organisation wherever they be located. . These elements are ongoing,
interactive and dynamic instead of being sequential and independent.
Only by developing and implementing systems and mechanisms to assemble
package, store and distribute the fruits of its thinking will an enterprise be able
to transform its knowledge into corporate asset and power. In the practical
application of the concept of KM, answers to the following queries about the
information and knowledge need consideration:
l
What information and knowledge are needed?
Why they are needed, for what purpose?
Where they may be found?
How they may be sourced and obtained?
How is it to be processed?
When, where and in what form and format the information is to be

delivered?
KM process also need to take into account other factors, such as, cost, ability
to tap knowledge, mapping the knowledge, knowledge growth and operations
on knowledge, what technology is to be used, etc.
A networked IT platform should be installed to support the knowledge systems.
Powerful system navigation and information exploration tools that use
hypermedia, dynamic visual querying and tree maps are useful. Employees
should be enabled to communicate freely with each other and share data and
information across the organisation. To achieve efficiency in performance as
many operations as necessary should be automated within the organisation.
Centres of expertise and excellence should be created with assigned
responsibilities for collecting, storing, analysing and distributing knowledge.
These centres can train workers in their specialties to ensure availability of
qualified workers and consulting services. The centres may have the following
functions in relation to the knowledge repositories:
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Creating and managing the knowledge repository;
Setting and enforcing standards, methods and practices;
Assessing work-force competency and performance;
Providing training and consultancy services; and
Identifying gaps, to remedy deficiencies in the content and processing of

the knowledge repository.
Concepts and Tools
The challenge is to create an organisation that can move and redistribute its
knowledge. By finding ways to make knowledge move, an organisation can
create a value network, not just a value chain. In order to guide KM assessment
and future activities (from a practitioners perspective), a descriptive KM model
such as that described by Ernst and Young (Fig. 15.1) supports a holistic
approach to KM that encompasses organisational, cultural, and technological
aspects.
Fig. 15.1: KM : A Two-dimensional Perspective
As illustrated in Fig. 15.1, KM may be viewed from a two-dimensional

perspective. The first dimension consists of the activities that are critical to
knowledge creation and innovation, knowledge exchange, capture, reuse, and
internalisation. Collectively, these processes build a learning organisation
one capable of creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge as well as
adapting its actions to reflect new insights and innovations. The second
dimension consists of those elements that enable or influence knowledgecreation activities. These include:
Strategy: the alignment of corporate and KM strategies;
Measurement: the measures or metrics captured to determine if KM
improvement is occurring or if a benefit is being derived;
Policy: the written policy or guidance provided by the organisation;
Content: the subset of the corporate knowledge base that is captured
electronically;
Process: the processes that knowledge workers use to achieve organisations
mission and goals;
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Technology: the information technology that facilitates the identification,

creation, and diffusion of knowledge among organisational elements within
and across enterprises; and
Culture: the environment and context in which KM processes must occur
(often described in terms of values, norms, and practices).
The following are some of the KM strategies:
Viewing KM as a business strategy;
Transfer of knowledge and best practices;
Customer-focused knowledge;
Personal responsibility for knowledge;
Intellectual asset management; and
Innovation and knowledge creation.
Influencing factors are:
Working environment has an impact on the knowledge perception level

of the people;
IT has an impact on the organisational perspective of knowledge; and
Knowledge perceptions of the people differ with their profession, age,

and also gender.
To summarise, appropriate strategies include:

l
Providing facility to people in the enterprise at all levels so that they feel
comfortable in the working environment. This will enable them to think
technically and help to compete in the environment;
Considering data, information and knowledge in different ways and give

due importance to skill, intelligence, and knowledge available in human
capital;
Making an inventory of intellectual capital i.e., what do we know that is

valuable and where else can we use it;
Tracing the information flows that parallel the routine activities and new
challenges;
Looking for key knowledge by asking: What do we lose when key people
leave? or What do we have to teach every new staff member?;
Switching our thinking from training to facilitating learning. Put job

aids and learning tools in the hands of people on the job. It is estimated
that 70% of learning about a job comes from doing the job; thus we have
to find ways to make that more effective; and
Providing data and knowledge bases.
Self Check Exercise
396
5)
Enumerate the processes taking place in the knowledge subsystem.
6)
Describe KM from a two- dimensional perspective.
Concepts and Tools
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15.4.3 Richness versus Reach

development of knowledge products is the richness versus reach thesis of
Evans and Wurster. They pointed out that the nature of communication has
drastically changed. Until now, one had a choice of richness or reach, but one
could not achieve both simultaneously. A face-to-face conversation, for
instance, is rich in content, nuance and interactivity but poor in reach. A radio
or TV broadcast has great reach but is poor in interactivity and nuance.
Communication strategies were always an either-or choice. With the Internet,
it is argued that we can craft systems that provide both richness and reach.
This has necessitated a rethink on how information and knowledge are shared
within organisations, an important concern of businesses wishing to harness
knowledge. Knowledge products targeted to specific domains, together with
the use of the web as the delivery medium, we believe can provide the richness
and reach sought for in organisations.
15.5
KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTS
15.5.1 Need
The Internet, intranets, email and groupware make more data than ever before
available to the knowledge worker. Customer / user comments, communications
between staff members of an organisation and peers in a professional group,
internal research reports, trade and technical publications, and competitor and
other web sites are some examples of available heterogeneous electronic data.
As a result the literature on KM, information retrieval, corporate portals, digital
libraries and web-based information and document management technologies
express concern about the information overloaded, web-centered digital world,
and the need for better methods of knowledge organisation.
Information managers try to lower the cost of tasks that require discourse /
document analysis, if possible by using automated methods, to provide better
service to clients and improve the quality of information provided. Information
users need to have direct access to relevant information, for rapid awareness
of content, and to discover new ideas and relationships. For meeting these
needs a rapidly growing class of software products called enterprise KM
products has come up. Numerous vendors have entered the KM market with a
wide variety of products purported to manage and control the great quantities
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of textual and other information needed to support enterprise functions and

activities, The tools and products in the KM market include, among many
others, search engines, natural language processing software, document
management systems, and groupware products.
Thus, the idea of knowledge products arose out of concerns, primarily in the
corporate world but also in other spheres (e.g., government), of the information
overload phenomenon which we are subjected to because of the proliferation
of information in conventional and in digital forms. The ongoing need to manage
knowledge and discover the nuggets of knowledge in a sea of information has
led to the search for better methods of organising information for knowledge
discovery. The term knowledge organisation system encompasses all types of
schemes for organising information and supporting KM. These include
taxonomies, classification, clustering and categorisation schemes that organise
materials at a general level, subject headings that provide more specific access,
authority files that control variant versions of key information such as
geographic names, highly structured vocabularies, such as thesauri, and less
traditional schemes, such as semantic networks and ontologies. One kind of
knowledge product which had many votaries during the 1970s and 1980s,
namely, Expert Systems using artificial intelligence (AI) principles did not
make any significant dent primarily because of the difficulties and the cost of
capturing domain knowledge in an ongoing dynamic manner.
Many of the methods for knowledge organisation in the web environment are
based on the theories, principles and practices that librarians have long
formulated, understood and applied. For instance, classification schemes,
subject headings, authority files and thesauri. It would be useful to see if some
of these theoretical insights can indeed be applied in the context of new methods
now being developed to manage the great quantities of textual and other
information that drive the web.
Guttenbergss printing press revolutionised human civilisation and sparked
the mass media revolution. Five hundred years later, the printed document or
an electronic version of it still largely governs the way we perceive information.
But now we are seeing a convergence of media. Technologies that make
representation, storage and distribution of not only text but of audio and video
as easy as that of text have enabled us to advance beyond the documentoriented paradigm. It is possible today for the development of products that
are truly knowledge-based.
A knowledge-based product should:
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have captured the tacit knowledge of one or more experts in a domain of

study or practice;
be the result of collaboration between domain specialists and information

specialists;
promote collaboration between and among users of the products and

domain specialists;
be rich in content and if possible have a wide reach within the potential
user community; enable quick and easy access to information about the
domain;
be possible for users of the product to learn new skills, gain insights (or
improve skills) in the domain that is targeted by the product;
where possible, promote cross-cultural information access, understanding

and communication; and
continuously evolve with new inputs resulting from interactions that take
place in the process of using it.
Concepts and Tools
Self Check Exercise

7)
Discuss the need of enterprise KM products.
8)
How does ICT enable to capture tacit knowledge?

