J. Gibbs Vector Analysis PDF

STAT
05tcentennial
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Bicentennial publications
With
approval of the President and Fellows

of Yale University, a series of volumes has been
prepared by a number of the Professors and In
the
structors,
to
be
issued
in
connection
with
the
Bicentennial Anniversary, as a partial indica

tion of the character of the studies in which the
University teachers are engaged.
This
series
of volumes
is
raDuate$ of
respectfully
tfc
dedicated to
VECTOR ANALYSIS^
A TEXT-BOOK FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS
OF MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS
FOUNDED UPON THE LECTURES OF

J.
WILLARD
GIBBS, PH.D., LL.D.
Formerly Professor of Mathematical Physics in Yale University
BY
EDWIN BIDWELL WILSON,
PH.D.
Professor of Vital Statistics in
Harvard School of Public Health
NEW HAVEN
YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Copyright, 1901 and 1929
BY YALE UNIVERSITY
Published, December, 1901
Second Printing, January 19/3
Third Printing, July, 1916
fourth Printing^ April, 1922
,
Fifth Printing, October, 1925

Sixth Printing, April, 1020
Seventh Printing, October, 1951

Eighth Printing, April,
1943
Ninth Printing, April, 1947

All rights reserved. This book may not be re
produced, in whole or in part, in any form, ex
cept by written permission
PRINTED
IN
from
the publishers.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PKEFACB BY PROFESSOR GIBBS

SINCE the printing of a short pamphlet on the Elements of
never published, but
Vector Analysis in the years 1881-84,
somewhat widely circulated among those who were known to
the desire has been expressed
be interested in the subject,
in
more than one quarter, that the substance of that trea
tise,
perhaps in fuller form, should be made accessible to
the public.
As, however, the years passed without my finding the

meet this want, which seemed a real one, I was
to
have one of the hearers of my course on Vector
very glad
leisure to
Analysis in the year 1899-1900 undertake the preparation of

a text-book on the subject.
I have not desired that Dr. Wilson should aim simply
at the reproduction of
lectures, but rather that he should
use his own judgment in all respects for the production of a
text-book in which the subject should be so illustrated by an
my
adequate number of examples as to meet the wants of stu

dents of geometry and physics.
J.
YALE UNIVERSITY,
September, 1901.
WILLARD
GIBBS.
GENERAL PREFACE
WHEN
undertook to adapt the lectures of Professor Gibbs

on VECTOR ANALYSIS for publication in the Yale Bicenten
nial Series, Professor Gibbs himself was already so fully
I
engaged upon his work to appear in the same
series,
Elementary
Principles in Statistical Mechanics, that it was understood no

material assistance in the composition of this book could be
expected from him.
For
this reason
entirely free to use my own

of the topics to be treated
It has been
my
he wished
me
to feel
discretion alike in the selection
and
in the
mode
of treatment.
endeavor to use the freedom thus granted
only in so far as was necessary for presenting his method in

text-book form.
used in the follow

ing pages has been taken from the course of lectures on
Vector Analysis delivered annually at the University by
Professor Gibbs. Some use, however, has been made of the
chapters on Vector Analysis in Mr. Oliver Heaviside s Elec
By
far the greater part of the material
tromagnetic Theory (Electrician Series, 1893) and in Professor

Foppl s lectures on Die Maxwell sche Theorie der Electricitdt
(Teubner, 1894).
My
previous study of Quaternions has
also been of great assistance.
The material thus obtained has been arranged in the way

which seems best suited to easy mastery of the subject.
Those Arts, which it seemed best to incorporate in the
text but which for various reasons may well be omitted at
the first reading have been marked with an asterisk (*). Nu
merous illustrative examples have been drawn from geometry,
mechanics, and physics. Indeed, a large part of the text has
to do with applications of the method.
These applications
have not been set apart in chapters by themselves, but have
GENERAL PREFACE
been distributed throughout the body of the book as fast as

the analysis has been developed sufficiently for their adequate
treatment. It is hoped that by this means the reader may be
better enabled to
make
practical use of the book.
Great care
has been taken in avoiding the introduction of unnecessary

ideas, and in so illustrating each idea that is introduced as
make its necessity evident and its meaning easy to grasp.

Thus the book is not intended as a complete exposition of
to
the theory of Vector Analysis, but as a text-book from which

much of the subject as may be required for practical appli
so
may be learned. Hence a summary, including a list

more important formulae, and a number of exercises,
have been placed at the end of each chapter, and many less
essential points in the text have been indicated rather than
fully worked out, in the hope that the reader will supply the
details.
The summary may be found useful in reviews and
cations
of the
for reference.
The subject of Vector Analysis naturally divides itself into

three distinct parts.
First, that which concerns addition and
the scalar and vector products of vectors.
Second, that which
concerns the differential and integral calculus in its relations
to scalar and vector functions.
Third, that which contains
the theory of the linear vector function.
The
a necessary introduction to both other parts.
first
part
is
The second
and third are mutually independent. Either may be taken

up first. For practical purposes in mathematical physics the
second must be regarded as more elementary than the third.
But a student not primarily interested in physics would nat
urally pass from the first part to the third, which he would
probably find more attractive and easy than the second.
Following
the book
this division of the subject, the
main body of
divided into six chapters of which two deal with

each of the three parts in the order named.
Chapters I. and
II.
is
treat of addition, subtraction, scalar

multiplication, and
and vector products of vectors. The exposition
the scalar
has been
made
stood by and
is
It can
quite elementary.
readily be under
especially suited for such readers as have a
knowledge of only the elements of Trigonometry and Ana-
GENERAL PREFACE
xi
Those who are well versed in Quaternions

lytic Geometry.
or allied subjects may perhaps need to read only the sum
maries.
Chapters
III.
and IV. contain the treatment
of
those topics in Vector Analysis which, though of less value

to the students of pure mathematics, are of the utmost impor
tance to students of physics. Chapters V. and VI. deal with

To students of physics the linear
the linear vector function.
is of particular importance in the mathemati
treatment of phenomena connected with non-isotropic
media and to the student of pure mathematics this part of
the book will probably be the most interesting of all, owing
vector function
cal
to the fact that it leads to Multiple Algebra or the Theory

of Matrices.
concluding chapter, VII., which contains the
development of certain higher parts of the theory, a

of applications, and a short sketch of imaginary or
number
complex
been added.
In the treatment of the integral calculus, Chapter IV.,
questions of mathematical rigor arise. Although modern
theorists are devoting much time and thought to rigor, and
vectors, has
although they will doubtless criticise this portion of the book

adversely, it has been deemed best to give but little attention
to the discussion of this subject.
And
the more so for the
reason that whatever system of notation be employed ques

tions of rigor are indissolubly associated with the calculus
and occasion no new difficulty to the student of Vector

Analysis, who must first learn what the facts are and may
postpone until later the detailed consideration of the restric
tions that are put
upon those
Notwithstanding the
facts.
efforts
more than half a century
which have been made during
to
introduce Quaternions into
physics the fact remains that they have not found wide favor.
On the other hand there has been a growing tendency espe
decade toward the adoption of some form of

The works of Heaviside and Foppl re
ferred to before may be cited in evidence.
As yet however
no system of Vector Analysis which makes any claim to
cially in the last
Vector Analysis.
completeness has been published.
In fact Heaviside says
"I am
which
in hopes that the chapter
now
finish
may
GENERAL PREFACE
x ii
serve as a stopgap till regular vectorial treatises come to be

written suitable for physicists, based upon the vectorial treat
ment of vectors" (Electromagnetic Theory, Vol. I., p. 305).
Elsewhere in the same chapter Heaviside has set forth the
claims of vector analysis as against Quaternions,

have expressed similar views.
The keynote,
be
and others
must
was Professor
then, to any system of vector analysis
This, I feel confident,
its
practical utility.
He uses it
s point of view in building up his system.
and
in
courses
on
his
Electricity
Magnetism and on
entirely
Gibbs
Electromagnetic Theory of Light. In writing this book I

have tried to present the subject from this practical stand
point,
tions:
and keep clearly before the reader
What
mind the ques
combinations or functions of vectors occur in
physics and geometry ? And how may these be represented

symbolically in the way best suited to facile analytic manip
ulation ? The treatment of these questions in modern books
on physics has been too
much
subtraction of vectors.
This
confined to the addition and
is scarcely
enough. It has
been the aim here to give also an exposition of scalar and
vector products, of the operator y, of divergence and curl

which have gained such universal recognition since the ap
pearance of Maxwell
Treatise on Electricity
and Magnetism,
of slope, potential, linear vector function, etc., such as shall

be adequate for the needs of students of
physics at the
present day and adapted to them.

It has been asserted
by some that Quaternions, Vector
Analysis, and all such algebras are of little value for investi
gating questions in
mathematical physics.
assertion shall prove true or not, one

vectors are to mathematical
may
still
Whether
this
maintain that
physics what invariants are to

geometry. As every geometer must be thoroughly conver
sant with the ideas of invariants, so
every student of physics
should be able to think in terms of vectors. And there is
no way in which he,

especially at the beginning of his sci
entific studies, can come to so true an
appreciation of the
importance of vectors and of the ideas connected with them
as by
working in Vector Analysis and dealing directly with
GENERAL PREFACE
the vectors themselves.
To
xiii
those that hold these views the
of Professor Foppl s Vorlesungen uber Technische

Mechanik (four volumes, Teubner, 1897-1900, already in a
second edition), in which the theory of mechanics is devel
oped by means of a vector analysis, can be but an encour
success
aging sign.
I
and
colleagues, Dr. M. B. Porter

Prof. H. A. Bumstead, for assisting me with the manu
take pleasure in thanking
script.
The good
my
services of the latter have been particularly
valuable in arranging Chapters III. and IV* in their present

form and in suggesting many of the illustrations used in the
am
under obligations to my father, Mr. Edwin

H. Wilson, for help in connection both with the proofs and
the manuscript. Finally, I wish to express my deep indebt
For although he has been so
edness to Professor Gibbs.
work.
also
preoccupied as to be unable to read either manuscript or

proof, he has always been ready to talk matters over with
me, and it is he who has furnished me with inspiration suf
ficient to carry through the work.
EDWIN BIDWELL WILSON.

YALE UNIVERSITY,
October, 1901.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

THE
only changes which have been made in this edition are
a few corrections which
my
readers have been kind
enough
to
point out to me.
E. B.
W.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE BY PROFESSOR GIBBS
vii
GENERAL PREFACE
ix
CHAPTER
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

ARTS.
1-3
4
5
6-7
8-10
11
12
13-16
17
18-19
20-22
23-24
25
SCALARS AND VECTORS

EQUAL AND NULL VECTORS
THE POINT OF VIEW OF THIS CHAPTER
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION. THE NEGATIVE SIGN
ADDITION. THE PARALLELOGRAM LAW
SUBTRACTION
LAWS GOVERNING THE FOREGOING OPERATIONS
COMPONENTS OF VECTORS. VECTOR EQUATIONS
THE THREE UNIT VECTORS 1, j, k
APPLICATIONS TO SUNDRY PROBLEMS IN GEOMETRY.
VECTOR RELATIONS INDEPENDENT OF THE ORIGIN
CENTERS OF GRAVITY. BARYCENTRIC COORDINATES
THE USE OF VECTORS TO DENOTE AREAS
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER i
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER i
4
6
....
11
....
....
12
14
18
21
...
27
39
CHAPTER
46
51
52
II
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS

27-28
29-30
31-33
34-35
36
THE DIRECT, SCALAR, OR DOT PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

THE DISTRIBUTIVE LAW AND APPLICATIONS
THE SKEW, VECTOR, OR CROSS PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
THE DISTRIBUTIVE LAW AND APPLICATIONS
THE TRIPLE PRODUCT A* B C
55
58
60
63
67
CONTENTS
XVI
PAGE
ARTS.
37-38
39-40
41-42
43-45
46-47
48-50
51
52
53
54
THE SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT A* B X C OR [ABC]

THE VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT A X (B X C)
PRODUCTS OF MORE THAN THREE VECTORS WITH APPLI
CATIONS TO TRIGONOMETRY
RECIPROCAL SYSTEMS OF THREE VECTORS
SOLUTION OF SCALAR AND VECTOR EQUATIONS LINEAR IN
AN UNKNOWN VECTOR
SYSTEMS OF FORCES ACTING ON A RIGID BODY
KINEMATICS OF A RIGID BODY
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY
RELATIONS BETWEEN TWO RIGHT-HANDED SYSTEMS OF
THREE PERPENDICULAR UNIT VECTORS
PROBLEMS IN GEOMETRY. PLANAR COORDINATES
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER n
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER n
.
68
71
75
81
87
....
92
...
101
CHAPTER
97
104
106
109
113
III
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS

55-56
57
58-59
60
61
62
63-67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74-76
77
78
DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIALS OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS

WITH RESPECT TO A SCALAR VARIABLE
CURVATURE AND TORSION OF GAUCHE CURVES
KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE. THE HODOGRAPH
THE INSTANTANEOUS AXIS OF ROTATION
INTEGFATION WITH APPLICATIONS TO KINEMATICS
SCALAR FUNCTIONS OF POSITION IN SPACE
THE VECTOR DIFFERENTIATING OPERATOR
THE SCALAR OPERATOR A
VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF POSITION IN SPACE
THE DIVERGENCE V* AND THE CURL
INTERPRETATION OF THE DIVERGENCE
INTERPRETATION OF THE CURL
X
LAWS OF OPERATION OF V>
*
X
THE PARTIAL APPLICATION OF V- EXPANSION OF A VEC
TOR FUNCTION ANALOGOUS TO TAYLOR S THEOREM.
APPLICATION TO HYDROMECHANICS
THE DIFFERENTIATING OPERATORS OF THE SECOND ORDER
GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF LAPLACE S OPERATOR
AS THE DISPERSION
V*
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER in
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER in
....
VX
V
>
115
120
125
131
133
136
138
147
149
150
152
155
157
159
166
170
172
177
CONTENTS
xvii
CHAPTER IV
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
PAGE
ARTS.
79-80
LINE INTEGRALS OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS WITH APPLICA

TIONS
81
82
83
84
179
THEOREM
STOKES S THEOREM
GAUSS
184
187
CONVERSE OF STOKES S THEOREM WITH APPLICATIONS

TRANSFORMATIONS OF LINE, SURFACE, AND VOLUME IN
91
TEGRALS. GREEN S THEOREM

REMARKS ON MULTIPLE-VALUED FUNCTIONS
"
POTENTIAL. THE INTEGRATING OPERATOR " POT
COMMUTATIVE PROPERTY OF POT AND
REMARKS UPON THE FOREGOING
THE INTEGRATING OPERATORS "NEW," "LAP," " MAX "
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE INTEGRATING AND DIFFER
92
THE POTENTIAL
85
86-87
88
89
90
ENTIATING OPERATORS
"
POT "
A SOLUTION OF POISSON
MAXWELLIANS
211
215
222
230
234
240
CERTAIN BOUNDARY VALUE THEOREMS

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER iv
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER iv
96
205
95
197
200
228
is
EQUATION
SOLENOIDAL AND IRROTATIONAL PARTS OF A VECTOR
FUNCTION. CERTAIN OPERATORS AND THEIR INVERSE
MUTUAL POTENTIALS, NEWTONIANS, LAPLACIANS, AND
93-94
193
243
249
255
CHAFIER V
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
97-98
99
100
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS DEFINED

260
DYADICS DEFINED
264
ANY LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION MAY BE REPRESENTED
BY A DYADIC. PROPERTIES OF DYADICS
266
THE NONION FORM OF A DYADIC
269
THE DYAD OR INDETERMINATE PRODUCT OF TWO VEC
TORS IS THE MOST GENERAL. FUNCTIONAL PROPERTY
OF THE SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS
271
PRODUCTS OF DYADICS
276
DEGREES OF NULLITY OF DYADICS
282
THE IDEMFACTOR
288
....
101
102
108-104
105-107
108
CONTENTS
XV111
PAGE
ARTS.
109-110
111
112-114
115-116
117
118-119
120
121
122
POWERS AND ROOTS OF DYADICS

SELF-CONJUGATE AND ANTICONJUGATE DYADICS.
SELF-CONJUGATE PARTS OF A DYADIC
RECIPROCAL DYADICS.
ANTI-SELF-CONJUGATE
DYADICS.
290
294
THE VECTOR PROD
UCT. QUADRANTAL VER8ORS

297
REDUCTION OF DYADICS TO NORMAL FORM
302
DOUBLE MULTIPLICATION OF DYADICS
306
THE SECOND AND THIRD OF A DYADIC
310
CONDITIONS FOR DIFFERENT DEGREES OF NULLITY
313
NONION FORM. DETERMINANTS
315
INVARIANTS OF A DYADIC.
THE HAMILTON-CAYLEY
.319
EQUATION
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER v
321
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER v
329
....
...
CHAPTER VI
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS
123-124
125-126
127
128
129
130
131
132
HOMOGENEOUS STRAIN REPRESENTED BY A DYADIC

ROTATIONS ABOUT A FIXED POINT. VERSORS
THE VECTOR SEMI-TANGENT OF VERSION
BlQUADRANTAL VERSORS AND THEIR PRODUCTS
.
332
334
343
339
CYCLIC DYADICS
RIGHT TENSORS
TONICS AND CYCLOTONICS
REDUCTION OF DYADICS TO CANONICAL FORMS, TONICS,
CYCLOTONICS, SIMPLE AND COMPLEX SHEARERS
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER vi
.
CHAPTER
347
351
353
356
368
VII
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
136-142
QUADRIC SURFACES
143-146
THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
147-148
VARIABLE DYADICS
CURVATURE OF SURFACES
HARMONIC VIBRATIONS AND BIVECTORS
149-157
158-162
IN CRYSTALS
....
372
392
403
....
411
426
VECTOR ANALYSIS
VECTOR ANALYSIS
CHAPTER

1.]
IN mathematics and especially in physics two very
different kinds of quantity present themselves.
Consider, for
example, mass, time, density, temperature, force, displacement
and acceleration. Of these quantities

some can be represented adequately by a single number
temperature, by degrees on a thermometric scale time, by
mass and density, by numerical valyears, days, or seconds
ues which are wholly determined when the unit of the scale
On the other hand the remaining quantities are not
is fixed.
of a point, velocity,
Force to be sure
capable of such representation.

of so
or
many pounds
grams
them must be considered
magnitude.
said to be
weight; velocity, of so
feet or centimeters per second.
of
is
as
But
many
in addition to this each
having direction as well as
force points North, South, East, West, up,
down, or in some intermediate direction. The same is true

of displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
No scale of num
bers can represent
them adequately.
It can represent only
their magnitude, not their direction.

2.]
Definition
vector is a quantity
which
is
considered
as possessing direction as well as magnitude.
Definition
A scalar is a quantity which is considered as pos
sessing magnitude but no direction.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
The positive and negative numbers of ordinary algebra are the

For this reason the ordinary algebra is called
typical scalars.
scalar algebra when necessary to distinguish it from the vector
algebra or analysis which
the subject of this book.

the displacement of translation in space.
The typical vector is

first a point
Consider
is
line
straight
Let P be displaced
and take a new position
(Fig. 1).
PP. The
ment
it is
1
.
move
f
.
is
PP
the length of
; the direction of
to
the direction of the line
from
is
PP
Next consider a displacement not
but of
points
represented by the
magnitude of the displace
This change of position

line
in a
all
the points in space.
in straight lines in the
Let
same direction and
of one,
all
the
for the
same distance D.
body
rigid
This is equivalent to shifting space as a

in that direction through the distance
without
Such a displacement is
and magnitude.
rotation.
possesses direction
called a translation.
When
It
space undergoes
a translation T, each point of space undergoes a displacement

equal to T in magnitude and direction; and conversely if
PP
which any one particular point P suf

T is known, then that of any other
known for Q Q must be equal and parallel
the displacement
fers in the translation
point
to
is
also
PP.
The
T is represented geometrically or graphically

by an arrow T (Fig. 1) of which the magnitude and direction
are equal to those of the translation.
The absolute position
translation
of this arrow in space is

entirely immaterial. Technically the
arrow is called a stroke. Its tail or initial
point is its origin;
and
its
head or
final point, its terminus.
In the figure the
and the terminus by T. This geo

designated by
metric quantity, a stroke, is used as the mathematical
origin
is
symbol
for all vectors, just as the

ordinary positive and negative
bers are used as the
symbols for all scalars.
num

*
As examples
3.]
sity,
mass, time, den
of scalar quantities
and temperature have been mentioned.

volume, moment
tance,
however,
Others are dis
of inertia, work, etc.
by no means the
is
distinguishing characteristics, as
its
dimensions in the sense well
be
cited.
distance
3,
Magnitude,
sole property of these quantities.
Each implies something besides magnitude.
own
a time
known
3,
Each has
its
an example of which
to physicists
a work
may
are very
3, etc.,
3 is, however, a property common

the
only one. Of all scalar quantiperhaps
is
the
number
It implies nothing but
tities pure
simplest.
magnitude. It is the scalar par excellence and consequently
The magnitude
different.
to
them
it is
all
used as the mathematical symbol for
As examples
all scalars.
of vector quantities force, displacement, velo
Each of these has

city, and acceleration have been given.
other characteristics than those which belong to a vector pure
The concept
and simple.
two alone
vector.
But
to a rigid
two ideas and
magnitude of the vector and direction of the

force is more complicated.
When it is applied
body the
consideration;
And
of vector involves
line in
which
it
acts
must be taken
into
magnitude and direction alone do not suf
applied to a non-rigid body the point

of application of the force is as important as the magnitude or
Such is frequently true for vector quantities other
direction.
fice.
than force.
in case
it is
Moreover the question of dimensions
as in the case of scalar quantities.
the stroke, which
is
The mathematical
present
vector,
the primary object of consideration in

this book, abstracts from all directed quantities their magni
is
tude and direction and nothing but these
mathe
matical scalar, pure number, abstracts the magnitude and
Hence one must be on his guard lest from
that alone.
;
just as the
analogy he attribute some properties to the mathematical

vector which do not belong to it ; and he must be even more
careful lest he obtain erroneous results
by considering the
VECTOR ANALYSIS
vector quantities of physics as possessing no properties other
than those of the mathematical vector.
never do to consider force and
its
For example
it
would
effects as unaltered
by
This warning may not be

parallel
shifting
it may possibly save some confusion.
necessary, yet
Inasmuch as, taken in its entirety, a vector or stroke
4.]
to
it
itself.
but a single concept, it may appropriately be designated by

one letter.
Owing however to the fundamental difference
is
between scalars and vectors, it is necessary to distinguish

Sometimes, as in mathe
carefully the one from the other.
matical physics, the distinction is furnished by the physical
Thus
interpretation.
must be
scalars
scalar
but
/,
if
n be the index
m, the mass, and

the
force,
and
a,
of
refraction
it
the time, are also
the
acceleration,
are
When, however,
the letters are regarded merely

no
with
particular physical significance some
symbols
difference
must be relied upon to distinguish
typographical
vectors.
as
vectors from scalars.
Hence
in this
book Clarendon type
is
used for setting up vectors and ordinary type for scalars.

This permits the use of the same letter differently printed
1
to represent the vector and its scalar
Thus if
magnitude.
C be the
electric current in
magnitude and
direction,
C may
be used to represent the magnitude of that current if g be

the vector acceleration due to gravity, g
may be the scalar
value of that acceleration ; if v be the
velocity of a
;
moving
mass, v
may be
the magnitude of that velocity.

The use of
Clarendons to denote vectors makes it possible to pass from
directed quantities to their scalar
magnitudes by a mere
change in the appearance of a letter without any confusing

change in the letter itself.
Definition
Two vectors
the same magnitude

1
are said to be equal
and the same
direction.
This convention, however,
instances
it
when they have
is by no means
invariably followed. In some
would prove just as undesirable as it is convenient in others. It is
chiefly valuable in the application of vectors to physics.

The
equality of two vectors
Thus
usual sign =.
and B
is
denoted by the
A=B
Evidently a vector or stroke is not altered by shifting it

about parallel to itself in space. Hence any vector A = PP
r
may
(Fig. 1)
for the
segment
the point
In this
be
P falls
way
all
drawn from any assigned point
PP
may
be
moved
vectors in space
may
parallel to itself until
and
upon the point
as origin
upon some point
T.
be replaced by directed
segments radiating from one fixed point
0.
Equal vectors
in space will of course coincide, when placed with their ter

mini at the same point 0. Thus (Fig. 1) A = PP\ and B = Q~Q
both
fall
upon T
For the numerical determination of a vector

are necessary.
If r,
with
</>,
its
~OT.
three scalars
These may be chosen in a variety of ways.
be polar coordinates in space any vector r drawn

origin at the origin of coordinates may be represented
by the three scalars
r,
</>,
6 which determine the terminus of
the vector.
r~(r,*,0).
Or if #, y9 z be Cartesian coordinates in space a vector r may
be considered as given by the differences of the coordinates a/,
y
of its terminus
and those
r~
#, y, z
x,y
(x
of its origin.
y,z
z).
If in particular the origin of the vector coincide
with the
origin of coordinates, the vector will be represented

three coordinates of its terminus
r
When two
-(*
,*,
by the
* )
vectors are equal the three scalars which repre
sent them must be equal respectively each to each.

one vector equality implies three scalar equalities.
Hence
VECTOR ANALYSIS
A vector A is said
Definition
magnitude A is
Such a vector
equal to
to be equal to zero
when
its
zero.
A is
called a null or zero vector
naught in the usual manner.
A=
if
and
is
written
Thus
A = 0.
All null vectors are regarded as equal to each other without
any considerations
of direction.
In fact a null vector from a geometrical standpoint would

that is to
be represented by a linear segment of length zero
a
It
would
have
a
consequently
wholly inde
point.
say, by
terminate direction
or,
what amounts to the same
thing,
none at
be regarded as the limit approached by a

If, however,
vector of finite length, it might be considered to have that
it
all.
direction
which
finite vector,
is
the limit approached by the direction of the

the length decreases indefinitely and ap
when
proaches zero as a limit.
The
justification for disregarding
and looking upon all null vectors as equal is

that when they are added (Art. 8) to other vectors no change
this direction
occurs and
when
the product
multiplied (Arts. 27, 31) by other vectors
is zero.
In extending to vectors the fundamental operations
5.]
and arithmetic, namely, addition, subtraction, and

multiplication, care must be exercised riot only to avoid self-
of algebra
contradictory definitions but also to lay down useful ones.

Both these ends may be accomplished most naturally and
by looking to physics (for in that science vectors con

tinually present themselves) and by observing how such
easily
If then A be a
given displace
or
what
is two, three, or in
ment, force,
velocity,
general x
times A? What, the negative of A? And if B be another,
quantities are treated there.
what
is
the
of A and B ?
That
and B taken together ?
sum
equivalent of
is
to say,
what
is
the
The obvious answers
to these questions
suggest immediately the desired definitions.
Scalar Multiplication
Definition:
6.]
positive scalar
and
Thus
v
when
direction
its
said to be multiplied by a
magnitude is multiplied by that scalar
vector
its
is
unaltered
is left
v be a velocity of nine knots East by North, 2 times

a velocity of twenty-one knots with the direction still
is
if
Or
East by North.
be the force exerted upon the scalepan by a gram weight, 1000 times f is the force exerted by a
kilogram. The direction in both cases is vertically down
if f
ward.
If
A be
the vector
and x the
denoted as usual by
x
It
is,
scalar the product of x
or
and
A is
x.
however, more customary to place the scalar multiplier
before the multiplicand A. This multiplication by a scalar

is called scalar multiplication, and it follows the associative law
x (y A)
as in ordinary algebra
mediately obvious
and
(x y)
A=y
arithmetic.
when the
fact
is
(x A)
This statement
is
im
taken into consideration
that scalar multiplication does not alter direction but merely

multiplies the length.
Definition
Any
vector
vector a in
its
A unit vector is one whose
magnitude
is
unity.
A may
be looked upon as the product of a unit

direction by the positive scalar A, its magni
tude.
A=A
The unit vector
by I/A
= a A.
similarly be written as the product of

or as the quotient of A and A.
may
A
= ^1 A = -I
A
A
VECTOR ANALYSIS
reverses its
as
A~B
from
magnitude unchanged.
two feet
be A, the stroke
but which
prefixed to a vector
sign,
its
A be a displacement for two feet to
if
a displacement for
is
stroke
The negative
direction but leaves
For example
Definition
7.]
is
of the negative sign
of motion.
If
" reaction."
The
B A, which
of the
is
Another
A.
Newton s
denote an "action,"
positive sign,
instead of
illustration of the use
be taken from
may
same length
B to A
in the direction from
to 5, will be
the right,
Again if the
to the left.
+ may
,
third law
will denote the
be prefixed to a vec
tor to call particular attention to the fact that the direction
The two
has not been reversed.
signs
and
when used
in connection with scalar multiplication of vectors follow the
same laws
These are
of operation as in ordinary algebra.
symbolically
++=+
+- = -;
(ra
The
interpretation
is
=m
A)
+ = -;
= +;
A).
obvious.
Addition and Subtraction
The
8.]
addition of two vectors or strokes
may
be treated
most simply by regarding them as defining translations in

space (Art. 2), Let S be one vector and T the other. Let P
be a point of space (Fig. 2). The trans
lation S carries P into P such that the
1
line
PP
is
carry
into
parallel to
FIG.
2.
If
into
11
the line
T and equal
P P"
being
to it in magnitude.
Consequently the result of S followed by
P into the point

be any other point in space, S will
carry Q
such that Q~Q = S and T will then
carry Q into Q"
T
P".
equal to S in magnitude and

will then
The transformation T
direction.
is
to carry the point
now Q
= T.
such that Q Q"
Thus
S followed
f
by T
carries
PP
into Q".
For
Q Q Q"
the two sides Q Q and Q Q", being equal and parallel to S
and T respectively, must be likewise parallel to P P and
P P" respectively which are also parallel to S and T. Hence
the triangle
Moreover,
is
equal to
P".
the third sides of the triangles
That
must be equal and
parallel
is
Q Q"
is
equal and parallel to
PP".
As Q
is any point in space this is equivalent to saying that

means
of S followed by T all points of space are displaced
by
the same amount and in the same direction. This displace
ment
is
therefore
translations S and
two
Consequently the
translation.
are equivalent to a single translation R.
Moreover
S
if
The
= PP
R
stroke
strokes S and
and T
=P
is
called the
to
which
P", then
resultant
it is
R = PP".
or
equivalent.
sum
This
of the
two
sum
de
is
noted in the usual manner by
R=S +
From analogy with
the
sum
T.
or resultant of two translations
the following definition for the addition of any two vectors

laid
is
down.
Definition
The sum
or resultant of
two vectors
is
found
by placing the origin of the second

first
upon the terminus of the

and drawing the vector from the origin of the first to the
terminus of the second.

Theorem.
9.]
added does not
The order
affect the
in
which two vectors S and T are
sum.
S followed by T gives precisely the same result as T followed

into
by S. For let S carry
(Fig. 3) ; and T, P into P".
S + T then carries
into P". Suppose now that T carries P
into
".
The
P
P
"
line PP
is
equal and parallel to
PP".
Con-
VECTOR ANALYSIS
10
sequently the points P,
P P
ff
and
Pm
lie
at the vertices of
a parallelogram.
pm pn
to
allel
carries
Hence
e q ua l an(J
js
PP.
P"
into
par-
Hence S
P". T fol
lowed by S therefore car
P" through P\
T
carries P into P" through
P m The final result is in
ries
into
whereas S followed by
This
either case the same.
by writing
It is to
R=
may be
+T=T+
common
origin
through P.
S.
PP and T = PP m are the two sides

pprpp" which have the point P as
be noticed that S =
of the parallelogram
designated symbolically
and that
This leads
JL=PP"
to another
stating the definition of the
sum
of
is
the diagonal
very
two
drawn
common way
of
vectors.
two vectors be drawn from the same origin and a parallelo

gram be constructed upon them as sides, their sum will be that
If
diagonal which passes through their common origin.

"
This is the well-known " parallelogram law according to
which the physical vector quantities force, acceleration, veloc

It is important to
ity, and angular velocity are compounded.
note that in case the vectors
lie
along the same line vector
addition becomes equivalent to algebraic scalar addition.

The
of
the
if
two
vectors
to
be
added
are
added
the
vectors
lengths
have the same direction

site directions.
but subtracted
In either case the
sum
they have oppo

has the same direction
if
as that of the greater vector.

10.]
After the definition of the
been laid down, the
sum
of several
sum
of
may
be found by adding
two vectors has
together the first two, to this sum the third, to this the fourth,
and so on until all the vectors have been combined into a sin-

The final
gle one.
result
is
11
the same as that obtained by placing

upon the terminus of the
the origin of each succeeding vector
preceding one and then drawing at once the vector from

the origin of the first to the terminus of the last. In case
these two points coincide the vectors form a closed polygon
and
that
sum is zero. Interpreted geometrically this states

are such that the
number of displacements R, S, T
form the sides of a closed polygon taken in
R, S, T
their
if
strokes
order, then the effect of carrying out the displacements
Each point
of space is brought
mechanics
terpreted in
it
back
is nil.
to its starting point.
states that
if
any number
In
of forces
act at a point and if they form the sides of a closed polygon

taken in order, then the resultant force is zero and the point
is in equilibrium under the action of the forces.
of sequence of the vectors in a sum is of no con
This may be shown by proving that any two adja
The order
sequence.
cent vectors
may
be interchanged without affecting the result.
To show
Let
A=
Then
Let now
A, B
= A B, C = B C, D =
B C = D. Then C B C D
1
consequently
is
D = C. Hence
OJ = A + B + D +
D,
= D E.
a parallelogram and
E,
which proves the statement. Since any two adjacent vectors

may be interchanged, and since the sum may be arranged in
any order by successive interchanges of adjacent vectors, the
order in which the vectors occur in the sum is immaterial.
11.]
is
Definition
added
vector
is
said to be subtracted
after reversal of direction.
when
it
Symbolically,
A - B = A + (- B).
By
this
means subtraction
is
reduced to addition and needs
VECTOR ANALYSIS
12
is however an interesting and

difference of two vectors
the
of representing
no special consideration.
important
way
A = OA, B =
Let
geometrically.
There
Complete
0IT(Fig. 4).
the parallelogram of which A and B

Then the diagonal
are the sides.
C is the sum A + B of the
~OG
Next complete the

B
parallelogram of which A and
= OB are the sides. Then the di
two
vectors.
agonal 02)
!)
will be the
sum
of
But the
and
is
equal
parallel
segment OD
Hence BA may be taken as the difference to the two
to BA.
This leads to the following rule The differ
vectors A and B.
ence of two vectors which are drawn from the same origin is
and the negative of
B.
the vector
drawn from the terminus
tracted
the terminus of the vector from which
to
of the vector to be
it
is
sub
sub
Thus the two diagonals of the parallelogram, which

constructed upon A and B as sides, give the sum and dif
tracted.
is
ference of
and
B.
In the foregoing paragraphs addition, subtraction, and

12.]
scalar multiplication of vectors have been defined and inter
To make
the development of vector algebra mathe

exact
and
matically
systematic it would now become necessary
to demonstrate that these three fundamental operations follow
preted.
the same formal laws as in the ordinary scalar algebra, al

though from the standpoint of the physical and geometrical
interpretation
_of
vectors this
may seem
superfluous.
laws are
m
II
III,
n (m A)
= A+
(m n} A,
+
(B + C),
A + B r, B + A,
(m + n) A = m A + n A,
m (A + B) = m A + m B,
- (A + B) = - A - B.
(A
III a
(n A)
B)
These

1
is
13
the so-called law of association and commutation of
the scalar factors in scalar multiplication.

I 6 is the law of association for vectors in vector addition.
It
states that in adding vectors parentheses may be inserted at

any points without altering the result.
11 is the commutative law of vector addition.
III a
is
the distributive law for scalars in scalar multipli
is
the distributive law for vectors in scalar multipli
cation.
III 6
cation.
Ill,
The
the distributive law for the negative sign.

proofs of these laws of operation depend upon those
is
propositions in elementary geometry which have to deal with

the first properties of the parallelogram and similar triangles.
will not be given here; but
it is
suggested that the
out
for
the
sake of fixing the fundamental
reader work them
They
ideas of addition, subtraction,
The
clearly in mind.
in the statement
and scalar multiplication more
result of the laws
may
be
summed up
The laws which govern addition, subtraction, and
scalar
multiplication of vectors are identical with those governing these

operations in ordinary scalar algebra.
It is precisely this identity of formal laws
the extension of the use of the familiar signs

of arithmetic to the algebra of vectors and
which ensures the correctness of
which
justifies
=, +, and
it is
results obtained
also this
by operat
ing with those signs in the usual manner. One caution only
need be mentioned. Scalars and vectors are entirely different
sorts of quantity.
to each other
For
this reason
they can never be equated

where each is
except perhaps in the trivial case
For the same reason they are not to be added together.

So long as this is borne in mind no difficulty need be antici
pated from dealing with vectors much as if they were scalars.
Thus from equations in which the vectors enter linearly with
zero.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
14
coefficients
scalar
unknown
vectors
may
be eliminated or
with the same limita

found by solution in the same way and
for the eliminations and solu
as in
ordinary algebra;
tions
scalar coefficients of the equations

depend solely on the
If for
and not at all on what the variables represent.
tions
instance
cC +
aA + &B +
then A, B,
C,
or
D may
dD = 0,
be expressed in terms of the other
three
as
And two
= --:OA + &B + cC).

a
vector equations such as
and
yield
A+ 4B=E
A+
=F
by the usual processes the solutions
A=3E-4F
B
and
= 3 F - 2 E.
Components of Vectors
13.]
Definition
Vectors are said to be collinear
they are parallel to the same line; coplanar,
when
when
parallel
same plane. Two or more vectors to which no line

can be drawn parallel are said to be non-collinear. Three or
more vectors to which no plane can be drawn parallel are
to the
be non-coplanar.
said to
Obviously any two vectors are
coplanar.
vector b collinear with a
may be
expressed as the
product of a and a positive or negative scalar which is the
ratio of the magnitude of b to that of a.
The sign is positive
Any
when b and
a have the same direction
have opposite directions.
If
then
OA =
negative, when they

a, the vector r drawn

from the origin
either direction
any point of the
to
line
produced in
is
= x a.
(1)
x be a variable scalar parameter this equation
If
15
there
may
fore be regarded as the (vector) equation of all points in the
Let now
be any point not
that
line produced
the
line
or
upon
in either direction (Fig. 5).
OA.
line
OA
Let
OB = b.
The
not of the form x

a line parallel to
point upon
it.
vector b
is
OA
and
Let
The vector
to
is
collinear with a
and
is
Hence the vector drawn
R is
0~E=0~B + ITR
r = b + #a.
or
This equation
all
"
Flo 5
be any
BE
consequently expressible as #a.
from
surely
Draw through B
a.
may
(2)
be regarded as the (vector) equation of

is parallel to a and of which
the points in the line which
B is
one point.
Any
14.]
a and b
and b
may
vector r coplanar with two non-collinear vectors

be resolved into two components parallel to a
This resolution
respectively.
may
be accomplished by constructing the par

allelogram (Fig. 6) of which the sides are
parallel to a and b and of which the di
agonal is r. Of these components one is

x a ; the other, y b.
x and y are respec
tively the
scalar ratios (taken with the
proper sign) of the lengths of these components to the lengths

of a
and
b,
Hence
r
=xa+
yb
(2)
a typical form for any vector coplanar with a and b. If

several vectors r x , r 2 r 3
may be expressed in this form as
is
VECTOR ANALYSIS
16
=x
r2 = #
r = x
rl
their
sum
+
+
+
yl
b,
2/ 2
b,
b.
2/3
r is then
(ft
ft
ft
the well-known theorem that the components of a
This
is
sum
of vectors are the
sums
components of those
of the
If the vector r is zero
vectors.
each of
its
components must
be zero.
Consequently the one vector equation r
equivalent to the two scalar equations
y\
ft
ft
is
(3)
vector r in space may be resolved into three

components parallel to any three given non-coplanar vectors.
Let the vectors be a, b,
15.]
Any
and
The
c.
may then
resolution
be
accom
plished by constructing
the parallelepiped (Fig.
7) of
which the edges

a, b, and
are parallel to
c
and of which the
agonal
FIG.
It.
di
This par-
allelopiped may be
drawn easily by passing
three planes parallel re
c and a through the
origin
b, b and c,
and a similar set of three planes through its
These six planes will then be parallel in pairs
spectively to a
of the vector r
terminus
and
7.
is r.

and hence form a
obvious.
The
where
and
x, y,
That the
parallelepiped.
which are
the planes are lines
parallel to
three components of r are x
17
intersections of
a,
or b, or c
a,
z are respectively the scalar ratios
b,
is
and zc;
(taken with
the proper sign) of the lengths of these components to the
length of
and
a, b,
Hence
c.
= #a +
7/b
zc
(4)
a typical form for any vector whatsoever in space. Several

vectors r lf r 2 , r 3
may be expressed in this form as
is
rx
r2
1*3
Their sum r
1
is
= r + r2 +
l
=x
=#
=X
+
+
2
a +
Z
l
yl b
y2 b
2/3
+
+
z l c,
*2 c
then
F3
a
+ *2 + X Z +
+
+
)!>
(2/i
2/2+ 3/3
+ Ol +^2 + ^3+ "O
0*1
If the vector r is zero
each of
its
three components
Consequently the one vector equation r
is
= 0.
is
zero.
equivalent to
the three scalar equations
xl
2/i
*i
+
+
+
#2
2/2
*2
Should the vectors
+ #3 +
+ 2/3 +
+%+
=
=
= /y
(5)
be coplanar with a and b, all the com

vanish.
In this case therefore the above
all
ponents parallel to c
equations reduce to those given before.
If two equal vectors are expressed in terms of the

16.]
same three non-coplanar vectors, the corresponding scalar co
efficients are equal.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
18
Let
=r
=x a+y b+z
x =x
Then
y=y
= (x x a + (y - y ) b + (* - z ) c.
r - r =
For
x - * = 0, y - y = 0, z - * = 0.
Hence
1
c,
But
this
would not be true
if a, b,
and
were coplanar. In
that case one of the three vectors could be expressed in terms

of the other
two
as
= m a + n b.
= #a + y b + s c = (a + m z) a + (y +
= x a + y b + z c = (x + m z a + (y +
r = [(x + m z )
(x + m z )] a,
c
Then
r
r
TI
Hence the individual components of

a and b (supposed different) are zero.
Hence
But
this
tively to
+ mz =
nz
-f
=y
z) b,
nz)
b,
r in the directions
+ mz
+ nz
by no means necessitates x, y, z to be equal respec

In a similar manner if a and b were colx\ y\ z
1
impossible to infer that their coefficients vanish

The theorem may perhaps be stated as follows :
individually.
linear it
is
In case two equal vectors are expressed in terms of one vector,

or two non-collinear vectors, or three non-coplanar vectors, the
.
But this is not ne

corresponding scalar coefficients are equal.
the
two
vectors
be
true
collinear
or
the three vectors,
;
if
cessarily
coplanar.
This principle will be used in the
applications
(Arts. 18 et seq.).
The Three Unit Vectors
i, j,
k.
In the foregoing paragraphs the method of

17.]
express
ing vectors in terms of three given non-coplanar ones has been
explained.
The
simplest set of three such vectors
is
the rect-
19
This
in Solid Cartesian Geometry.
angular system familiar
distinct
however be either of two very
rectangular system may
In one case (Fig.
types.
8, first
part) the Z-axis
lies
upon
X Y- plane on which rotation through a right
that side of the
to the F-axis appears counterclockwise

angle from the X-axis
or positive according to the convention adopted in Trigonome
This relation
try.
may be
stated in another form.
If the
axis be directed to the right and the F-axis vertically, the

Or if the X^-axis will be directed toward the observer.
axis point toward the observer
the ^-axis will point upward.
and the F-axis to the

Still another method of
right,
state-
Z
,,k
Left-handed
Right-handed
FIG.
ment
is
common
8.
in mathematical physics
and engineering.
If
a right-handed screw be turned from the Xaxis to the Faxis it will advance along the (positive) Z-axis. Such a sys
tem
of axes is called right-handed, positive, or counterclock

It is easy to see that the F-axis lies upon that side of
wise. 2
the ^X-plane on which rotation from the ^-axis to the Xaxis is counterclockwise ; and the X-axis, upon that side of
1
By
the X-, Y-, or Z-axis the positive half of that axis
is
meant.
The
X Y-
0.
plane means the plane which contains the X- and Y-axis, i. e., the plane z
2
convenient right-handed system and one which is always available consists
of the thumb, first finger, and second finger of the right hand.
If the thumb and
first finger be stretched out from the palm perpendicular to each other, and if the
second finger be bent over toward the palm at right angles to first finger, a righthanded system is formed by the fingers taken in the order thumb, first finger,
second
finger.
VECTOR ANALYSTS
20
the F^-plane on which rotation from the

axis
counterclockwise.
is
Thus
it
F-axis to the Z-
appears that the relation
between the three axes
is perfectly symmetrical so
long as the
If
a
is observed.
order
right-handed
cyclic
screw is turned from one axis toward the next it advances
XYZXY
same
along the third.

In the other case (Fig.
that side of the
angle from the
The
ative.
second part) the ^-axis lies upon

F-plane on which rotation through a right
8,
JT-axis to the F-axis appears
F-axis then lies
upon
clockwise or neg
that side of the
^X-plane
on which rotation from the ^-axis to the X-axis appears

clockwise and a similar statement may be made concerning
the X-axis in
its
as the
same
In this case,
relation to the F^-plane.
the relation between the three axes

cyclic order
X YZX Y
is
S3 mmetrical so long
preserved but it is just
the opposite of that in the former case.
If a fe/Mianded
turned from one axis toward the next
is
Hence
the third.
this
system
is
too,
is
it
screw
advances along
called left-handed, negative,
or clockwise. 1
The two systems are not superposable.
One
metric.
mirror.
is
If the JT-
the
of
the
They
other
as
are
sym
seen in a
image
and F-axes of the two different systems be
superimposed, the ^-axes will point in opposite directions.

Thus one system may be obtained from the other
by reversing
the direction of one of the axes.
that
little
thought will show
two of the axes be reversed in direction the

system will
not be altered, but if all three be so reversed it will be.
if
Which
asmuch
two systems be used, matters little. But in

the formulae of
geometry and mechanics differ
of the
as
slightly in the
all
which
matter of sign, it is advisable to settle once for

shall be
In this book the
adopted.
right-handed or
counterclockwise system will be

invariably employed.
A left-handed system may be formed the

by
one was formed by the
right.
1
left
hand
just as
a right-handed

Definition
The
three letters
i,
j,
21
will be reserved to de
note three vectors of unit length drawn respectively in the

directions of the JT-, T-, and Z- axes of a right-handed rectan
gular system.
In terms of these vectors, any vector
= xi +
The
coefficients
coordinates.
be expressed as
zk.
(6)
are the ordinary Cartesian coordinates
y, z
of the terminus of r
y]
may
if its
origin be situated at the origin of
The components
of r parallel to the X-, F-,
and
^f-axes are respectively
The
rotations about
about k from
By means
to
i,
from
z k.
j,
to k, about
from k to
i,
and
are all positive.
of these vectors
i,
j,
k such a correspondence is
and the analysis in Car
established between vector analysis

tesian coordinates that
it
becomes possible to pass at will

There is nothing contradic
from either one to the other.
On the contrary it is often desirable

tory between them.
or even necessary to translate the formulae obtained by
vector methods into
Cartesian coordinates for the sake of
comparing them with results already known and it is

still more frequently convenient
to pass from Cartesian
on account of the brevity thereby

obtained and because the vector expressions show forth the
analysis to vectors both
intrinsic
meaning
of the formulae.
Applications
*18.J Problems in plane geometry
easily
by vector methods.
Any two
may
which
others in that plane
may
be solved
non-collinear vectors in
be taken as the fundamental ones in terms of
the plane
all
may frequently
may
also be selected at pleasure.
be expressed.
Often
it
is
The
origin
possible
to
VECTOR ANALYSIS
22
make such an advantageous choice of the origin and funda

mental vectors that the analytic work of solution is materially
simplified.
the
same
The
adaptability of the vector
method
as that of oblique Cartesian coordinates
is
about
with differ
ent scales upon the two axes.

Example 1 : The line which joins one vertex of a parallelo
gram to the middle point of an opposite side trisects the diag
onal (Fig.
Let
9).
A BCD
BE
be the parallelogram,
the line joining the
vertex B to the middle point
of the side
AD, R
the point in which this line cuts the
diagonal
is
A R is one third of
origin, A B and AD as the
To show
C.
Choose A as
two fundamental vectors S and T.
Then
the sum of S and T. Let AR = R.
To show
AC.
FlG 9
AC
R=
(S
T).
where x
is
the ratio of
R=y
And
where y
ER to EB
is
the scalar ratio of
(S
an unknown
AR
scalar.
T),
to
AC
to be
shown equal
to.
Hence
or
x (S
-i
* S
(1
T)
X) T
=y
(S
=yS+
T)
T.
Hence, equating corresponding coefficients

(Art. 16),
2 (1
- x) = y.

From which
Inasmuch
y
x
as
is
also
well as the diagonal
23
must be
the line j&2?
trisected as
A C.
If through any point within a triangle lines

Example 2
drawn parallel to the sides the sum of the ratios of these
:
be
lines to their corresponding sides is
Let
ABC be
as origin,
and
the triangle,
A B and A C as
2.
it.
Choose
S
two
fundamental
vectors
the
the point within
Let
T.
AR = R = w S +
m
parallel to
is
the fraction of
tion (1
A B which is
A C. The
AC
T.
(a)
cut off by the line through

B must be the frac
remainder of
m) S. Consequently by
the line parallel to
7i
similar triangles the ratio of
A C itself is
A B to the
to the line
(1
Similarly the ratio of the line parallel to

itself is
Next express
n ).
(1
third side of the triangle.
R=
Hence (m
line
+ ri) S
through
is
(m
ri)
and the theorem
is
B C.
angles the ratio of this line to

the three ratios
- m) +
(1
of S
and T
S the
Evidently from (a)
+n
the fraction of
parallel to
(1
R in terms
ra).
AB
line
(T
- S).
A B which is
cut off by the
Consequently by similar
BC itself is (m + n).
- n) +
(m +
ri)
tri
Adding
= 2,
proved.
If from any point within a parallelogram lines

Example 3
be drawn parallel to the sides, the diagonals of the parallelo
:
grams thus formed intersect upon the diagonal of the given

parallelogram.
Let
and
A B CD
be a parallelogram,
LN two lines through R parallel
a point within
respectively to
it,
KM
AB and
VECTOR ANALYSIS
24
AD,
the points K, Z,
M,
N lying
upon the
sides
DA, AS,
KN
B C, CD respectively. To
show that the diagonals

and
and LBME meet
LM of the two parallelograms
on A C. Choose A as origin, A B and A D as the two funda
mental vectors S and T. Let
KRND
R=
and
P be the
let
AB = m S
KN with LM.
point of intersection of
KN=KR + BN = m S +
Then
=(1 -m)
7i
(1
rc)
T,
T,
= n T + x [m S + (1 n) T],
P = m S + y [(1 - m) S + n T].
Hence
and
Equating
coefficients,
By
4- ft T,
solution,
m=m+
;
m+
~
m)
(1
m
m+
Substituting either of these solutions in the expression for P,

the result is
P^-^-^S +
T),
is collinear with A C.
Problems in three dimensional
geometry may be
essentially the same manner as those in two dimen
which shows that P

*
19.]
solved in
sions.
In this case there are three fundamental vectors

in
all others can be
expressed. The method of
terms of which
solution
is
analogous to that in the simpler case.
Two
The co
expressions for the same vector are usually found.
In this
corresponding terms are equated.
efficients of the
25
way
the equations between three unknown scalars are obtained

from which those scalars may be determined by solution and
then substituted in either of the expressions for the required

vector.
The vector method has the same degree of adapta
the Cartesian
bility as
method
in
which oblique axes with
The following examples like

worked out not so much for
different scales are employed.
those in the foregoing section are
their intrinsic value as for gaining a familiarity with vectors.
Example 1
point within
Let
A B CD
a tetrahedron
be
and
any
P and produce the lines

To
faces in A\ B C D
Join the vertices to
it.
until they intersect the opposite
show
PA
PB
PC
PD
"
A~A
Choose
TTB
as origin,
~C~O
AD
and the edges A J?, A C,

Let the vector
three fundamental vectors B, C, D.
A =AA =AB+
Also
The
= A P=IE + raC +
vector
B.
BA
Hence
^1
coefficients
Hence
(C-B)+y (D~B).
m = xv
1
Jc
&.,1
=
I
and
PA _ JL-1
PA*
ZZ ~~&
7
WC =
A =B+
Equating
BA
D,
B and
C
coplanar with
in
of
be
terms
them.
may
expressed
is
it
7i
+m+n
"
^7
as the
A P be
BD
VECTOR ANALYSIS
26
A B = # 2 C + y2 D
A B = ^t + B B = B + & 2 (P - B).
C + y 2 D = B + 2 (ZB + mC + ^D-B
2
= 1 + *, (J - 1),
In like manner
and
Hence
o;
and
A:
Hence
-i
__
and
In the same
Adding
way
may be shown
it
PC
.PL
CC*
3D
the four ratios the result

i
that
JL vn
<w
-4-
is
^ _L 7 J_
-I-
77
Example % : To find a line which passes through a given

point and cuts two given lines in space.
Let the two lines be fixed respectively by two points A
and B, C and D on each.
it as
origin and let
Let
be the given point.
Any
point
P of A B may be
P= OP=
Any
point
If the points
are collinear
of
0~A
That
is
= ~OC, D=d~D.
expressed as
= A + x (B- A).
+ xA
CD may likewise
P and Q lie
Choose
in the
be written
same
line
through
0,
P and
possible to equate coefficients one of the four

of the other three.
Before
it is
vectors
must be expressed in terms
Then
Tf
&
=A+
(1
_1_
- A)
x (B
_J_
Tl
_1_
1
x=zy
x = zy m,
Hence
=z
[1
Hence
y (n
Substituting in
P and
= i-
I^^T
/,
- 1)J.
_________
+m
ft
I
ft
Either of these
>w
and cutting
27
A+ m B
+m
be taken as defining a line drawn from
may
A B and
CD.
Vector Relations independent of the Origin
Example 1
20.]
To
divide a line
find the vector
the terminus
ratio
= ~OP of
divides
AB
-f-
is,
as
= B.
which
in the
B
FIG. 10.
n.
m
That
in a given ratio
(Fig. 10).
Choose any arbitrary point

Let OA = A and OB
origin.
To
AB
B=A
(B
- A).
7i
=nA+ mB
n
(7)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
28
The components
of
the line
AB
parallel to
AP
and
to the segments
divided by the point P. If
PB
it
and B are in inverse
into
which the
should so happen that
externally, the ratio
A P / PE
ratio
A B is
line
P divided
would be nega
and the signs of m and n would be opposite, but the

formula would hold without change if this difference of sign
in m and n be taken into account.
tive,
Example 2
To
find the point of intersection of the
medians
of a triangle.
at random.
Choose the origin
Let A BC be the given
= A, ()B = B, and "00 = C. Let A ,C
triangle. Let 0~A
be respectively the middle points of the sides
opposite the
f
vertices A, B, (7.
Let
be the point of intersection of the
medians and M =
the vector drawn to it.
Then
and
~< = B
that
has been chosen outside of the
plane of the
so
that
C
are
B,
A,
triangle
non-coplanar, corresponding coeffi
Assuming
cients
Hence
Hence
may
be equated.
= 9y
M =4 (A + B + C).

The vector drawn
to the
to one third of the
sum
median point of a triangle
of the vectors
drawn
is
29
equal
to the vertices.
In the problems of which the solution has just been given

the origin could be chosen arbitrarily and the result is in
dependent of that choice. Hence it is even possible to disre
gard the origin entirely and replace the vectors A, B, C, etc.,

by their termini A, B, C, etc. Thus the points themselves
become the subjects of analysis and the formulae read
A +mB
m+n
M=~(A
and
This
is
+B+
C).
typical of a whole class of problems soluble
by vector
between the
In fact any purely geometric relation

must necessarily be independent
of the origin assumed for the analytic demonstration.
In
methods.
different parts of a figure
some
cases,
such as those in Arts. 18, 19, the position of the
origin may be specialized with regard to some crucial point

of the figure so as to facilitate the computation
but in many
;
other cases the generality obtained by leaving the origin unspecialized and undetermined leads to a symmetry which
renders the results just as easy to compute and more easy

to
remember.
: The
necessary and sufficient condition that a
vector equation represent a relation independent of the origin
is that the sum of the scalar coefficients of the vectors on
Theorem
equal to the sum of the

coefficients of the vectors upon the other side.
Or if all the
terms of a vector equation be transposed to one side leaving
one side of the sign of equality
zero on the other, the
sum
is
of the scalar coefficients
be zero.
Let the equation written in the
latter
form be
must
VECTOR ANALYSIS
30
to
by adding a constant vector
origin from
The equation
to each of the vectors A, B, C, D ----
Change the
B = OO
then becomes
a (A
4-
B) +
If this is to be
must vanish.
That
is
(B
B)
+ B) +
(C
d (D
+ R) +
independent of the origin the coefficient of
Hence
two examples
this condition is fulfilled in the
cited
obvious.
if
m+
m+
l
M = \3 (A
If
*
21.]
The necessary and
m+
f B
C),
sufficient
condition that two
vectors satisfy an equation, in which the

coefficients is zero, is that the vectors
and
of the scalar
be equal in magnitude
in direction.
aA
First let
and
It is of course
vanish.
+ 6B =
+ 6 = 0.
assumed that not both the
If they did the equation
stitute the value of
the
sum
a and
would mean nothing. Sub
a obtained from the second equation into
first.
-&A +
Hence
coefficients
6B
A=
B.
= 0.

Secondly
if
and B are equal in magnitude and direction
the equation
subsists
31
A-B =
The sum
between them.
The necessaiy and
of the coefficients
is zero.
sufficient condition that three vectors
satisfy an equation, in which the sum of the scalar coefficients

is zero, is that when drawn from a common origin they termi
nate in the same straight line. 1
aA + 6B +
First let
and
cC
+ c = 0.
Not all the coefficients a, J, c, vanish or the equations

would be meaningless. Let c be a non-vanishing coefficient.
Substitute the value of a obtained from the second equation
into the first.
or
Hence the vector which
joins the extremities of
C and
is
joins the extremities of A and B.

Hence those three points -4, -B, C lie on a line. Secondly
drawn from
OB,G=
OA, B
suppose three vectors
collinear with that
which
A=
the same origin

vectors
00
terminate in a straight
line.
Then
the
AB = B - A and A~C = C - A
are collinear.
subsists.
Hence
The sum
the equation
of the coefficients
on the two sides
is
the same.
The necessary and

in which the sum of
1
sufficient condition that
an equation,
the scalar coefficients
zero, subsist
is
Vectors which have a common origin and terminate in one

Hamilton " termino-collinear:
line are called
by
VECTOR ANALYSIS
82
between four vectors, is that

1
they terminate in one plane.
aA
First let
and
drawn from a common
if
origin
+ 6B + cC + dV =
a + b + c + d = Q.
Let d be a non-vanishing coefficient. Substitute the value

of a obtained from the last equation into the first.
- A) = 6
d (D
or
The
AD
line
is
termini A, B,
(7,
(A
of A, B, C,
= D - A, ~AC = C - A,
One
planar vectors.
the other two.
/
where
/,
(B
of
C,
C).
Hence
all
four
one plane. Secondly

do lie in one plane.
and ~AB
=B-A
them may be expressed
A)
+m
(C
- A) +
m, and n are certain

is
n (D
scalars.
are co
in terms of
- A) = 0,
The sum
of the coeffi
zero.
Between any five vectors there

of whose coefficients is zero.
B,
(A
This leads to the equation
cients in this equation
Let A,
in
lie
suppose that the termini of A, B,
Then AZ)
A B and A C.
coplanar with
- B) +
C,D,E be the
five
exists one equation the
sum
Form
the
given vectors.
differences
E-A,
E--B,
E-C, E-D.
One of these may be expressed

- or what amounts to the same
in terms of the other three
thing there must exist an
equation between them.

ft
(E
The sum
1
A) +
(E
- B) + m
(E
- C) +
of the coefficients of this

equation
(E
- D) =
0.
is zero.
Vectors which have a common

origin and terminate in one plane are called
"
by Hamilton termino-complanar."
33
The results of the foregoing section afford simple

*22.]
solutions of many problems connected solely with the geo
metric properties of figures.
Special theorems, the vector
equations of lines and planes, and geometric nets in two and
three dimensions are taken up in order.
Example
If a line
1:
be drawn parallel to the base of a
triangle, the line which joins the opposite vertex to the inter
section of the diagonals of the
trapezoid thus formed bisects the

base (Fig. 11).
ABC
Let
be the triangle,
ED
the line parallel to the base CB,

G the point of intersection of the
diagonals
pezoid
tion of
that
EB
and
CBDE,
AG
DC
of the tra
and Fthe
bisects
CB.
origin at random.
intersec
To show
with CB.
FI(J
Choose the
Let the vectors drawn from
it
to the
various points of the figure be denoted by the corresponding
Then
Clarendons as usual.
lel to
CB,
E-D
holds true.
it
since
ED
is
by hypothesis paral
the equation
The sum
should be.
=n
(C
- B)
of the coefficients
Rearrange
the
is evidently zero as
terms so that the equation
takes on the form
nC =
"D
7i
B.
The vector E
n C is coplanar with E and C. It must cut
the line EC.
The equal vector D
7&B is coplanar with D
and B. It must cut the line DB. Consequently the vector
represented by either side of this equation must pass through
the point A.
Hence
7iC
=D
?iB
= #A.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
34
However the points E, 0, and A lie upon the same straight

Hence the equation which connects the vectors E,C,
line.
is zero.
and A must be such that the sum of its coefficients
This determines x as 1
By
Hence
n.
=D-
(1
- w) A.
another rearrangement and similar reasoning
E+
Subtract the
first
=D + 7iC=
7i
cuts
vector
n)Qt.
second
equation from the
n (B + C)
This
(1
EC
(1
n) G
and AQ.
(1
It
- n) A.
must therefore be a
a multiple that the sum of the coeffi

multiple of F and such
cients of the equations which connect B, C, and F or 0, A,
and F shall be zero.
n (B + C)
Hence
(1
+ )G F
Hence
(1
A=
2 nf.
The proof has covered

considerable space because each detail of the reasoning has
been given. In reality, however, the actual analysis has con
and the theorem has been proved.
sisted of just four equations obtained simply
Example %
To determine
from the
first.
the equations of the line and
plane.
Let the line be fixed by two points A and B upon it. Let
be any point of the line. Choose an arbitrary origin.
The
vectors A, B, and
P terminate
in the
aA + 6B
a + I + p = 0.
and
,
Therefore
=
a
same
line.
Hence

For different points
values.
the scalars a and b have different
be replaced by x and
They may
more generally
35
which are used
Then
to represent variables.
y,
Let a plane be determined by three points -4, B, and C.

Let P be any point of the plane. Choose an arbitrary origin.
The
vectors A, B, C, and
terminate in one plane.
Hence
6B + cC
+ c+p = Q.
aA + 6B + cC
P=
a
and
Therefore
-f c
As
a, 6,
c,
vary for different points of the plane,
customary to write in their stead
+
Example 3 ;
The
line
x,
which
it is
more
z.
joins
one vertex of a com
plete quadrilateral to the intersection of

divides the opposite sides har
two diagonals
monically (Fig. 12).

be four vertices
Let A, B, C,
CD
A B meet
Let
of a quadrilateral.
and
in a fifth vertex E,
BC
meet
AC
Let the two diagonals
BD
intersect in
that
FG
G.
and
by E.
2?" in the
That
is
to
and
12
To show
AB
intersects
such that the lines
AD
in the sixth vertex F.
AB
same
in a point
and
i" and
(7I> are
CD
in a point
divided internally at
ratio as they are divided externally
show that the
cross ratios
VECTOR ANALYSIS
86
Choose the origin at random. The four vectors A, B, C, D

drawn from it to the points A, B, C, D terminate in one
Hence
plane.
and
+e+
= 0.
two terms
Separate the equations by transposing
a
Divide
+c=
+c
aA + d D
F=
In like manner
a + d
(a + C )G
(a + d)F "
Form:
+
c)
(a + d)
(a
(a + c)Q
(a + rf)F
a
or
+d
6B + cC
b + c
b
__
cC
(a
Hence
d)
Separate the equations again and divide
+
c +
(a
c)
aA + EB _
di
cC
d).
6B +
cC
(b
cC
-f b
(6)
b and CD in the ratio

But equation (a) shows that JE divides C D in the
c:d.
Hence E and E" divide CD internally and
2? divides
AB
in the ratio a
ff
c / d.
ratio
same
externally in the
ratio.
Which
of the
two divisions
is
and which external depends upon the relative signs

and d. If they have the same sign the internal point
internal
of c
of division is
and
E may
Example 4
By
E;
-
if
opposite signs,
be shown to divide
To
1
.
In a similar way
A B harmonically.
discuss geometric nets.
a geometric net in a plane
of points
it is
and straight
Start with a certain
is
meant a
figure
composed
lines obtained in the following
number
of points all of
which
manner.
lie in
one

Draw
37
joining these points in pairs.

These lines will intersect each other in a number of points.
plane.
all
the
lines
the lines which connect these points in pairs.