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15.5.3 Architecture
The fact that more than 80% of the content on the Web is text has given rise to
automated text mining solutions. The Gartner Group, an active consulting firm
in KM proposed a multi-tier KM architecture. At the lowest level, an intranet
and an extranet with platform servers, network services, and distributed object
models are used as the foundation for KM applications. Databases and
workgroup applications constitute the next level. Above this layer are the text
and database drivers to handle various corporate data and information assets,
Knowledge Retrieval (KR) functions and concept and physical knowledge
maps. Above this is a web user interface. In this architecture, applications and
services are layered and have complimentary roles. No single infrastructure or
system is capable of serving an organisations complete KM needs. Second,
Knowledge Retrieval (KR) is considered as the newest addition to the existing
IT architecture and is the core of the entire architecture.
The Gartner group presents the KR function along two dimensions: a semantic
and a collaboration dimension. In the former, linguistic analysis, thesauri,
dictionaries, semantic networks, clustering (categorisation/table of contents)
are used to create an organisations Concept Yellow Pages. These are used as
organisational knowledge maps (conceptual and physical). The proposed
techniques consist of both algorithmic and ontology generation and usage.
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The Collaboration dimensions goal is to achieve value recommendations

identified by experts and trust advisers, community building activities, and
collaborative filters. Domain experts who hold valuable tacit knowledge can
be explicitly identified and consulted for critical decisions. (Fig. 15.2).
Concept Yellow Pages
Retrieved Knowledge
Semantic
Clustering,
Classification, Categorisation,
Table of Contents
Collaborative filters
Semantic networks index
Communities
Dictionaries
Trusted Advisor
Thesauri
Expert identification
Linguistic analysis
Data extraction
Collaboration
Value
Recommendations
Fig. 15.2: Semantic and Collaboration Dimensions
The above formulation provided by the Gartner group is obviously targeted to

text-oriented sources of knowledge. When it comes to multimedia products,
which knowledge-based products will predominantly be in the future, text
mining alone will not be adequate.
Knowledge products, as defined earlier, are products that utilise both the
semantic and collaborative dimensions for their development, albeit in a limited
and specific domain. In this sense, such knowledge products could well become
an ongoing and integral part of an organisations knowledge resources. Such
knowledge products operate also along three other dimensions, viz., information
access, communication and collaboration. [Haravu and Neelameghan, 2003].
Among the several tools and techniques used in KM, text mining has gained
popularity. It also aids knowledge discovery an important objective of
knowledge-based services in enterprises. Text mining is discussed in some
detail below.
These are meant to provide access to information, enable learning to take place,
enable collaboration and communication between like-minded people, and the
sharing of knowledge in a specific domain, ideally in an ongoing manner and
evolving with time.
Self Check Exercise
400
9)
Discuss the collaborative dimension of KR function.
Concepts and Tools
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15.6
DATA MINING AND TEXT MINING
15.6.1 Knowledge Discovery in Databases

During the past couple of decades many papers have been devoted to
Knowledge Discovery (KD) through information retrieval systems. Various
software packages for data and text mining and related processes are available
as aids to KD. Roy Davies (1989) has reviewed the literature on the relation
between information retrieval and classification and KD. Don Swanson in a
series of papers has argued that some knowledge which has never been stated
explicitly or even implicitly (though it may be implicit in the literature as a
whole) may be readily inferred from what has already been published. Other
authors too have discussed similar ideas. They have used source linking, citation
indexes and related tools and methods in their studies. Application of statistical
techniques especially in citation studies, bibliometric coupling, correlation,
pattern recognition and other areas of informetrics and scientometrics helps in
KD.
Knowledge discovery in databases (KDD) revolves around the investigation
and creation of knowledge, processes, algorithms, and the mechanisms for
retrieving potential knowledge from data collections. [Norton, 1999].
Classification schemes have properties that enable the representation of entities
and relationships in structures that reflect knowledge of the domain being
classified. In this context, hierarchies, trees, paradigms, and faceted
classification can reflect structures, discover, and create new knowledge
[Kwasnik, 1999]. How to find interesting previously unknown implicit
information in scientific literature is examined in the paper Implicit text
linkages between medicine records: using Arrowsmith as an aid to scientific
discovery by Swanson and Smallheiser (1999). Extracting hidden knowledge
from humanities databases is especially problematic because the literature,
written in everyday rather than technical language, lacks the precision required
for efficient retrieval, and because humanities scholars seek new analogies
rather than causesan illuminating new humanities analogy was found by
constructing a search statement in which proper names were coupled with
associated concepts [Cory, 1977]. Small (1999) presents a methodology for
creating pathways through the scientific literature following co-citation links.
Also discusses the implications of information pathways for retrieval, the
unity of science, discovery, epistemology and evaluation. Quin He (1999)
discusses co-word analysis, based on the co-occurrence frequency of pairs of
401
words or phrases, for discovering links among subjects. Such studies can also
help in tracing the development of science. Ahonen (1999) discusses a method
of extracting Maximal Frequent Sequences [MFS] in a set of documents. An
MFS is a sequence of words that is frequent in the document collection
that is not contained in any other longer frequent sequence A sequence is
considered to be frequent if it appears in at least n documents where n is the
frequency threshold given. The technique is used to discover other regularities
and similarity mapping in document collections. This could assist information
retrieval, hypertext linking, clustering, and discovery of frequent cooccurrences. Pinto and Lancaster (1999) conclude: the wide availability of
complete text in electronic form does not reduce the value of abstracts for
information retrieval activities even in such more sophisticated applications
as knowledge discovery. In Template Mining for Information Extraction
from Digital Documents, Chowdhury (1999) points out that with the rapid
growth of digital information resources, a number of information extraction
(IE) systems from natural language text particularly in the areas of news/fact
retrieval and in domain-specific areas, such as in chemical and patent
information retrieval, have been developed. Template mining approach
involving a natural language processing (NLP) technique to extract data directly
from text if either the data and/or text surrounding the data form recognisable
patterns. When text matches a template, the system extracts data according to
instructions associated with that template. Reviews template mining research
and also shows how templates are used in Web search engines (e.g. Alta Vista),
and in meta-search engines (e.g. Ask Jeeves) for helping end-users generate
natural language search expressions. Some potential areas of application of
template mining for extraction of different kinds of information from digital
documents are highlighted, and how such applications are used are indicated.
It is suggested that, in order to facilitate template mining, standardisation in
the presentation and layout of information within digital documents has to be
ensured, and this can be done by generating various templates that authors can
easily download and use while preparing digital documents. An overview of
KD literature and some case studies are presented by Neelameghan.
Self Check Exercise
10) What are the techniques used for KDD?
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15.6.2 Data Mining

402
Data mining is a step within the Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD)

process through which an organisations data assets are processed and analysed
to gain insights to assist decision-making. KDD originates with data held in

the organisations data management systems or data warehouses. The steps to
knowledge discovery include data selection, processing, transformation, data
mining, interpretation and evaluation leading to discovery of new intelligence
or knowledge. In an institution, the internal data assets and those obtained
from external sources and warehoused are processed and analysed in depth to
gain insights on the research object, event or situation.
Concepts and Tools
Data mining techniques used have to be specific to the domain and also depend
on the area of application. Important requirements are that the data collected
should be relevant and of a high-quality. (See also Text Mining). Analytical
techniques used in data mining include statistical methods, such as, regression
analysis, discriminant analysis, factor analysis, principal component analysis,
word usage and co-occurrence analysis, and time-series as well as
mathematical modeling. In-depth classification and related indexes are also
helpful in data mining.
15.6.3 Text Mining

Text mining is receiving considerable research and development attention.
Content searching using a search engine based on a search term keyword or
string does not address the information overload problem adequately enough
even with methods that list the retrievals according to one or other ranking
methods. This has led to the need to differentiate between search and discovery.
A search engines main function is to locate documents based on the users
keywords. A discovery engine on the other hand attempts to extract relevant
textual data from a corpus of text and then provides a graphical, dynamic and
navigable index. The visual presentation of concepts is aimed at promoting a
better understanding of the underlying content and structure of the textual data,
leading hopefully to improved retrieval and hence productivity of the knowledge
worker. Fig. 15.3 shows the difference between a search engine and a discovery
engine.
Fig.15.3: Difference between Search Engine and Discovery Engine

Source: Semio Corporation
Text mining is best suited for discovery purposes, i.e., learning and
discovering information hidden in the documents of an organisations
unstructured repositories. Reasons for using text mining include:
l
Uncovering a narrative in an unstructured mass of text;
403
Learning about a topic;
Exploring how an environment, e.g. market, is evolving; and
Looking for new ideas or relations in topics.
Text mining is useful because of the enormous amount of knowledge, either

within an organisation or outside of it, that resides in text documents. Since
most organisations rely on textual information, both from outside and inside
the organisation, working with this sea of text can become extremely difficult.
The whole collection of text is simply too large to read and analyse easily.
Furthermore, it changes constantly and requires ongoing review and analysis
if one is to stay current. Text mining addresses these problems, providing
tools to analyse and learn from this kind of dynamic information.
However, text mining is not an end in itself; it is a support tool and complements
search engines. A text-mining product supports and enhances the knowledge
workers creativity and innovation with open-ended exploration and discovery.
The individual applies intelligence and creativity to endow meaning and
relevance to information, turning information into knowledge. Text mining
advances this process, empowering the knowledge worker to explore and gain
knowledge from a knowledge base.
There are several types of industry players in text mining: IR vendors, such as,
Verity, Excalibur, and Dataware are refining their product functionalities from
text retrieval to text mining. There are also niche document management
players, such as, PCDOC and Documentum who have developed successful
products for managing document content and workflows. Large IT platform
companies such as Oracle, Lotus, and Microsoft are aiming to improve the
KR functionalities of their database or workgroup products. These companies
may lack in significant linguistic and analytical abilities. The last type of vendor
consists of small, new companies such as Autonomy, Perspecta, InXight, Semio
and KCC. These have new analytical and linguistic technologies but may lack
in execution experience and integration ability.
According to Chen, the approaches of consultants and refinements being sought
by IT vendors, described briefly above, are evidence of the trend away from
the use of simple and basic search and retrieval techniques to KR using textmining technologies.
Text processing and analysis is significantly more difficult than processing
and analysis of structured data as in DBMS systems. The status of text mining
today is much like that of DBMS twenty years ago. The real challenges and
the potential payoffs for an effective universal text solution are equally
appealing. It is inevitable that whoever dominates this space will become the
Oracle (in text).
The above formulation is obviously targeted to text-oriented sources of
knowledge. When it comes to multimedia products, which are likely to be
predominant in the future, text mining alone will not be adequate.
Self Check Exercise
404
11) What are the techniques used for data mining?
12) Distinguish between search engine and discovery engine.
Concepts and Tools
13) Describe the usefulness of text mining.