This second set of lines will determine a still greater number
Next draw
of points
all
which may in turn be joined in
pairs
and so
on.
The construction may be kept up indefinitely. At each step

the number of points and lines in the figure increases.
Probably the most interesting case of a plane geometric net
that in
which four points are given
to
commence
is
with.
Joining these there are six lines which intersect in three

Three new lines may
points different from the given four.
now be drawn in the figure. These cut out six new points.
From these more lines may be obtained and so on.
To treat this net analytically write down the equations
=
and
+b+c+ d=
(c)
which subsist between the four vectors drawn from an unde
From
termined origin to the four given points.
these
it is
possible to obtain
Tjl
+ dD
c + d
Z>B + dD
A + 6B
a + b
A + cC
a + c
A + dJ)
a + d
cC
+d
&B + cC
b + c
b
two parts and
dividing. Next
four vectors such as A, D, E, F may be chosen and the equa
tion the sum of whose coefficients is zero
may be determined.
by
splitting the equations into
This would be
aA + dV +
(a
b)
treating this equation as (c)

be obtained*
By
E-f
(a
c)
= 0.
was treated new points may
VECTOR ANALYSIS
38
H=
1
A + dD
a
aA +
(a
(a
+ (a +
2a + b + c
6)E
ft)E __
<?D+
a
4- c
+
+
(a
(a
c)F
+ c)F
+d
6)
Equations between other sets of four vectors selected from

A, B, C, D, E, F,
may be found and from these more points
;
The
process of finding more points goes forward

fuller account of geometric nets
indefinitely.
may be
found in Hamilton s " Elements
obtained.
of Quaternions,"
Book
I.
As
regards geometric nets in space just a word may be

said.
Five points are given. From these new points may be
obtained by finding the intersections of planes passed through
sets of three of the
remaining
given points with lines connecting the

construction may then be carried for
The
pairs.
ward with the points thus obtained.

is
similar to
five vectors
five points.
the
sum
of
that in the
The analytic treatment

case of plane nets. There are
drawn from an undetermined origin to the given

Between these vectors there exists an equation
whose
This equation
coefficients is zero.
separated into parts as before and the

be obtained.
then
=
a
+ 6B
+b
A + cC
a
cC
new
points
may be
may thus
+ dD +
+d+e
6B + dV +
b
two of the points and others

may be found in the same
Nets
in
are
also discussed by Hamilton, loc. cit.
way.
space
are
39
Centers of Gravity
*
The
23.]
center of gravity of a
system of particles
may
be found very easily by vector methods. The two laws of

physics which will be assumed are the following:
1. The center of gravity of two masses (considered as
situated at points) lies on the line connecting the two masses
and divides it into two segments which are inversely pro
portional to the masses at the extremities.
2.
In finding the center of gravity of two systems of

masses each system may be replaced by a single mass equal
in magnitude to the sum of the masses in the system and
situated at the center of gravity of the system.
Given two masses a and b situated at two points
Their center of gravity
is
and B.
given by
where the vectors are referred
to
any origin whatsoever.
This follows immediately from law 1 and the formula (7)

for division of a line in a given ratio.
The
center of gravity of three masses
three points
-4,
masses a and
mass a
B,
C may
may
b situated at the
TT
Hence
= (a +
situated at the
be found by means of law
2.
The
be considered as equivalent to a single

point
Then
a, J, c
A + &B
a + b
"
6)
A + 6B
a
-f-
= aA-h&B-f-cC
a
-f b
VECTOR ANALYSIS
40
number of masses
Evidently the center of gravity of any
at the points A, B, C, D, ... may
a, &, c, d, ... situated
The
be found in a similar manner.
aA +
+ cO + rfD +
+ b + c + d + ...
The
lines
which
is
...
ftB
Theorem 1
result
join the center of gravity of a
divide it into three triangles which

triangle to the vertices
are proportional to the masses at the op
Let A, B,
posite vertices (Fig. 13).
be the vertices of a triangle weighted

with masses a, &, c. Let G be the cen
Join A, B,
ter of gravity.
the opposite sides in
to
G and
produce the lines until
they intersect
A B\ C
To show
respectively.
that
the areas
G B C G CA G A B A B C =
:
The
last
proportion between
from compounding the
ABC
first three.
and a
It
is,
+
b
c.
comes
however, useful in
the demonstration.
Hence
ABC AA
GBC~ GA!
ABC
GBC
In a similar manner
and
AG
CTA
a
GA
G~A
b
f
1.
BCA
GCA~
CAB ~_
GAB
Hence the proportion is proved.

Theorem 2 : The lines which
~~c
join the center of gravity of

a tetrahedron to the vertices divide the tetrahedron into four
41
tetrahedra which are proportional to the masses at the oppo

site vertices.
D be
the vertices of the tetrahedron weighted

be the center of
respectively with weights a, &, c, d. Let
to G and produce the lines until
Join A, B, C,
gravity.
Let
-4,
B, C,
they meet the opposite faces in

the volumes
A B\
G\
To show
that
BCDG:CDAG:DABG:ABCG:ABCD
BCDA
BCDG
In like manner
and
and
ABCD
which proves the proportion.

*
24.]
By
a suitable choice of the three masses, a,
J, c
lo
(7, the center of gravity G may

be made to coincide with any given point
of the triangle.
If this be not obvious from physical considerations it cer
cated at the vertices A, B,
tainly becomes so in the light of the foregoing theorems.

For in order that the center of gravity fall at P, it is only
necessary to choose the masses a, 6, c proportional to the

areas of the triangles PEG, PCA^ and
respectively.
PAB
Thus not merely one

infinite number of
an
set of masses a,
which
&,
may
be found, but
from each other only

a
common
factor
of
These quantities
by
proportionality.
sets
differ
VECTOR ANALYSIS
42
a, 6, c
may
points
therefore be looked
ABC.
the triangle
inside of
as coordinates of the
upon
To each
set there
and to each point

corresponds a definite point P,
number
corresponds an infinite
however do not
differ
obtain the points
ABC
of the triangle
which
of sets of quantities,
from one another except for a factor
of proportionality.
To
there
of the plane
one
may
ABC which lie outside
resort to the conception of
of gravity of the
negative weights or masses. The center
and
1 situated at the points
masses 2 and
respectively
would be a point G dividing the line
externally in the
A
AB
ratio 1
That
2.
is
AB
point of the line

a suitable set of masses
Any
any point
a, b
of the
plane
suitable set of masses a, 6,
from the other two
ABC.
Inasmuch
produced may be represented by

which differ in sign. Similarly
ABC
may be
represented by a
c of which one will differ in sign

the point
lies outside of the triangle
as only the ratios of a, 6, and c are im
if
portant two
of the quantities may always be taken positive.

idea of employing the masses situated at the vertices
as coordinates of the center of gravity is due to Mobius and
was published by him in his book entitled " Der barycentrische
The
Calcul" in 1827.
point of
modern
This
be fairly regarded as the starting
analytic geometry.
The conception
in nature
may
of negative masses
which have no existence
be avoided by replacing the masses at the

vertices by the areas of the triangles GBC,
A, and
to which they are proportional.
The coordinates of
may
GO
GAB
a point
would then be three numbers proportional
areas of the three triangles of which

and the sides of a given triangle
P is
ABC,
of these areas
is
the
common
the bases.
to the
vertex
The
determined by the following definition.
sign
a triangle is said to be
the vertices A, B, C follow each other in the
The area
Definition:
positive
ABC
43
when
positive or counterclockwise
of
direction
upon the
circle
de
scribed through them. The area is said to be negative when

the points follow in the negative or clockwise direction.
letters therefore does not alter
Cyclic permutation of the
the sign of the area.
Interchange of two letters which amounts to a reversal of

the cyclic order changes the sign.
A CB = BA
If
P be
= CBA = -A B C.
any point within the triangle the equation
PAB+PBC+PCA=ABC
must
The same
hold.
will also hold if
be outside of the
triangle provided the signs of the areas be taken into con

The areas or three quantities proportional to
sideration.
them may be regarded as coordinates of the point P.
"
coordinates to
The extension of the idea of "
barycentric
space is immediate. The four points A, B, C, D situated at

the vertices of a tetrahedron are weighted with mass a, J, c, d
center of gravity G is represented by
or
four others proportional to them.
To
quantities
obtain points outside of the tetrahedron negative masses
The
respectively.
these
be employed. Or in the light of theorem 2, page 40,

may be replaced by the four tetrahedra which
are proportional to them.
Then the idea of negative vol
may
the masses
umes takes the

idea
it
is
here
place of that of negative weights.
As
this
of considerable importance later, a brief treatment of
not be out of place.
may
Definition
to be positive
The volume A B CD of a tetrahedron is said

when the triangle ABC appears positive to
VECTOR ANALYSIS
44
the eye situated at the point D. The volume is negative

if the area of the triangle appear negative.
To make the discussion of the signs of the various
tetrahedra perfectly clear
solid
modeL
A plane
difficult to see
from
it
it is
almost necessary to have a
drawing is scarcely sufficient. It is

which triangles appear positive and
which negative. The following relations will be seen to

hold if a model be examined.
The interchange of two letters in the tetrahedron A BCD
changes the sign.
ACBD = CBAD=BACD=DBCA
The
sible
sign of the tetrahedron for any given one of the pos

twenty-four arrangements of the letters may be obtained
by reducing that arrangement to the order A B C D by

means of a number of successive interchanges of two letters.
If the
number
as that of
If
is
of interchanges
A B CD ;
if
is
even the sign
odd, opposite.
is
the same
Thus
any point inside of the tetrahedron
A B CD
the
equation
ABCP-BCDP+ CDAP-DABP=ABCD
P
holds good. It still is true if

be without the tetrahedron
provided the signs of the volumes be taken into considera
tion.
The equation may be put into a form more symmetri
cal
and more
to one
easily
number.
remembered by transposing
all
the terms
Then
The
if
proportion in theorem 2, page 40, does not hold true

the signs of the tetrahedra be
regarded. It should read
BCDG:CDGA:DGAB:GABC:ABCD
45
point G- lies inside the tetrahedron a, J, c, d repre

sent quantities proportional to the masses which must be
If the
A,B,C,D respectively if G is to be the

G lies outside of the tetrahedron they may
located at the vertices
center of gravity. If
or
be regarded as masses some of which are negative
four
as
numbers
ratios
determine
better
whose
merely
perhaps
still
the position of the point Gr. In this manner a set of "bary"

centric
coordinates is established for space.
The vector P drawn from an indeterminate

point of the plane
A B C is
origin to
any
(page 35)
aA + yB + zC
x + y + z
Comparing
this
with the expression
aA + &B + cC
a + b + c
it
will be seen that the quantities x, y, z are in reality nothing
more nor
less
than the barycentric coordinates of the point

ABO. In like manner from
with respect to the triangle

equation
wD
__#A + yB + 2C +
x
+z+w
which expresses any vector P drawn from an indeterminate

origin in terms of four given vectors A, B, C, D drawn from
the
same
origin, it
may
be seen by comparison with
+ &B + c C + rfD
+b+c+d
x, y, 2, w are precisely
a
that the
four quantities
the bary
centric coordinates of P, the terminus of P, with respect to
AB
CD. Thus the vector methods in which

the origin is undetermined and the methods of the " Bary
"
centric Calculus
are practically co-extensive.
the tetrahedron
It
was mentioned before and
it
may
be well to repeat here
VECTOR ANALYSIS
46
that the origin
may
be
the vectors replaced by
left
wholly out of consideration and
The
their termini.
vector equations
then become point equations
A + y B 4-
+
xA + yB + zC + wD
w.
x + y + z
x
and
This step brings in the points themselves as the objects of

"
to the " Barycentrische Calcul
analysis and leads still nearer
of
"
Mobius and the "Ausdehnungslehre

The Use of Vectors
Definition:
25.]
An
is
Grassmann.
Areas
denote
area lying in one
bounded by a continuous curve

itself
to
of
PQR
and
which nowhere cuts
when
said to appear positive from the point
PQR
letters
MN
plane
follow
the
each
other in the counterclockwise
At
or positive order;
when
they
follow
negative,
in the
negative or clockwise order

(Fig. 14).
It is evident that an area
can have no determined sign

per se, but only in reference
to that direction in
boundary
is
supposed to be traced
side of its plane.
PQR;
For the area
and
PR
and an area viewed from
is
to
which
some point
its
out
negative relative to
negative relative to the
is
same area viewed from a point O upon the side of the plane
A circle lying in the F-plane and described
opposite to 0.
f
in the positive trigonometric order appears positive
from every
axis
point on that side of the plane on which the positive
lies, but negative from all points on the side upon which

the negative ^-axis
and the direction
lies.
For
47
view
must
be
boundary
kept
this reason the point of
of description of the
clearly in mind.
Another method of stating the
definition
is
as follows
If
a person walking upon a plane traces out a closed curve, the

area enclosed is said to be positive if it lies upon his left-
hand
negative if upon his right. It is clear that if two

persons be considered to trace out together the same curve by
walking upon opposite sides of the plane the area enclosed
side,
will lie
upon the right hand
other.
To one
it
and the
left
hand
of the
to the
That side of the plane upon which the area
other, negative.
seems positive
of one
will consequently appear positive
is
called the
positive
side
the side
upon
which
appears negative, the negative side. This idea is
familiar to students of electricity and magnetism.
If an
it
around a closed plane curve the lines of

magnetic force through the circuit pass from the negative to
electric current flow
the positive side of the plane.

positive magnetic pole
placed upon the positive side of the plane will be repelled by
the circuit.
A plane
area may be looked upon as possessing more than

or
positive
negative magnitude. It may be considered to
possess direction, namely, the direction of the normal to the
Hence a plane
positive side of the plane in which it lies.
area
is
areas
a vector quantity.
when looked upon
Theorem 1
magnitude
direction
is
is
The following theorems concerning

as vectors are important.
If a plane area be
denoted by a vector whose
the numerical value of that area and whose
the normal upon the positive side of the plane,
then the orthogonal projection of that area upon a plane

will be represented by the component of that vector in the
direction normal to the plane of projection (Fig. 15).
Let it be projected
Let the area
lie in the plane MN.
orthogonally upon the plane
MN
Let
M N&nd M* N
inter-
VECTOR ANALYSIS
48
sect in the line
and
angle between these

a rectangle PQJRS in
SP are respectively parallel
let the diedral
two planes be x. Consider

whose sides, PQ, RS and QR,
MN
first
and perpendicular
rectangle
will be equal
will be equal
to the line
/.
This will project into a
R S in M N The sides P Q and JR S

to PQ and US; but the sides Q R and S P
to QR and SP multiplied by the cosine of #,
f
the angle between the planes.
Consequently the rectangle
At
FIG. 15.
Hence
rectangles, of which the sides are respectively

and
parallel
perpendicular to I, the line of intersection of the
two planes, project into rectangles whose sides are likewise
respectively parallel
equal
to
and perpendicular
to
and whose area
the area of the original rectangles multiplied
is
by the
cosine of the angle between the planes.
From
this it follows that
area which
is
of the angle
any area
is
projected into an
by the cosine
equal to the given area multiplied
between the planes.
For any area
A may be
di
vided up into a large number of small rectangles by drawing a

series of lines in
MN parallel and perpendicular to the line
I.
49
Each of these rectangles when projected is multiplied by the

cosine of the angle between the planes and hence the total
On the
area is also multiplied by the cosine of that angle.
other hand the component A of the vector A, which repre
sents the given area, in the direction normal to the plane
of projection is equal to the total vector A multiplied
MN
f
by the cosine of the angle between its direction which is

This
ând the normal to
the normal to the plane
two
x
to
the
the
normals
is
for
between
;
planes
angle
angle
MN
the same as the angle between the planes.

between the magnitudes of A and A is therefore
is
A =A
1
The
relation
cos x,
which proves the theorem.

26.]
Definition
said to be
Two
added when
plane areas regarded as vectors are

the vectors which represent them are
added.
A vector
area
is
consequently the
sum
of its three
com
ponents obtainable
by orthogonal projection upon three

Moreover in adding two
mutually perpendicular planes.
areas each
be resolved into
its three components, the

added
as scalar quantities, and
corresponding components
these sums compounded as vectors into the resultant area.
may
A generalization
of this statement to the case
planes are not mutually orthogonal
where the three
and where the projection
oblique exists.
surface made up of several plane areas may be repre
sented by the vector which is the sum of all the vectors
is
In case the surface be looked upon

representing those areas.
as forming the boundary or a portion of the
boundary of a
solid, those sides of the bounding planes which lie outside of
the body are
The vec
conventionally taken to be positive.
tors which represent the faces of solids are
always directed
out from the
solid,
not into it
4
VECTOR ANALYSIS
50
Theorem 2
surface
The vector which
represents a closed polyhedral
is zero.
be proved by means of certain considerations of

Suppose the polyhedron drawn in a body of
hydrostatics.
This
fluid
may
assumed
cluded. 1
pressures.
surface
to be free
from
all
external forces, gravity in
The fluid is in equilibrium under its own internal

The portion of the fluid bounded by the closed
moves neither one way nor the
other.
Upon each face
of the surface the fluid exerts a definite force proportional
to the area of the face
these forces
must be
and normal
to
The resultant of all

in equilibrium. Hence
it.
zero, as the fluid is
sum of all the vector areas in the closed surface is zero.

The proof may be given in a purely geometric manner.
the
Consider the orthogonal projection of the closed surface upon

any plane. This consists of a double area. The part of the
surface farthest from the plane projects into positive area ;
the part nearest the plane, into negative area.
Thus the
surface projects into a certain portion of the plane which
is
covered twice, once with positive area and once with negative.
These cancel each other. Hence the total projection of a
upon a plane (if taken with regard to sign) is

But by theorem 1 the projection of an area upon a
plane is equal to the component of the vector representing
that area in the direction perpendicular to that plane. Hence
closed surface
zero.
the vector which represents a closed surface has no component

along the line perpendicular to the plane of projection. This,
however, was any plane whatsoever. Hence the vector is
zero.
The theorem has been proved

closed surface consists of planes.
1
for the case in
which the
In case that surface be
Such a state of affairs is realized to all practical purposes in the case of a

polyhedron suspended in the atmosphere and consequently subjected to atmos
pheric pressure. The force of gravity acts but is counterbalanced by the tension
in the suspending string.

curved
it
may
51
be regarded as the limit of a polyhedral surface
whose number
of faces increases without limit.
Hence the
vector which represents any closed surface polyhedral or

curved is zero. If the surface be not closed but be curved it
be represented by a vector just as if it were polyhedral.

That vector is the limit l approached by the vector which
represents that polyhedral surface of which the curved surface
may
is
when
the limit
number
the
of faces
becomes indefinitely
great.
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
a quantity considered as possessing magnitude

and direction. Equal vectors possess the same magnitude
and the same direction.
vector is not altered by shifting it
vector
is
parallel to itself.
nitude
multiply
its
unchanged.
null or zero vector
is
one whose
mag
To
multiply a vector by a positive scalar

length by that scalar and leave its direction
To multiply a vector by a negative scalar mul
zero.
is
length by that scalar and reverse its direction.

Vectors add according to the parallelogram law. To subtract
a vector reverse its direction and add.
Addition, subtrac
tiply its
tion,
and multiplication of vectors by a
same
scalar follow the
laws as addition, subtraction, and multiplication in ordinary

vector may be resolved into three components
algebra.
any three non-coplanar vectors.

can be accomplished in only one way.
parallel to
The components
= x* + yb +
This resolution
zc.
(4)
of equal vectors, parallel to three given
non-coplanar vectors, are equal, and conversely if the com

ponents are equal the vectors are equal. The three unit
In
vectors i, j, k form a right-handed rectangular system.
1 This limit exists and is
unique. It is independent of the
the polyhedral surface approaches the curved surface.
method
in
which
VECTOR ANALYSIS
52
terms of them any vector
may
Cartesian coordinates #, y,
z.
is
= xi + yj+zk.
(6)
The
point which divides a line in a given

given by the formula
Applications.
ratio
be expressed by means of the
m+
The necessary and
(7)
sufficient condition that a vector equation
represent a relation independent of the origin is that the sum

Between
of the scalar coefficients in the equation be zero.
any four vectors there

cients.
If the
sum
exists
an equation with scalar
of the coefficients
is
coeffi
zero the vectors are
an equation the sum of whose scalar

termino-coplanar.
coefficients is zero exists between three vectors they are
If
termino-collinear.
masses
A, B, C
The center
situated
a, &, c
gravity of a number of
at the termini of the vectors
of
supposed to be drawn from a
common
origin
is
given by the formula
vector
may
be used to denote an area.
If the area is
plane the magnitude of the vector is equal to the magnitude

of the area, and the direction of the vector is the direction of
the normal upon the positive side of the
The vector
plane.
representing a closed surface
is
zero.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER
1.
Demonstrate the laws stated in Art.
A triangle may be
I
12.
constructed whose sides are

and equal to the medians of any
given triangle.
2.
parallel

3.
The
six points in
53
which the three diagonals of a com*
meet the pairs of opposite sides lie three

four
upon
straight lines.
If two triangles are so situated in space that the three
4.
points of intersection of corresponding sides lie on a line, then
plete quadrangle
by three
the lines joining the corresponding vertices pass through a
common
point and conversely.

Given a quadrilateral in space. Find the middle point
5.
of the line which joins the middle points of the diagonals.
Find the middle point of the line which joins the middle
Show that these two points are
points of two opposite sides.
the same and coincide with the center of gravity of a system
of equal masses placed at the vertices of the quadrilateral.
6.
If
two opposite
sides of a quadrilateral in space be
divided proportionally and if two quadrilaterals be formed by

joining the two points of division, then the centers of gravity
of these
two quadrilaterals
lie
on a line with the center of
gravity of the original quadrilateral. By the center of gravity

meant the center of gravity of four equal masses placed at
the vertices. Can this theorem be generalized to the case
is
where the masses are not equal ?

7.
The
bisectors of the angles of a triangle
meet in a
point.
edges of a hexahedron meet four by four in three

points, the four diagonals of the hexahedron meet in a point.
In the special case in which the hexahedron is a parallelepiped
8.
If the
the three points are at an infinite distance

Prove that the three straight lines through the middle
9.
points of the sides of
any
face of a tetrahedron, each parallel
to the straight line connecting a fixed point

with the mid
dle point of the opposite edge of the tetrahedron, meet in a
A complete quadrangle consists of the six straight lines which may he passed
through four points no three of which are collinear. The diagonals are the lines
which join the points of intersection of pairs of sides
1
VECTOR ANALYSIS
54
point
and
is
10.
E and
that this point
is
such that
PE passes
through
the center of gravity of the tetrahedron.
bisected by
Show that without exception there exists one vector
equation with scalar coefficients between any four given

vectors A, B,
C,
D.
Discuss the conditions imposed upon three, four, or

five vectors if they satisfy two equations the sum of the co
11.
efficients in
each of which
is zero.
CHAPTER
II

Products of
27.]
THE
Two
Vectors
operations of addition, subtraction,
and
scalar
multiplication have been defined for vectors in the way

suggested by physics and have been employed in a few
It
applications.
new combinations
now becomes
necessary to introduce two
These will be called products

because they obey the fundamental law of products i. e., the
distributive law which states that the product of A into the
of vectors.
sum of B and C is equal to the sum of the products of A into

B and A into C.
The direct product of two vectors A and B is
Definition
:
the scalar quantity obtained by multiplying the product of

the magnitudes of the vectors by the cosine of the angle be
tween them.
The
direct product
is
denoted by writing the two vectors
with a dot between them as
A-B.
This
is
read
dot
B and
therefore
may
often be called the
dot product instead of the direct product. It is also called

the scalar product owing to the fact that its value is sca
lar.
If
be the magnitude of A and
that of B, then by
definition
A-B = ^cos
(A,B).
(1)
Obviously the direct product follows the commutative law
A-B = B
A.
(2)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
56
multiplied by a scalar the product
If either vector be
That
multiplied by that scalar.
(x A)
=A
is
is
(x B)
= x (A
B).
In case the two vectors A and B are collinear the angle be

tween them becomes zero or one hundred and eighty degrees
and its cosine is therefore equal to unity with the positive or
Hence the scalar product of two parallel

negative sign.
vectors is numerically equal to the product of their lengths.
The sign of the product is positive when the directions of the
vectors are the same, negative
product of a vector by
itself is therefore
of its length
A.A=^4 2
if
Consequently
vector
is
when they
The
are opposite.
equal to the square

(3)
the product of a vector by itself vanish the
a null vector.
and B are perpendicular the

angle between them becomes plus or minus ninety degrees
and the cosine vanishes. Hence the product A B vanishes.
In case the two vectors
Conversely
Hence
if
the scalar product
either
or
A B
vanishes, then
A B cos (A, B) = 0.
B or cos (A, B) is zero,
vectors are perpendicular or one of them

condition for the perpendicularity of two
which vanishes,
28.]
vectors
The
i, j, k
is
A B=
is null.
Thus
the
vectors, neither of
0.
scalar products of the three
fundamental unit
are evidently
ii = jj = kk =
i
If
and either the
=k
l,
(4)
= 0.
more generally a and b are any two unit vectors the
product
a
= cos
(a, b).

Thus the
57
scalar product determines the cosine of the angle

is in a certain sense equivalent to
between two vectors and
For
it.
this reason
might be better to give a purely

which
it
geometric definition of the product rather than one
depends upon trigonometry. This is easily accomplished as

If a and b are two unit vectors, a b is the length
follows
upon the other. If more generally

and B are any two vectors A B is the product of the length
of the projection of either
by the length
of either
From
of projection of the other
upon
it.
these definitions the facts that the product of a vector
the square of its length and the product of two

perpendicular vectors is zero follow immediately. The trigo
itself is
by
nometric definition can also readily be deduced.
The
scalar product of
two vectors
cosine of the included angle
examples
vector
may
The
be cited.
whenever the
will appear
of importance.
projection of a
The following
vector B upon a
is
AB A = AB A a cos
A A
where a
is
is
(A, B)
= B cos
(A,
a unit vector in the direction of A.
B)
a,
If
(5)
is itself
unit vector the formula reduces to
(A-B) A
If
be a constant force and
by the force
cos
(A,B) A.
a displacement the
during the displacement
is
B.
work done
If
repre
sent a plane area (Art. 25), and if B be a

vector inclined to that plane, the scalar prod
uct
A B
of
which the area
will be the
volume
is
of the cylinder
the
base and of
which B is the directed slant height.

For
the volume (Fig. 16) is equal to the base
multiplied by the altitude h. This is
FlG
the projection of
v
B upon A
or
= A h = A B cos
cos (A, B).
(A, B)
=A
B.
Hence
VECTOR ANALYSIS
58
The
29.]
scalar or direct product follows the distributive
That is
law of multiplication.
(A
This
B) .C
magnitude
tion.
To show
(A
or
B)
(A
=A
c = A
B)
(A
c,
equal to the
is
the relation (6)
The
+B+
is
...)
three unit vectors
and
then
(P
c.
sum
c.
B
But
;
c,
that of
no peculiar
i, j,
of the projections.
If in particular
,A^,A 3
lines
<ey
2 j
i
+ ^k)
of (4) this reduces to
A-* = A
l
Hence
terms of the
as
By means
difficulties.
are expressed in
A = ^[ 1 i + ^ 2 j + ^ 8 k,
B = ^ i + JB2 j + B k,
A- B = (A i + A z j + A B k) (î +
= A B i i + A 2 i j + A B%
l
B upon
the projection of the
be used just as the product in ordi
A and B
k
direc
B. (0o)
+ a+-") = A-P + A.Q+...

+ B.P + B.Q + ...
may
It has
two vectors
upon
its
By an immediate generalization
proved.
scalar product
nary algebra.
If
A + B upon
that of
(0o)
c + B
(<7c)
c is the projection of
B)
(6)
multiplied by a unit vector c in
sum A + B
B.C.
of projections. Let C be equal
may be proved by means
to its
(A
= A-C +
and
A and B
+ A2 E, + A B JB,.
and B are unit
B 19 S29 SB
are
vectors, their
(7)
components
the direction cosines of the
referred to X, Y, Z.
= cos (A,
.# 2 = cos (B,
A = cos (A, JT),

^! = cos (B, JT),
A<i
A B
Moreover
is
A z = cos
= cos
3
F),
T),
59
(A, ^f),
(B,
).
Hence
the cosine of the included angle.
the equation becomes

cos (A, B)
= cos
(A,
X)
cos (B,
X) +
+
A and B
In case
known
cos (A,
cos
T) cos
(A,)
(B,
T)
cos (B,Z).
are perpendicular this reduces to the well-
relation
= cos
(A, JT) cos (B,
X) +
cos (A,
cos
Y) cos
(A,^)
cos
F)
(B,
(B,)
between the direction cosines of the
A and
line
If
30.]
the line B.
and B are two sides
and
OB
side
AisG = -B-JL
of a triangle
OAB,
the third
PlG 17
(Fig. 17).
C*C = (B-A). (B-A)=B-B

2
2
2
(7 = A + J5 -2 A^cos(AB).
or
That
sum
the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the

of the squares of the other two sides diminished by twice
is,
their product times the cosine of
the angle between them.
Or, the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of

the squares of the other two sides diminished by twice the
product of either of those sides by the projection of the other
upon
If
it
and D
the generalized Pythagorean theorem.

and B are two sides of a parallelogram, C
=A
are the diagonals.
= (A +
Then
B)=A.A + 2A.B + B.B,

D.D=(A-B).(A-B)=A-A-2A.B + B.B,
C-C + D.D = 2(A-A + BB),
a 2 + 7) 2 = 2 (A*
C.C
or
=A+
B).(A +
VECTOR ANALYSIS
60
sum of
the squares of the diagonals of a parallelo

sum of the squares of two sides.
That
is,
the
gram
is
equal to twice the
In like manner also
C*-D = 4A
2
or
That
cos (A, B).
the difference of the squares of the diagonals of a

parallelogram is equal to four times the product of one of the
sides
If
is,
by the projection of the other upon
is
it.
any vector expressed in terms of
i,
A = A i + A 2 j + A B k,
A A = A* = A* + A* +
j,
as
then
But
if
vectors
A*.
(8)
be expressed in terms of any three non-coplanar unit

as
a, b, c
A = a? +
2
This formula
is
2 J
2 a b cos
bc +
(a, b)
+
+
2 b
cos
2 ca cos
(b, c)
(c,
a).
analogous to the one in Cartesian geometry
which gives the distance between two points referred to

If the points be x v y v z v and # 2 , y v z% the
oblique axes.
distance squared
D2
31.]
is
- x^ + (y a - yi 2 + (z 2 - zj*
+ 2 (a, - xj (y a - 2/0 cos (X, Y)
+ 2 (yt - ft) (,-*!> cos (F.S)
+ 2 (z 2 -24) (x 2 - xj cos (^,-T).
(* 2
Definition:
the vector
normal upon
The skew product
of the vector
into
the vector quantity C whose direction is the

that side of the plane of A and B on which
is
61
rotation from A to B through an angle of less than one

hundred and eighty degrees appears positive or counter
clockwise and whose magnitude is obtained by multiplying
;
the product of the magnitudes of
angle from
The
which
sine of the
to B.
direction
an
and B by the
of
A x B may
also be defined as that in
ordinary right-handed
it turns so as
screw advances as
c= AXB
toward B (Fig. 18).

The skew product is denoted by
to carry
a cross as the direct product was

by a dot. It is written
C =A
and read
product.
More
cross B.
For
FIG. 18.
x B
this reason it is often called the cross
frequently, however, it is called the vector prod

to the fact that it is a vector quantity and in con
uct,
owing
trast
with the direct or scalar product whose value
The vector product

C
when
where
by
x B
definition
= ^J5sin
(A,B)c,
are the magnitudes of A and

a unit vector in the direction of
and
c is
=A
is
is scalar.
(9)
respectively
and
C.
In case
and
skew product A X B reduces to the

multiplied by the sine of the angle from A to B.
are unit vectors the
unit vector c
Obviously also if either vector A or B is multiplied by a scalar

x their product is multiplied by that scalar.
A) X B
If
=AX
(zB)
A and B are parallel the angle
= xC.
between them
is
either zero
and eighty degrees. In either case the sine

vanishes and consequently the vector product A X B is a null
vector.
And conyersely if A X B is zero
or one hundred
A B sin
(A,
B)
= 0.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
62
B or
sin (A, B) is zero.

Thus the condition for
vanishes is A X B
vectors
neither
which
two
of
parallelism of
of
As a corollary the vector product
0.
any vector into
Hence
or
itself vanishes.
The vector product
32.]
of
two vectors
will appear
wher
ever the sine of the included angle is of importance, just as

the scalar product did in the case of the cosine. The two prod
ucts are in a certain sense complementary.
They have been
denoted by the two
and the
common
signs of multiplication, the dot
In vector analysis they occupy the place held

by the trigonometric functions of scalar analysis. They are
at the same time amenable to algebraic treatment, as will be
seen
cross.
At
later.
present a few uses of the vector product
may
be cited.
If
and B
(Fig. 18) are the
two adjacent sides
of a parallel
ogram the vector product

C
=A
x B
= A B sin
(A, B) c
represents the area of that parallelogram in magnitude

direction (Art. 25).
This geometric representation of A
and
X B
common
occurrence and importance that it might

well be taken as the definition of the product.
From it the
is
of such
The vector product

If A and
A are two forces forming a couple, the moment of the
couple is A X B provided only that B is a vector drawn from
A.
The product makes its
any point of A to any point of
trigonometric definition follows at once.
appears in mechanics in connection with couples.
appearance again in considering the velocities of the individ

ual particles of a body which is rotating with an angular ve
If R be the
locity given in magnitude and direction by A.
radius vector
the product
(Art. 51).
of rotation
drawn from any point
AX&
will give the velocity of the extremity of
This velocity
and
of the axis of rotation
is
perpendicular alike to the axis
to the radius vector B.
63
The vector products A X B and B x A are not the

They are in fact the negatives of each other. For if
rotation from A to B appear positive on one side of the plane
of A and B, rotation from B to A will appear positive on the
other.
Hence A X B is the normal to the plane of A and B
upon that side opposite to the one upon which B x A is the
normal. The magnitudes of A X B and B X A are the same.
Hence
33.]
same.
AxB = -BxA.
The factors in a vector product can
be
(10)
interchanged if
and only
if the sign of the product be reversed.
This is the first instance in which the laws of operation in

vector analysis differ essentially from those of scalar analy
sis.
It may be that at first this change of sign which must
accompany the interchange of factors in a vector product will

give rise to some difficulty and confusion. Changes similar to
this are, however, very familiar. No one would think of inter
changing the order of x and y in the expression sin (x
without prefixing the negative sign to the result. Thus
sin (y
although the sign
is
if
sin (x
y),
not required for the case of the cosine,
cos (y
Again
x)
y)
x)
= cos
the cyclic order of the letters
y).
ABC in the
area of a
triangle be changed, the area will be changed in sign (Art.

25).
AB C = -ACB.
In the same manner this reversal of sign, which occurs
when
will
the order of the factors in a vector product
appear after a little practice
natural and convenient as

34.]
The
distributive
it is
is
reversed,
and acquaintance just
as
necessary.
law of multiplication holds in the
case of vector products just as in ordinary algebra
except
VECTOR ANALYSTS
64
order of the factors must
that the
carefully maintained
be
when expanding.
A very simple proof may be given by making use of the ideas

developed in Art. 26. Suppose that C
not coplanar with A and B. Let A
is
and B be two
sides of a triangle taken
(A + B)
Then
in order.
Form
third side (Fig. 19).

of
which
will be the
the prism
this triangle is the base
and
the slant height or edge.

which C
The areas of the lateral faces of this
of
4
FIG. 19.
is
prism are
Ax
The
C,
B x
(A
C,
-f
B)
C.
areas of the bases are
But the sum

prism
is
(A x B) and
- - (A
B).
of all the faces of the prism
AxC + BxC-(A + B)xC =

A X
or
The
zero; for the
is
Hence
a closed surface.
+BX
= (A +
B) X
0,
C.
(11)
relation is therefore
proved in case C is non-coplanar

Should C be coplanar with A and B, choose D,
any vector out of that plane. Then C + D also will lie out of
with
and
B.
that plane.
A X
(C
Hence by
D)
(11)
+B X
(C
D)
(A
B)
(C
D).
Since the three vectors in each set A, C, D, and B, C, D, and

A + B, C, D will be non-coplanar if D is properly chosen, the
products may be expanded.
65
AxC + AxD-fBxC + BxD

= (A +
+ B) x D.
AxD + BxD = (A + B)xD.
AxC + BxC = (A + B)xC.
But by (11)
Hence
B) x C
(A
The
This completes the demonstration.
The
for a vector product.
(A + B+---)x(P + a +
distributive
generalization
= AxP + Axa +
---)
+BxP+B
<J
The
ixi = jxj =
---
(11)
vector products of the three unit vectors

easily seen by means of Art. 17 to be
35.]
law holds
immediate.
is
i, j,
k are
kxk = 0,
ixj=-j xi = k,
jxk = k x =
kxi = ixk=j.
(12)
i,
The skew product of two equal l vectors of the system i, j, k

is zero.
The product of two unequal vectors is the third taken
with the positive sign if the vectors follow in the cyclic order
i j k but with the
negative sign if they do not.
If two vectors A and B are
expressed in terms of i, j, k,
may be found by expanding according

law and substituting.
their vector product

to the distributive
A x B = (A
+ -4 + ^ k) x (î +
+ 3*)
= A ixi + A B ixj + A BzixTt
x k,
x + AZ B
+ A 2 j x + AI
+ A S k x + A BZ k x j + A B k x k.
A x B = (A^B^ - A
+ (A Z B -A,BB )j
- A BJ k.
4- (A,
z
l
2 j
Hence
2j
2j
B j
2)
This follows also from the fact that the sign
factors
is
reversed.
Hence
Xj=
Xj=0.
5
is
changed when the order of
VECTOR ANALYSIS
66
This
may
be written in the form of a determinant as
Ax B =
The
sum
formulae for the sine and cosine of the
or dif
ference of two angles follow immediately from the dot and

Let a and b be two unit vectors lying in the
cross products.
i
j-plane.
If x be the angle that a
angle b makes with
= cos x +
cos y
Hence
cos (y
cos
Hence
/,
m,
7i
= cos
(sin y cos
y.
x).
sin y sin
x.
(y
x),
sin x cos y).
sin x cos y.
y cos x
b ) = k sin (y + x)
k (sin y cos x + sin x cos y).
sin (a,
sin
(y
= k sin
and
x),
x sin
sin (a, b)
ax
x)
(y
sin
+
+
sin
sin (y
= cos
cos y cos x
j,
cos (a, b
x)
j,
axb
sin (y
Hence
If
x b
x b
sin y
sin y sin x.
cos y cos x
sin y j,
cos y i
a.V:
(y + x)
a
sin
cos x cos y
Hence
i -f
cos (a, b)
x)
If
and y the
i,
then
i,
makes with
TI
y cos x
sin # cos y.
are the direction cosines of
unit vectors a and a referred to
JT,
F,
= li + m + k,
m
= cos (a, a ) = IV + m m +
a
two
then
7i
as has already been
shown
in Art. 29.
for the square of the sine of the

angle
be found.
The
nn
familiar formula
between a and a may

a
= sin
x a
(a,
= (mn
+ (Jm -f m)
where
x a
sin 2 (a, a )
(a
x a
= (mn
This leads to an easy
(72
+ w2 +
7i
(V*
= sin (a, a
m n)*+ (nl
2
way
(n
I) j
k,
e is a unit vector perpendicular to a
(a
ri) i
67
and a
= sin 2
2
/)
(a,
+(lm
).
I
m)*.
of establishing the useful identity
+m
+n
(ll
*)
Two
Products of More than
+ mm + n n
Vectors
been said concerning

products in which the number of vectors is greater than
two. If three vectors are combined into a product the result
36.]
Up
to this point nothing has
a triple product. Next to the simple products

A-B and AxB the triple products are the most important.
All higher products may be reduced to them.
called
is
The
simplest triple product is formed by multiplying the

two vectors A and B into a third C as
scalar product of
(A-B)
C.
This in reality does not differ essentially from scalar multi
The scalar in this case merely happens to

be the scalar product of the two vectors A and B. Moreover
inasmuch as two vectors cannot stand side by side in the
plication (Art. 6).
form of a product as BC without either a dot or a cross to

unite them, the parenthesis in (AB) C is superfluous. The
expression
^n
cannot be interpreted in any other

of the vector C by the scalar AB.
i
way
than as the product
Later (Chap. V.) the product BC, where no sign either dot or cross occurs,
But it will be seen there that (A.B) C and A-(B C) are identical
and consequently no ambiguity can arise from the omission of the parenthesis.
will be defined.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
68
The second
37.]
two
vectors, of
triple
which one
the scalar product of

itself a vector product, as
is
product
is
A-(BxC)
or
(AxB>C.
This sort of product has a scalar value and consequently is

often called the scalar triple prod
Its properties are
uct.
deduced from
easily
perhaps most
its
commonest
geometrical interpretation. Let A, B,

and C be any three vectors drawn
from
same origin
the
Then BxC
B and C
allelogram of which
scalar
BxC
is
the base and
This volume v
side of the
sides.
is
B C-plane
(14)
of the parallelepiped of
the slant height or edge.
positive
;
A and BxC
is
which
See Art. 28.
upon the same

they lie on opposite
if
lie
but negative if
if A, B, C form a right-handed or
In other words
positive system of three vectors the scalar A* (BxC)

tive;
The
sides.
volume
(Fig. 20).
the area of the par
two adjacent
are
will therefore be the
is
but
if
is
posi
they form a left-handed or negative system,
it
negative.
In case A, B, and C are coplanar this volume will be

neither positive nor negative but zero. And conversely if
the
volume
piped must
zero^the three edges A, B, C of the parallelolie in one plane.

Hence the necessary and suffi
is
cient condition
for
of which vanishes
the coplanarity
is
A-(BxC)
of three vectors A, B, C none

As a corollary the scalar
= 0.
which two are equal or

must vanish for any two vectors are coplanar.
The two products A(BxC) and (AxB)-C are equal to the
same volume v of the parallelepiped whose concurrent edges
triple product of three vectors of
collinear
are A, B, C.
cases.
The sign
of the
Hence
(AxB) . c
volume
=A
(BxC)
is
the same in both
= ,.
(14)

This equality
and
may
the cross in
be stated as a rule of operation.
a scalar
triple product may

without altering the value of the product.
It may also be seen that the vectors A, B, C
muted
The dot
be interchanged
may be
per
cyclicly without altering the product
= B-(CxA) = C-(AxB).
A-(BxC)
For each
of the expressions gives the
parallelepiped and that
same
69
sign, because if
volume
A is
(15)
volume of the same
will have in each case the
upon the
positive side of the
B C-
B will be on the positive side of the C A-plane and C

the
The triple product
upon
positive side of the A B-plane.
may therefore have any one of six equivalent forms
plane,
= B-(CxA) =: C.(AxB)
= (AxB)-C = (BxC)-A = (CxA)-B
A<BxC)
If
however the
product will
cyclic order of the letters is
= - A<CxBV
BxC
vectors, but it is reversed
CxB.
scalar triple product is not altered by interchanging
the dot or the cross or by
word
permuting
cyclicly the order
of the
in sign if the cyclic order be changed.
necessary upon the subject of parentheses

this triple product.
Can they be omitted without am
38.]
in
(16)
be seen from the figure or from the fact that
may
Hence
changed the
change sign.
A-(BxC)
This
(35)
biguity
They
is
can.
The expression
A-BxC
can have only the one interpretation
A<BxC).
For the expression (A-B)xC is meaningless. It is impos
form the skew product of a scalar AB and a vector
sible to
VECTOR ANALYSIS
70
only one way in which ABxC may

be interpreted, no confusion can arise from omitting the
Hence
C.
as there
is
Furthermore owing to the fact that there are

six scalar triple products of A, B, and C which have the same
parentheses.
value and are consequently generally not worth distinguish

ing the one from another, it is often convenient to use the
symbol
[ABC]
to denote
any one of the six equal products.
[A B C]
then
= A.BxC = B*CxA = C AxB

= AxB.C = BxC-A = CxA-B
[A B C] = - [A
B].
(16)
The
all
scalar triple products of the three unit vectors i,

j, k
vanish except the two which contain the three different
vectors.
[ijk]
Hence
if
= _[ikj] = l.
(17)
three vectors A, B, C be
expressed in terms of
i, j,
as
= ^ i + A, + 8 k,
C = C i+C 2 + C 3 k,
then
This
tions
may
[ABC]
=A
C3 +
C2 A.+
be obtained by
actually performing the multiplica
which are indicated in the
The result
triple product.
may
be written in the form of a determinant. 1

-4i\
[A B C]
1
This
is the formula
given in solid analytic geometry for the volume of a
tetrahedron one of whose vertices is at the
For a more general formula
origin.
see exercises.

If
more generally A,
non-coplanar vectors
vectors,
B,
a,
C are expressed in terms of any three

b, c which are not necessarily unit
A=a
= &!
C =c
where a^ # 2
stants,
#3,"
71
+
+
a2 b
&2
c2
+
+
J8 c
are certain con
ftp & 2 ,
then
[A B 0]
= (a
&2 C B
+
[a b c].
[A B C]
or
The
39.]
of
[a
of
which one
is
(19)
the vector product

itself a vector product.
Such
third type of triple product
two vectors
be]
is
are
Ax(BxC) and (AxB)xC.
The vector Ax(BxC) is perpendicular to A and to (BxC).

But (BxC) is perpendicular to the plane of B and C. Hence
Ax (BxC), being perpendicular to (BxC) must lie in the
plane of B and C and thus take the form
Ax(BxC)
where x and y are two
vector
= x B + y C,
scalars.
In like manner also the
(AxB)xC, being perpendicular to (AxB) must

A and B. Hence it will be of the form
lie
in the plane of
(AxB)xC
where
and n are two
= ra.A +
scalars.
nB
From
this it is evident that
in general
(AxB)xC
The
parentheses
changed.
It is
is
not equal
therefore
essential to
to
Ax(BxC).
cannot be
removed or
know which
cross
inter
product
is
VECTOR ANALYSIS
72
formed
first
and which second.
This product
is
termed the
vector triple product in contrast to the scalar triple product.
The
vector triple product
ponent of a vector
B which
be used to express that com

perpendicular to a given vector
may
is
This geometric use of the product is valuable not only in

itself but for the light it sheds
A.
AXB
upon the properties of the product.
Let
AXB*
(Fig. 21) be a given vector
and B another vector whose com

ponents parallel and perpendicular
to A are to be found.
Let the
components of B
parallel
and per-
B and B" reDraw

A and B from a
spectively.
common origin. The product AxB
The product
plane of A and B.
pendicular to
(AXB)
2i
perpendicular to the
Ax (AxB) lies in the plane of
is
Hence
perpendicular to A.
A
it
and
is
B.
be
It is furthermore
collinear with B".
An
examination of the figure will show that the direction of

Ax (AxB) is opposite to that of B". Hence
Ax(AxB)
where
c is
some
Now
but
if
cB",
scalar constant.
= - A* B sin (A, B) V
- c B"-^= - c B sin (A, B) b",
Ax (AxB)
b" be a unit vector
in the direction of B".
Hence
Hence
B"
A2
=-
A* A.
Ax(AxB)
The component of B perpendicular
to
(20)
has been expressed
in terms of the vector

triple product of A, A,
component B
parallel to
was found in Art 28
and
B.
to be
The

B
B
=B +
=?A
B
73
(21)
AA?A-^>.
AA
(22)
The vector triple product Ax (BxC) may be expressed

sum of two terms as
40.]
as the
Ax(BxC)=A-C B-A-B
In the
first
place consider the product
vectors are the same.
By
when two
equation (22)
= A-B A - Ax(AxB)
Ax(AxB) = A*B A - A- A B
A-A B
or
of the
(22)
(23)
This proves the formula in case two vectors are the same.
To prove it in general express A in terms of the three
non-coplanar vectors B,
C,
and BxC.
A = bE +
where
#, &, c are scalar constants.
Ax(BxC)
The vector product
(23)
a (BxC),
of
(I)
Then
= SBx(BxC) +
+
By
cC
cCx(BxC)
(II)
a (BxC)x(BxC).
any vector by
itself is zero.
Hence
(BxC)x(BxC) =
Ax(BxC) = 6Bx(BxC) + c Cx(BxC).
Bx(BxC) = B-C B - B-B C
Cx(BxC) = - Cx(CxB) = - C-B C + C-C B.

Hence Ax(BxC) = [(&B-C + cC-C)B- (6B-B +
cCB)C].
But from (I) A-B = JBB + cC-B + a (BxC>B
and
By
= b B-C + c C*C + a (BxC)-O.

(BxC)-B = and (BxC)-C = 0.
A-B = JB-B + cC-B,
A-C = 5B-C + cC-C.
A-C
Art. 37
Hence
(II)
(II)"
VECTOR ANALYSIS
74
Substituting these values in (II)",
Ax(BxC)
The
It
relation
is
= A.C
therefore proved for
- A.B
C.
(24)
any three vectors A, B, C.
Another method of giving the demonstration is as follows.

was shown that the vector triple product Ax(BxC) was
form
of the
Ax(BxC)
Since
it
Ax(AxC)
by A
is zero.
is
= #B +
yC.
perpendicular to A, the direct product of
Hence
A-[Ax(BxC)]
a;
+ yAC =
A*B
= A*C AB.
=
n (A-0 B - A-B C),
Ax(BxC)
x :y
and
Hence
where n
is
a scalar constant.
It
remains to show n
1.
Multiply by B.
Ax(BxC>B = n (A-C B.B-A-B

The
scalar triple product allows
cross.
C-B).
an interchange of dot and
Hence
Ax(BxC>B = A<BxC)xB = - A-[Bx(BxC)],

if
the order of the factors (BxC) and
B be
inverted.
= -A-[B.C B-B.BC]
= B-C AB + B-B AC.
A-B C.
Ax(BxC) = A.C B
-A-[Bx(BxC)]
Hence n
=1
and
(24)
From the three letters A, B, C by different arrangements,

four allied products in each of which B and C are included in
parentheses may be formed. These are
Ax(BxC),
As
Ax(CxB),
a vector product changes
two
factors is
(CxB)xA,
(BxC)xA.
sign whenever the order of

the
above products evidently
interchanged,
its
satisfy the equations
Ax (BxC) = - Ax(CxB) = (CxB)xA = - (BxC)xA.

The expansion
75
vector triple product in which the

parenthesis comes first may therefore be obtained directly
from that already found when the parenthesis comes last.
for a
(AxB)xC
The
= - Cx(AxB) = - C-B A + CA
B.
formulae then become
Ax(BxC)
and
(AxB)xC
= A-C
= A*C
- A.B C
B - C-B A.
B
(24)
(24)
These reduction formulae are of such constant occurrence and

great importance that they should be committed, to memory.
Their content may be stated in the following rule.
To expand
vector triple product first multiply the exterior factor into the
remoter term in the parenthesis to form a scalar coefficient for
the nearer one, then multiply the exterior factor into the nearer
term in the parenthesis

remoter one,
As
41.]
and
to
form a
scalar
coefficient
for
the
subtract this result from the first.
far as the practical applications of vector analysis
concerned, one can generally get along without any

formulae more complicated than that for the vector triple
are
product. But it is frequently more convenient to have at

hand other reduction formulae of which all may be derived
simply by making use of the expansion for the triple product

Ax(BxC) and of the rules of operation with the triple pro
duct
ABxC.
To
reduce a scalar product of two vectors each of which

a vector product of two vectors, as
is itself
(AxB>(CxD).
Let
this
be regarded as a scalar triple product of the three

CxD thus
vectors A, B, and
AxB-(CxD).
Interchange the dot and the cross.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
76
= A-Bx(CxD)
Bx(CxD) = B-D C - B-C D.
(AxB>(CxD) = A-C B-D - A-D
AxB.(CxD)
Hence
This
may
B.C.
(25)
be written in determinantal form.
(25)
and D be called the extremes B and C the means ; A

and C the antecedents: B and D the consequents in this
If
product according to the familiar usage in proportions, then

the expansion may be stated in words. The scalar product
of two vector products is equal to the (scalar) product of the
antecedents times the (scalar) product of the consequents
diminished by the (scalar) product of the means times the
product of the extremes.
(scalar)
To reduce
is
a vector product of two vectors each of which

itself a vector product of two vectors, as
(AxB)x(CxD).
Let CxD = E.
The product becomes
(AxB)xE
Substituting the value of
(AxB)x(CxD)
Let F
= AxB.
= A-E
E back
- B-E A.
into the equation
(A-CxD)B
(B-CxD)
By
A.
(26)
The product then becomes
Fx(CxD) = FD C F-C D
(AxB)x(CxD) = (AxB-D)C - (AxB-C)
all
D.
(26)
equating these two equivalent results and transposing
the terms to one side of the

equation,
[B C D]
This
A-
[C
D A] B + [D A
B] C
[A B C] D
- 0.
(27)
an equation with scalar coefficients between the four

vectors A, B, C, D.
There is in general only one such equais
11
because any one of the vectors can be expressed in only

one way in terms of the other three thus the scalar coeffi
tion,
cients of that equation
which
exists
between four vectors are
found to be nothing but the four scalar

those vectors taken three at a time.
triple
products of
The equation may
also
be written in the form
[A B C]
D = [B C
More examples
D]
A+
[C
D] B
[A B D]
of reduction formulae, of
C.
(27)
which some are
important, are given among the exercises at the end of the

In view of these it becomes fairly obvious that
chapter.
the combination of any number of vectors connected in
any legitimate way by dots and crosses or the product of any

number of such combinations can be ultimately reduced to
sum of terms each of which contains only one

The proof of this theorem depends solely upon
cross at most.
analyzing the
of
and
vectors
combinations
possible
showing that they all
fall under the reduction formulae in such a way that the
crosses
may
be removed two at a time until not more than
one remains.
*
The
formulae developed in the foregoing article have

interesting geometric interpretations.
They also afford a
simple means of deducing the formulae of Spherical Trigo
42.]
nometry. These do not occur in the vector analysis proper.

Their place is taken by the two quadruple products,
= A-C B-D - B-C A-D

(AxB)x(CxD) = [ACD] B - [BCD] A
= [ABD] C - [ABC] D,
(AxB>(CxD)
and
(25)
(26)
which are now to be interpreted.

Let a unit sphere (Fig. 22) be given. Let the vectors
A, B, C, D be unit vectors drawn from a common origin, the
centre of the sphere, and terminating in the surface of the
The great circular arcs
sphere at the points A,B, (7, D.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
78
A C)
AB,
and
etc.,
and B,
give the angles between the vectors A
a
The points A, B, C, determine quadrilateral
C, etc.
upon the sphere.
AC
and
BD are
AD
B-D
- A-D
one
and C> the

pair of opposite sides ;
are the diagonals.
and
other.
AB
(AxB).(CxD)
AxB = sin
CD
= A-C
(A, B),
CxD
= sin (C, D).
The angle between AxB and CxD
the angle between the planes themselves.
the
Let
it
be denoted
Then
x.
(AxB). (CxD)
The
is
angle between the normals to the ABand CD-planes.

This is the same as
FIG. 22.
by
B-C
angles
circular arcs
= sin
(A,B) sin (C,D) cos a:.
D) may be replaced by the great

which measure them. Then
(A, B), (C,
AB, CD
(AxB).(CxD) = sin A B sin CD cos#,

A-C B-D- A.D B*C = cos AC cosBD - cos AD
cos
BC.
Hence
sin
A B sin CD
cos x
= cos A C cos B D
cos
AD cos B C.
The product of the cosines of two opposite sides

of a spherical quadrilateral less the product of the cosines of
In words
the other two opposite sides

sines
is
of the
equal to the product of the

diagonals multiplied by the
cosine of the angle between them.
theorem
is
This
credited to Gauss.
C (Fig. 23) be a spherical tri

the
sides
of which are arcs of great
angle,
circles.
Let the sides be denoted by a, 6, c
Let A, B,
FIG. 23.
respectively.
drawn from the center

Furthermore
let
pa p b pe
,
Let A, B, C be the unit vectors
of the sphere to the points
-A,
B, C.
be the great circular arcs dropped

perpendicularly from the vertices
Interpret the formula
(AxB)-(CxA)
= sin
(AxB)
Then
(A, B)
(AxB) (CxA)
c,
to the sides a,
- B.C A-A.
(CxA) = sin (C, A) = sin
= A-C
= sin
-4, J9,
79
6,
B-A
= sin c sin
6.
b cos #,
This
angle between AxB and CxA.
angle is equal to the angle between the plane of A, B and the
which
plane of C, A. It is, however, not the interior angle
is one of the angles of the triangle
but it is the exterior
where x
is
the
A, as an examination of the figure will show.
angle 180
Hence
= sin c sin b cos (180 A)

= sin c sin 6 cos A
BC A- A = cos & cos c cos a 1.
(AxB). (CxA)
AC BA
By
equating the results and transposing,
= cos 6 cos c
cos 6 = cos c cos a
cos c = cos a cos 6
cos a
The
last
letters or
sin 6 sin c cos

sin
sin a cos
A
B
sin a sin 6 cos C.
two may be obtained by

from the identities
cyclic permutation of the
= B-A C B - C-A,
(CxAHBxC) = C-B A.C - B-C.
(BxC).(AxB)
Next
cases in
interpret the identity
(AxB)x(CxD)
which one of the vectors
is
in the special
repeated.
(AxB)x(AxC) = [A B C] A.
Let the three vectors
a, b, c
be unit vectors in the direction of
AxB respectively. Then

AxB = c sin
AxC =
cxb sin c sin & = A
(AxB)x(AxC) =
BxC, CxA,
c,
[A B C]
b sin
sin
= cC sin c = cos (90

[ABC] A = sin c sin p A.
(AxB)-C
sin 6 sin
pc) sin c
VECTOR ANALYSIS
80
By
common
equating the results and cancelling the
factor,
= sin b sin A
sin^? a = sin c sin B
sin p = sin a sin C.
sin^ c
The
last
letters.
triangle
two may be obtained by cyclic permutation of the

The formulae give the sines of the altitudes of the
in terms of the sines of the angle and sides.
Again
write
= [ABC]A
= [BCA]B
(CxA)x(CxB) = [CAB]C.
(AxB)x(AxC)
(BxC)x(BxA)
A=
sin a sin c sin B =
sin b sin a sin C =
Hence
sin
sin b sin
[A B C]
[B C A]
[C
A B].
The expressions [ABC], [BCA], [CAB] are equal.

the results in pairs and the formulae
Equate
A = sin a sin B
sin c sin B = sin b sin C
sin a sin C = sin c sin A
sin b sin
are obtained.
These may be written in a single

sin
sin
sin a
sin
sin b
line.
sin c
The
formulae of Plane Trigonometry are even more

easy to
obtain.
If
B C be a triangle, the sum of the sides taken
as vectors
From
this
is
zero
for the
almost
is
all
triangle
equation
b-f
is
a closed polygon.
the elementary formulae follow

immediately.
to be noticed that the

angles
from a to
b,
from b to
c,
It
from

a are not the interior angles A, B,
- B, 180 - C.
angles 180 -A, 180
o to
=b+c
+ c) = b-b +
(7,
81
but the exterior
aa =
If a,
c)*(b
be the length of the sides
J, c
The
(b
last
=a +
62
area of the triangle
becomes
2 a 6 cos C.
to the first
letters.
is
âxb = ^bxc = 2 cxa =

a b sin C = % b c sin A = ^ c a sin
B.
each of the last three equalities be divided by the product

a b c, the fundamental relation
sin
is
2 bc.
two are obtained in a manner similar
If
a, b, c, this
one or by cyclic permutation of the
The
c-c
obtained.
sin
sin
Another formula for the area may be found from
the product
(bxc)(bxc)
2 Area (6
sin
A}
2 Area
= (cxa)-(axb)
(c
=a
a sin B) (a
sin -Z?sin
sin
The problem
of expressing
three non-coplanar vectors
Let
a, b, c
Reciprocal Systems of Three Vectors.

43.]
b sin (7)
Solution of Equations
any vector
may
r in
terms of
be solved as follows.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
82
where
three scalar constants to be determined
a, J, c are
bx
Multiply by
c.
= a abxc + 6 bbxc +
[rbc] = a [a be].
r.bxc
or
cc-bxo
In like manner by multiplying the equation by

. a X b the coefficients b and c may be found.
x a and
= I [b c a]
= c [c a b]
[r a b]
[r c a]
Hence
a+
[be a]
The denominators
are
all
Hence
equal.
equation
[a
[b c r] a
c] r
[c r a]
[r
which must exist between the four vectors
The equation may

r
= rb
r
-
- a
ro
=r
bxc
_
a,
..
a b]
r, a, b, c.
cxa,b
+r
ra
x b
e
+r
axb
o.
[abc]
[abc]
three vectors which appear here multiplied
bxc
[a
[a be]
[abc]
[abc]
The
[abe]
or
gives the
this
also be written
(28)
[c a b]
cxa
_
b
-
be]
[a
by !, namely
axb
>
c]
[a b c]
They are perpendicular respectively to

the planes of b and c, c and a, a and b. They occur over and
over again in a large number of important relations. For
are very important.
this reason
they merit a distinctive
Definition
The system
b x
cxa
axb
[abc]
[abc]
[abc]
name and
of three vectors
notation.
83
which are found by dividing the three vector products bxc,

c
a,
x b
of three non-coplanar vectors
[abc]
product
is
a, b, c
called the reciprocal system to
The word non-coplanar
is
bxc
axb
________
[a b c]
[a b c]
[a be]
were co
would vanish and
[a b c]
cxa
a, b, c.
If a, b, c
important.
planar the scalar triple product

consequently the fractions
by the scalar
would all become meaningless. Three coplanar vectors have

no reciprocal system. This must be carefully remembered.
when
Hereafter
the term reciprocal system
understood that the three vectors
The system
of three vectors
,_bxc
""[abc]
The
it
__
a
,
a x b
The
vector r
system a
place
a , b
it
,
and
c
a,
is
may
r-b b
r.c
b, c
(29)
c.
form
(30)
be expressed in terms of the reciprocal
instead of in terms of
a,
~[ac]
[abc]
will be
are not coplanar.
b, c
expression for r reduces then to the very simple

r = r-a
used,
reciprocal to system
denoted by primes as a
will be
a,
is
necessary to note that
a, b, c.
In the
first
are non-coplanar,
if a, b, c
which are the normals to the planes of b and c,

a and b must also be non-coplanar. Hence r may
be expressed in terms of them by means of proper scalar

coefficients #, y,
z.
x a
Multiply successively by
?/b
-a, -b, -c.
z c
This gives
= x [b c a], x = r-a
[abc]r-b = y [cab],
y = r-b
=
z [a b c],
z = r-c
[a b c] r-c
r = r-a a + r-b b + r-c c
[a b c] r-a
Hence
(31)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
84
If a
44.]
be the system reciprocal to a, b, c the

any vector of the reciprocal system into the
V,
scalar product of
corresponding vector of the given

the product of
system
is
unity
two non-corresponding vectors is zero.
a .a = bM>=:c .c = l
=
a .c = b -a = b *c = c -a = c
a .b
Hence
(32)
V,
in
non-coplanar the
are
is
bW
Since a
= raa + r*bb + rcc

= a -aa + a b V + a cc
= b .aa + b -bb +
= c aa + c -bb + c .cc
That
-b = 0.
This may be seen most easily by expressing a

terms of themselves according to the formula (31)
r
but
corresponding
coeffi
on the two sides of each of these three equations must

be equal. Hence from the first
cients
From
the second
From
the third
This
proves
the
=a
=b
=c
= a -b
*a
l=b
=c
relations.
= bxc
= bxc
e.
o.
also
be
proved
[abc]
= bxc-b =
[abc]
=0
[abc]
forth.
Conversely
and
[abc]
[abc]
and so
c.
bxca = [be a] = 1
[abc]
a
They may
directly from the definitions of a
b
b
=a
=b
=c
a, b, c,
if
two
sets of three vectors each, say A, B, C,
satisfy the relations
Aa = Bb = Cc = 1
A-b = Ac = Ba = B-c = Ca = Cb =

then the set A, B, C
By
the system reciprocal to

reasoning similar to that before
is
A=
85
a, b, c.
+ Ab b + A-c c
B = B-a a + B-b b + B-c c
C = Caa + C-bb + C-c c
A-a a
Substituting in these equations the given relations the re

sult
is
A=
=b
=c
Hence
Theorem
The necessary and

a
set of vectors
be the reciprocals of
sufficient conditions that the

a, b, c is
that
they satisfy the equations
= b .b = c .c = l
= b a = b .c = c -a = c
a .a
=a
a -b
As
to a
-c
(32)
.b
0.
these equations are perfectly symmetrical with respect

and a, b, c it is evident that the system a, b, c may
, c
be looked upon as the reciprocal of the system a , b c just

as the system a , b , c may be regarded as the reciprocal of
,
a, b, c.
That
to say,
is
Theorem: If a
then
V
[a
be the reciprocal system of
be the reciprocal system of a
a, b, c will
x
b
b=-c
[a
x ab
V,
x b
[a
b c
a, b, c,
(29V
v
/
c ]
These relations may be demonstrated directly from the

definitions of a
The demonstration
is
straightfor
ward, but rather long and tedious as it depends on compli

cated reduction formulae. The proof given above is as short
as could be desired.
The relations between a b ,c and
b c is the reciprocal
a, b, c are symmetrical and hence if a
,
system of
a, b, c,
then
a, b, c
must be the
reciprocal system of
VECTOR ANALYSIS
86
45.]
Theorem
If a
V,
and
be reciprocal systems
and [a b c] are numerical
a, b, c
the scalar triple products [a b c ]
That
reciprocals.
is
bV] [abc]=l
xc cxa axb"|
[a
t. b .
]=[i[a "be]
~[abc]
[bxc cxa axb]
But
Hence
[abc]
Hence
= (bxc)x(cxa>(axb).
[abc]c.
[abc] c-axb
bV] =
[a
[abc] J
[bxc cxa axb].
(bxc) x (cxa)
[bxc cxa axb]
[abc]
By means
[abc]
2
.
[abc]
is
(33)
(33)
[abc]
between [a b c ] and [a b
an important reduction formula,
of this relation
possible to prove
(P.axE)(ABxC)
P-A
P.B
p.c
Q.A
B*A
Q.B
a-c
*B
*C
c] it
(34)
which replaces the two scalar triple products by a sum of

nine terms each of which is the product of three direct
pro
ducts.
Thus
the
two
crosses
To
products are removed.

expressed as
But
give the proof let P,
= P-A A +
P.B B
B = B-A A +
B.B B
+ BC
Then
which occur in the two scalar
[POB]
P.A
P.B
P.C
a-A
R-A
Q.B
a-c
R.B
R.C
[A
B C
[ABC]
P.C C
[A
B C
].
ft,
be

P.A
Hence
[PQE] [ABC]
The system of
P-B
a-B
Q.C
R.A
R.B
B*C
i, j,
system.
jxki
this reason the
primes
a system of vectors reciprocal
is its
own
reciprocal
k==k
kxi
,,
J
For
P-C
Q.A
three unit vectors
87
(35)
k are not needed to denote

to i, j, k.
The primes will
therefore be used in the future to denote another set of rect
angular axes i, j, k just as X* , F , Z* are used to denote a

set of axes different from X, F, Z.
The only systems of three vectors which are their own reciprocals
,
and left-handed systems of three unit

the system i, j, k and the system i, j,
k.
Let A, B, C be a set of vectors which is its own reciprocal.
are the right-handed
That
vectors.
is
Then by (32)
Hence the vectors
AA = B-B = CNC = 1.
are all unit vectors.
A-B
Hence
is
perpendicular to
B-A
Hence B
is
= A-C =
B and
0.
C.
= B-C = 0.
perpendicular to
C-A
and
=C.B
C.
= O.
Hence C is perpendicular to A and B.

Hence A, B, C must be a system like i, j, k
*
46.]
A scalar equation
or like
i, j,
k.
of the first degree in a vector r is
an equation in each term of which r occurs not more than

once.
The value of each term must be scalar. As an exam
ple of such an equation the following
a a-bxr
6(oxd)(exr)
may
be given.
+ c fr +
= 0,
VECTOR ANALYSIS
88
where
known vectors
are
a, b, c, d, e, f
and
a, &, c, d,
known
Obviously any scalar equation of the first degree in

an unknown vector r may be reduced to the form
scalars.
r-A
where
is
known
vector
=a
and
known
a,
scalar.
To
ac
complish this result in the case of the given equation proceed

as follows.
+
axb +
a axbor
{a
"b
(cxd)xe-r
(cxd)xe
In more complicated forms
it
+ c fr + d =
+ c f}r = d.
may
be necessary to
make use
made
of various reduction formulae before the equation can be

to take the desired form,
]>A
As a vector
= a.
has three degrees of freedom
it is
clear that one
Three
scalar equation is insufficient to determine a vector.

scalar equations are necessary.
The geometric
interpretation of the equa
tion
r.A => a
is
origin.
if
drawn from a
fixed origin.
Let
be a fixed vector drawn from the same
The equation then becomes

r
or
Let r be a variable vector
interesting.
(Fig. 24)
(36)
cos (r,A)
T cos (r,A)
r be the magnitude of r
and
r cos
A
(r,
= a,
a
,
that of A.
The
expression
A)
is the projection of r upon A.