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
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15.6.4 Text Analysis and Mining Techniques

First, text mining requires natural language processing abilities. Second, while
data mining attempts to identify causal relationships through classification or
supervised learning techniques, text mining aims to create organisational
knowledge maps or concept yellow pages. Third, text mining deals more with
diverse and eclectic collections of systems and formats (email, web pages,
Notes databases, newsgroups, etc.). Both data mining and text mining adopt
significant analytical methods and their results and are often highly visual and
graphical. Data visualisation and information visualisation techniques attempt
to create an interface that is well suited for human decision-making.
At the heart, text mining is a cross between IR and AI. IR has gone through
several generations of development. In the 1970s, computational techniques
based on inverted indexes and vector spaces were developed and tested on
computer systems. Also, probabilistic retrieval methods based on Bayesian
statistics were developed. Although more than 30 years old, this still forms the
basis of modern IR systems. In the 1980s, coinciding with the developments
of new AI techniques, knowledge-based and expert systems that aim to emulate
domain specialists were developed. User modeling and natural language
processing (NLP) techniques were developed to assist in representing users
and documents. These were applied to improve online searching.
Haravu and Neelameghan (2203) discuss the limitations of text mining in
knowledge mapping.
Realising the difficulties of creating domain-specific knowledge bases and
heuristics, researchers in the 1990s adopted new machine-learning techniques
for information analysis. AI techniques such as neural networks, genetic
algorithms, and symbolic learning were tested in IR [Chen, 2001]. Text analysis
includes such features as natural or statistical language processing, indexer or
phrase creator, entity extraction, conceptual associations (automatic thesauri),
domain-specific knowledge filter (using vocabularies or ontologies), automatic
taxonomy creation (clustering), multi-document and multi-language support.
Core text mining analysis can be classified into four main layers: linguistic
analysis and NLP, statistical or co-occurrence analysis, statistical and neural
networks clustering/categorisation, and visualisation. (Fig. 15.4)
405
Visualisation
Clustering/Categorisation
Co-occurrence Analysis
Linguistic analysis
Fig. 15.4: Layers of Core Text Mining
At the lowest level, linguistic analysis and NLP techniques aim to identify key
concept descriptors (who/what/where/when) embedded in textual documents.
Different types of linguistic analysis techniques have been developed. Word
and inverted indexing can be combined with stemming, morphological analysis,
Boolean, proximity, range and fuzzy search. The unit of analysis is word.
Phrasal analysis, on the other hand, aims to extract meaningful noun phrase
units or entities (e.g., people names, organisation names, location names). Both
linguistic and statistical analysis techniques are plausible. In addition, semantic
analysis based on techniques, such as, semantic grammar and case grammar
can be used to represent semantics (meaning) in sentences. Semantic analysis
is domain specific and lacks scalability. This often requires a significant
knowledge base or a domain lexicon creation effort and hence it may not be
suitable for general-purpose text mining across a wide spectrum of domains.
Based on significant research in the IR and the computational linguistics
communities, it is generally agreed that phrasal-level analysis is more suited
for coarse but scalable text mining applications. Word-level analysis is noisy
and lacks precision. Sentence level is too structured and lacks practical
applications. It is not coincidental that most of the subject headings and concept
descriptors adopted by library classification schemes are noun phrases. Based
on statistical and co-occurrence techniques, link analysis is performed to create
automatic thesauri or conceptual associations of extracted concepts. Existing
human-created thesauri can also be integrated with system-generated thesauri.
Statistical and neural network-based clustering and categorisation techniques
are often used to group similar documents, queries or communities in subject
hierarchies, which could then serve as corporate knowledge maps. Hierarchical
clustering (single link or multi link) and statistical clustering (multi-dimensional
scaling, factor analysis) techniques are precise but often computationally
expensive. Neural network clustering by Self-Organising Map (SOM) technique
(cf.Teuvo Kohonens self-organising networks, and visualisation), performs
well and is fast and is most suited for large scale text mining tasks. In addition,
SOM lends itself to intuitive graphical visualisation based on such visual
parameters as size (a large region represents a more important topic) and
proximity (related topics are grouped in adjacent regions).
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Visualisation and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) help to reveal concept

associations and visualise knowledge maps. Different representation structures
(tree, network) and interaction techniques (e.g., zooming, spotlight) can be
adopted to reveal knowledge more completely.
Self Check Exercise
Concepts and Tools
14) Enumerate the characteristic features of text analysis.

15) Enumerate the different clustering techniques.
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15.7
SUMMARY
This Unit, to begin with, briefly discusses the emergence of Management as

a discipline; differentiates data and information from knowledge, and different
categorisations of knowledge.
Following consideration of what is knowledge management (KM), discussed
the changing socio-economic environment in a knowledge society and the
impact of information and communication technologies especially on
enterprises.
After presenting the characteristics of of knowledge management systems,
discusses practical approaches and strategies of KM
Following discussion on the need and characteristics of knowledge-based
product; outlines the architecture of knowledge products.
Concludes with a discussion on data mining, text analysis and text mining
their usefulness and limitations in developing knowledge products
15.8
1)
Knowledge is what the knower knows. It is specific to the knower, created

from information, integrated with experience, reflected upon and
interpreted in a particular context. Outside it exists as embodiments in the
form of documents, man- made artifacts, cultural practices etc. Knowledge
is renewable, reusable, increasing in value with use. It is intangible,
boundary less, dynamic, and of no use if not used at a specific time.
2)
Knowledge is of two types, viz., tacit and explicit. Explicit knowledge

can be communicated and expressed in the form of documents. Tacit
knowledge, on the other hand, is highly personalised and subjective. It is
inherent to an individual embedded in his actions and experiences. It is
difficult to formalise and document.
3)
KM refers to managing the knowledge of individuals to be used as an

organisational resource. From an information system perspective, it implies
407
capturing and storing employees knowledge to use by making accessible

to others in the organisation.
4)
KM helps an organisation in quicker problem solving, better decision

making, reduced R&D costs, increased worker independence, enhanced
customer relations, and improved services to customers.
5)
The processes taking place in the knowledge subsystems are: acquisition,

creation, storage, transfer, and utilisation of knowledge.
6)
KM from a two-dimensional perspective involves:

Activities involved in building a learning organisation, viz., creating,
collecting, exchanging, using, and internalising knowledge for innovation
and development.
The second dimension refers to activities that enable knowledge creation.
These are:
a)
Strategy: for alignment of corporate and KM strategies;
b)
Measurement: of the benefits of KM;
c)
Policy: guidelines for KM provided by the organisation;
d)
Content: subset of corporate knowledge base in electronic form;
e)
Process: includes the processes used by employees to achieve the

goals of the organisation;
f)
Technology: includes the ICT elements used for KM;
g)
Culture: Refers to the organisational environment for KM
7)
KM products refer to a variety of software products that have been designed

to overcome the information overload problem in KM products. These
help to provide better quality of products and thus, improved services to
users.
8)
Tacit knowledge is specific to an individual embedded in his actions and

behaviour. ICT helps to capture these through microphones, cameras, etc.
9)
The collaborative dimension of KR helps to place a value on the KP. It is

done through domain experts, collaborative filters, trust advisers, and
community building activities.
10) The techniques used for KDD include: faceted classification that helps to
draw hierarchies, trees; statistical techniques, e.g., co-word analysis, cooccurrence frequency of pairs of words; and bibliometric, and
scientometric techniques.
11) Statistical techniques, e.g., regress ional analysis, discrimination analysis,
factor analysis, principal component analysis, word usage, co- occurrence
analysis, and time series analysis is used for data mining.
12) A search engine locates documents in response to a users request whereas
discovery engine extracts relevant information from a corpus of text and
then provides a graphical, dynamic, and navigable index.
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13) Text mining provides tools to analyse the vast sea of textual information,
which is dynamic and difficult to handle and analyse for a learning
organisation.
Concepts and Tools
14) The characteristic features of text analysis are: Natural or statistical

language processing, indexer or phrase creator, entity extraction,
conceptual associations, domain specific knowledge filter, automatic
taxonomy creation, and multi- document and multi- language support.
15) The different clustering techniques are: Hierarchical clustering, Statistical
clustering, and Neural network clustering.
15.9
KEYWORDS
Abstract Knowledge
: The form of knowledge that is

characterised into essential features of
meaning and cause- and effect
relationships that can be communicated
and codified. Abstraction provides
structure and meaning to phenomena.
Concrete Knowledge
: Knowledge can be made concrete when it