The equation therefore states
that the projection of r upon a certain fixed vector A must
89
always be constant and equal to a/A. Consequently the ter

minus of r must trace out a plane perpendicular to the vector
equal to a/A from the origin. The projec

of any radius vector drawn from the origin to a
at a distance
tion
upon
and equal
point of this plane is constant
to a/A.
This gives
the following theorem.
Theorem
scalar equation in
an unknown vector may be

which is the locus of the
regarded as the equation of a plane,
unknown
vector if its origin be fixed.

three
scalar equations in an unknown
why
Each equation de
vector determine the vector completely.
terminus of the
It
is
easy to see
termines a plane in which the terminus of r must lie. The

Hence one vec
three planes intersect in one common point.
tor r
The
determined.
is
equations
is
analytic solution of three scalar

If the equations are
extremely easy.
rA = a
=b
r-C = c
r-B
(37)
it is
only necessary to call to mind the formula

r
Hence
The
= r.A A + r-BB + r-C

r = a A + 6 B + c C
solution
is
therefore accomplished.
(38)
It is expressed in
the reciprocal system to A, B, C.

One
terms A B
caution must however be observed. The vectors A, B, C will
,
C which
is
have no reciprocal system

In this
solution will fail.
if
they are coplanar.
case,
Hence the
however, the three planes de
termined by the three equations will be parallel to a line.

They will therefore either not intersect (as in the case of the
lateral faces of a triangular prism) or
common
line.
Hence there
they will intersect in a
will be either
there will be an infinite number.
no solution
for r or
VECTOR ANALYSIS
90
From
four scalar equations
=a
r.B = 6
rC = c
rD =d
r-A
the vector r
may be
To accomplish
entirely eliminated.
solve three of the equations

fourth.
(39)
this
and substitute the value in the
= aA + 6B +
cC
A D + &B .D + cC -D = d
[BCD] + b [CAD] + c [ABD] = d [ABC].
a
or
*
47.]
A vector equation
of the first degree in an
(40)
unknown
an equation each term of which is a vector quantity

containing the unknown vector not more than once. Such
vector
is
an equation
is
(AxB)x(Cxr)
+ D ET + n
+ F =0,
where A, B, C, D, E, F are known vectors, n a known scalar,

and r the unknown vector. One such equation may in gen
eral be solved for
r.
general sufficient to
contained in
it
The method
That
is
to say,
determine the
one vector equation is in

vector which is
unknown
to the first degree.
of solving a vector equation is to multiply it
with a dot successively by three arbitrary

vectors.
may
first
Thus
known non-coplanar
be solved by the methods of the foregoing

place let the equation be
A ar + B br +
where A,
These
three scalar equations are obtained.
B, C, D, a, b, c are
known
c-r
In the
article.
= D,
vectors.
No
scalar coeffi
may be incorporated in
the vectors.
Multiply the equation successively by A B , C .
It is understood of course that A, B, C are non-coplanar.
cients are written in the terms, for they
= D-A
b-r = D-B
c-r = D-C
a-r
Hence
The
= a a-r + b b-r + c c-r.

r = D-A a + D-B b + D-C
But
91
solution
therefore accomplished in case A, B, C are nonThe special cases in

a, b, c also non-coplanar.
is
coplanar and
which either of these
sets of three vectors is coplanar will not
be discussed here.
The most general vector equation of the first degree

unknown vector r contains terms of the types
A
That
is it
a-r,
r,
an
D.
Exr,
which consist of a known
contain terms
will
in
vector multiplied by the scalar product of another known vec

and the unknown vector ; terms which are scalar multi
tor
ples
of the
product of
unknown vector; terms which are the vector

known and the unknown vector and constant
;
The terms
terms.
of the type
a-r
may always
For the vectors
number.
to three in
a,
b,
c,
be reduced
which are
be expressed in terms of three nonmay

coplanar vectors. Hence all the products a-r, b-r, or,
may be expressed in terms of three. The sum of all terms of
multiplied into r
the type
terms, as
all
a-r therefore reduces to
A a-r + B
The terms
of the types
b-r
an expression of three
c-r.
and Exr may
also be expressed
in this form.
= a a-r + n b b-r + n c c-r

Exr = Exa a-r + Exb b-r+Exc c-r.
n
Adding
to the
all
7i
these terms together the whole equation reduces
form
a-r
M b-r + N c-r = K.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
92
This has already been solved as

r
The
solution
= K.L
+ K-M
+ XJT c
in terms of three non-coplanar vectors a
is
These form the system reciprocal to

the products containing the
*
a, b, c in
unknown
V,
f
.
terms of which
vector r were expressed.
SUNDRY APPLICATIONS OF PKODUCTS

to
Applications
48.]
Mechanics
In the mechanics of a rigid body a force is not a

See Art. 3.
vector in the sense understood in this book.
A force has magnitude

Two
of application.
and
direction,
and direction
but which
lie
do not produce the same
but
it
has also a line
which are alike in magnitude
forces
different lines in the
upon
body
Nevertheless vectors are
effect.
sufficiently like forces to be useful in treating them.

If a
number
same point
on a body at the
added as vectors is called
of forces f x , f 2 , f 3 , ---act
0, the
sum
of the forces
the resultant R.
E = f1 +
In the same
way
if f
the term resultant
added just as
if
x,
f8
...
do not act at the same point
f2, f 8
applied to the
is still
sum
of these forces
they were vectors.
B=f +
1
The
f2
fa
f8
...
(41)
idea of the resultant therefore does not introduce the
line of action of a force.
As
far as the resultant
is
concerned
a force does not differ from a vector.

Definition:
The moment
of a force f about the point
equal to the product of the force

tance from
however
is
nitude
as defined above.
is
by the perpendicular
to the line of action of the force.
best looked
upon
is
dis
The moment
as a vector quantity.
Its direction is usually
Its
mag
taken to
93
be the normal on that side of the plane passed through the

and the line f upon which the force appears to pro
point
in the positive
duce a tendency to rotation about the point
Another
method
direction.
of
defining the
trigonometric
=
is as follows
moment of a force t PQ about the point
:
The moment
of the force f
= PQ
to twice the area of the triangle
about the point

is equal
PQ. This includes at once
both the magnitude and direction of the

The point P is supposed to be the origin
moment
;
(Art. 25).
and the point
the terminus of the arrow which represents the force

letter
M will be
Q,
The
f.
A subscript will
used to denote the moment.
be attached to designate the point about which the
moment
is
taken.
The moment of a number of forces f x f 2

sum of the moments of the individual forces.
is
the (vector)
moment
of the forces
If
This
*
is
known
as the total or resultant
v *&
49.]
If f
be a force acting on a body and
drawn from the point

the force, the
to
moment
if e
is
the
Mo
dxf
d be the vector
of the force about the point
vector product of d into f
For
any
if
point in the line of action of
W = dxf
= d f sin
(42)
(d, f) e,
be a unit vector in the direction of dxf.
dxf
Now d
sin
(d, f) is
The magnitude
of
= dsm
(d,
f)/e.
the perpendicular distance from
dxf
is
to
f.
accordingly equal to this perpen
dicular distance multiplied by/, the magnitude of the force.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
94
The direction
the magnitude of the moment MO {f}
as
same
the
of
the
direction
moment.
the
Hence
of dxf
This
is
is
the relation
is
proved.
Mo
The sum
of the
of the resultant
= dxf.
moments about
acting at the
f p f 2,
{f}
same point
of a
P is
of forces
moment
to the
equal
For
of the forces acting at that point.
d be the vector from
to P.
Mo
Mo
{f x>
{f a |
= dxf
= dxf a
l
moment about
let
Then
= dx( + f
The
number
+ ...
(43)
+ -..)=dxB
of any number of forces f x f 2

a
on
is
acting
rigid body
equal to the total moment of those
forces about
increased by the moment about
of the
total
resultant
M<x
Let
dj,
fr f ,
2
BO
considered as acting at 0.
{f i> f 2
>} = Mo
{f r f 2 ,
Mo< {Bo
be vectors drawn from
d 2,
Let d/, d 2
respectively.
any point
in
be the vectors drawn
from O f to the same points in f x , f 2

be the vector from
to_0
Then
to
(44)
\.
Let
respectively.
d2
d^d/H-c,
Mo
Mo
{f i, f 2
{f!,f 2 ,
=d
= d2 +
c,
+ d 2 xf 2 +
}
J=d xf 1 + d a xf a + ...
= (d - c)xf + (d 2 - c)xf a +
= d x xf +d2 xf 2 + ---- cx(f j + f a +
xf j
x
But
is
the
c is the
vector drawn from
moment about
parallel in direction to f 1
to 0.
of a force equal in
but situated at 0.
Hence
.)
f,
magnitude and
Hence

fa
Hence MO/
{f x
...)
=M
f2 ,
= - cxBo = Mo
{f r
;,} +
fa
95
{Bo}.
MCX {Bo
|.
(44)
The theorem is therefore proved.

The resultant
is of course the same at all
The
points.
is attached
to
at
show
what
it
is
subscript
merely
point
to
when
act
the
moment
about
O
is
taken.
For
supposed
f
the point of application of
The
is
the
E affects
the value of that moment.
moment and the resultant

same no matter about what point the moment be taken.
scalar product of the total
In other words the product of the total moment, the result

ant,
and the cosine
between them
of the angle
is
invariant
for all points of space.
E MO
where O and
f
}= B MO
{f i, f 2
are
{f !
f2
any two points in space. This -important

from the equation
relation follows immediately
Mo
For E.Mo
But
the
{*i, f a
if!,f 2
moment
the point
= Mo {fj f 2
}=* M {f^,
}
of
is
}
}
perpendicular to
+ Mo {Eo}.
+ E- M {B
E no
}.
matter what
Hence
of application be.
E-MO* IE O }
=o
and the relation is proved.

The variation in the total
moment due to a variation of the point about which the
moment is taken is always perpendicular to the resultant.
A point O may be found such that the total moment
50.]
about it is parallel to the resultant. The condition for
r
parallelism
is
{f x
fa
-}=<)
=0
VECTOR ANALYSIS
96
where
by
its
any point chosen at random. Replace

value and for brevity omit to write the f v f 2
braces
is
Mo {Eo}
in the
Then
{ }.
RxMcy
The problem
is
= ExMo - Ex(cxE) = 0.
to solve this equation for
EE c + R.c E = 0.
ExMo
Now R
c.
known
o is also supposed to be
quantity.
Let c be chosen in the plane through
known.
perpen
and the equation reduces to
Then
dicular to E.
is
Ec =
ExM = EE c
ExMo
E-E
moment about
If c be chosen equal to this vector the total
the point O which is at a vector distance from

equal to c,
will be parallel to E.
Moreover, since the scalar product of
r
moment and
the total
resultant itself
is
the resultant
constant
it is
is
constant and since the
clear that in the case
they are parallel the numerical value of the

total
moment
about which
For
If c
it is
Mo
about O
O
f
unchanged by displacing the point
taken in the direction of the resultant.
jf !, f 2
= Mo
cxE
parallel to E,
is
is
is
equal to that about
find not merely one point

is
where
moment
minimum.
will be a
The
total
parallel to the resultant
{f !
f2 ,
- cxE.
vanishes and the

0.
Hence
it is
possible to
about which the total
but the total
moment
moment
moment about any
point in the line drawn through

parallel to E is parallel
to E.
Furthermore the solution found in equation for c is
the only one which exists in the plane
perpendicular to E
unless the resultant E vanishes.
The results that have been
obtained
may
be
summed up
as follows

If
any system of forces
whose resultant
f 19 f 2 ,
is
97
not
upon a rigid body, then there exists in space one

and only one line such that the total moment about any
point of it is parallel to the resultant. This line is itself
zero act
The
parallel to the resultant.
of it
is
the
same and
is
total
moment about
all
points
numerically less than that about any
other point in space.
equivalent to the one which states that

any system
upon a rigid body is equivalent
to a single force (the resultant) acting in a definite line and
a couple of which the plane is perpendicular to the resultant
This theorem
is
of forces acting
which the moment
and
of
may
be reduced to a single force (the resultant) acting at any

of space and a couple the moment of which
is
minimum.
system of forces
desired point
(regarded as a vector quantity) is equal to the total moment

about
of the forces acting on the body. But in general the
of
this couple will not be perpendicular to the result
plane
ant, nor will its
moment be a minimum.
Those who would pursue the study of systems of forces

acting on a rigid body further and more thoroughly may
consult the Traite de Mecanique Rationnelle l by P. APPELL.
The first chapter of the first volume is entirely devoted to
the discussion of systems of forces.
Appell defines a vector
and point of
His vectors are consequently not the same as
as a quantity possessing magnitude, direction,
application.
those used in this book.

carried through in the
however may be
analysis.
The treatment
of his vectors
Cartesian coordinates.
is
Each step
easily converted into the notation of vector
number
of exercises
is
given at the close of
the chapter.
51.]
Suppose a body be rotating about an axis with a con
stant angular velocity a.
The points in the body describe
circles concentric with the axis in planes perpendicular to
1
Paris, Gauthier-Villars et Fils, 1893.

7
VECTOR ANALYSIS
98
the axis.
The
velocity of
any point in
its
circle is
equal
to the product of the angular velocity and the radius of the

It is therefore equal to the product of the angular
circle.
and the perpendicular dis

tance from the point to the axis.
velocity
The
direction
of
the velocity
to the
axis
is
and to
perpendicular
the radius of the circle described
by the
point.
Let a (Fig. 25) be a vector drawn

along the axis of rotation in that
direction in which a right-handed
screw would advance
if
turned in
the direction in which the body is

Let the magnitude of a
rotating.
FIG. 25.
The vector a may be taken to

the angular velocity.
represent the rotation of the body. Let r be a radius vector
drawn from any point of the axis of rotation to a point in the
be
a,
body.
The
vector product
axr
= a rsin(a,r)
equal in magnitude and direction to the velocity v of the

terminus of r. For its direction is perpendicular to a and r
and its magnitude is the product of a and the perpendicular
is
distance r sin
(a, r)
from the point to the
v
If the
a i* a 2> a a
case
line a.
= axr.
That
is
(45)
body be rotating simultaneously about several axes

which pass through the same point as in the
of the
rotations are
gyroscope, the velocities due
v i -=a 1 xr 1
v8
= a 8 xr 8
to
the various

where
99
drawn from points

same point of the body. Let
be drawn from the common point of
are the radii vec tores
r x, r 2, r 3,
on the axis a 19 a 2 a 3
,
to the
the vectors r x , r 2 , r 8 ,
Then
intersection of the axes.

TJ
= ra = r8 =
=r
and
v
= vt + v2 + v3 +
== a xr
x
a 2 xr
This shows that the body moves as

angular velocity which
is
velocities a 19 a 2 , a 8 ,
This theorem
the vector
if
a 8 xr
rotating with the

of the angular
sum
is
sometimes known
law of angular velocities.

It will be shown later (Art.) 60 that the motion of any
rigid body one point of which is fixed is at each instant of
time a rotation about some axis drawn through that point.
as the parallelogram
This axis
axis
is
position.
fixed
is
called the instantaneous axis of rotation.
not the same for
is
therefore represented
v
where a
The
but constantly changes its

The motion of a rigid body one point of which is
all time,
is
by
= axr
(45)
the instantaneous angular velocity; and r, the

drawn from the fixed point to any point of the
radius vector
body.
The most general motion
body no point of which

Choose an arbitrary
may
point 0. At any instant this point will have a velocity v
the body will have a motion of rotation
Relative to the point
about some axis drawn through 0. Hence the velocity v of
is
fixed
of a rigid
be treated as follows.
any point of the body may be represented by the sum of

V the velocity of
and axr the velocity of that point
relative to 0.
=v +
axr.
(46)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
100
In case v
is
body moves around a and

precisely the motion of a
parallel to a, the
along a simultaneously. This is

screw advancing along a. In case v
perpendicular to a, it
the vector r, such that
possible to find a point, given by
is
its
velocity
This
may
is
zero.
That
is
be done as follows.
Multiply by xa.
=
a-r a =
v xa
(axr)xa
aa
or
Let r be chosen perpendicular to
The
ity
a,
point
is
r,
this
aa
=
-
v xa.
Then ar
a.
is
zero
and
v x a
v x a
aa
thus determined, has the property that
its
veloc
drawn through this point parallel to

the body is one of instantaneous rotation
If a line be
zero.
the motion of
about
is
new
In case v
is
axis.
neither parallel nor perpendicular to a
it
may
be resolved into two components
vn
vv n
4r
vn "
which are respectively parallel and perpendicular to

v =v +
point
may now
"
+ axr
be found such that
"
axr.
Let the different points of the body referred to

r
Then the equation becomes
denoted by
a.
this point
be
The motion here expressed
=v +
axr
(46)
consists of rotation about an axis
a and translation along that axis.

It is therefore seen that
the most general motion of a
rigid body is at any instant
101
the motion of a screw advancing at a certain rate along a

The axis of the screw and its rate
definite axis a in space.
of advancing per unit of rotation
(i. e. its
pitch) change from
instant to instant.
The
52.]
conditions for equilibrium as obtained by the

virtual velocities may be treated by vector
of
principle
methods.
Suppose any system of forces
tance
D whether
The
dis
finite or infinitesimal
the
forces is
work done
total
be
this distance
work done by the
act on a
body be displaced through a vector
If the
rigid body.
f x , f 2,
is
therefore
W^î
D.f 2
...
body be in equilibrium under the action of the forces

the work done must be zero.
If the
W= D-fj + D-f
The work done by
the forces
The equation
D-E
holds for
all
is
f2
= D.E = 0.
equal to the work done by
This must be zero for every displacement
their resultant.
D.
= D-Cfj +
Hence
vectors D.
E = 0.
The total resultant must be zero if the body be in equilibrium.
The work done by a force f when the rigid body is dis
placed by a rotation of angular velocity a for an infinitesimal
time t is approximately
a-dxf t,
where d
is
tion a to
a vector drawn from any point of the axis of rota
any point of
components
To prove
f.
"
parallel
a-dxf
this
break up
f into
and perpendicular respectively
= a-dxf +
a-dxf ".
two
to
a.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
102
As
is
d f ] vanishes.
parallel to a the scalar product [a
a-dxf
On
the other hand the
done by
= a-dxf
".
work done by
t"
is
For
during the displacement.
a is perpendicular to its line of action.
equal to the work
being parallel to
If
h be the common
vector perpendicular from the line a to the force f ", the work
"
done by f during a rotation of angular velocity a for time
t is
approximately
The vector d drawn from any point of a to any point of f may

be broken up into three components of which one is h, another
In the scalar
is parallel to a, and the third is parallel to f ".
triple
product
only that component of d which

"
f has any effect.
Hence
[adf]
is
and
perpendicular alike to a
W= a-hxf
"
= a-dxf
= a-dxf
t.
act be dis
body upon which the forces f v f 2
an
placed by
angular velocity a for an infinitesimal time t
and if d x d 2
be the vectors drawn from any point
of
If a rigid
a to any points of f v
by the forces f v f 2 ,
f2 ,
respectively, then the
W= (a-djXfj + ad
= a.(d
= a.M
If the
body be
Hence
work done
will be approximately
xf 1
{f 1
xf 2
d 2 xf 2
,f 2 ,...}
in equilibrium this
a*M
\tl9 f2 ,
.-.)*
t.
work must be
}
zero.
= 0.
The scalar product of the angular velocity a and the total

moment of the forces tv f2
about any point
must be
As a may be any vector whatsoever the moment itself
zero.
,
must vanish.
Mo
{f r f r
= 0.
103
The necessary
conditions that a rigid body be in equilib

rium under the action of a system of forces is that the result
moment about any
ant of those forces and the total
point in
space shall vanish.

Conversely if the resultant of a system of forces and the
moment of those forces about any one particular point in space
vanish simultaneously, the body will be in equilibrium.
If
E = 0,
then for any displacement of translation
DE =
JF=D-f1 +
and the
total
work done
is
o.
D.f 2
zero,
...
when
=
the body suffers any
displacement of translation.
Let Mo {fp f 2
be zero for a given point 0.
}
other
O
point
any
>
Then
for
Mo< {fx
f 2,
But by hypothesis
-\
is
= Mo
flf f 2 ,
also zero.
+M
{Bo}-
Hence
Hence
where a
is
equal to the
any vector whatsoever. But this expression is

work done by the forces when the body is rotated
with an angular velocity a about the line a

This work is zero.
passing through the point O
of
a
Any displacement
rigid body may be regarded as a
for
a time
translation through a distance D combined with a rotation

for a time t with angular velocity a about a suitable line a in
space.
It has
been proved that the
total
work done by the
forces during this displacement is zero.

Hence the forces
must be in equilibrium. The theorem is proved.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
104
to
Applications
Geometry
Relations between two right-handed systems of three

Let i, j, k and i j k
mutually perpendicular unit vectors.
53.]
Hence
r =
=
r
ri
and
From
=k
The
i -i i
*^,t ^*v,
rj j + rk k
-j
-k
=a
+k
-k
i .j j
+k
-i i
scalarsflj,
a2 a3
,
direction cosines of
That
+r
/+
I
(47)
.
this
/ i
b lt
Z>
2,
a2
a3 k
cl i
c2 j
c3 k.
are respectively the

with respect to i, j, k.
b 3 ; cv
c3
2,
is
cos
<&]_
== COS
0j
i)
a2
(j
(k
(i
cx
= cos
= cos
a3
j)
(i
l)
O t^ == COS
(j
j)
t>
i)
c2
= cos
(k
j)
c3
"
= cos
-
COS
= cos
(i
k)
(J
Kj
(k
k).
( 4o)
In the same manner
= i-i
j
j-i
j
( k = k.i
i
They form their own reciprocal systems.
be two such systems.
+ i-j j + i-k k = ^
+ j-j j + j-k k = a a
+ k.j j + k-k k = a a
7
i
i
!/!_/
!?
and
fcf
]
I
j
i_^
.k
!
9i
^
/t
+ \ y + GI k
+ 6 2 j + c2 k
+ J 8 J + C 3 k/
9i
n &
(47)"
9
4
=1= +
=1=a2+
2
j.j
( k-k
and
"1
i
i
= =\
= U = Cj
cj
J 22
6 32
+
+
c2 2
3
&2 c2
b B cs
C<
-f-
dy
(49)
-f-
f\
ttj
a%
(50)

and
j-k
j.k
= = #a*
2
a 39
62
+K
6
I*3
and
xj
= (a
53
- a3
(50)
c,
(51)
"2
105
62 ) i
But
(a2 & 3
- a3
6 2 ),
Hence
(52)
Or
Co
and similar relations may be found

a v a2 a3
,
coefficients of a transformation
X F
1
The
for the other six quantities
All these scalar relations between the
b v & 2 , &3.
,
orthogonal axes
important and well
which expresses one
Z* in terms of another set
known
JT,
set of
F,
Z are
to students of Cartesian methods.
ease with which they are obtained here
may
be note
worthy.
A number of vector relations, which are

known, but nevertheless important,
may
perhaps not so well

be found by multi
plying the equations

i
=a
a2
a3 k
in vector multiplication.
&!
Cj j
=a
3 j
a2
k.
(53)
The quantity on either side of this equality is a vector. From

its form upon the right it is seen to possess no
component in
VECTOR ANALYSIS
106
the
its
direction but to lie wholly in the jk-plane ; and from

form upon the left it is seen to lie in the j k -plane.
i
Hence
Its
it
must be the
magnitude
is
line of intersection of those
V af + a
or
V b^ + c^.
two
planes.
This gives the
scalar relations
af + a*
=V+
*!
= 1 - a*.
The magnitude 1
a^ is the square*of the sine of the angle
Hence the vector
between the vectors i and i
.
^k -cj ^sj-aak
(53)
and jk-planes, and

j k
of
the
sine
the
between
the planes.
angle
magnitude
Eight other similar vectors may be found, each of which gives
one of the nine lines of intersection of the two sets of mu
-
the line of intersection of the
is
its
is
The magnitude of the vector is in

tually orthogonal planes.
each case the sine of the angle between the planes.
Various examples in Plane and Solid Geometry may
54.]
be solved by means of products.
The perpendiculars from the vertices of a trian

meet in a point. Let A B
be the
Let the perpendiculars from A to BC and from B
triangle.
to CA meet in the point 0.
To show
is perpendicular
Example 1
gle to the opposite sides
to
A B.
=C.
Choose
as origin
and
let
OA =
A,
OB = B,
and
Then
= C-B,
By
hypothesis
- B) =
B<A - C) = 0.
C<B - A) = 0,
A.(C
and
Add;

Example 2 : To find the vector equation of a
through the point B parallel to a given vector A.
line
drawn

be the origin and
Let
dius vector from
is
the vector
OS.
Let
any point of the required
to
be the ra
Then
line.
Hence the vector product
A.
parallel to
107
vanishes.
Ax(B-B) = 0.
This
It is a vector equation in the

the desired equation.
unknown vector B. The equation of a plane was seen (page
88) to be a scalar equation such as
is
BC = c
in the
unknown
The point
vector B.
of intersection of a line
found at once.
The equations
(
Ax(B B-C
and a plane may be
are
B)
=e
AxB = AxB
B - C-B A = (AxB)xC
A-C B - c A = (AxB)xC
(AxB)xC + c A
A-C
Hence
A-C
AC = 0.
solution evidently fails when

ever the line is parallel to the plane
The
or, if it lies
in the plane, there are
In this case
how
and there
an
infinite
is no solution
number of solu
tions.
Example 3: The introduction of vectors to represent planes.

Heretofore vectors have been used to denote plane areas of
The direction of the vector was normal to
definite extent.
the plane and the magnitude was equal to the area to be re
presented. But it is possible to use vectors to denote not a
plane area but the entire plane itself, just as a vector represents
a point. The result is analogous to the plane coordinates of
analytic geometry.
a plane in space.
Let
MN
be
be an assumed origin. Let
is to be denoted b^ a vector
The plane
MN
VECTOR ANALYSIS
108
whose direction
is
the direction of the perpendicular dropped
and whose magnitude is the

upon the plane from the origin
of
that
perpendicular. Thus the nearer
reciprocal of the length
a plane
is
represents
If r be
to the origin the longer will be the vector
which
it.
any radius vector drawn from the origin to a point

and if p be the vector which denotes the plane,
in the plane
then
r-p
is
the equation of the plane.
rp
Now p,
=1
For
= r cos
(r,
p) p.
the length of p is the reciprocal of the perpendicular

to the plane.
On the other hand r cos (r, p)
distance from
is
Hence rp must be
i, j, k
that perpendicular distance.

If r
and p be expressed
unity.
in terms of
= #i + yj + zk
p = ui + vj + wit
rp = xu + yv + zw = L.
r
Hence
The quantities u, v, w are the reciprocals of the intercepts of

the plane p upon the axes.
The
relation
tion of duality.
between r and p
is
symmetrical.
It is a rela
If in the equation
r-p
=1
r be regarded as variable, the equation represents a plane
which
is
the locus of
all
If
however p be
points given by
regarded as variable and r as constant, the equation repre
r.
sents a point r through which all the planes p pass.

The
of
the
of
idea
will
not
be carried out.
development
duality
It is familiar to all students of
The
use of vec
geometry.
tors to denote planes will scarcely be alluded to
again until
Chapter VII.
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
The
scalar product
of
two vectors
of their lengths multiplied
them.
A-B
The necessary and

of
is
109
II
equal to the product
by the cosine of the angle between
= A B cos (A, B)
A-B = B.A
A.A = ^.
(1)
(2)
(3)
sufficient condition for the perpendicularity
two vectors neither of which vanishes
The
product vanishes.
is
that their scalar
scalar products of the vectors
i,
j,
are
(4)
^=J!Uk!=o
A.B
= A B + A,, B + AS Bz
= A* = A* + A* + A*.
1
If the projection of a vector
B upon
AB
-R
The
(7)
XA
a vector
vector product of two vectors
(8)
is
(*\
is
equal in magnitude to
the product of their lengths multiplied by the sine of the an

The direction of the vector product is the
gle between them.
normal to the plane of the two vectors on that side on which

a rotation of less than 180 from the first vector to the second
appears positive.
AxB = A B
sin (A,
B)
c.
(9)
The vector product is equal in magnitude and direction to the

vector which represents the parallelogram of which A and B
are the two adjafcent sides.
The necessary and sufficient con
dition for the parallelism of
two vectors neither of which
VECTOR ANALYSIS
110
vanishes
is
that their vector product vanishes.
The com
mutative laws do not hold.
AxB = -BxA
ixi
ixj
jxk
kxi
AxB =
2)
(10)
= kxk =
jxi = k
=jxj
=
=
=
i
kxj
(12)
=i
=
+ (A a B - A
ixk
(13)
AxB =
(13)
Bn
Bo
scalar triple product of three vectors [A B C] is equal

volume of the parallelepiped of which A, B, C are three
edges which meet in a point.
The
to the
[AB C]
= A-BxC = B.CxA = C-AxB

= AxB-C = BxCA = Cx A-B
[ABC]
=- [A OB].
(15)
(16)
The dot and
the cross in a scalar triple product may be inter

changed and the order of the letters may be permuted cyclicly
without altering the value of the product ; but a change of

cyclic order changes the sign.
[ABC]
[ABC]
(18)
[a
be]
(19)

If the
of
B perpendicular
= _AX(AXB)
component
,,
to
be B",
A*A
= A-C B - A-B C
(AxB)xC = A-C B - C-B A
(AxB>(CxD) = A.C B-D - A-D B-C
(AxB)x(CxD) = [A CD] B- [BCD] A
= [ABD] C-[ABC] D.
Ax(BxC)
The equation which
111
subsists
(24)
(24)
(25)
(26)
between four vectors A, B,
C,
is
A-[CDA]B + [DAB] C- [ABC] D = 0.
[BCD]
(27)
Application of formulae of vector analysis to obtain the for

mulae of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry.
The system of vectors a V, c is said to be reciprocal to the
,
system of three non-coplanar vectors
when
= _bxc.,
.
[a
A vector r may be
its
reciprocal in
a, b, c
= =cxa
-=>
= axb
[abc]
be]
(29)
[abc]
expressed in terms of a set of vectors and
two similar ways
= r.a a + r.V b + r-c c

r = r-aa + r.bb + r.cc
The necessary and
(30)
(31)
sufficient conditions that the
a,
b, c
and a b
,
two systems of
be reciprocals
is
that
a, b, c
will
= Vb = c c = 1
a .b = a -c = b .c = b .a = c -a = e -b = 0.
a .a
If a
form a system reciprocal to
form a system reciprocal to a
a, b, c
then
VECTOR ANALYSIS
112
P.A
a-A
R.A
[PaK][ABC] =
The system
system be
its
i, j,
own
system of three
is
its
own
reciprocal
it
P.B
P.C
ft-B
a-c
B-B
R-C
(34)
reciprocal and if conversely a

must be a right or left handed
mutually perpendicular unit vectors.
Appli
cation of the theory of reciprocal systems to the solution of

scalar and vector equations of the first degree in an unknown
vector.
The
vector equation of a plane
r-A
is
= a.
(36)
Applications of the methods developed in Chapter II., to the

treatment of a system of forces acting on a rigid body and in
of forces to a single
particular to the reduction of any system
force and a couple of which the plane is perpendicular to that
Application of the methods to the treatment of

instantaneous motion of a rigid body obtaining
force.
v
where v
=v +
(46)
the velocity of any point, v a translational veloc

and a the vector angular velocity of ro
Further application of the methods to obtain the
is
ity in the direction a,

tation.
conditions for equilibrium
by making use
of the principle of
Applications of the method to obtain

the relations which exist between the nine direction cosines
virtual velocities.
of the angles
between two systems of mutually orthogonal
axes.
Application to special problems in geometry including

the form under which plane coordinates make their appear
ance in vector analysis and the method by which planes (as

distinguished from finite plane areas) may be represented
by vectors.
113
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER II
Prove the following reduction formulae
= [ACD]B-A-BCxD
= BD AxC B-C AxD.
1.
Ax{Bx(CxD)}
2.
[AxB CxD ExF] = [ABD] [CEF]- [ABC] [DBF]
= [ABE]
= [CD A]
[AxB
3.
BxC
CxA]
[ABC]
2
.
Q.B
P
Q
RA RB
P.A
4 [PQE] (AxB)
P.B
5.
Ax(BxC) + Bx(CxA) + Cx(AxB)
6.
[AxP
Bxtt
- [ABF] [BCD]
- [CDB] [AEF].
[FCD]
[BEF]
CxR] + [Axtt
= 0.
BxR CxP]
+ [AxR BxP
Obtain formula
7.
(34) in the text
Cxtt]
= 0.
by expanding
[(AxB)xP].[Cx(ttxR)]
in
two
different
ways and equating the
results.
Demonstrate directly by the above formulae that if

a V, c form a reciprocal system to a, b, c; then a, b, c form
8.
a system reciprocal to a
Show
9.
tors
the connection between reciprocal systems of vec

Obtain some of the
triangles upon a sphere*
and polar
geometrical formulae connected with polar triangles by inter

preting vector formulae such as (3) in the above list.
10.
The perpendicular
meet in a
11.
two
bisectors of the sides of a triangle
point.
Find an expression for the common perpendicular

same plane.
lines not lying in the
to
VECTOR ANALYSIS
114
Show by
12.
ume
vector methods that the formulae for the vol
of a tetrahedron
whose four
vertices are
IS
13.
Making use
of formula (34) of the text
[abo]
where
a, &, c
I
14.
which
= cos
m = cos
(b, c),
(c, a),
= cos
the perpendicular (as a
and where
(a, b).
vector quantity)
dropped from the origin upon a plane determined by
the termini of the vectors

given in Art. 46.
15.
are the lengths of a, b, c respectively
Determine
is
= a be
show that
Show
that the
a, b, c.
Use the method
volume of a tetrahedron
is
of solution
equal to one
two opposite edges by the perpendicu

between them and the sine of the included angle.
sixth of the product of

lar distance
drawn in each face plane of any triedral angle

the
vertex
and perpendicular to the third edge, the
through
three lines thus obtained lie in a plane.
16.
If a line is
CHAPTER
III

Differentiation of Functions of One Scalar
Variable
IF a vector varies and changes from r to r the incre

ment of r will be the difference between r and r and will be
55.]
denoted as usual by
A r.
Ar = r -r,
where
A r must
(1)
be a vector quantity. If the variable r be

A r is of course also unrestricted
unrestricted the increment

it
may have any magnitude and any
direction.
If,
however,
the vector r be regarded as a function (a vector function) of

a single scalar variable t the value of A r will be completely
determined when the two values
two values
and
are
and
of
which give the
known.
To
it
obtain a clearer conception of the quantities involved

will be advantageous to think of the vector r as drawn
from a fixed origin
(Fig. 26).
When
the independent variable t changes its

value the vector r will change, and as t
possesses one degree of freedom r will
vary in such a way that its terminus

describes a curve in space, r will be
FIG. 26.
the radius vector of one point

of
the curve ; r , of a neighboring point
chord
of the curve.
The ratio
PP
Ar
A*
f
.
r will be the
VECTOR ANALYSIS
116
the ratio 1
in
When A t
t.
chord PP
proach P, the
PP
with the chord
will be a vector collinear
but magnified
approaches zero
will
will approach the tangent at P,
ap
and
the vector
Ar
which
is
(t t
a vector tangent to the curve at
sense in which the variable

If r
rfr
...
will approach
i\
be expressed in terms of
r
i, j,
=r +
r2 j
directed in that
increases along the curve.
as
rz
the components r v r 2 , r3 will be functions of the scalar

r
+ Arj)i+
(r 1
Ar = r
= Ar
Ar _ A
+ Ar2 )j +
(^ 2
"
+ Ar3 )k
+ Ar2 j + Ar3 k
A r2
?*!
(r 3
t.
J+
A r8
and
Hence the components

spect to
of the first derivative of r with re
are the first derivatives with respect to
components
derivatives.
of
The same
r.
_
- -
j__
dt*~ dt*
dn
dt n
dn
dt
if
a, b, c
dn r
.
,
of the
dt*
d
d
__
__
dt
dt*
n
In a similar manner
_f
dt*
r,l
true for the second and higher
is
fl
r*
?
_i
n J
r be expressed in
terms of any three
as
= aa +
&b + cc
dn a
dn
(2)
dn c

Example :
The vector
Let
= a cos +
t
b sin
117
t.
then describe an ellipse of which a and b

are two conjugate diameters.
This may be seen by assum
r will
ing a set of oblique Cartesian axes X,
and
Then
b.
which
X = a cos
Y = 6 sin
t,
coincident with a
t,
the equation of an ellipse referred to a pair of con

diameters
of lengths a and b respectively.
jugate
is
dr
-3
a sin
+ b cos
t.
Hence
= a cos (t +
The tangent
to the curve is parallel to the radius vector
for
+ 90).
The second
is
2r
derivative
is
90) + b
(a cos
sin (t
b sin
the negative of
90).
t).
Hence
r.
evidently a differential equation satisfied by the ellipse.
Example
Let
=a
cosh
b sinh
t.
The
vector r will then describe an hyperbola of which a and

b are two conjugate diameters.
dr
= a sinh +
b cosh
t,
= a cosh +
b sinh
t.
dt
and
=r
Hence
d
is
t*
a differential equation satisfied by the hyperbola.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
118
combination of vectors all of which depend on the

same scalar variable t may be differentiated very much as in
56.]
ordinary calculus.
d
For
(a
+ Aa)
(b
A(a-b)
= (a + Aa)
A*
Hence
in the limit
=a
Ab
A*
when A
+ Ab) - a-b
(b
Aa
-A*
Aa-Ab
-
= 0,
d_
dt
= a-b
_(a.bxc)
v
dt
\d
The
last three of these formulae
[b
may
be demonstrated exactly
as the first was.
The formal process
of
differentiation in vector analysis
no way from that in scalar analysis except in this

one point in which vector analysis always differs from scalar
differs in
analysis,
namely
The order
of the factors in a vector product
119
cannot be changed without changing the sign of the product.
Hence
of the
two formulae
d
and
first is
evidently incorrect, but the second correct. In
other words, scalar differentiation must take place without
The
altering the order of the factors of a vector product.
the
factors
must be
differentiated in situ.
This of course was to
be expected.
In case the vectors depend upon more than one variable
the results are practically the same. In place of total deriva
with respect to the scalar variables, partial derivatives

occur.
Suppose a and b are two vectors which depend on
tives
three scalar variables
#, y, z.
The
scalar product
depend upon these three variables, and

partial derivatives of the
The second
first
it
will
will
have three
order.
partial derivatives are
formed in the same way.
52
9y
ab
\3x5y
VECTOR ANALYSTS
120
Often
it is
more convenient
This
the differentials.
first differentials.
to use not the derivatives
particularly true
is
The formulas
(3), (4)
= da, b + a
= ds, x b + a
d (a b)
d (a X b)
and so
forth.
example.
As an
when
but
dealing with
become
db,
(3)
x db,
(4)
consider the following
illustration
If r be a unit vector
rr = 1.
The
locus of the terminus of r
is
a spherical surface of unit
radius described about the origin,

ables.
Differentiate the equation.
dr
depends upon two vari
= 0.
Hence
Hence the increment di
of a unit vector
the vector.
perpendicular to
This can be seen geometrically. If r traces a
is
sphere the variation d r must be at each point in the tangent
plane and hence perpendicular to r.

Vector methods may be employed advantageously
*57.j
in the discussion of curvature and torsion of curves.
Let r
denote the radius vector of a curve
where
some vector function of the scalar t. In most appli

cations in physics and mechanics t represents the time.
Let
s be the
of
arc
measured
from
some
definite
length
point of
f is
the curve as origin.

curve.
Hence A r / A
The increment A r
is
the chord of the
approximately equal in magnitude

and approaches unity as its limit when A s becomes
Hence d r / d s will be a unit vector tangent to
infinitesimal.
the curve and will be directed toward that portion of the
to unity
s is

curve along which
unit tangent
The curvature
s is
increasing (Fig. 27).
Let
121
be the
UAt
of the curve
is
the
limit of the ratio of the angle through
which the tangent turns

of the arc.
to the length
The tangent changes by
of unit length, the length of
At
the increment At.
As
approximately the angle

has
turned
which
the
measured in circular
tangent
through
measure. Hence the directed curvature C is
is
LIM
As=0
The vector C
to
is
collinear with
inasmuch as
t; for
is
As
At
is
ds
ds*
and hence perpendicular to
a unit vector
At
is
perpendicular
t.
The
tortuosity of a curve
is
the limit of the ratio of the
angle through which the osculating plane turns to the length

of the arc.
The osculating plane is the plane of the tangent
vector t and the curvature vector C. The normal to this
N = txC.
planei8
If c be a unit vector collinear
with C
=t
normal (Fig. 28) to the osculating plane and

the three vectors t, c, n form an i, j, k system,
will be a unit
a right-handed rectangular system.

Then the angle through which the osculating
plane turns will be given approximately by
A n and hence the tortuosity is by definition
that
is,
d n/d
s.
From
vectors
the fact that
t, c,
n form an
i,
j,
k system
of unit
122
VECTOR ANALYSIS
and
= c c = nn = 1
tc = cn = nt = 0.
t
Differentiating the first set
= cdc = ndn = 0,
t-dt
and the second
do
t*
But d t
is
rft
=cdn + dcn = ndt + dnt==0.

and consequently perpendicular
parallel to c
n- dt = 0.
d n t = 0.
Hence
The increment
of
of
is
perpendicular to
also perpendicular to n.
is
It
As the tortuosity is T = dn/ds, it

to
to n.
is
is
t.
But the increment
therefore parallel to
parallel to
dn and
c.
hence
c.
The
tortuosity
is
~ds^
T
*
The
first
VCC/
d*r
d*r
j O v
d s*
term of
this expression vanishes.
been seen to be parallel to C
= d 2 r/ds 2
T moreover has
Consequently the
magnitude of T is the scalar product of T by the unit vec
tor c in the direction of C.
It is desirable however to have
.
the tortuosity positive when the normal n appears to turn in

the positive or counterclockwise direction if viewed from
that side of the n c-plane upon which t or the positive part
of the curve lies.
With this convention d n appears to move
in the direction
turns
away from
c
c.
therefore be given
when
The
by
the tortuosity is positive, that is, n

scalar value of the tortuosity will
T.

T
But
dr
d 2 i/d s 2
c is parallel to the vector
d2
123
1
Hence
dr
~~
ds 2
ds
And
c is
T. -c-T = -
Hence
(12)
r=
Or
The
is
Hence
a unit vector in the direction C.
tortuosity
may
somewhat shorter
if
(13)
be obtained by another method which

not quite so straightforward.
tc = cn = nt = 0.
dtc = dct
dn c
dc n =
Hence
dn*t
Now
dt
dt n
= 0.
dtn.
hence perpendicular to n. Hence

Hence dnt = 0. Butdnis perpendicular to n.
Hence d n must be parallel to c. The tortuosity is the mag
nitude of dn/ds taken however with the negative sign
is
parallel to c
because d n appears clockwise from the positive direction of

the curve. Hence the scalar tortuosity T may be given by
r=-
dn
.c
ds
= n. dc
ds
(14)
r = txc-^-
as
(14)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
124
V cc
dC
d
C
dc
ds
---VC.C
ds
!;
ds
C-C
But
= 0.
A/C
C-C
_
m=
dC
T~
ITTc
(13)
ds*
In Cartesian coordinates
this
becomes
(13)
T=
Those who would pursue the study of twisted curves and
surfaces in space further from the standpoint of vectoi-s will
find the book " Application de la Methode Vectorielle de Grass-
maun d
la Greometrie
1
Infinitesimale"
Paris, Carre et
by FEHB extremely
Naud, 1899.

helpful.
is
125
He works
with vectors constantly. The treatment

The notation used is however slightly different
elegant.
from that used by the present writer.
The fundamental
points of difference are exhibited in this table
Xa
HI
ax
One used
a2
~ Oi
x a3
[a x a 2 a 3 ]
[a x
method need have no
to either
2]
a 2 aj.
difficulty
with the
All the important elementary properties of curves

and surfaces are there treated. They will not be taken
other.
up
here.
* Kinematics
Let r be a radius vector drawn from a fixed origin to

a moving point or particle. Let t be the time. The equation
58.]
of the path
is
then
The
velocity of the particle is its rate of
This
is
the limit of the increment
V
This velocity
LIM
A *
fA
r"|
change of position.
increment A t.
r to the
dr
a vector quantity.
Its direction is the
direction of the tangent of the curve described by the par
is
The term
used frequently to denote merely

This convention will be
the scalar value of the velocity.
ticle.
followed here.
speed
is
Then
.-,
(16)
be the length of the arc measured from some fixed point

of the curve.
It is found convenient in mechanics to denote
if s
differentiations with respect to the time by dots placed over

the quantity differentiated. This is the oldfliixional notation
VECTOR ANALYSIS
126
introduced by Newton. It will also be convenient to denote

The equations become
the unit tangent to the curve by t.
--T.
=v
The
is
acceleration
<">
t.
(17)
the rate of change
is
Let
a vector quantity.
of velocity.
be denoted by A.
it
It
Then by
definition
A v _ d v =_
LIM
-At=OA7-rf7
dv
and
Differentiate the expression

A
dv
__
~-
d(vt)
v
dt
dt
_
d
t
where C
is
_
dt
dv
.
dt
dz
dv
t.
ds d
nj
dt
__
dt
.
s~
_=C
dt d
=v
t?
the (vector) curvature of the curve and v
is
the
speed in the curve. Substituting these values in the equation

the result
is
A=st+
The
acceleration of a particle
v* C.
moving
in a curve has there
fore been
lei
broken up into two components of which one is paral

to the tangent t and of which the other is parallel to the
curvature
C,
that
is,
perpendicular to the tangent.
resolution has been accomplished
That
this
would be unimportant were

it
not for the remarkable fact which
it
brings to light.
127
The
component of the acceleration parallel to the tangent is equal

It is entirely
in magnitude to the rate of change of speed.
sort
of
curve
what
the
of
particle is describing.
independent
would be the same if the particle described a right line

with the same speed as it describes the curve. On the other
hand the component of the acceleration normal to the tangent
It
equal in magnitude to the product of the square of the

speed of the particle and the curvature of the curve. The
is
sharper the curve, the greater this component. The greater

the speed of the particle, the greater the component. But the
of change of speed in path has no effect at all
normal component of the acceleration.
rate
If r be expressed in terms of
=# +
i,
j,
y}
z k,
From
(16)
A = v=s =
(18)
+y * +z%
x + y* + z 2
x x
this
as
= V ** + y* + * 2
A = v = r = ii + yj + * k,
v
on
i/ i/
these formulae the difference between s t the rate of
change of speed, and A

is apparent.
Just when
= r, the
rate of
change of velocity,
became clearly
this difference first
But certain
mind when he stated
recognized would be hard to say.
Newton must have had it in

law of motion. The rate of change
to the impressed force
of velocity
is
it
his
is
that
second
proportional
but rate of change of speed is not.

The
59.]
hodograph was introduced by Hamilton as an
aid to the study of the curvilinear motion of a particle.
;
With any assumed origin the vector velocity r is laid off.

The locus of its terminus is the hodograph. In other words,
the radius vector in the hodograph gives the velocity of the
VECTOR ANALYSIS
128
particle in
possible to
magnitude and direction at any instant. It is

proceed one step further and construct the hodo
graph of the hodograph.

vector acceleration
A=r
done by laying off the

from an assumed origin.
The
This
is
radius vector in the hodograph of the hodograph therefore

gives the acceleration at each instant.
Example 1
Let a particle revolve in a
circle (Fig. 29)

of radius r with a uniform
fV
^-r^
angular velocity
The
a.
speed of the particle will then

be equal to
v
Let
velocity v
is
perpendicular to
f
The
vector v
be the radius vector
drawn to the particle.

r and to a.
It is
=v=a
The
r.
always perpendicular and of constant magni

is therefore a circle of radius v = a r.
radius vector r in this circle
advance of the radius vector
r in
just ninety degrees in
is
its
quently describes the circle with the
The
a.
r.
The hodograph
tude.
The
is
=a
acceleration
which
is
circle,
and
it
conse
same angular velocity
the rate of change of y
is
always perpendicular to v and equal in magnitude to
A = a v = a 2 r.
The
acceleration
But as a
Hence
The
A may
be given by the formula
= A = axv = ax(axr) = ar a
is
perpendicular to the plane in which r

r
= A = aa r =
a 29
a-a
r.
lies,
a r
= 0.
r.
acceleration due to the uniform motion of a particle in

is directed toward the centre and is
equal in magni
a circle
tude to the square of the angular velocity multiplied by the

radius of the circle.

Example 2:
Consider the motion of a projectile.
acceleration in this case
the
= A = g.
hodograph reduces to a constant
the
It is easy to find
is merely a point.
Let v be the velocity of the projectile
hodograph.
in path at
any given
=v +
Thus the hodograph

ing through the
At
instant.
will be
particle
a later instant the velocity

t
g.
a straight line parallel to g and pass

The hodograph of a
extremity of v
is
moving under the influence of gravity
The path
straight line.
Example 3
The
the acceleration g due to gravity.
is
The hodograph of
The curve
vector.
129
well
is
known
is
hence a
to be a parabola.
In case a particle move under any central
acceleration
= A = f(r).
The tangents to the hodograph of r are

But these tangents are approximately
chords between two successive values
That
vector in the hodograph.
is
the accelerations
collinear
and
r!
with the
of the radius
approximately
A*
Multiply by rx.
=rx
Since r and r are parallel

r
Hence
But J
r
r
x
x
- r ) = 0.
r = r x r
(r
f is the rate of description of area.
Hence the
equation states that when a particle moves under an ac

celeration directed towards the centre, equal areas are swept
over in equal times by the radius vector.

9
VECTOR ANALYSIS
130
it
Perhaps
would be well
this question.
to
go a
little
more carefully into
If r be the radius vector of the
particle in
its path at one instant, the radius vector at the next instant
The area of the vector of which r and r
r.
r are
is r
+A
+A
the bounding radii is approximately equal to the area of the

This
triangle enclosed by r, r + A r, and the chord A r.
area
The
is
rate
of description
of area
by the radius vector
is
consequently
AT
irx(r+ Ar)
Lm 1
A*
~A*-=02
LIM
A* = 02
A*~2
Let r and r be two values of the velocity at two points

which are near together. The acceleration r at P
P and P
is
the limit of
r
A*
A
Break up the vector

parallel
A ^t
_" A r
"
= ?ÎlI?
A
into
two components one
and the other perpendicular
to the acceleration r
Ar.
if
n be a normal to the vector
if
The quantity x ap
The quantity y
proaches unity when A t approaches zero.

approaches zero when A t approaches zero.
Hence
x
x
Ar = r-r = #A*r + yA*n.

- r ) = x A* r x r + y A* r x
(r
(f
- r ) = r x r - (r +
Â M x
n.
131
Hence
Ar
rxr-r xf = /A xr
6
But each
A* + zA*rxr + yA* rxn.
upon the right-hand side is an

order.
Hence the rates of descrip
of the three terms
infinitesimal of the second
tion of area at
and
Pd
differ
by an
second order with respect to the time.
Hence the
point of the curve.
rates
infinitesimal of the
This is true for any

must be exactly equal
This proves the theorem.

of a rigid body one point of which is
at any instant a rotation about an instantaneous axis
at all points.
The motion
60.]
fixed
is
passing through the fixed point.

Let i, j, k be three axes fixed in the body but moving in
space. Let the radius vector r be drawn from the fixed point
to any point of the body.
Then
But
= (d r
i) i
(d r
Substituting the values of d r

the second equation
dr
= (xi
di+
i,
yi
di + yj
j) j 4-
dr
(d r
j,
+
*dj +
d
k) k.
d r k obtained from
2 i
d k)
zj
= 0.
Hence
dj +j di = Q or j-c?i =
dj
=
=
or
j-dk
j.dk + k.dj
k.dj
=
=
k.di + i.rfk
k di.
or idk
Moreover
i.i=j .j=kk = l.
Hence
d =
d = k d k = 0.
But
=j
=k
VECTOR ANALYSIS
132
Substituting these values in the expression for d
dr
This
is
dk
+
(zi
yjdi)i+(jdi
(y
-xi
dj
d k)
r.
k.
a vector product.
= (Wj + idkj + jdik)x(>i +
dr
Let
dj
;n
2;
k).
k
l+| -i J+J
ii
-r
Then
d k
yj
=axr
This shows that the instantaneous motion of the body is one

of rotation with the angular velocity a about the line a.
This angular velocity changes from instant to instant. The
proof of this theorem fills the lacuna in the work in Art. 51.
Two
may be added
rotations
infinitesimal
d2
If r
be displaced by
T
If it
a, it
d1
=a
Hence
t.
becomes
T
=T+
then be displaced by a 2
r 4-
it
a,
xrdt.
becomes
= r + d r + % x [r + (a
d r = aj x r d + a x r d +
d
r)
a2
(a x
If the infinitesimals
(d
like vectors.
The displacements
Let ax and a 2 be two angular velocities.

due to them are
d l r = a x x r d t,
t)
t]
t.
r) (d
of order higher than the first be
neglected,
=a
a2

.
If
(a x
a 2)
t,
both sides be divided by d
= dr = (a +
1
a 2)
r.
133
the parallelogram law for angular velocities.

was obtained before (Art. 51) in a different way.
This
In case the direction of

stant, the
a,
the instantaneous axis,
con
is
motion reduces to one of steady rotation about
The
It
is
acceleration r
=a
a.
r.
= axr + axr = axr + ax
(axr).
As
a does not change its direction a must be collinear with

That is, it is perpen
a and hence a x r is parallel to a x r.
On
hand
ax
dicular to
r.
Inasmuch
as all points of the rotating
the other
(a
r) is parallel to
r.
body move in con
about a in planes perpendicular to a, it is

unnecessary to consider more than one such plane.
The part of the acceleration of a particle toward the centre
centric circles
of the circle in
which
it
moves
is
a x (a x r).
This
equal in magnitude to the square of the angular

It does not
velocity multiplied by the radius of the circle.
is
depend upon the angular acceleration a

what is known as centrifugal force.
to
at all.
On
It corresponds
the other
the acceleration normal to the radius of the circle
hand
is
axr.
This
equal in magnitude to the rate of change of angular

It does not
velocity multiplied by the radius of the circle.
is
depend in any way upon the angular velocity itself but only
upon its rate of change.
61.] The subject of integration of vector equations in which
the differentials depend upon scalar variables needs but a
word.
If
then
It is precisely like integration in ordinary calculus.
d
r
=d
=s+
s,
C,
VECTOR ANALYSIS
134
where C
tion in
is
some constant
To accomplish
vector.
the integra
any particular case may be a matter of some
difficulty
of ordinary integration of scalars.

just as it is in the case
:
1
Integrate the equation of motion of
Example
projectile.
The equation
of motion
is
simply
which expresses the fact that the acceleration

tically downward and due to gravity.
always ver
= g + b,
where b
is
a constant of integration.
0.
velocity at the time t
It
is
is
evidently the
r
c is
ig*2 + b* +
another constant of integration.
of the point at time
= 0.
c.
It
is
given by this
so may be seen by
expressing
in terms of x
is
That this is
and y and eliminating
last equation is a parabola.

it
the position vector
The path which
t.
Example % The rate of description of areas when a par

ticle moves under a central acceleration is constant.
:
Since the acceleration
is
But
For
(r
x
x
= f(r).
parallel to the radius,
=
a
f)
0.
(r
r).
L>
(r
r)
C,
u/ t
Hence
CL t
and
which proves the statement.
r.
135
Example 3 : Integrate the equation of motion for a particle

moving with an acceleration toward the centre and equal to
a constant multiple of the inverse square of the distance
from the centre.
^2
Given
Then
Hence
0.
= C.
Multiply the equations together with x.

r
xC = -1
^-
rx (rxr)=
Then
= r r.
side of this equality
Then
Integrate.
is
x C
c*
where
e I is
by
r 2.
o *
a perfect differential.
= + e I,
r
x C
c*
x C
e r
I.
*
e is its
magni
Multiply the equa
its direction.
But
- r-r r}.
the vector constant of integration,
tude and I a unit vector in

tion
{r.r r
_ Lr
*2L
o
Hence
Each
-jjj-
Differentiate.
-1
VECTOR ANALYSIS
136
T
p=
s"
and cos u
p=
Then
Or
r
city.
r cos u.
cos
the equation of the ellipse of which e is the eccentri

I is drawn in the direction of the
major
is
axis.
(r, I).
=
1
This
= cos
The vector
The length
of this axis
is
It is possible to cany the integration further and obtain

the time. So far merely the path has been found.
Scalar Functions of Position in Space.
A function V (x,
62. ]
y, z)
which takes on a
value for each set of coordinates
definite scalar
#, y, z in space is called
scalar function of position in space.
ample,
The Operator
Such a function,
for ex
is
V O, y, z)
==
x2
y*
z2
= r\
This function gives the square of the distance of the point

from the origin. The function V will be supposed to
be in general continuous and single-valued. In physics scalar
(x, y, z)
functions
are of constant occurrence.
of position
In the
at any point of a body is a

theory of heat the temperature
scalar function of the position of that point.
In mechanics
and theories of attraction the potential

function.
This,
too, is
If a scalar function
is the all-important
a scalar function of position.
be set equal to a constant, the equa
tion
V(x,y,z)=c.
(20)
defines a surface in space such that at every point of it the

has the same value c. In case
be the tempera-
function

ture, this is a surface of constant temperature.
In case
isothermal surface.
V be the
137
It is called
an
potential, this surface of
constant potential is known as an equipotential surface. As

the potential is a typical scalar function of position in space,
and
most important of
as it is perhaps the
owing
all
such functions
to its manifold applications, the surface
V O, y,z)=c
V equal to a constant is frequently spoken

an equipotential surface even in the case where V has
no connection with the potential, but is any scalar function
obtained by setting
of as
of positions in space.
The
tion
rate at
which the function
that
when x changes
constant
is,
V increases in the X direc
to x
+A
x and y and
remain
is
LIM
Aa =
F" (a?
+ A a,
- T (x, y, z)
y, g)
["
"1
J*
the partial derivative of Fwith respect to x. Hence

the rates at which
increases in the directions of the three
This
is
axes X, Y)
Z are
respectively
3V
3V
Ty* Tz
3V
~Wx
Inasmuch as these are rates in a certain direction, they may

Let i, j, k be a system
be written appropriately as vectors.
of unit vectors coincident with the rectangular system of
are
axes X, Y) Z. The rates of increase of
3V
1
JZ*
3V
3V
5?
~3~z
The sum of these three vectors would therefore appear to be

a vector which represents both in magnitude and direction
the resultant or most rapid rate of increase of V. That this
is
actually the case will be
shown
later (Art. 64).
VECTOR ANALYSIS
138
The vector sum which

Fis denoted by
63.]
of
is
the resultant rate of increase
VF
VV
a directed
represents a directed rate of change of
or vector derivative of F^ so to speak. For this reason
VF
will be called the derivative of
VF.
The terms
V F.
It
a vector
is
gradient and
customary to regard
V; and
slope of
F, the primitive of
are also used for
V as an operator which obtains
V F from a scalar function F of position in space.
This symbolic operator
Hamilton and
is
now
in
was introduced by Sir
universal
W.
R.
There
employment.
l
seems, however, to be no universally recognized name for it,
although owing to the frequent occurrence of the symbol
some name is a practical necessity. It has been found by
experience that the monosyllable del is so short and easy to

occurs
pronounce that even in complicated formulae in which
a number of times no inconvenience to the speaker or hearer
is read simply as " del F."
arises from the repetition.
has been defined as
Although this operator
VF
*
v=i*
+ ji- +k
dx
9z
dy
Some
use the term Nabla owing to its fancied resemblance to an Assyrian

harp. Others have noted its likeness to an inverted A and have consequently
coined the none too euphonious name Ailed by inverting the order of the letters in
the word Delta.
Foppl in
his Einfuhrung in die
Maxwell
sche Theorie der Elec-
avoids any special designation and refers to the symbol as "die Operation
How this is to be read is not divulged. Indeed, for printing no particular
tricitdt
V.
name
is
necessary, but for lecturing and purposes of instruction something is re

too that does not confuse the speaker or hearer even when
quiredsomething
often repeated.
appears to depend upon the choice of the axes, it

This would be surmised
in reality independent of them.
so that
is
139
it
as the magnitude and direction

from the interpretation of
of
To demonstrate the inde
V.
of the most rapid increase
pendence take another set of axes,

variables # , y ^ z referred to them.
system
k and a new
Then
set of
referred to this
is
v/
By making
?T7
ax
+J
ao^7
y
k ^T7
dz
( 22 )
use of the formulae (47) and (47)", Art. 53, page
104, for transformation of axes
from
i, j,
to
k and by
actually carrying out the differentiations and finally by

taking into account the identities (49) and (50),
may
actually be transformed into V.
The
details of the proof are omitted here, because another
shorter
method
of demonstration
is
to be given.
Consider two surfaces (Fig. 30)
64]
y,z)=c
V (x,
and
upon which
V is
near together.
V=c.
dius
Let
vector
y, z)
=c+
d c,
constant and which are moreover infinitely

Let #, y, z be a given point upon the surface
denote the ra
drawn
point from any fixed
to
this
origin.
Then any
the
point near by in
neighboring surface
+ d c may be represented
by the radius vector r + d r.
c
The
actual increase of
Ffrom
FIG. 30.
the
is
first
surface to the second
a fixed quantity dc.
The
rate of increase
is
a variable
VECTOR ANALYSIS
140
quantity and depends upon the direction dr which is fol

lowed when passing from one surface to the other. The rate
of increase will be the quotient of the actual increase d
and
between the surfaces at the point

in the direction d r.
Let n be a unit normal to the
the distance
x, y, z
Vdr
and d n the segment of that normal intercepted

between the surfaces, n d n will then be the least value for
d r. The quotient
surfaces
dr
\/d r
will therefore be a
equal in
is
maximum when d r
magnitude of
d n.
therefore a vector of
most rapid increase of

rate of that increase.
n and
which the direction
Fand
of
is
the direction of
which the magnitude
This vector
is
is
the
entirely independent of
be replaced by its equal d V which

the increment of Fîn passing from the first surface to the
the axes JT, Y, Z.

is
parallel to
is
The expression
second.
Then
let
Let d
V V be defined again as
Vr=4^n.
d n
(24)
VV
From
is certainly the vector which

this definition,
and the rate
the
of
most
direction
rapid increase of
gives
in that direction.
VFis
Moreover
independent of the axes.
It
remains to show that this definition
first
given.
To do
this multiply
VF.dr =
by
is
equivalent to the one

r.
dV
-n.dr.
d n
(25)
is a unit normal.
Hence n d r is the projection of d r on
n and must be equal to the perpendicular distance d n between
the surfaces.
dT
dV
-dn
dn
5V
But
5V
5V
-=
-z
=7rdx
where
(d x?
= dV
(d *)
= dr
dr
takes on successively the values

equation (25) takes on the values
If
ids=
dy
(25)
5z
dy
(d y)
141
d r.
dx,
dy,
kdz the
5V
~dx
dx
sv
dy
(26 )
9V
If the factors
rf a;, rf
i,
j,
be cancelled these equations state
rf
y,
that the components
VF
k of
VF
in the
directions respectively are equal to
3V
5V
5_V
5x
5y*
5z
VF=(VF. i)i +
VF=
Henceby(26)
The second
|^ + j |T+
is
equivalent to
|
reduced to the
definition of
y
-
d x
V V.
satisfies
According
is
often taken as a
to ordinary calculus the deriv
the equation
dx dy
dx
,
first
it.
The equation (25) found above
*65.]
ed
(Vr-j)j + (VT. k)k.
definition (24) has been
and consequently
ative
VF* j, VF-
i,
= dy
VECTOR ANALYSIS
142
equation defines dy / dx. In a similar manner

is possible to lay down the following definition.
of a scalar function of
Definition: The derivative
Moreover
it
this
V^
position in space shall satisfy the equation
for all values of
d r.
This definition
is
certainly the
from theoretical considerations.

either of the
are
They
definitions
more
tangible.
most natural and important
But
for practical purposes
before given seems to be better.

The real significance of this last
definition cannot be appreciated until the subject of linear
vector functions has been treated.
The computation
frequently
carried
of the derivative
See Chapter VII.
V of
a function
on by means of the ordinary
is
most
partial
differentiation.
Example 1 :
(ix
The
This
derivative of r
is
+ jy +
kz)
a unit vector in the direction of
r.
evidently the direction of most rapid increase of r

and the rate of that increase.
is

Example % :
Let
V1F
(x
)*
-k
_1
Hence
V ~ == 7
r
of
r,
derivative of 1/r
-r
-
square of the length
g 2 )t
V log
a vector whose direction
is
is
is
that
equal to the reciprocal of the
r.
n rn ~ 2
= n r*
i>r
Let
F(#,
y, z)
= log y# 2 +
V^Tp = TT
22 +
i
y*.
+
f
22
denote the vector drawn from the origin to the point

z) of space, the function V may be written as
If r
y,
2 2 )*
left to the reader.
Example 4
r)
(r
V rn
Example 3:
is
-r
= ~T
3
î
and whose magnitude
The proof
(x
and
The
143
= log Vr.r-(k.r) 2
k kr.
ix + )y = T
2/1
and
Hence
V log
*)
V^ + y
T
""
- k kr
(r-kk.r).(r-kk.r)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
144
There
another method of computing
is
which
is
based
upon the identity
V = Vrr = r.
Example 1 : Let
=^ =
V=
Hence
Example 2 :
Hence
Example 3:
Let
i>r
a,
where a
V= r
Let
r
is
a constant vector.
F=dr.a = dr Vr.
V V = a.
F= (rxa)
(rxb), where a and b are
constant vectors.
V = rr ab
dV =
2cZr*r a-b
drb
dr-a r-b
V F == 2 r a-b
Hence
r-a rb.
a r.b
Vr= (ra-b-ar-b) +
Which
of these
two methods
for
= di V Fl
b râ
(ra-b
= bx(rxa) -fax
r-a
-br.a)
(rxb).
computing
shall be
applied in a particular
case depends entirely upon their

relative ease of execution in that case.
The latter method is
independent of the coordinate axes and

preferred.
may
therefore be
It is also shorter in case the function
Fcan
be
cannot be so
expressed easily in terms of r. But when
the
former
method
has
be
to.
to
resorted
expressed
The
in mathe
great importance of the operator
matical physics may be seen from a few illustrations. Sup
*66.]
pose
T (#,
y, z)
be the temperature at the point
#, y, z of

That direction
heated body.
in
145
which the temperature de
most rapidly gives the direction of the flow of heat.

T, as has been seen, gives the direction of most rapid
creases
Hence the flow
increase of temperature.
f
where k
body.
of heat f is
= _& vr,
a constant depending upon the material of the

be the gravitational potential
Suppose again that
is
due to a fixed body.

the point (#, y, z)
potential and
is
is
in
The
force acting upon a unit mass at

in the direction of most rapid increase of
magnitude equal to the rate of increase

Let F be the force per unit
per unit length in that direction.

mass. Then
F
As
= VF.
different writers use different conventions as regards the
sign of the gravitational potential, it
might be well to
state
that the potential Preferred to here has the opposite sign to

If
the potential energy.
denoted the potential energy of
a mass
situated at #, y, z, the force acting upon that mass
would be
F
In case
= - VfF.
represent the electric or magnetic potential due
to a definite electric charge or to a definite
spectively the force

as the case might be
The
force
is
in
magnetic pole re
acting upon a unit charge or unit pole
is
= - VF.
the direction of most rapid decrease of
In dealing with electricity and magnetism poten

potential.
tial and potential energy have the same sign
whereas in
;
problems they are generally considered to have

opposite signs. The direction of the force in either case is in
the direction of most rapid decrease of potential energy. The
attraction
difference between
potential
and potential energy

10
is
this.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
146
Potential in electricity or magnetism is the potential energy

per unit charge or pole ; and potential in attraction problems
is
mass taken, however, with the
potential energy per unit
negative sign.
often convenient to treat an operator as a
quantity provided it obeys the same formal laws as that
Consider for example the partial differentiators
quantity.
It is
*67.]
As
!_
9x
3y
!..
3z
far as combinations of these are concerned, the formal laws
are precisely
what they would be
if
instead of differentiators
three true scalars

a,
6,
For instance
were given.
the commutative law
99
Sx3y
*,
3ySx
a,
the associative law
and the
3\
distributive
law
33
33
3\
+ ._ --+_-)=_--_
3x\3y 3zJ 3x3y dxdz
3
f 3
a(b
hold for the differentiators just as for scalars.
c)
=a
Of course such
formulae as
where u
is
a function of x cannot hold on account of the
properties of differentiators.
scalar function
u cannot be
placed under the influence of the sign of differentiators.