is embedded in physical artifacts like
products,
production
processes,
equipments, and technology.
Data Mining (DM)
: Data Mining (DM) is part of a process by

which information can be extracted from
data and databases and used to inform
decision-making in a variety of contexts
.DM includes a range of tools and methods
for extracting information. DM
incorporates not only data analysis but also
involves
determining
appropriate
questions and interpreting the results.
Declarative Knowledge
: The basics of a shared and explicit

understanding of concepts, ideas,
relationships, and categories that enables
effective communication among people in
organisations. It is characterised by knowwhat of an event or task.
Explicit Knowledge
: Knowledge that is transmittable in formal,

systematic language.
Knowledge
: Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed

experience, values, contextual information,
expert in and grounded intuition that
provides environment and framework for
evaluating and integrating new experiences
and information. It originates and is
applied in the minds of the knower. In
organisations, it often becomes embedded
409
not only in documents and repositories but

also in organisational routines, processes,
practices, and norms. (Davenport and
Prusak).
Knowledge Base
: A computer accessible collection of

knowledge about a subject in a variety of
forms such as facts, rules of inference,
frames, and objects.
Knowledge Management
: The process of organising and sharing the

diverse forms of business information
created within an organisation. KM can
include managing enterprise document
libraries, intranet websites, and other types
of knowledge bases.
Knowledge Management
Systems (KMS)
: Knowledge based systems that support

the creation, organisation, and
dissemination of business knowledge
within the organisation.
Knowledge Workers
: People in an organisation whose primary

activities include creating, using, and
distributing information and knowledge.
Organisational Learning
: The process improving actions through

better knowledge and understanding and
the process of detecting and correcting
errors. It occurs through shared insights,
knowledge, and mental models. It builds
on past knowledge and experience.
Procedural Knowledge
: Is how an activity is performed or happens.

Procedural knowledge shared among
people in organisations enables their
actions to be coordinated smoothly.
Tacit Knowledge
: Is personalised, context specific, and hard

to formalise and communicate.
15.10
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416
UNIT 16 KNOWLEDGE PROFESSION

Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Knowledge Profession
16.2.1 Normative Principles of Knowledge Resources Management and Services
16.3 Emerging Knowledgebased Environment

16.3.1 Factors Influencing Knowledge Access and Delivery
16.3.2 The Digital Environment
16.4 ICTs Application Areas

16.4.1
16.4.2
16.4.3
16.4.4
Education and Research Support

E-Governance and Management
Some Solutions to the Information Overload Problem Knowledge Manager
Mobilisation of Human Knowledge Resources
16.5 Knowledge Professional and Knowledge Management

16.6 Knowledge Products
16.6.1 Knowledge Products Development and Marketing
16.6.2 Knowledge and Skills for Content Organisation in Wed-based Products
16.7 Library and Information Science Professional as Knowledge Professional

16.8 Preparing Knowledge Workers of the New Millennium
16.9 Summary
16.11 Keywords
16.0
OBJECTIVES

l
recognise the attributes of a Profession in general and of the Knowledge

Professionin particular;
appreciate the qualities and abilities expected of a knowledge professional

in action;
know the categories of knowledge professionals;
adapt existing normative principles of library service to knowledge

resources;
understand more about knowledge-based products and the knowledge and

skills necessary to produce them;
comprehend the nature of computer-mediated work; and
appreciate how the knowledge worker of the new millennium be trained

even from childhood.
417
16.1
INTRODUCTION
Our society is changing from an economy based on the assets of capital and
energy to one based on assets of knowledge and information. Our library and
information profession which was peripheral part of industrial age, has now
become central part of information/ knowledge age. We live in an age of
increasing complexity with regard to the range and quantity of information
available.
The 1990s have seen great change in the way organisations are viewed as
production-oriented entities divided by function and controlled by layers of
management. On the other hand it will be knowledgebased organisation in
which the employees knowledge is the organisations primary asset. Successful
organisations in knowledgebased economy will be those that can differentiate
their services from others in terms of personalised, localised, specialised, and
customised services. They will have to develop new economic strategies, better
understand user needs, develop skills of staff and users, and develop new
services. The ability to weave information and knowledge into flexible and
adaptable structures will be a necessary asset. This is a role that becomes more
central in the new millennium organisations. It needs flexible, adaptable
individuals, who can manage, change innovatively, imaginatively, and
proactively recognising new opportunities and grasping new challenges. In
other words, just as we are seeing different professions converging on the
emerging community of knowledge practice we also witness the emergence
of specialist knowledge professionals. These professionals are variously titled
as: Knowledge engineers, Knowledge editors, Knowledge analysts, Knowledge
navigators, Knowledge gatekeepers, Knowledge brokers, Knowledge
handyman, Knowledge asset manager, etc. with different functions and
responsibilities. However, we have to understand that all these are knowledge
workers who will be engaged in the activities of creating, using and distributing
information and knowledge in an organisation.
16.2
KNOWLEDGE PROFESSION
Before we discuss about knowledge profession let us try to know what a

profession is. The dictionary tells us that it is a paid occupation especially
one involving training and a formal qualification. Dale (2001) suggests two
other definitions:
l
a calling requiring specialised knowledge and often long intensive

academic preparation
an occupation, such as law, medicine, or engineering, that requires

considerable training and specialised study.
For a profession to be accorded societal recognition, it would seem that a

number of criteria have to be met:
418
there must be an identifiable subject which is not immediately accessible

to the uninitiated person;
there must be a long apprenticeship involving the learning of both theory

and practice, and the application of the latter;
the application of the subject matter of this apprenticeship must be useful

to the society;
the profession must promulgate standards for the products and services
that are produced and delivered by its members; and
members of the profession are individually responsible for the standards

of their work and for their professional conduct but are a overseen by a
professional body that has the powers to ensure compliance.
Knowledge Profession
A profession involves a set of activities undertaken in a specific area / field.

The persons undertaking these activities are called professionals. Bhattacharya
enlists the following attributes of a profession:
i)
It must have a goal of public / social service;
ii) It must be practised;

iii) Its practice must call for long and intensive education and training,
primarily formal and secondarily informal, in the branch of knowledge or
field of specialisation;
iv) The extent of knowledge and skills acquired by an aspiring professional
must give him/her a clear idea of the why, what and how of the
professional tasks, he/she is to carry out;
v)
Every aspiring professional must commit himself/herself to continuing

education and training to ensure efficiency and effectiveness in
professional practice even as the field of specialisation advances;
vi) A professional must maintain a high standard of performance, ethics, and

conduct;
vii) A professional must self-evaluate or get evaluated periodically by peer
groups and he/she be alert about any inadequacy of the education and
training for the profession at the formal level, and if any deficiency is
noticed / experienced he/she must try to make up for the deficiency;
viii) A professional must realise that his/her foundation discipline is amenable
to continuous development to meet the changing needs of the society he/
she serves, taking advantage of relevant new developments in the theory,
practice, techniques and technologies; and
ix) The essential contents of the knowledge and skills constituting any
professional discipline are amenable to generalisation, and can be enriched
through interdisciplinary interactions, collaboration, cooperation, and
exchanges.
16.2.1 Normative Principles of Knowledge Resources

Management and Services
As mentioned in previous section the study and research in a subject or branch
of knowledge are usually guided by a set of normative principles.
Dr. S.R Ranganathan enunciated the Five Laws of Library Science (more
appropriately Five Laws of Library Service)
419
Books are for use

Each reader his/her book
Each book its reader
Save the time of the reader/Save the time of library staff
Library is a growing organism
He also defined the concept Book as made up of the trinity:
1)
Soul the ideas / knowledge embodied;
2)
Subtle body the language of expression, format, illustrations, style etc.

of the presentation of the ideas embodied; and
3)
Gross body the physical carrier of the ideas embodied.
New types of gross body - physical carrier have been devised over the years:from marking on walls to palm leaves, to paper, film, microchip, to digital
media. New types of subtle body presentation, format, etc. corresponding
to the newer forms of embodiment and physical carriers of ideas have emerged.
However, irrespective of the changes in the physical carrier and the form and
format of presentation of the ideas. what people seek, search for, access and
use has remained the same, that is, ideas / knowledge embodied.
Therefore, for the knowledge profession Ranganathans Five Laws of Library
Service can be adapted, as enumerated below, as the normative principles of
knowledge resources management and service in all types of organisations.
1)
Knowledge is for use (implies that knowledge if not used has no value)
2)
Each user (knowledge seeker) his/her piece of knowledge
3)
Each piece of knowledge (idea) its user
4)
Save the time of the knowledge seeker / save the time of the knowledge
professional
5)
Knowledge (re)sources domain is a growing organism.
Here growth comprehends both physical growth as well as organic biological

growth, such as, degeneration of existing cells and (re)generation of new cells.
Developments in information and communications technologies (ICTs), in
particular, have brought in many significant changes in the subtle body and
gross body which necessitate new approaches, strategies, techniques, etc. to
enable deriving maximal advantage of the developments in satisfying the
knowledge seekers needs. In other words, these new developments, judiciously
used, can assist in meeting the implications of normative principles 2, 3, and 4
mentioned above.
16.3
EMERGING KNOWLEDGE-BASED
ENVIRONMENT
16.3.1 Factors Influencing Knowledge Access and Delivery