Such a patent error may be avoided by remembering that an
operand must be understood upon which 3/3 #
is
to operate.

In the same
a great advantage
way
may be
147
obtained by
looking upon
+
V-if
3x +jf
dz
dy kf
as a vector.
It is not a true vector, for the coefficients
.., JL,
P#
are not true scalars.
A
dz
dy
a vector differentiator and of
It is
is always implied with it.

As far as formal
For
concerned it behaves like a vector.
course an operand
operations
are
instance
if
#,
V (u + v) = V u + V v,
V(ttfl) = (Vtt) v + ^(Vtf),
c V u = V (c u),
w and v are any two scalar functions of the scalar variables

y, 2 and if c be a scalar independent of the variables with
regard to which the differentiations are performed.

68.] If A represent any vector the formal combination
A. Vis
A.V = A
/-x+
A=A
provided
This operator
A V is
to a scalar function
A2
/-
+ As
+ A^ j + A% k.
a scalar differentiator.
V (x,
(27)
j-,
y, z) it
When
<^ r -A+^+^Suppose for convenience that
(a.V)F=a
applied
gives a scalar.
is
a unit vector
a.
I + a r +a8 r
2
(28)
(29)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
148
where a v
are the direction cosines of the line a referred
aâ B
to the axes Jf, F, Z.
well-known
This
is
Consequently
(a
derivative of
directional
V)
V appears
as the
in the direction
a.
often written
3V
3V
3V
3F,
T^^+^-^sTIt expresses the
magnitude of the
(29)
rate of increase of
V in
In the particular case where this direction is

the normal n to a surface of constant value of F, this relation
the direction
a.
becomes the normal derivative.
if
n x n 2 n 3 be the direction cosines

,
of the normal.
The
operator a
applied to a scalar function of position
yields the same result as the direct product of a and the
vector
V.
(a.V)F=a.(VF).
For
this reason either operation
a-
may
(30)
be denoted simply by
VF
without parentheses and no ambiguity can result from the

omission.
The two different forms (a V) Fand a- (V F)
may however
(a
a.
interpreted in an important theorem.

the directional derivative of
in the direction
be
V) F is
On the other hand
the direction
any direction
VFin
Hence
a.
V V)
The
equal to the
is
that direction.
theorem becomes
The
If
is
the component of
V F in
directional derivative of
F in
of the derivative
component
Fdenote gravitational potential the
directional derivative of the potential
any direction gives the component of the force per unit

mass in that direction. In case Fbe electric or magnetic
in
potential a difference of sign
must be observed.
149
Vector Functions of Position in Space
69.]
vector function of position in space is a function
(x, y, z)
which associates with each point x, y, z in space a definite

The function may be broken up into its three com
vector.
ponents
(x, y, z)
F!
y,z)i+
(x,
F2
(x, y, z) j
+ F3
(a?,
y, z) k.
of vector functions are very numerous in physics.

the
function
has occurred. At each point of
Already
F has in general a definite vector value. In mechan
space
Examples
VF
each point of the body is a

vector function of the position of the point. Fluxes of heat,
ics of rigid bodies the velocity of
fluids, etc., are all
magnetic force,
electricity,
vector functions
of position in space.
The
tion
V to
Let
scalar operator a
may
be applied to a vector func
yield another vector function.
V=
Fi
and
(a.V)V
+ F2
=a
Then
y,z)
(x,
V=
i^
(a.V) F!
a
(as,
y, z) j
a2
+ F3
(x, y, z)
a 3 k.
3^+-af3
+ (a.V) F2 j + (a.V)F, k
9V
3V
-
9V\
9V,
9V2
3V
VECTOR ANALYSIS
150
This
may be
Hence
V)
(a
function
written in the form
is
the directional derivative of the vector
in the direction
V) V
(a
without parentheses.
when
defined.
V)
=a VV
-
For the meaning of the vector symbol
applied to a vector function V has not yet been

Hence from the present standpoint the expression
V V can
(a
It is possible to write
a.
have but the one interpretation given to
it
by
V.
Although the operation V V has not been defined and

cannot be at present, 1 two formal combinations of the vector
operator V and a vector function V may be treated. These
70.]
and the (formal) vector prod
are the (formal) scalar product

uct of
into V.
They are
and
VxV =
V V is read del dot V;

The
+ ]-
and
differentiators
by the dot and the
cross.
< 82 >
+kxV
(88)
V, del cross V.
That
being scalar operators, pass
is
(32)
3z
Qy
(88)
These may be expressed in terms of the components
F",
ofV.
i
definition of
VV
will
be given
in
Chapter VII.
PI.
V,

Now
dx
9x
3y
dy
8V_9V}
3*
3*
151
Sx
~5y
9y
h
5V,
3
(34)
3F
Jl
~3
i.fl-
Then
3V
Hence
Moreover
This
may
V V = rf + ^7 + 3Ti
(32)"
>
be written in the form of a

determinant
VxV=
333
i
(33)"
VECTOR ANALYSIS
152
It is to be
understood that the operatorsâre to be applied to
Vv
the functions
F3
F"2 ,
when expanding the
determinant.
From some
standpoints objections may be brought forward

as a symbolic vector and introducing
V
against treating
as
the
scalar
and
vector
x V respectively
and
symbolic
products of
simply laying
may be looked upon
x, which
quite distinct
from V,
and
means advisable
all
for
71.]
it
This symbol obeys the
as a vector just in so far as the differentiators
333T~
T~~
(33)
remembering formulae
as a symbolic vector differentiator.
operators
to regard
same laws
new
+ jx-4-kx-.
for practical purposes
seems by
as entirely
shall be
V xV = ix
and
But
These objections may be avoided by

the definition that the symbols
and
into V.
down
^)e
ê same
aws
That the two functions
^ or(^ nary sca ar quantities.

l
V V
and
x V have very
important physical meanings in connection with the vector

function V may be easily recognized.
By the straight
forward proof indicated in Art. 63
it
was seen that the
From
is independent of the choice of axes.

operator
fact the inference is immediate that
V and x
intrinsic properties of
this
V V represent
In order
invariant of choice of axes.
to perceive these properties it is convenient to attribute to the
function
some
definite physical
flow of a fluid substance.
meaning such
as flux or
Let therefore the vector
denote
153
and the magnitude
of the
at each point of space the direction
flow of some fluid.
This
may
be a material fluid as water
or gas, or a fictitious one as heat or electricity. To obtain as

great clearness as possible let the fluid be material but not
necessarily restricted to incompressibility like water.
= i~+j.
Then
is
dx
called the divergence of
and
is
V V= div
The reason
for this
term
is
that
*I
dz
often written
V.
VV gives at each
volume per unit time
rate per unit
3y
at
which
point the
fluid is leaving
the rate of diminution of density.

To prove
Let the edges
this consider a small cube of matter (Fig. 31).
Let
of the cube be dx, dy, and dz respectively.
that point
(x, y, z)
=V
(x9
y,z)i+ V^ (x
y, z) j
+ F3 (x, y, z)
k.
Consider the amount of fluid which passes through those

faces of the cube
which are
parallel to the F^-plane,
i.
e.
perpendicular to the
axis.
The normal to the
face
whose x coordinate
the lesser, that
is,
is
the nor
mal to the left-hand face

of the cube
is
i.
The
flux
xy2
of substance through this
face
is
-i.V
(x,y,z)
face,
FIG. 31.
the face whose
x coordinate
through
dz.
to the oppo- z
The normal
site
dy
greater by the
therefore
is
it is
amount dx,
is
+i
and the
flux
VECTOR ANALYSIS
164
(x
dx,
y, z)
dy dz
= i V (x
V(#,
dy dz
y, z)
y, z)
3V dx
c)
3v
dx
i
dy dz
dz.
dy
outward from the cube through these two

This
therefore the algebraic sum of these quantities.
The
total
faces
is
is
flux
simply
3V
i
= -^3^
dx dy dz
-=
9x
9x
dx dy
dz.
In like manner the fluxes through the other pairs of faces of

the cube are
3V,,,
dx dy dz
^
9y
The
total flux
j,,c)V
and
k - dx dy
out from the cube
/.
i
(
3V
9x
3V
dy
dz.
9z
+
t
is
3V\
therefore
.
)
9zJ
dx dy
dz.
the net quantity of fluid which leaves the cube per

unit time. The quotient of this by the volume dx dy dz of
the cube gives the rate of diminution of density. This is
This
is
V.T.I. 9x + ,
dy
9z
9x
dy
9z
Because
V thus represents the diminution of density
or the rate at which matter is leaving a point per unit volume
per unit time, it is called the divergence. Maxwell employed
the term convergence to denote the rate at which fluid ap
proaches a point per unit volume per unit time. This is the
negative of the divergence. In case the fluid is incompressible,
as
much matter must
leave the cube as enters
change of contents must therefore be
zero.
it.
For
The
total
this reason
the characteristic differential equation which any incompres

sible fluid
must
satisfy is

where
known
as the
is
the flux of the
This equation
fluid.
hydrodynamic equation.
flow of water, since water
is
often
is
It is satisfied
155
by any
The
practically incompressible.
great importance of the equation for work in electricity is due

to the fact that according to Maxwell s hypothesis electric dis
placement obeys the same laws as an incompressible

then D be the electric displacement,
div
the operator
X Maxwell gave the
This nomenclature has become widely accepted.
V
The
x V
As
name
curl.
= curl V.
curl of a vector function
If
= V D = 0.
To
72.]
fluid.
the
is
itself
name
a vector function
indicates, it is closely
connected with the angular velocity or spin of the flux at

each point. But the interpretation of the curl is neither so
easily obtained nor so simple as that of the divergence.
Consider as before that
Take
represents the flux of a fluid.
at a definite instant an infinitesimal sphere about
At
any
the next instant what has become of the
point (#, y, z).

sphere ? In the first place it may have moved off as a whole
in a certain direction by an amount d r.
In other words it
may have a translational velocity of dr/dt. In addition to

may have undergone such a deformation that it is no
a
It may have been subjected to a strain by
longer
sphere.
this it
virtue
Finally
of
it
which
may
it
becomes slightly
ellipsoidal
in
shape.
have been rotated as a whole about some
axis through an angle
dw.
That
is
to say, it
may have an
An
angular velocity the magnitude of which is dw/dt.
infinitesimal sphere therefore may have any one of three
distinct types of
motion or
all
of
them combined.
First, a
translation with definite velocity.

Second, a strain with three
definite rates of elongation along the axes of an ellipsoid.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
156
Third, an angular velocity about a definite axis. It is this

In fact,
third type of motion which is given by the curl.
a vector which has at each point of

space the direction of the instantaneous axis of rotation at
that point and a magnitude equal to twice the instantaneous
the curl of the flux
is
angular velocity about that axis.
The
more
analytic discussion of the motion of a fluid presents

than it is necessary to introduce in treating
difficulties
The motion of a rigid body is sufficiently complex

an adequate idea of the operation. It was seen (Art.
the curl.
to give
51) that the velocity of the particles of a rigid body at any

instant is given by the formula
=v + a x
curl v = Vxv = Vxv + Vx(axr).
a = a
+ a% j + a 3 k
r = r
+ r 2 + r k=:;ri + 2/j-fzk
v
Let
expand
product of
is
x v
=V
is
x v
as
+ (V
if it
r) a
were the vector
- (V
Hence the term
a constant vector.
V
As
X (a x r) formally
V, a, and r. Then
V
v
r.
a constant vector
3x
it
of the differential operator,
^+3
3y
may be
x v
r.
vanishes.
= 3.
z
placed upon the other side
=a
V.
/
3
3
3\ = a
Vr=( ai^ + a 2j-+ a
s^ Jr
Vxv = 3a a = 2a.
Hence
a)
triple
Therefore in the case of the motion of a rigid body the curl

of the linear velocity at any point is equal to twice the
angular velocity in magnitude and in direction.
157
= curl v = 2 a,
x v
= ^Vxv=| curl v.
+ ^ (V x v) x r = v + \ (curl v)
a
=v
r.
(34)
The expansion of V x (a x r) formally may be avoided by

multiplying a x r out and then applying the operator V X to
the result.
73.]
tion
It frequently happens, as in the case of the applica
just cited, that the operators
V>V% V X,
have to be
applied to combinations of scalar functions, vector functions,

or both.
useful.
The following
Let
be found
rules of operation will
be scalar functions and
u, v
v vector func
u,
Then
tions of position in space.
+ t?) = Vw + Vfl
V.(u + v) = V.u + V-v
Vx(u + v) = Vxu + Vxv
V (u v) = v V u + u V v
V (w v) = V M v + M V v
V(t6
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)
+ v x (V x
u)
+ u x (V x v)
V.(uxv)=v.Vxu u-Vxv
(42)
Vx (uxv) = v.Vu~vV-u-u.Vv + uV.v. (43)
A word necessary upon the matter of the interpretation
1
is
of such expressions as
V u v,
The
rule followed in this
Vu
v,
book
is
to the nearest term only.

1
(V
By Art. 69 the expressions

V) uand u V) v
*
That
v
Vu
v.
that the operator
V applies
is,
V n and
V v me
to be interpreted as
VECTOR ANALYSIS
158
V uv = (V u) v
V u v = ( V u) v
V u x v = ( V u) x v.
is to be applied to more than the one term which follows

terms to which it is applied are enclosed in a paren
the
it,
thesis as upon the left-hand side of the above equations.
If
The
proofs of the formulae may be given most naturally

by expanding the expressions in terms of three assumed unit
The sign 2 of summation will be found con
vectors i, j, k.
venient.
By means
of it the operators
V> V*
Ax
take the
form
The summation extends over
To demonstrate
Vx
#, y, z.
(wv)
^
Vx
Hence
(wv)
9x
= Vwxv + ^Vxv.
To demonstrate
(u
v)
=v Vu+
Vv + v
x u)
n x
v).
V(u.v)
3u
159
3v
2^-v+^^.-
Now
,3u
^ v ._
2
3 u
= vx(V
IE v
**
9x
or
In like manner
3v
Tu
;r-
=u
dx
x u) + v
9 u
2v.i-
x v)
V u.
+
V v.
V(uv)=vVu +
Hence
+
The
=v
xu) +
v x
(V x
n)
+ u x (V x v).
other formulae are demonstrated in a similar manner.
71]
The notation l
V(u-v) u
(44)
will be used to denote that in applying the operator
product (u
That
is,
v),
partially
the quantity u is to be regarded as constant.

is carried out only partially upon
the operation
the product (u
V to the
In general
v).
upon any number
if
is
of functions
to be carried out
which occur
after
a parenthesis, those functions which are constant for the

differentiations are written after the parenthesis as subscripts.
it in
Let
=U
This idea and notation of a partial

so to speak may be avoided by means
But a certain amount of compactness and simplicity is
u v )u is surely no more complicated than u
v or
(
thereby. The idea of
of the formula 41.

lost
X (V X
n).
VECTOR ANALYSIS
160
n-v
then
and
=M
+ u^v 2 + u z
V)
(u
3^0
But
and
V(u.v) T
Hence
But
V(u-v)
rrr^j
= w Vi? + ^ a Vi? a + w 8 V? 8
V(uv) v = ^j V^ + 2 V^ 2 + ^ 3 V^ 3
V (u- v) = V (u- v) u + V (u- v) v
V(u-v) n
and
Vw +
Hence
(44)
i;
(45)
This formula corresponds to the following one in the nota

tion of differentials
d (u v)
d (u
or
The formulae
= d (u
v) = u
v) u
dv
+ d (u v) T
+ d n v.
(Art. 73) may be
obvious from analogy
(35)-(43) given above
written in the following manner, as is

with the corresponding formulae in differentials
V (u +
V.
Vx
(u
(u
+
v)
v*)
v)
= V (u + v\ + V (u + v)
= V- (u + v) u + V- (u + v) v
=V
x (u
v) u
+Vx
(u
v) y
(35)
(36)
(37)
V (u v) = V (u v\ + V (u v\
V- (u v) = V- (u v). + V- O v) r
V x (u v) = V x (i* v) a + V x (u v) v
V (u- v) = V (u. v) u + V (u. v) v
V (u x v) = V (u x v) a + V (u x v) y
V x (u x v) = V x (u x v) a + V x (u x v)
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)
(42)
(43)
v.
This notation
scalar product
In almost
formally.
where
it
Take
Vx
it
x v) u
= (V
Expand
v) u
is
(V
u)
(u
v) u
v,
constant for the differ
Then
which occur in V.
may
was introduced.
can be done away without loss of
for instance (43)
(u
in the case of the
for this reason it
must be understood that u
entiations
factor u
other cases
all
simplicity.
particularly useful
is
u^v and
161
in the last
term the
Hence
be placed before the sign V.
V X (uX v) u = u V v u- Vv.
manner V x (u x v) = v V u
v V u.
Vx(uxv)=vVu v V u u V v + u V
*
In like
Hence
There are a number of important relations in which
75.]
the partial operation
u x
V(u-v) u
or
(u v) u figures.
v)
= V (u
i,
V v = V (u
j, k.
as follows.
v) a
= u. Vv + u
v) u
proof of this relation
terms of
is
(V x
or
The
v.
method
Expand
of
x (V x
+ (V x
may
- u V v,
v),
v) x
u.
(46)
(46)
(46)"
be given by expanding in
remembering the result
the product
u x (V x v)
ll
easily
VECTOR ANALYSIS
162
formally as
if
V,
u,
v were
Then
all real vectors.
ux(Vxv)=u.vV
V v.
The second term is capable of interpretation as it stands.

The first term, however, is not. The operator V has nothing
upon which
to operate.
that
have u v as
it
shall
of the parenthesis in
tiations.
must be transposed so
an operand. But u being outside
It therefore
u x (V x v)
Hence
is
constant for the differen
V = V (u v) u
u V v.
v) = V (u v) u
u v
u x (V x
and
If
u be a unit vector, say
a,
(46)
the formula
a-Vv = V(av) a + (V x
v)
x a
(47)
v of a
expresses the fact that the directional derivative a
in
vector function v
the direction a is equal to the derivative
of the projection of the vector v in that direction plus the
vector product of the curl of v into the direction a.
Consider the values of v at two neighboring points.
and
v (x
(x, y, z)
dx, y
dy> z
dz)
= v (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) v (#, y, z).

v = v{i + v 2 j + v 8 k
Let
dv = dv i + dv%j + dv 3 k.
dv = dr*
But by (25)
d v% = dr
dv% = dr
d v s= d r (V v
Hence
+ V v + V v z k).
dv = dr Vv
Hence
d v = V (rfr v) dr + (V x v) x dr.
By (46)"
dv
2 j
(48)

Or
if
V denote the value of v at the point
(#, y, z)
163
and v the
value at a neighboring point
= v + V (d r
v) dr
+ (V x
This expression of v in terms of

the
dels,
and the displacement d
its
v) x dr.
(49)
value v at a given point,
r is analogous to the
expan
sion of a scalar functor of one variable by Taylor s theorem,
/<*>=/(*>+ .TOO **
The
That
derivative of (r
is
v)
when v
is
constant
V (r v) = v.
= v V r - (V x
is
equal to v.
V (r
For
v) v
r> x
v,
Vr = v
V (r
Hence
In like manner
if
v%j
= v,
= 0.
v) v = v.
instead of the finite vector
vector d r be substituted, the result
r,
an infinitesimal
still is
V (d r v) v = v.
v = V + V (d r v) dr + (V x v) x d r
V (d r v) = V (d r v) d + V (d r vV
V (d r v) dr = V (d r v) v.
V/fllO*^
By
(49)
Hence
Substituting :
= ^ vo + ^V(dr.v) + ^(Vxv)xdr.
This gives another form of (49) which
convenient
It is also slightly
is
(50)
sometimes more
more symmetrical.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
164
*
Consider a moving
76.]
Let v
fluid.
(#,
T/, 3,
t)
velocity of the fluid at the point (#, y, z) at the time
round a point
(a;
z )
=v +
In the increment of time B
moved
The
= c2
Sur
point of this sphere the velocity
be the
with a small sphere.
dr dr
At each
t.
is
V v.
the points of this sphere will have
the distance
point at the center will have
moved
the distance
The
distance between the center and the points that were

upon the sphere of radius d r at the commencement of the
interval $
To
has become at the end of that interval S
find the locus of the extremity of
dr
it is
necessary to
eliminate d r from the equations
c2
The
first
The
result will
= dr
r.
be solved for d r by the method of

Art. 47, page 90, and the solution substituted into the second.
equation
may
show that the
infinitesimal sphere
has been transformed into an ellipsoid by the motion of the

fluid during the time 8 1.
A
may
more
definite account of the
change that has taken place
be obtained by making use of equation (50)

v
= iv + |v(rfr.v) + 2-(Vx
165
xdr,
v)
= v +i[V(dr.v)-v ] + |(Vxv)xdr;
S
or of the equation (49)
= v + V(dr-v) dr +(Vx
=v +
[V (dr
The
first
v) dr
(V x
v)
x d
v)xrfr,
r]+
(V x
v)
x d r.
term v in these equations expresses the fact that

is moving as a whole with an instan
the infinitesimal sphere
taneous velocity equal to V . This

of the motion.
The last term
^(Vxv)xdr =
is
the translational element
curl v
x dr
undergoing a rotation about an

instantaneous axis in the direction of curl v and with an angu
shows that the sphere
is
magnitude to one half the magnitude of

The middle term
lar velocity equal in
curl
v.
v(dr.v) dr -
or
(Vx
v)
x dr
expresses the fact that the sphere is undergoing a defor

mation known as homogeneous strain by virtue of which it
becomes
ellipsoidal.
For
this
term
is
equal to
dx V^j + dy V# 2 + dz
if
Vj,
tions
v 2 , v s be respectively the
i,
It
is
components of v in the direc
fairly obvious
that at any given point
mutually perpendicular axes i, j, k

be chosen such that at that point V^, V# 2 V# 3 are re-
(#o> 2A
may
j,
k.
zo) ^ set of three
VECTOR ANALYSIS
166
Then
them.
to
spectively parallel
the
expression
above
becomes simply
dx *i i+dyy
dx
9y
î + dz ^.
9^
The point whose
coordinates referred to the center of the
infinitesimal sphere are
dx,
dy,
dz
will
endowed with this velocity.

have moved to a new position
The
totality of the points
is
therefore
In the time S
t it
upon the sphere
the ellipsoid of
goes over into the totality of points upon
which the equation is
2
dx 2
dz*
dy
The statements made before (Art. 72) concerning the three

types of motion which an infinitesimal sphere of fluid may
possess have therefore
now been
The symbolic operator
demonstrated.
V may be
applied several times

This will correspond in a general way to
forming derivatives of an order higher than the first. The
will all be independ
expressions found by thus repeating
77.]
in
succession.
ent of the axes because
V itself
is.
There are six of these
dels of the second order.
Let
The
(#, y, z)
derivative
be a scalar function of position in space.

is a vector function and hence has a curl
VF
and a divergence.
Therefore
V-VF,
VxVF

two derivatives
obtained from V.
are the
of the second order
which may be
V-VF=div VF
The second expression
(51)
VF=curl VF.
(52)
V x V V vanishes identically.
V possesses no
V V in terms of
scalar function
the derivative
167
That
curl.
is,
This
of any
All
x
be seen by expanding
i, j, k.
the terms cancel out. Later (Art. 83) it will be shown con
possesses no curl, i. e. if
versely that if a vector function
may
is
W = curl W =
then
W = VF,
first
expression
V VF
when expanded
in terms of
k becomes
V V=
Symbolically,
The
0,
the derivative of some scalar function F.
The
i, j,
operator
Laplace.
V V is
Laplace
^
y2
-5
<i/2
+ -rO
/v
therefore the well-known operator of
Equation
becomes in the notation here employed
V-VF=0.
(53)
V V
When applied to a scalar function F the operator

yields
a scalar function which is, moreover, the divergence of the
derivative.
Let
flow f
is
be the temperature in a body. Let c be the con

The
ductivity, p the density, and k the specific heat.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
168
The
rate at
unit time
is
which heat
f.
leaving a point per unit volume per
is
The increment
of temperature is
rfr=-^-V.f
K
dt.
d
-
= -^.VT.
pK
at
This
is
Fourier
equation for the rate of change of tempera
ture.
Let
ponents.
be a vector function, and
The
Vv Vv Vz
operator V V of Laplace
may
three
its
v.vv = v-vr + v-vr + v.vr

i
If a vector function
its
satisfies
2 j
order
Laplace
three scalar components does.
Other
Equation, each of
second
dels of the
be obtained by considering the divergence and curl

The divergence
V has a derivative
VV-V = VdivV.
curl
(55)
V X V has in turn a divergence and a curl,

V V x V, VxVxV.
V V x V = div curl V
V x V x V = curl curl V.
and
and
Of
(54)
may
of V.
The
these expressions
V VxV
(56)
(57)
vanishes identically.
the divergence of the curl of any

x V in terms of
seen by expanding
vector is zero.
V V
it
will be
shown conversely that
83)
vector function
if
i, j,
k.
This
That
is,
may
be
Later (Art.
the divergence of a
W vanishes identically,
V W = div W = then W = V x V = curl V,
i. e. if
0,
is
com
be applied to V.
the curl of
some vector function V.
If the expression
according to the
169
x (V x V) were expanded formally
law of the
triple vector product,
Vx(VxV) = V-VV-V.VV.
The term
V VV
meaningless until
is
the beginning so that
it
be transposed to
operates upon V.
VxVxV = VV.V-V-VV,
curl
or
This formula
(58)
curl V = V div V - V VV.
(58)
very important. It expresses the curl of the

curl of a vector in terms of the derivative of the divergence
is
and the operator of Laplace.

satisfy Laplace
Should the vector function
Equation,
V VV = and
curl curl V = V div V.
Should the divergence of
curl curl
be zero,
V=
Should the curl of the curl of
V VV.
vanish,
V div V = V VV.
To sum
There are six of the
up.
dels of the
second order.
V-VT, VxVF,
V-VV, V V
Of
these,
two vanish
V,
V Vx
V,
V.
identically.
VxVr=0, V-VxV = 0.
A third may be
expressed in terms of two others.
VxVxV = VV.V-V.VV.
The
operator
(58)
V V is equivalent to the operator of Laplace.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
170
*
The geometric
78.]
interpretation of
V Vw is interesting.
upon a geometric interpretation of the second