420
The service of the Knowledge Professional (KP) is mainly a supporting function

to the corporate entity he/she is called upon to serve. This function is affected
by the developments and changes in the socio-economic and technological

environment in which the KP performs.(See Units 14 and 15 of this course).
Briefly, we may notice.
Worldwide shift from a mainly agriculture-based and industry-based

economy to information economy and on to knowledge economy. Such a
shift may be more pronounced in the industrial countries than in the
developing countries, although in all countries all the three economies
may co-exist concurrently though in different proportions.
Rapid growth in knowledge and information-intensive products and

services.
Enabling even less developed countries develop faster and compete with
the so-called developed countries.
Intensification of knowledge utilisation in the production of traditional

products as well.
Manual production workers being substituted / replaced by information /

knowledge workers in various sectors of the economy.
New types of knowledge / information-intensive organisations devoted

mainly to the production, processing, and distribution of knowledge-based
products.
The significant impact of the rapidly evolving ICTs on enterprises.
Knowledge is embodied in nature, its manifestations and offerings, and in

made-made artifacts. It is also embodied in documents whatever be the physical
carrier or medium of presentation (text, image, graphics, tables, sound, or
multimedia). The most important source of knowledge and information is people
within and outside the organisation, including their tacit knowledge, skills,
conventions, traditions, practices, etc.
In this context there appears to be several claimants to be included in the KP.
For example, Stewart (1998) discussing knowledge product development and
marketing writes: You can instill knowledge in homely old products like
toasters, distill it into fancy new ones like best-practices studies or offer it as
service only you can provide. The knowledge economy rests on three pillars
the growing role of knowledge in transactions, where it is becoming the stuff
that we buy and sell, our raw material and our finished goods; the concomitant
rise in importance of knowledge assets, which transform and add value to
knowledge stuff; and the emergence of ways to manage these materials and
assets. The last knowledge management, especially management of
knowledge materials gets the lions share of attention, perhaps because it
has a pride of glamorous, clamorous sellers who have created a multibilliondollar industry in half a decade.
The field of knowledge management encompasses every big consulting firm
and hundreds of software shops, and it seems as if every large company is
buying in, one way or another. Every company whether it is high-tech or
low, New Age or old-line can gain from managing knowledge better, just as
it can from superior financial management.
421
Other claimants include: database designers; content developers and organisers,

information /knowledge aggregators, knowledge products distributors, web
page designers, web portals designers, Internet service providers, and so on.
Self Check Exercise
1)
Define a profession. Give examples to differentiate a calling from a

profession.

............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
16.3.2 The Digital Environment

Writings on information systems and information retrieval, knowledge
management (KM), corporate portals, digital libraries and web-based
information and document management technologies increasingly express
concerns about the information overload to information seekers and information
providers arising from the emerging web-centered, digital world. The need for
better methods of knowledge organisation is also evident from these writings.
Heterogeneous Embodiments of Knowledge
Examples of the heterogeneous and multiplicity of electronic data/digital
information available and accessible via intranets and extranets (e.g. the
Internet) are email, listservs. Customer comments, communications between
staff members of an organisation and peers in a professional group, internal
research reports, trade and technical publications, competitor and other web
sites, e-journals, e-prints and other e-documents, and a large number and variety
of web sites.
Self Check Exercise
2)
Enumerate the different types of knowledge professionals.

............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
422
............................................................................................................................
Instant Access to Original Works

During the next decade, some 30 per cent of all conventional publications and
audio, video records are expected to be produced and stored in digital form
and format. With electronic publishing and distribution, the material can be
accessed on the network as soon as the author has keyed in the text or created
the graphs, images, etc. Copies can always be made from the original master.
Mechanical aspects of printing and publishing and of resources directories
can be bypassed.
Better Connected: More Interactions
By the end of 2003 more number of people was connected via the Internet
than ever before. Half a billion people around the world had access to Internet
from their homes. Of these nearly 500 million could surf the web. People from
Asia continued to connect faster than anywhere else (home access grew by 5.6
per cent during the last quarter of the year. (Nielsen/NetRatings, Hong Kong).
Convergent technologies text, audio, and video, TV will facilitate virtual
teamwork, global access to experts, video conferencing, etc.
Direct Access - No Intermediaries?
Information seekers will have direct access to relevant information wherever
located, for rapid awareness of content, and to discover new ideas and
relationships therefrom. This will be facilitated by e-publications via networks
without the intervening services of editors, indexers, publishers, and perhaps
even librarians in their current avatar.
Some call these changes a paradigm shift and is reflected in the information
support function of libraries in such changes as mentioned below [Soundara
Rajan, 2002]:
Table 16.1: Information Support Functions of Libraries: Paradigm Shift
From
To
Ware-house-like function
Research support, management

support, with desk-top delivery
at home, office or anywhere
else
Desk-bound, waiting for service request
Pro-active service
Mainly paper-based document collections Limited paper-based collection;

more information from digital
resources available within and
outside of the organisation even
at global distances
Mainly bibliographic service, some with
abstracts, annotations
Value-added services, analyzed

and repackaged knowledge;
knowledge-based products
Library management and operations

use of ICTs, mainly manual
Knowledge management; fuller

intranets and extranets
16.4
ICTs APPLICATION AREAS
Application areas and types of applications of ICTs are many. Some are
enumerated below as examples:
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16.4.1 Education and Research Support

Onsite information delivery: Researchers, teachers, scholars and others need
not personally visit knowledge resource centres, e.g. the library. They can
browse online the library catalogues and other resource directories. Electronic
methods can deliver the required text pages, images and voice recordings to
users in their place of work, dormitory, home or wherever they are saving
travel and other costs. Thus ICTs have enabled:
l
Seamless access within organisation and globally;
Scholarly communication made easier and global;
Virtual team research and discussion fora; and
Digital library products and services.
16.4.2 E-Governance and Management

Wide range of applications of information communication technologies. For
example:
l
Resources management; health care delivery; disaster management; crime

detection; forensic work; environment protection, etc.
Inter-departmental linking for better information access, flow, cooperation,

and coordination.
E-governance; telecentres. Sub-national level (State, District, Taluq,

Village) linkages within each domain and with other larger units and
nationally.
16.4.3 Some Solutions to the Information Overload Problem:

Knowledge Manager
Knowledge managers in enterprises attempt to meet the information overload
problem by analysing, filtering, selecting, and synthesising products in which
the information is maximally relevant, organised and convenient to the category
of users. In such work another objective is to lower the cost of tasks that require
discourse / content analysis, by using automated methods wherever possible,
without compromising on the relevance and quality of information provided.
For meeting these needs, a rapidly growing group of software products called
enterprise KM products has come up. Numerous vendors have entered the
KM market with a wide variety of products purported to manage and control
the great quantities of textual and other information that drive organisations of
all kinds. The tools and products in the KM market include, among many
others, search engines, natural language processing software, document
management systems, and groupware products.
Self Check Exercise
3)
Enumerate the different KM tools and products.

424
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16.4.4 Mobilisation of Human Knowledge Resources

As already mentioned the most important source of knowledge and information
for an enterprise is people within and outside the organisation, including their
tacit knowledge, skills, conventions, traditions, practices, etc.
The knowledge management system should identify the human knowledge
sources who they are, where located, what are their specialisations, what
sources they use, etc. Who is asking what questions to whom? What responses
and information flows take place? How these can be mobilised, supported,
and drawn upon? With the cooperation of the human sources, a sort of digitised
yellow page may be developed for the information provider as well as
information seekers can make use of.
16.5
KNOWLEDGE PROFESSIONAL AND

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
The course material for Unit 15 overviewed the definition, role and methods
of Knowledge Management (KM), an area that the KP is increasingly involved
in. Here we highlight some of the principal issues:
Enterprises need expertise in KM to sustain and enhance their competitive
advantage in an environment of growing competition for resources finance,
human, and physical resources, markets, etc. The knowledge manager, at all
levels, is expected to possess special capabilities for creating, mobilising, and
communicating knowledge available within the organisation as well as
elsewhere. Knowledge embedded in the organisations business or work
processes and in the employees including their expertise, skills, experiences,
build the enterprise capabilities to create, produce and deliver customers what
they need, when and where they need it The KP has to design and develop
systems and strategies to provide the push to this know flow and use. First of
all creating a Knowledge Yellow Page as it were, to know who is asking what
questions and to whom; who is answering what questions; what source materials
(internal documents and external sources) are being used; which queries do
not find answers within the organisation and so on.
Enable interpersonal interactions through seminars, group discussions, video
conferencing and the like ICTs can facilitate.
KM is introduced to help an organisation of whatever nature to create, share,
and use knowledge effectively because it pays off in fewer mistakes, less
redundancy, quicker problem solving, better decision making, reduced research
and development (R&D) costs, increased worker independence, enhanced
customer relations, and improved services to customers. Knowledge support
functions are needed to implement KM in an organisation.
425

development of knowledge products is the richness versus reach thesis. It is
pointed out that the nature of communication has drastically changed. Until
now, one had a choice of richness or reach, but one could not achieve both
simultaneously. A face-to-face conversation, for instance, is rich in content,
nuance and interactivity but poor in reach. A radio or TV broadcast has great
reach but is poor in interactivity and nuance. Communication strategies were
always an either-or choice. With the Internet, it is argued that we can craft
systems that provide both richness and reach. This has necessitated a rethink
on how information and knowledge are shared within organisations, an
important concern of businesses wishing to harness knowledge. Knowledge
products targeted to specific domains, together with the use of the web as the
delivery medium, it is possible to provide the richness and reach sought for in
organisations.
Crucial and value-adding knowledge: The decision to invest in knowledge
depends upon knowing what knowledge is relevant and crucial to the
organisation and what knowledge adds value. Crucial knowledge includes the
ever-changing dynamic knowledge necessary to operate within the industry at
an acceptable level. It may be obtained through consultation with experts,
their tacit knowledge that manifests as problem-solving behaviour. The
continued availability, development, and retaining of experts in the organisation
with such problem-solving proneness and capability is an important aspect of
human resources management.
The Internet, intranets, email and groupware make more data than ever before
available to the knowledge worker. Customer / user comments, communications
between staff members of an organisation and peers in a professional group,
internal research reports, trade and technical publications, and competitor and
other web sites are some examples of available heterogeneous electronic data.
As a result the literature on KM, information retrieval, corporate portals, digital
libraries and web-based information and document management technologies
express concern about the information overloaded, web-centered digital world,
and the need for better methods of knowledge organisation. How can the KP
mitigate this overload and consequent stress? Providing for filtering, document
and data analysis and repackaging services.
Traditionally libraries and publishing industry handled the acquisition and
dissemination of generic knowledge in the form of books, journals, reports,
conference proceedings, etc. These are more in the nature of study and reference
materials. With the Internet and electronic form of storing and distributing
knowledge, libraries have begun offering some of the generic body of
knowledge in the form of objects databases. New information suppliers have
emerged like the database designers, aggregators and distributors. Journals
and databases in diverse fields such as commerce, economics, agriculture,
statistical data, health information and multimedia content are increasingly
available in electronic form. This is a challenging and complex new
development in several ways for the library community for several reasons as
cited below [Srivathsan, 2004; Haravu, 2002]:
a)
426
IT (information technology) today is still evolving in both technology

and management sense. Issues like security, privacy, fair use, intellectual
property issues copyright and ownership virtual organisations

management, etc. have arisen.
b)
There are emerging needs to support virtual knowledge driven enterprises

where members from different organisations pool together the requisite
information and competencies to offer services of value over the web to
users. These call for appropriate methodologies to manage information
resources generation and utilisation. We may call them, as explained later,
as thematic communities.
c)
The user of information ultimately gains value from the information

provided it is the right information available at the right time, in the right
place and in the right context as and when he/she is engaged in knowledge
intensive work. Hence effective value proposition goes with efficient
organisation of knowledge-related activities like interaction, group
collaboration, messaging services, etc.
d)
The Internet and IT world itself is swiftly changing over from the client
server interactions to seamless peer-to-peer interactions over web accessed
information and interaction services. Users may access information from
anywhere independent of the client systems they use.
e)
With ever increasing proportion of information in complex multimedia

and digital form, there are immense challenges ahead concerning archiving
and retrieval of the same. With sophisticated technology needed for access
and playback of the same, the world is yet to intelligently grapple with
preservation of human heritage over the coming decades. This calls for
reinvention of computer systems and information presentation devices
such that the technology to a good extent may evolve reasonably
independent of modalities of knowledge creation and its utilisation in the
society.
In the above context, we have to consider not only the information sharing
aspects per se, but need to look at the dynamics of how this information is put
to use by its users. Here it will be useful to identify as to how we use information
in the real world when we are engaged in knowledge driven activities.
Self Check Exercise
4)
Discuss the functions of a knowledge professional.

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16.6
KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTS
16.6.1 Knowledge Products Development and Marketing

The designing, development and marketing of knowledge products is an
important activity of the KP. In the write-up for Unit 15 we have discussed the
two main dimensions of knowledge product development: the collaboration
dimension and the semantic dimension. Some case studies have been presented
by Haravu and Neelameghan (2003).
Stewart (1998) emphasises, Knowledge strategy should not stop with KM. It
should not start there either. It should start with a strategy for selling knowledge.
Knowledge can be sold as explicit knowledge or as implicit knowledge.
Creating knowledge products: 1) Having some knowledge and asking How
can I make it into a product; and 2) Answering the question How can we add
knowledge to the product we have got? In (1) K is distilled and packaged,
and sold. In (2) it is instilled and sold.
With respect to information resource centres, what is implied in instilling
knowledge in existing products is that value can be added to the services and
products offered in libraries and information centres such that users can derive
intelligence (e.g., business intelligence) from such presentations to assist in
their management activities.
Marketing of knowledge-based products is an important area that the KP must
acquire skill through training and experience.
The first step in developing a knowledge product marketing strategy is to find
out what knowledge customers are seeking (and buying) Stewart point out
that often these are hidden. A lawyer sells more than knowledge of the law,
for example negotiating ability, relationships with other lawyers, and
knowledge of his clients priorities are also part of his product line. Next step
is identify alternative ways of providing the knowledge the form, format,
presentation, language, etc Different knowledge packages have different
economics, which might mean different strategies. What channels and delivery
mechanisms may be used to reach the enquirer and perhaps also other potential
users also needs consideration. Another aspect is will the service pay for itself,
will user(s) pay for the added value?
16.6.2 Knowledge and Skills for Content Organisation in

Web-based Products
A crucial aspect of the design and development of web-based products and
services relates to content organisation. Knowledge and skills needed for content
organisation cover the following:
428
Web information architecture.
Internet-based information services.
How are the applications accessed?
Issues in content hosting.
Content formats. and
Tools for content creation and processing.
Web information architecture

l
Web servers and browsers.
Web sites and URLs.
Anatomy of a web site.
Applications
l
Internet-based applications in a library.
Requirements: Library web site as the integrating factor.
Information about the library and its services.
Locally owned and remote digital sources.
Push-based services.
Housekeeping operations.
Other content / services:
Training materials and guides.
Administrative, procedural manuals. and
FAQs feedback
Self Check Exercises

5)
What is meant by instilling knowledge in information products?
6)
Enumerate the knowledge and skills needed for content organisation.

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Accessing the Applications
l
Integrating the services through the library website Web browser used for
web site access and browsing through HTML pages.
Selecting a link.
Browser compatible format.
Content Hosting Issues

l
Content Formats for the different files and records.

429
What content is to be given access?
What delivery medium is needed?
Web-enabled content: - creation, format, storage, delivery techniques,

tools
Security required for purchased content (Locally hosted, Remote sources)
Some Principles, Methodologies and Strategies

Many of the methods for knowledge organisation in the web environment are
based on principles, which librarians have long discovered, understood and
used. For instance, classification schemes, subject headings, authority files
and thesauri. Add to this knowledge mapping, self-organising maps, etc. In
addition, library and information professionals have made significant
contributions to the theories that underlie classification schemes and thesaurus
development that are applicable to web-based content development too.
Research being carried out to explore the usefulness of some of these theoretical
insights in the context of new methods now being developed to manage the
great quantities of textual and other information that drive the web, should be
further expanded and supported, rather than reinvent the wheel.
Related Knowledge
Information and knowledge managers should also be well aware of:
l
Legal and Ethical Issues;
Vulnerability of digital records; susceptible to manipulation;
Little control over Internet content;
Junk; porno stuff;
Confidentiality; security, encryption;
Hacking; virus;
Cyber crimes; cyber-terrorism; and
IPR issues: Copyright, cyber laws .
Politics / Geopolitics of ICTs
430
Power of information and ICTs;
Information on rights, privileges and responsibilities of citizens, women,

children, and those socially, physically and/or mentally challenged;
Empowerment;
Digital divide;
Control over information dissemination;
selective filtration; complete blackout;
control over media; file transfer, etc; and
mis-/dis-information; data manipulation.
Computer-Mediated Work
As already mentioned there is growing impact of ICTs on activities of

enterprises and on those of the information resources centres. Thus, the KPs
knowledge of human-machine interaction has to be rethought and broadened..
Conceptually, computer-mediated work, interaction design and other concepts
focus on these new concerns. The KP needs to deal with or collaborate with
other professionals to deal with the emerging technological challenges, the
variety of technologies dynamically interconnected in complex webs spaces.
The KP will also recognise that the emerging convergent technologies are
being used by new groups of users, in different configurations and contexts, in
the work place, at home, and on the move. The KPs work has to be more and
more co-operative and collaborative with other professionals in information
intensive and dynamical work settings. Such cross-disciplinary collaboration
may give rise to new theories, and new design methods and approaches to
systems that encompass more adequately human-machine interactions and
relations and address such issues as machine-mediated work, collaboration
among heterogeneous groups of professionals and knowledge users, and
learning processes in such environments.
Self Check Exercise
7)
How does the Knowledge Professional tackle the various issues before
him in the information field?

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16.7
LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

PROFESSIONAL AS KNOWLEDGE
PROFESSIONAL
We have noted that there are several groups who may claim to belong to the
Knowledge Profession. Obviously Library and Information Science (LIS)
professional also has legitimate claim to be included in the knowledge
profession. The LIS professional has the education, knowledge and skill to
manage large collections of knowledge resources of various types including
their electronic versions. The LIS professional is also knowledgeable and has
the skill and experience of many decades in the processing, organisation, and
retrieval from such sources to produce various types of information products
and services desired by end-users. Manual and technology-based tools and
techniques for accomplishing such tasks have been developed. However, LIS
professionals need to: (1) expand their horizon vis a vis their potential clientele,
431
and (2) extend interaction and collaboration across disciplines and user groups
of different interests and service requirements.
Of the two principal dimensions of KM, already mentioned Semantic
dimension and Collaborative dimension LIS professionals have long been
performing adequately in the semantic dimension. But in the collaboration
dimension they need to advance much further [Srivathsan, 2004]. The
investment and effort in this dimension will not only enable them obtain
feedback of the use of the existing information system but also develop their
capability to move closer to providing full fledged knowledge-based products
and services to all categories of users assist in knowledge discovery and
innovations, etc. by applying techniques and technologies available in other
specialisations (e.g. natural language processing, artificial intelligence, imaging,
web-design, etc.).
It is widely accepted that an LIS professional, especially one who has to manage
and organise information resources in specialised fields and interact with and
provide information services to subject specialists will perform better if he/
she has a background or analytical knowledge of the main subject area(s) of
the user groups. This issue is even better appreciated in the case of a KP
However, it has also to be recognised that a KP possessing such an ideal
competence combination of subject knowledge with expertise in knowledge
resources management may not always be available. In large organisations
there may be teams of subject specialists and information specialists working
together to derive best of both worlds as it were. In smaller organisations,
which are much larger in number, such teams may not be realised easily. More
often than not, it is for the LIS professional to acquire domain knowledge.
In the training programme at the Documentation Research and Training Centre,
Bangalore, this matter received attention from the beginning in 1962. Firstly,
the admission to the course was restricted to candidates with a Masters degree
level knowledge in a particular domain. The courses offered included such
modules (and practices) to enhance the competence of the information
professional to acquire domain knowledge. For example:
432
1)
Universe of Subjects: Its Structure and Development;
2)
Design and Development of Depth Classification Schedules for a specific

knowledge domain theory and practice; involves domain analysis,
structuring, knowledge organisation, etc.;
3)
Design and development of other knowledge organisation tools and

techniques indexing, and thesaurus;
4)
Preparation of a report on the trend of R&D in a particular domain;
5)
Information resources in specialised fields;
6)
Interactions with potential information users in a particular organisation

(e.g. a manufacturing company); and
7)
Designed lectures by domain specialists on the highways and byways

of selected subject etc.
Bhattacharyya has elaborated on the content of such courses, the teaching /
learning strategies adopted, and the type of competencies built up. Feedback
from the graduates of the programme indicates that course contents and teaching
methodology adopted did help most of the graduates acquire competence in
developing their knowledge of specialised subjects and thereby become efficient
and effective in preparing knowledge-based products and services.
Hjorland (2002) discusses several approaches to domain analysis, to acquire

domain specialisation. These include: producing literature guides and subject
gateways; producing special classifications and thesauri; research on indexing
and retrieving specialities; empirical user studies; bibliometric studies; historical
studies; document and genre studies; epistemological and critical studies;
terminological studies; discourse studies; studies of structures and institutions
in scientific communication; and domain analysis in professional cognition
and artificial intelligence.
Self Check Exercise
8)
Discuss the advantage to LIS Professionals of developing expertise in

collaborative dimensions of knowledge management.

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16.8
PREPARING KNOWLEDGE WORKERS OF

THE NEW MILLENNIUM
Librarians and other information professionals are educating themselves on

new developments in ICTs and KM. During the past decade education and
training in information science and cognate subjects have become available at
school and higher education levels. There are programmes designed for young
children to become computer literate so that they will fit in comfortably and
derive greater benefits in the emerging digital age.
Dr. Michael Medland has given some thought and devised programmes for
the knowledge worker of the new millennium. He is involved in research on
meta-cognitive tools for improving learning skills of young children the
potential knowledge workers of the 21st century, as he calls them. He is interested
in Dr. S.R.Ranganathans facet analysis and synthesis in knowledge
organisation, and has been successfully teaching this mode of thinking to fouryear olds. Extracts from his correspondence / writings are given below:
What will the literate citizen be doing in the new millennium?
Those with a futuristic bent give a very simple answer: citizens will be
knowledge workers doing knowledge work. Knowledge work is an individual
or group process (activity) of unpacking the contents of knowledge sources
433
(analysis) and then packing the knowledge found (synthesis) in order to answer
a learning problem. What is this new literacy?
1)
The new conception of literacy seeks to instill tomorrows citizen with

more than just content.
2)
Reading, science, and mathematics learning are highly related in the

context of the new literacy.
3)
Knowledge workers will be continually learning throughout their lives;

thus, they will need to learn rapidly and enjoy that learning.
4)
Knowledge workers will participate extensively in collaborative and

concurrent activities to produce knowledge.
5)
All citizens will be engaged in knowledge work to help their enterprise

move successfully into the future.
The enterprise could be the knowledge workers family, the community, the
corporation, or the government. In addition, there is more to a citizen than
being just a knowledge worker the values for instance. Yet developing
knowledge workers, those with enough literacy to contribute, is an important
task to ensure the continual development of the nation.
How can we guarantee that our children will become knowledge workers?
Dr. Medland answers this question by breaking it into seventeen applied
research questions, supplying a possible answer to each, and then outlining a
five-year research project to produce the products that will begin to move all
children toward becoming tomorrows knowledge workers.
Within this framework another issue will be: What would a language code
look like and do?
A research direction can be found within the fields of artificial intelligence
and information science. The artificial intelligence community has turned to
the examination and construction of ontologies to deal with disparate
backgrounds, languages, and techniques. From the practical side, an accepted
ontology is a commitment to use a common language to talk about knowledge
(content) in a domain. It is a way to talk about a knowledge base (domain) so
its contents can be parsed, represented, searched, and expanded.
Knowledge Sharing Criterion
What is an ontology for? It is for knowledge sharing and reuse. In the process
of building sharable and reusable ontologies, the artificial intelligence
community has taken an engineering approach to their design: evaluate them
to the extent to which they promote the goals of knowledge sharing and reuse,
and then revise to achieve greater effectiveness.
By using the ontology (a common language), users can share knowledge. From
a psychological perspective, knowledge sharing is a social activity. Moreover,
by using language to talk about what is known, it becomes a meta-cognitive
activity. Thus, ontological language functions as a meta-cognitive tool to grasp,
relate, share, and promote knowledge.
434
Knowledge Reuse Criterion
Knowledge reuse refers to the ontologys ability to handle an expanding

knowledge-domain. This is a helpful criterion, but incomplete for teaching
and learning purposes. The educational community needs an expanded reuse
criterion. It would make no sense to posit a new ontology for each subject
domain. Such would just burden and muddle the thinking of learners; it
would cripple the assimilation and accommodation of knowledge. Therefore,
there needs to be an across-domain criterion for the ontology. Students and
teachers would learn one ontology and then apply it to all knowledge domains
to expedite the teaching and learning process. Students can make queries and
assertions about what is learned, and to quickly assimilate and accommodate
knowledge. This is the heart of the knowledge workers task. Essentially, it
would give muscle to the skeletal process of getting meaning from text.
Across-Domain Criterion
The fields of information science, knowledge representation, and database
design have methods for knowledge-base construction, retrieval, and expansion
that can help our understanding of just what an across-domain ontology must
do. All libraries, or database engines, catalogue embodied knowledge. Every
catalogue system takes embodied knowledge and codes it for retrieval
(Neelameghan, 2000). The encoding mechanism, with its categories and
subcategories, is ontology: a way to fracture the world of embodied knowledge
so that it can be placed in a database and retrieved. The Dewey Decimal, the
Library of Congress, and the Colon Classification Systems, to name just a
few, are all ontologies. In addition, they all possess one thing in common: they
have symmetry. The classification scheme is the same one used for retrieval.
Ranganathans (1963) analytic-synthetic method, as part of his Colon
Classification system, stressed the importance of symmetry in the classification
of knowledge. The importance of symmetry cannot be ignored. We see it in
the languages of science and most clearly in the symmetric relationship between
explanation and prediction. Throughout science and technology, the language
tools used to analyse worlds are the same ones used to synthesise them. In the
same vain, young students who analyse a text must perform a synthesis activity
to place what is learned into their existing knowledge base and/or create a new
text to answer the learning problem that spurred the analysis.
How can we do this? How would an ontology or language code (1) help the
teacher/learner communication process (sharing criterion), (2) foster the analysis
and synthesis of any domain of embodied knowledge (across domain criterion),
and (3) handle the expanding knowledge students will encounter during
schooling and beyond (reuse criterion)? The ontology should provide students
with a tool during individual or group learning sessions to both assimilate and
accommodate content in the context of the knowledge work. Basic
comprehension questionswho, what, why, when, where, and howdo not
give the student or teacher an organisational tool. The social construction of
knowledge requires analysis and synthesis processes that mirror each other,
that are complex enough to eventually help students handle complex text, yet
simple enough to be learned and used by young children, starting at about four
years of age.
435
Self Check Exercise

9)
What are the different approaches to acquire domain specialisation for

professionals?
10) Discuss the concept of ontology.

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16.9
SUMMARY
This Unit defines the concepts Professional and Knowledge Professional.

Explains that Dr. S.R. Ranganathans normative principles for library service
(the Five Laws) can be conveniently adapted to form guiding principles for
the Knowledge Profession in knowledge management and services. Mentions
the features of the emerging digital and knowledge-based environment and
factors, particularly applications of information and communications
technologies that influence knowledge access and delivery. Points out that
mobilisation of human knowledge resources (specialisation, expertise and
skills) is an important aspect of the activities of the knowledge professional.
Various aspects of knowledge management that a knowledge professional need
to be conversant with are indicated. Knowledge and skills required for designing
and providing knowledge-based products. The need for rethinking about
computer-mediated w is briefly discussed. Points out that different groups
associated with information and embodied knowledge handling claim for
inclusion in the knowledge professional category. Considers how a library
and information professional can transform himself/herself into a knowledge
professional. Presents Dr. Michael Medlands views on preparing knowledge
workers of the new millennium starting with very young school children.
16.10
436
1)
A profession is an occupation that is practiced for the benefit of the society.

It requires a long and intensive education and training, which is formal
and informal. It is in a branch of knowledge or field of specialisation.
Grocer, cobbler, and dyer are examples of a calling whereas manager,
shoe designer and textile designer are examples of professionals.
2)
The different types of knowledge professionals are:

Database designers, Content developers and organisers, Information/
Knowledge aggregators, Knowledge products distributors, Web page
designers, and Internet service providers, etc.
3)
The different Knowledge Management (KM) tools and products are:
Search engines, Natural language processing software, Document

management systems, and Groupware products.
4)
The functions of a Knowledge Professional (KP) are:

a)
To design and develop systems and strategies for maintaining a flow

of knowledge produced within and outside the organisation
b)
To enable interaction among workers by organising seminars, group

discussions, video conferences, etc.
5)
Instilling knowledge in information products implies adding value to

products and services in libraries. It would help users to derive intelligence
from such products to assist in their management activities.
6)
Knowledge and skills needed for content organisation include:

a)
Web information architecture;
b)
Internet- based information services;
c)
Accessing applications;
d)
Issues in content hoisting;
e)
Content formats; and
f)
Tools for content creation and processing.
7)
The knowledge professionals should work in collaboration with other

professionals in information intensive and dynamical work settings to
tackle the various issues related to ICT being used in KM.
8)
Developing expertise in collaborative dimensions of KM would help KP

to obtain feedback of the use of existing information systems, provide
knowledge base to all categories of users, and assist in knowledge
discovery and innovations by applying techniques and technologies of
other specialisations.
9)
Different approaches for professionals to acquire domain specialisation

include:
a)
Producing literature guides and subject gateways;
b)
Producing special classifications and thesauri; doing research on

indexing and retrieving specialties;
c)
Conducting empirical user studies, bibliometric studies, historical

studies, document and genre studies, epistemological and critical
studies, terminological studies, discourse studies of structures and
institutions in scientific communication, and domain analysis, and
artificial intelligence.
10) Ontology refers to the use of a common language to talk about contents in
a domain. It helps to parse, represent, search, and expand the contents of
a knowledge base. It helps in sharing and use of knowledge thus, helping
in promoting it.
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16.11 KEYWORDS
Profession
: An occupation, a calling, or career

requiring special education (e.g. in the
liberal arts or sciences). A body of people
in a learned occupation. [WordNet 2.0]
Calling
: The term Calling refers to an activity or

a set of interlinked activities for which the
performer enjoys the legal and moral right
to ask for payment, and if he/she asks for
it, he/she must be paid, and if he/she is not
paid, he/she has the right to seek redress
in a court law [Bhattacharyya, 2001].
Professional
: A professional person; a person engaged

in one of the learned professions.
A master, an authority qualified to teach
(e.g. a branch of knowledge, a field of
study, a subject, a discipline [WordNet 2.0]
A professional is a trained person, having
expert knowledge in a field on the basis of
which he/she can provide service to the
society [Mason, 1990]
16.12
[Note: Students should also use the documents cited in Units 14 and 15 of this
course]
Abell, Angela (2001). Competing with Knowledge: The Information
Professional in the Knowledge Management Age. London, UK.: Library
Association Publishing.
Bhattacharyya, G. (2001). Musings on curriculum design for library and
information science in the IT environment with special reference to content
organisation, p. 135-144. In: Content Organisation in the New Millennium.
Papers Contributed to the Seminar on Content Organisation in the New
Millennium, Bangalore, 2-4 June 2000.
Hjorland, Birger (2002). Domain Analysis in Information Science: Eleven
Approaches Traditional as well as Innovative. Journal of Documentation,
58(4); 422-462.
Devaraj, Rajashekar S. and Ramesh, L.S.R.C.V. (1999). Librarianship and the
Professional Model: A Sociological Tutorial and Critique. Library Science
with a Slant to Documentation and Information Studies, 38(3); 155-164.
438
Gopinath, M.A. (1998). Curriculum for Digital Information Systems: A

Learning Package for Library and Information Professionals. Library Science
with a Slant to Documentation and Information Studies. 37(2); 73-78.
Gopinath, M.A. (2002) Information Professionals, Knowledge and Science

Paradigm. SRELS Journal of Information Management, 39(1); 2002; 23-39.
Haravu, L.J. (2002). Lectures on Knowledge Management: Paradigms,

Challenges and Opportunities. Bangalore: Sarada Ranganathan Endowment
for Library Science.
Haravu, L.J. and Neelameghan, A. (2003). Text Mining and Data Mining in
Knowledge Organisation and Discovery: The Making of Knowledge-based
Products. Cataloguing & Classification Quarterly, 37 (1/2); 173-186
Mason, Richard O/ (1990). What is an Information Professional ? Journal of
Education for Library and Information Science, 31(2); 122-130.
Soundara Rajan, V. (2000). Librarian in the Knowledge Era. SRELS Journal
of Information Management, 37(3); 157-164.
Srivathsan, K.R. (2004) Five Laws of Information Service and Architecting
Knowledge Infrastructure for Education and Development. (under publication)
WordNet 2.0. New Jersey: Princeton University
Sharma, Jaideep (2002). Professional Needs of the Workplace Vital
Component in Professional Curriculum. SRELS Journal of Information
Management. 39(2); 117-120
Sridhar, M.S. (1999). Skill Requirements of LIS Professionals in the New EWorld. Library Science with a Slant to Documentation and Information Studies,
38(3); 121-129.
439

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UNIT 1 DATA, INFORMATION AND

1.3 Data, Information and Knowledge

Libraries and Data, Information and Knowledge

After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

perceive the value, pervasive role and importance of information in todays

distinguish the meaning, distinctive characteristics and interrelationships

recognise the role of libraries servicing data, information and knowledge

VALUE AND IMPORTANCE OF

All societies ancient, medieval or modern have functioned and prospered on

1.2.1 Central and Pivotal Role of Information Today

Fusion of Science and Technology (S & T)

Science and Technology (S & T) and Societal Information

greater complexity of administration

Social differentiation and reorganisation

development of private interests

longer and more diverse

Social welfare provision

needs of agencies and clients

Fig. 1.1: Pressure and Consequent Demand for Information

Give at least three reasons as to why information has acquired an

Note : i) Write your answer in the space given below.

1.2.2 Information A Network of Related Concepts

Information and knowledge, however, have to be understood in their widest

Describe the factors contributing to the enhancement of the value of

Note : i) Write your answer in the space given below.

DATA, INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE

1.3.1 Characteristics and Interrelationships

reference to any event or activity and so on.

Data processing of records: payrolls, government benefits (e.g., social

Databases: characteristics and features of population as shown by census

Data processing for scheduling: airline and railway reservations,

Knowledge, on the other hand, is an organised set of statements of fact or an

Distinguish between data, information and knowledge with an illustrative

Note : i) Write your answer in the space given below.

1.3.2 Comparative Study

is piecemeal, fragmented, particular;

is structured, coherent and often

is timely, transitory, perhaps even

is a stock, largely resulting from

may affect the stock of

None of these distinctions relate to practical usefulness; neither information

Wisdom is an individual trait which comes to one through acquisition of sound

Why does Machlup consider information as a flow and knowledge as a

Note : i) Write your answer in the space given below.

LIBRARIES AND DATA, INFORMATION

In so far as libraries and information centres are concerned, while these

Education, training and skill developments, research and development;

Business and industry; and

Fig. 1.2: Data, Information and Knowledge in Four Different Context

Self Check Exercise

Give examples of data, information and knowledge served by libraries

Note : i) Write your answer in the space given below.

The realisation and recognition of information as a vital component in

Creation of exclusive R & D institutions, especially in science and

The organising principle of information today is a mix of science,

Information Technology and its fast increasing impact on changes in

Ever increasing demand for, and supply of information contributes to

Information has to be examined in its relationship with other concepts, which

education, training and skill development, research and development;

ii) government affairs;

iii) business and industry; and

typical institutions in each of these four areas above;

categories of users in these institutions; and

illustrative examples of data, information and knowledge serviced