u of the one scalar variable x.
u
at
the
Let it be required
the
value
of
Let u be
point x
to find the second derivative of u with respect to x at the
Let xl and x2 be two points equidistant from #
point x
That is, let
It depends
derivative of a scalar function
t.
Xn
*""
XQ
XQ
-^
~~~
^^
&t
*/
ni
Then
the ratio of the difference between the average of u at the

points x l and #2 and the value of u at x to the square of the
is
distance of the points x v #3 from x
d*u
.
is
easily
That
LIM.
proved by Taylor s theorem.
Let u be a scalar function of position in space.

three mutually orthogonal lines
i,
j,
Choose
k and evaluate the
expressions
Let
>
and a?! be two points on the line i at a distance a from

2
#4 and #3 two points on j at the same distance a from
#e and #6 , two points on k at the same distance a from x
o?
?^_.
LIM ._2
u~
:
171
Add:
-LIM r
~a=OL
As
V and V-
are independent of the particular axes chosen,
this expression
then for
still
may
be evaluated for a different set of axes,
a different one,
By
etc.
adding together
all
these results
u\ + u% +
a==
Let n become
infinite
n terms
and
same time
at the
let the different
from #
sets of axes point in every direction issuing
The
fraction
u\
U2
n terms
then approaches the average value of u upon the surface of a

Denote this
sphere of radius a surrounding the point x
.
by u a
V V u is equal to six times the

of the excess of
u on the surface
limit approached
by the
ratio
of a sphere above the value
at the center to the square of the radius of the sphere.

same reasoning holds in case u is a vector function.
The
u be the temperature of a body V-V u (except for a

constant factor which depends upon the material of the
If
VECTOR ANALYSIS
172
body)
77).
equal to the rate of increase of temperature (Art.

If
positive the average temperature upon a
is
VVîs
small sphere is greater than the temperature at the center.

The center of the sphere is growing warmer. In the case
of a steady flow the temperature at the center
constant.
flow
must remain
Evidently therefore the condition for a steady
is
V V u = 0.
That
the temperature is a solution of Laplace

Maxwell gave the name concentration to
is,
u be a
be called the dispersion of the function
The
is
Equation.
V V u whether
Consequently V V u may
scalar or vector function.
or vector.
u whether
it
be scalar
proportional to the excess of
dispersion
the average value of the function on an infinitesimal surface
above the value at the center. In case u is a vector function
the average
is
The
a vector average.
additions in
it
are
vector additions.
SUMMARY
OF CHAPTER III
If a vector r is a function of a scalar
with respect to
the derivative of
a vector quantity whose direction is

that of the tangent to the curve described by the terminus
of r and whose magnitude is equal to the rate of advance of
r
is
that terminus along the curve per unit change of t. The

derivatives of the components of a vector are the components
of the derivatives.
dn r
dt*
=d
r,.
dt
dt*
d*
j
J
r~
dt*
combination of vectors or of vectors and scalars
2V
may
be
differentiated just as in ordinary scalar analysis except that

the differentiations must be performed in situ.
173
(3)
(4)
d (a
or
b)
=da
b,
(3)
d(axb) = daxb + axdb,

and so
The
forth.
(4)
differential of a unit vector is
perpendicu
lar to that vector.
The
derivative of a vector r with respect to the arc s of

the curve which the terminus of the vector describes is
the unit tangent to the curves directed toward that part of the
curve along which
$ is
supposed to increase.
<"
r."The
derivative of t with respect to the arc *
direction
is
a vector whose
normal to the curve on the concave side and
whose magnitude
The
is
is
equal to the curvature of the curve.
tortuosity of a curve in space
is
the derivative of the
unit normal n to the osculating plane with respect to the

arc
s.
The magnitude
^n_^_/rfr X r
ds~ ds\ds ds*
<?
of the tortuosity
r=
VCTC/
is
rdr d*r 3
r"|
L^s ^T2 rf^J
cZ
_1
VECTOR ANALYSIS
174
denote the position of a moving particle,

A the acceleration,
If r
the time,
v the velocity,
*-*---*
The
be broken up into two components of

parallel to the tangent and depends upon the
acceleration
which one
is
may
change of the scalar velocity v of the particle in its

path, and of which the other is perpendicular to the tangent
and depends upon the velocity of the particle and the curva
rate of
ture of the path.
A=
s t
C.
(19)
Applications to the hodograph, in particular motion in a

circle, parabola, or under a central acceleration.
Application
to the proof of the theorem that the motion of a rigid body
one point of which is fixed is an instantaneous rotation about

an axis through the fixed point.
Integration with respect to a scalar
of differentiation.
is
merely the inverse

due to
Application to finding the paths
given accelerations.
The
operator
applied to a scalar function of position in
a
vector
whose direction is that of most rapid
space gives
of
that
increase
function and whose magnitude is equal to
the rate of that increase per unit change of position in that

direction
The
is invariant of the axes

operator
denned by the equation
i,
It
k.
j,
n,
may be
(24)
W-dT = dV.
or
175
(25)
by two methods depend

Computation of the derivative V
and
Illustration of the oc
(25)
ing upon equations (21)
.
currence of
V in
mathematical physics.
may be looked upon as a fictitious vector, a vector

It obeys the formal laws of vectors just in
differentiator.
so far as the scalar differentiators of 51 5 x> "9 / d y, 9 1 3 z obey
the formal laws of scalar quantities
A
If a
VF
=^ î^ l7
+
be a unit vector a
in the direction
VV
is
< 28 >
the directional derivative of
a.
a.VF = (a-V) F=a(VF).

If
V is
a vector function a
VV
is
(30)
the directional derivative
of that vector function in the direction a.
3 x
+ k.^-,
,-J~
9
3 z
+
VxV=ix|^
3x jx
V.V= ^
(32)
3 x
3y
^+
3y
+ kx
(33)
^
3 z
(32)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
176
Proof that
V V is
of V.
the divergence of
V x V, the curl
and
V V = div V,
V X V = curl V.
V O + = V u + Vtf,
(35)
=V
(36)
t;)
u + V v,
V (u + v)
Vx(u + v)=Vxn + Vxv,
V (u v) = v V u + u V v,
V (u v) = V u v + u V v,
V x (u v) = V u x v + u V x v,
V(nv)=vVu + U Vv + vx (V x
Vx (u x
(V x
n x
(37)
(38)
(39)
(40)
n)
v), (41)
V (n x v) = v Vxu-u-Vxv,
u Vv + uV* v.
v V u
v) =v .Vu
Introduction of the partial

ferentiations are
del,
V (u
performed upon
v) u
in
(42)
(43)
which the
dif
the hypothesis that u
is
constant.
u x
If a
(V x v)
= V (u
v) u
V v.
(46)
be a unit vector the directional derivative

a
The expansion
Vv=V
v) a
(a
+ (V x
v)
a.
(47)
any vector function v in the neighborhood

of a point (x# y# z ) at which it takes on the value of v is
or
of
=v + V
= \ v + V (d r
(d r
v) dr
.
v)
+ (V x v) x
+ \ (V x
v)
dr,
(49)
x d r.
(50)
Application to hydrodynamics.
The dels of the second order are six in number.
V x VF= curl VF= 0,

x)
F"
(52)
wv &v
+ Vp
V-VJ^vV^f^+^
d x
d y
9
2
V V
place s
is
Laplace s operator.
The
Equation.
(51)
z2
VVF=0, V satisfies
If
operator
may
interpretation of
La
be applied to a vector.
VV. V = VdivV,
V V x V = div curl V = 0,
Vx VxV=curlcurlV = VV.V- V. VV.
The geometric
177
V V as giving
(55)
(56)
(58)
the disper
sion of a function.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER III

Given a
Let the
particle moving in a plane curve.
Obtain
the
formulae
the
for
be
the
plane
ij-plane.
compo
nents of the velocity parallel and perpendicular to the radius
1.
vector
These are
r.
rp
where
is
is
kxr,
the angle the radius vector r
makes with
i,
and k
the normal to the plane.
Obtain the accelerations of the particle parallel and

perpendicular to the radius vector. These are
2.
Express these formulae in the usual manner in terms of x
and
y.
12
VECTOR ANALYSIS
178
3. Obtain the accelerations of a moving particle parallel

and perpendicular to the tangent to the path and reduce the
results to the usual form.

If r,
4.
be a system of polar coordinates in space,
</>,
where r is the distance of a point from the origin, </> the

meridianal angle, and 6 the polar angle ; obtain the expressions
for the components of the velocity and acceleration along the
radius vector, a meridian, and a parallel of latitude.
Reduce
these expressions to the ordinary form in terms of #, y,
Show by
5.
V is
the operator
6.
By
where
7.
method given
V of a triple product
a function of
#, y, z in
= (r
d, e, f
in Art. 63 that
independent of the axes.
the second
the derivative
is
method suggested
the direct
z.
case
r) r,
computing V find
[a be] each term of which
for
(r
a)
e,
=r
t,
are constant vectors.
Compute
V V F when Fis r 2 r, -, or -r
r
r*
V V V, VV V, and V x V x V when V
,
8.
Compute
equal to r and when
is
equal to
-j>
is
and show that in these
cases the formula (58) holds.

9.
Expand
V x V V and V V x V in
show that they vanish (Art.

10.
Show by expanding
Prove
in terms of
i, j,
k that
VV.
A.V(7-W) = VA.VW+ WA- VV,
and
(VxV)
i, j,
77).
Vx VxV=VV. V-V
11.
terms of
W=Vx
(Vx
k and
CHAPTER IV
79.]
Let
space.
Let
be a vector function of position in

be any curve in space, and r the radius vector
(#, y, z)
drawn from some fixed
origin to the points of the curve.
Divide the curve into infinitesimal elements dr.
sum
of the scalar product of these elements
of the function
thus
The
in
From
the
d r and the value
W at some point of the element

2W d
r.
limit of this
sum when
the elements
dr become
number, each approaching zero, is called the

the curve C and is written
W along
infinite
line integral of
.dr.
dT
and
= dx + j dy +
i
dz,
r W dr = r
[W+dx -\-W*dy +W%dz\.
t/
t/
(7
(1)
C7
The
the
definition of the line integral therefore coincides with

definition usually given.
It is however necessary to
specify in which direction the radius vector r
is
supposed to
describe the curve during the

For the elements
integration.
d r have opposite signs when the curve is described in oppo-
VECTOR ANALYSIS
180
C and
method
If one
site directions.
the other by
of description be denoted by
(7,
= --
dr
/W
JI c
-G
d r.
C is
a closed curve bounding a portion of

surface the curve will always be regarded as described in
In case the curve
such
a direction that the enclosed area appears positive
(Art. 25).
which may be supposed to vary from

(7, the work done by the force
If f denote the force
point to point along the curve
when
r
its
point of application
of the curve
C to
ff
J
Theorem
The
scalar function
is
moved from
dr= fr
line integral of
V(x,y,
z)
dr.
the derivative
That
F (#,
VF
of a
along any curve from the point
r to the point r is equal to the difference
of the function
the initial point
point r is the line integral
its final
y, z) at
between the values
the point r and at the point r
is,
Vr.dr =
F(r)
- F(r ) =
V(x,y,z)
- V(xy*d.
By
dr
definition
fdV= F(r)
Theorem
The
F(r
V F" = d V
=
Ffey,^)
line integral
of the
- V(xyz.).
derivative
single valued scalar function of position

closed
The
is
(2)
V F" of
taken around a
curve vanishes.
fact that the integral
denoted by writing a
is
taken around a closed curve
circle at the foot of the integral sign.
To show
(3)
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUJS OF VECTORS

The
initial
point r and the final point r coincide.
Jo
Conversely
V (x, y, z)
if
closed curve vanishes,
function
Hence
fvF.dr = 0.
Hence by (2)
Theorem
181
the line integral of

about every
is the derivative of some scalar
Given
W = V V.
To show
be any fixed point in space and r a variable point.
Let
The
line integral
J
di
independent of the path of integration C. For let any two

paths C and C be drawn between r and r. The curve which
is
consists of the path
C from
to r is a closed curve.
to r
W
c
J/ c
-c
fw.dr = 0,
/
/Wdr =
J
C from
Hence by hypothesis
/W*cZr+
j
Hence
and the path
dr
W*dr.
dr.
Hence the value of the integral is independent of the path

and depends only upon the final point r.
of integration
VECTOR ANALYSIS
182
The value
of the integral is therefore a scalar function of
the position of the point r whose coordinates are x, y,
Let the integral be taken between two points
z.
infinitely near
together.
y,z).
But by
VV
definition
= d V.
dr
Hence
The theorem
is
therefore demonstrated.
be the force which acts upon a unit mass near

80.]
the surface of the earth under the influence of gravity. Let
Let
a system of axes
k be chosen so that k
i, j,
The work done by
the force
moves from the position
w=
f*dT
w=
Jr
Hence
when
its
is vertical.
Then
point of application
r to the position r is
Jr
(z
# k
z )
dr
= g (z
J r gdz.
I
z).
The force f is said to be derivable from a force-function V

when there exists a scalar function of position V such that
the force
Evidently
equal at each
V is one
to V any
point of the derivative VF.

may be obtained
force-function, another
arbitrary constant.
the force-function is
by adding
ample
is
if
V=w = g(z
Or more simply
The force is
-z).
V= g
f = VF=-0k.
z.
In the above ex

The necessary and
V (z,
y, z)
exist, is
183
sufficient condition that a force-function
work done by
that the
the force
when
its
point of application moves around a closed circuit be zero.

The work done by the force is
w=
If
when taken around every
integral vanishes
this
dr
closed
contour
And
conversely
if
= VV
the integral vanishes. The force-function and the

differ only by a constant.
V= w +
In case there
is
work done by
closed circuit
The
friction
friction
is
a particle
is
is
For the
exist.
moved around
in a
never zero.
by a fixed mass
force of attraction exerted
a unit mass
directed toward the fixed mass and
masses.
f
M upon
is
propor
the distance between the
to the inverse square of
tional
const
no force-function can
when
work done
M
= -c-r.
6
r
This
It is
the law of universal gravitation as stated by Newton.

easy to see that this force is derivable from a force-
is
function V.
Choose the origin of coordinates at the center

M. Then the work done is
of the attracting mass
M
?
But
dr
= r d r,
= -c$r
r dr
I
Jr
d r.
=-cM
M---1)
}
r 3
VECTOR ANALYSIS
184
a proper choice of units the constant c may be made

The force-function
equal to unity.
may therefore be
By
chosen as
had been several attracting bodies
If there
the force-function would have been
<
where r r r 2 r 8
are the distances of the attracted unit
mass from the attracting masses
v M%
B
,
The law of the conservation of mechanical energy requires

that the work done by the forces when a point is moved
around a closed curve shall be zero.
on the assump
tion that none of the mechanical energy has been converted
into other forms of energy during the motion.
The law of
This
is
conservation of energy therefore requires the forces to be

from a force-function.
Conversely if a force-
derivable
function exists the work done by the forces when a point is

carried around a closed curve is zero and consequently there
is
no
loss of energy.
function exists
is
A mechanical
system for which a forcecalled a conservative system.

From the
just cited above
it is clear that bodies

example
moving under
the law of universal gravitation form a conservative system
at least so long as they do not collide.
Let
be any vector function of position in

Let S be any surface. Divide this surface into in
space.
finitesimal elements.
These elements may be regarded as
81.]
(x, y, z)
plane and may be represented by infinitesimal vectors of

which the direction is at each point the direction of the
normal to the surface at that point and of which the magni
tude
is
equal to the magnitude of the area of the infinitesimal

Let
element.
this infinitesimal vector
185
which represents the
element of surface in magnitude and direction be denoted by
d a.
Form
which
is
the
the
sum
sum
of the scalar products of the value of
surface.
The
limit of this
face approach zero
the surface $, and
is
sum when
the elements of sur
called the surface integral of
is
and the (vector) element of
at each element of surface
W over
written
(4)
The value
pressed in terms of their
da
or
and da be ex
three components parallel to i, j, k
of the integral
= dy dz
scalar.
is
i -f
dz dx
If
+ dx dy k,
(5)
The
surface integral therefore has been defined as is cus

tomary in ordinary analysis. It is however necessary to
determine with the greatest care which normal to the surface
da
is.
integral
That
is
is,
which
taken over.
side of the surface (so to
are the negatives of each other.
taken over the two sides will
Hence the
sides
surface integrals
differ in sign.
In case the
upon as bounding a portion of space d a

considered
to be the exterior normal.
always
If f denote the flux of any substance the surface integral
surface be looked
is
speak) the
For the normals upon the two
f.rfa
s
VECTOR ANALYSIS
186
gives the amount of that substance which is passing through

the surface per unit time. It was seen before (Art. 71) that
the rate at which matter was leaving a point per unit
volume per unit time was V f The total amount of mat

ter which leaves a closed space bounded by a surface S per
.
unit time
is
the ordinary triple integral
(6)
Hence the very important
relation connecting a surface in
tegral of a flux taken over a closed surface
and the volume
integral of the divergence of the flux taken over the space

enclosed by the surface
///
CO
Written out in the notation of the ordinary calculus
this
becomes
I
\Xdy dz + Ydzdx + Zdxdy~\
3Y,
The
where X, F, Z are the three components of the flux f
familiar
when each of the three
theorem is perhaps still more
.
components
is
treated separately.
(8)
This
is
known
as Gauss s Theorem.
It states that the surface
integral (taken over a closed surface) of the product of a
X and
the cosine of the angle which the exterior

normal to that surface makes with the X-axis is equal to
the volume integral of the partial derivative of that function
function
187
with respect to x taken throughout the volume enclosed by

that surface.
If the surface
be the surface bounding an infinitesimal
sphere or cube
ff f-da = V-f dv
where d v
is
the volume of that sphere or cube.
V.f =
fff-da.
dv J J
Hence
(9)
be taken as a definition of the divergence

The divergence of a vector function f is equal to the
f.
limit approached by the surface integral of f taken over a sur
This equation
may
face
bounding an infinitesimal body divided by that volume

the volume approaches zero as its limit. That is
when
V.f= dvQA -f-da.

dvJJs
,
From
(10)
which is evidently independent of the

the properties of the divergence may be deduced. In
order to make use of this definition it is necessary to develop
at least the elements of the integral calculus of vectors before
axes
this definition
all
the differentiating operators can be treated.

This definition
of
f consequently is interesting more from a theoretical
than from a practical standpoint.

Theorem : The surface integral of the curl of a vector
82.]
function
equal to the line integral of that vector function

taken around the closed curve bounding that surface.
is
f fV x
JJ8
This
is
JO
w-dr.
the celebrated theorem of Stokes.
great importance in
number
W-da=
all
On
(11)
account of
its
branches of mathematical physics a
of different proofs will be given.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
188
First Proof
(Fig. 32).
Consider a small triangle 1 23 upon the surface

at the vertex 1 be
Then by (50), Chap.
W = ~{ W
III.,
Let the value of
the value at any neighboring point
+ V (W* 8 r) + (V x W) x
8 r
is
where the symbol 8 r has been introduced for the sake of dis
tinguishing it from d r which is to be used as the element of
integration.
The
integral of
W taken
around the triangle
FIG. 32.
Cw-dr=l fwo -dr +

+
The
first
term
I
2
f (V x W) x
A
fv(W-Sr).<Zr
Sr-dr.
fw
JA
.dr
= iw
Cdr
JA
vanishes because the integral of d r around a closed figure, in

this case a small triangle, is zero.
The second term
Jfv(W-Sr).dr
A
vanishes by virtue of (3) page 180.
Hence
Cw*di =
JA
189
fvxWxSr-dr.
JA
Interchange the dot and the cross in this triple product.
=| JV xW-Sr
When dr
is
equal to the side
12
x dr.
of the triangle,
Sr
is
also
Hence the product
equal to this side.
Sr x di
vanishes because 8 r and d r are collinear.
when dr
is
In like manner
is the same side 13, but taken

Hence the vector product vanishes.
side #5, Sr is a line drawn from the vertex
to this side S3.
Hence the product 8 r x d r
the side 31, 8r
in the opposite direction.
When dr
is
1 at which
W= W
the
twice the area of the triangle.

Hence
positive area 1 % 3.
is
|r x
dr
This area, moreover,
is
the
where d a denotes the positive area of the triangular element

For the infinitesimal triangle therefore the
of surface.
relation
=V
holds.
Let the surface 8 be divided into elementary triangles.

For convenience let the curve which bounds the surface
be made up of the sides of these triangles.
Perform the
integration
fw-dr
JA
around each of these triangles and add the results together.
2/
JA
VECTOR ANALYSIS
190
The second member
da
3
is
W.
the surface integral of the curl of
2 V x W-rfa=JJv x W
In adding together the line integrals which occur in the
member
first
the sides of the ele
that all
necessary to notice
mentary triangles except those which lie along the bounding
curve of the surface are traced twice in opposite directions.
Hence
it is
all
the terms in the
sum
from those sides of the triangles lying within the

cancel out, leaving in the sum only the terms
which arise from those sides which make up the bounding
which
arise
surface
curve of the surface.

tegral of
Hence the sum reduces
to the line in
W along the curve which bounds the surface S.

= fw
Jo
Hence
da
= fW
d r.
Jo
Second Proof
Let
C be any closed
contour drawn upon the surface

It will be assumed that
(Fig. 33).
is
continuous and does not cut
Let
to C.
S
C
itself.
be another such contour near
Consider the variation S which
FIG. 33.
takes place in the line integral of

in passing from the contour C to the
contour
C".
191
/V.dr = t/f
t/
fwdr =
But
d(W-
and
Hence
J*W
--
CdW *ST.
form a perfect
differential.
&dT= Cw*dST=f d(W*Sr)
The expression d
The value of the
(W
8 r)
is
its
by
integral of that expression will therefore be
the difference between the values of
dr
at the
integral
is
end and at
In this case the
the beginning of the path of integration.
taken around the closed contour C.
Hence
/^
Jc
Hence
and
But
or
fsw.dr- f
fw-rfr=
W = 9W d
J
-K
W = PW
&x
-^
a?
3W
d!
+ ^d
and
vx
-7T
&y
dJ y
dr
3W k
-^
d r,
VECTOR ANALYSIS
192
Substituting these values
dT
i.Br-~
ox
similar terms in y
and
-8r i-dr
z.
[
But by (25) page 111
Hence
sfwdr=/
+
or
fW
Srxdr
similar terms in y
dr
= fV
and
x d r.
8r
In Fig. 33 it will be seen that d r is the element of arc

along the curve C and 8 r is the distance from the curve C to
the curve
r
.
Hence
8r
X dr
is
equal to the area of an ele
mentary parallelogram included between

surface S. That is
Let the curve
fw-dr= fv
C and C upon
f
the
da.
in
expand until
starting at a point
coincides with the contour bounding S.
The line integral
will vary
from the value
at the point
/
t/O
to the value
it
193
taken around the contour which bounds the surface S.
This
sum
of the
total variation of the integral will be
equal to the
variations 8
f Wdr=
Or
ff Vx W-da.
(11)
theorem that the surface integral of the curl

of a vector function is equal to the line integral of the func
Stokes
83.]
which bounds the surface
tion taken along the closed curve
The converse
has been proved.

integral of a
vector function
W taken around
is
is
also true.
equal
If
the surface
to the line integral
of the
and
if
this relation holds for all surfaces in space, then TT is the curl
of
function
W.
That
if
Form
V x W.
the curve
bounding
the surface
is
= f Wdr, thenU=Vx
fll. da
S over which
Let the surface

infinitesimal.
The
factor vanishes.
the integration
any element
Hence
V x W = 0.
IT = V x W.
IT-
is
0.
is
performed be
this equation holds for
The converse
and
integral reduces to merely a single term
(U_V
Hence
IT
f W-dr = 0,
f f (TI- V x W)-da =
or
first
(12)
the surface integral df the difference between
// (tf~ Vx W)*da=f W*dr -
As
W.
therefore demonstrated.
13
of surface
a,
the
VECTOR ANALYSIS
194
which is independent of the axes

definition of V x
k may be obtained by applying Stokes s theorem to an in
A
i, j,
Consider a point P. Pass a plane

through P and draw in it, concentric with P, a small circle of
finitesimal plane area.
area d
a.
Vx W.da=f W*dT.
When d a
has the same direction as
line integral will be a
between
W and
maximum,
(13)
W the
value of the
for the cosine of the angle
d a will be equal
For
to unity.
this
value of da,
IM
=rfa
rfa=:0
Hence
the curl
VxW
F/V
f W-rfrl
J
(13)
Lda.dajo
of a vector function
W has
at each
normal to that plane in

taken about a small circle con
point of space the direction of the
which the
line integral of
centric with the point in question is a
nitude of the curl at the point
is
maximum.
The mag
equal to the magnitude of
that line integral of maximum value divided by the area of

the circle about which it is taken.
This definition like the
one given in Art. 81 for the divergence is interesting more

from theoretical than from practical considerations.
Stokes
theorem or rather
duce Maxwell
its
converse
may
be used to de
equations of the electro-magnetic field in a
simple manner. Let E be the electric force, B the magnetic

the magnetic force, and C the flux of electricity
induction,
per unit area per unit time (i. e. the current density).
It is a fact learned from experiment that the total electro

motive force around a closed circuit is equal to the negative
of the rate of change of total magnetic induction through
the circuit.
The
total electromotive force is the line integral
of the electric force taken
around the
Edr.
circuit.
That
is

The
195
magnetic induction through the circuit is the sur

B taken over a surface
total
face integral of the magnetic induction
bounded by the
circuit.
That
is
B d*.
i
Experiment therefore shows that
B d a.
JJa
J/E-dr=/l
o
or
Hence by the converse
x E
of Stokes s theorem
= - B,
curl
= - B.
experiment that the work done in carry

unit
positive magnetic pole around a closed circuit is
ing a
equal to 4?r times the total electric flux through the circuit.
It is also a fact of
The work done
in carrying a unit pole around a circuit is

around the circuit. That is
The
through the circuit is the

surface integral of C taken over a surface bounded by the
total
circuit.
flux
That
of
electricity
is
///*
Experiment therefore teaches that
= 47r C f
JJs
VECTOR ANALYSIS
196
By
the converse of Stokes s theorem
V
With a proper
H=4
TT C.
interpretation of the current C, as the dis
placement current in addition to the conduction current,

an interpretation depending upon one of Maxwell s primary
hypotheses, this relation and the preceding one are the funda
mental equations of Maxwell
Heaviside and Hertz.
The theorems
of Stokes
s theory, in the
form used by
and Gauss may be used
to
demon
strate the identities.
V V
W=
div curl
0,
Vx VF=0,
According to Gauss
curl
W=
0.
VF=0.
theorem
VX Wdv=
According to Stokes
this to
the sphere
point
theorem
fvxW-da = CW
fffv-VxWdtf=
Hence
Apply
is
Cw*dr.
The
an infinitesimal sphere.
closed.
Hence
its
and the integral around
dr.
surface bounding
bounding curve reduces
it,
to zero.
V-VxWdv = Jfw-dr =
o
V V
W=
0.
0,
to a

Again according
to Stokes s
197
theorem
ffvxvr.<2a = fvr-dr.
to
Apply this
bounding
any
infinitesimal portion of surface.
line integral of
VF" vanishes.
the derivative
V
As
Hence the
this surface is closed.
The curve
this equation holds for
any d a,
it
follows that
Vx VF=0.
In
similar
manner the converse theorems may be
TT of a vector function
divergence
TJ is everywhere zero, then TT is the curl of some vector
function W.
demonstrated.
If the
TJ
If the curl
then
is
V x II of
between the
dels/ viz.
x W*
a vector function
TT is
everywhere zero,
the derivative of some scalar function
By making
84.]
=V
F",
use of the three fundamental relations
line, surface,
and volume
integrals,
and the
JYv x W-rfa=
f W.rfr,
(2)
(11)
(7)
it is
possible to obtain a large
transformation of integrals.
number
of formulae for the
These formulae correspond to
VECTOR ANALYSIS
198
"
in ordinary
connected with u integration by parts
are
obtained
both
sides of the
calculus.
They
by integrating
those
formulae, page 161, for differentiating.
First
(u v)
= u V v + v V u.
Jc
~Jc
Hence
Vv
di
C V
JG
[uv]
vV u* dx.
(14)
The expression
[u v]
represents the difference between the value of (u v) at r, the

end of the path, and the value at r the beginning of the path.
If the path be closed
,
f^Vvdr = -
C V
Jo
Jo
Second
f*
f*
J J
x (u v)
x (wv)*^ a=
=uV
f*
(*
J J
x v +
u*dr.
Vu
x
(*
^Vxvrfa+/
v.
f*
I
J J
(14)
Vwxv-da.
Hence
f*
f*
J J
V^xvda=l
f*
Jo
uv dr
f* f*
I
wVxvda,
J J
(15)
or
&Vxvda=
Third
Vx
(wV
But
Hence
Vx
Jo
uv dr
V?txvrfa,
J J
y)^^VxV^ + V^xV
V x Vv =
(u V v) = V u
V v,
2;
(15)
199

f*
f*
f*
JJ
f*
J J
Hence
f*
IIVO AVt/
f*
f*
J J
S-4
^-J
Jo
Jo
Fourth
,-y
It
(u v)
///
=uV
+V
/>V
v.
+ C C C
r r r
V-vd
JJJV.(T)^=JJJVT^ JJJ
*
Hence
^v
or
C C C ^7uv dv=
v(V^xv) = VXV^*v
Fifth
V (V M x
Hence
In
v)
rfv^xvrfa =
all
surface
rrr^V
Mvda
V^ V
Vî;,
(17)
v^-VXv.
x
v,
fffv^vxvdi;.
(18)
these formulae which contain a triple integral the

is the closed surface bounding the body throughout
which the integration
Examples
is
performed.
of integration
given here.
It
is
known
the most important of

functions of position,
by parts
like those
above can be
Only one more will be

as Greens Theorem and is perhaps
multiplied almost without
all.
limit.
If
u and v
are
any two scalar
VECTOR ANALYSIS
200
JJJ^
fl)
VOV
u)
(^
= V^ V + V V^
= V u V v + v V V u>
24
tf
J J J V- (uvv)dv C f Cu^
vclv==
Hence
^
/
By
/^VvcU
/V^-Vtfdfl=/
/ /
V^
da
r/^V-Vvdi?,
I v^*V udv.
(19)
subtracting these equalities the formula
/ / / (^
V V^
V V w) ^ ^ =
(20)
/ (^
t>
V ^)
a.
obtained. By expanding the expression in terms of i, j, k

the ordinary form of Green s theorem may be obtained.
further generalization due to Thomson (Lord Kelvin) is the
is
following
lw^/u*Vvdv=l
=
where
w is
vwVU"d*
uwVv*d&
I
v\?
u\
[w^ u^
dv,
(21)
a third scalar function of position.
The element of volume dv has nothing
to
do with the scalar
function v in these equations or in those that go before. The

use of v in these two different senses can hardly give rise to
any misunderstanding.
*
85.]
tions
In the preceding
articles the scalar
which have been subject
and vector func
to treatment have been sup-
201
posed to be continuous, single-valued, possessing derivatives

of the first two orders at every point of space under consider
When
ation.
valued, or
discontinuous or multiplefirst two orders
the functions are
possess derivatives of the
fail to
in certain regions of space,
some caution must be exercised
in
applying the results obtained.
Suppose for instance
VFThe
line integral
dx
Introducing polar coordinates
= r cos 6,
y = r sin 0,
x
Form
along two
circle lying
0.
path
+ 1,0)
to the point
Let one path be a semi

and the other, a semicircle
different paths.
above the JT-axis
lying below that
axis.
The value
of the integral along the
is
along the second path,
From
d r
the line integral from the point
(1, 0)
first
/-*
d6
TT.
this it appears that the integral does not depend merely

the
limits of integration, but upon the path chosen,
upon
VECTOR ANALYSIS
202
of the value
the value along one path being the negative
which is a
circle
the
around
The integral
along the other.
2 TT.
to
closed curve does not vanish, but is equal
were false
Art.
79
of
results
the
therefore
seem
It
might
and that consequently the entire bottom of the work which
This however is not so. The difficulty is
follows fell out.
that the function
F=tan
^-
not single-valued. At the point (1,1), for instance, the

function V takes on not only the value
is
-i
F=
tan
TT
-r>
but a whole series of values

7T
-+&7T,
where k
is
the origin,
any positive or negative integer. Furthermore at

which was included between the two semicircular
becomes wholly inde

paths of integration, the function
and
fails
to
It will be seen
terminate
possess a derivative.
therefore that the origin is a peculiar or singular point of the
function V. If the two paths of integration from (+ 1, 0) to
(1,0) had not included the origin the values of the integral
would not have
differed.
In other words the value of the
integral around a closed curve
which does not include
the
origin vanishes as it should.
Inasmuch
appears to be the point which

vitiates the results obtained, let it be considered as marked
as
the
by an impassable
origin
barrier.
Any
closed curve
which does
not contain the origin may be shrunk up or expanded at will ;

but a closed curve
which surrounds the origin cannot be
so distorted as no longer to enclose that point without break
ing its continuity. The curve C not surrounding the origin

may
but
203
shrink up to nothing without a break in its continuity ;

can only shrink down and fit closer and closer about
It cannot be
the origin.
shrunk down to nothing.
It
must
always remain encircling the origin. The curve C is said to

be reducible ; (7, irreducible. In case of the function F, then,
true that the integral taken around any reducible circuit
vanishes; but the integral around any irreducible circuit C
does not vanish.
it is
Suppose next that

tinuous
first
such point
reducible;
any function whatsoever.
circuit
it
no
may be shrunk up to nothing and is said to be

but a circuit which contains one or more such
stated: The line integral of the derivative
around any
reducible circuit C.
vanish around an irreducible circuit

circuit
all
be marked as impassable
which contains within
points cannot be so shrunk up without breaking

and it is said to be irreducible. The theorem
V vanishes
Let
to be continuous or to have con
partial derivatives
Then any
barriers.
V is
V fails
the points at which
C may be
irreducible circuit
its
continuity
may then be
VF" of any function
It may or may not
In case one irreducible
distorted so as to coincide with another
without passing through any of the

and without breaking its continuity,
singular points of
the two circuits are said to be reconcilable and the values of
VF

about them are the same.
region such that any closed curve C within
it
may
be
shrunk up to nothing without passing through any singular

point of V and without breaking its continuity, that is, a
region every closed curve in which is reducible*, is said to be
All other regions are cyclic.
acyclic.
By means of a simple device any cyclic region may be ren
dered acyclic.
Consider, for instance, the region (Fig. 34) en

closed between the surface of a cylinder and the surface of a
cube which contains the cylinder and whose bases coincide

with those of the cylinder. Such a region is realized in a room
VECTOR ANALYSIS
204
in
which a column reaches from the
floor to the ceiling.
It
circuit which passes

evident that this region is cyclic.
is
It
the
column
irreducible.
cannot be contracted to
around
is
~^x
nothing without breaking its continuity. If

now a diaphragm be inserted reaching from
the surface of the cylinder or column to the

surface of the cube the region thus formed
bounded by the surface
of the cylinder, the
surface of the cube, and the two sides of the

diaphragm is acyclic. Owing to the inser
tion of the diaphragm
to
draw a
circuit
which
it is
no longer possible
around the cyl
shall pass completely
the diaphragm prevents it. Hence every closed cir

which may be drawn in the region is reducible and the
inder
cuit
region
is acyclic.
In like manner any region

inserting a sufficient
surfaces of the
number
new region
may
be rendered acyclic by
of diaphragms.
consist of the
The bounding
bounding surfaces of
the given cyclic region and the two faces of each diaphragm.
In acyclic regions or regions rendered acyclic by the fore
going device all the results contained in Arts. 79 et seq.
hold true.
true.
To
For cyclic regions they may or may not hold

enter further into these questions at this point is
unnecessary.
Indeed, even as
much
discussion as has been
given them already may be superfluous. For they are ques

tions which do not concern vector methods any more than the
corresponding Cartesian ones.
They belong properly
to the
subject of integration itself, rather than to the particular

notation which may be employed in connection with it and
which
is
the
primary object of exposition here.
In this
respect these questions are similar to questions of rigor.

The Potential
The Integrating Operators.

86.]
205
Hitherto there have been considered
line,
surface,
and volume integrals of functions both scalar and vector.

There exist, however, certain special volume integrals which,
owing
with the differentiating
to their intimate connection
operators V,
V,
Vx, and owing
to their especially frequent
occurrence and great importance in physics, merit especial

consideration.
Suppose that
^0** Vv
is
*a)
a scalar function of the position in space of the point
For the sake of definiteness
may
density of matter at the point (# 2 , yv 22 ).
body
V is
be regarded as the
In a homogeneous
In those portions of space in which no

identically zero. In non-homogeneous dis
constant.
matter exists
V is
tributions of matter
varies
from point to point; but at
each point it has a definite value.

The vector
z 2 i + y 2 j + * 2 k,
r2
drawn from any assumed

the point (# 2 , y 2 , z 2 ).
origin,
may
be used to designate
Let
On
yi.
*i)
be any other fixed point of space, represented by the vector
drawn from the same

r2
is
-r =
x
the vector
(#2> IJy 2 2)-
O 2
origin.
!>!
Then
(y2
- yi ) j +
(z 2
- *j)
drawn from the point (x v y v Zj) to the point

A S s vec ôr occurs a large number of times
in the sections immediately following,

r i2
=r
~~ r
2
i-
it
will be denoted
by
VECTOR ANALYSIS
206
The length
of r 12
then r 12 and will be assumed to be
is
positive.
-i2
= V r 12
r 12
= V
(* 2
- x^ +
(y2
- ^) +
2
- ^) 2
Consider the triple integral
The
integration
that
^2> ^2> ^ 2
is
is,
performed with respect to the variables

with respect to the body of which V
represents the density (Fig. 35). During
the integration the point (x v y v z^ re
mains
fixed.
The
integral
/ has
a definite
value at each definite point (x v y v zj.

The inIt is a function of that point.
FIG. 3o.
terpretation of this integral
is
easy, if
the function
be regarded as the density of matter in space.
The element
of
mass
dm
dm
V (# 2
y2
at (# 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) is
,
2!
dx^ dyz dz%
2)
Vdv.
The integral / is therefore the sum of the elements of mass

in a body, each divided by its distance from a fixed point
r dm
J
what
termed the potential at the point (x v y v

due to the body whose density is
This
is
The
in
is
limits of integration in the integral
either
of
two ways.
In the
first
/ may be
looked at
place they
may
be
body of which
the most natural
regarded as coincident with the limits of the
V is
the density.
set of limits.
On
This indeed might seem

the other
hand the
integral
/ may
be
207
regarded as taken over all space. The value of the integral

the same in both cases. For when the limits are infinite
is
the function
V vanishes
identically at every point (# 2 ,
situated outside of the body
y2
2 2)
and hence does not augment
It is found most convenient

the value of the integral at all.
to consider the limits as infinite and the integral as extended
This saves the trouble of writing in special

The function Vot itself then
limits for each particular case.
over
all space.
practically determines the limits

tically at all points unoccupied
owing to its vanishing iden

by matter.
The operation
of finding the potential is of such

that
a special symbol, Pot, is used for it.
occurrence
frequent
87.]
Pot
The symbol
Pot V,
is
r=fff
y"
* 2>
rf* 2
dy^ dz y
read "the potential of V."

a function not of the variables
is
The
#.
2,
(22)
potential,
yv
z2
with
which the integration is performed but of the point

(x v y^ Zj) which is fixed during the integration. These
regard to
enter in the expression for r 12
variables
and Pot
V therefore
have
The function
different sets of variables.
has hitherto
may be necessary to note that although
in
of
matter
been regarded as the density
space, such an
It
interpretation for
Whenever
it
V is
entirely too restricted for convenience.
becomes necessary to form the integral
i
of
any scalar function V, no matter what
integral
is
"
< 22 >
represents, that
The reason for calling

even in cases in which it has
called the potential of V.
such an integral the potential

np connection with physical potential
according to the
same formal law
is
that
it
is
formed
as the true potential
and
VECTOR ANALYSIS
208
by virtue of that formation has certain simple rules

tion which other types of integrals do not possess.
Pursuant
to this idea the potential of a vector function
WO
may
of opera
y2
2,
z 2)
be written down.
Pot
W (*
W=
* 2)
y*
dx,
In this case the integral
is
the
sum
rfy. rf, r
of vector
(23)
quantities
consequently itself a vector. Thus the potential of a

vector function
is a vector function, just as the potential
and
is
of a scalar function
tion in space.
WO
2,
If
2/2 ,
V was
seen to be a scalar function of posi
W be resolved into three components

= X O yv ) + T <> yv )
)
its
z2
z2
2,
Pot
W=
Pot
X+
Pot
z2
2,
+ kZ <> 2
yv
z 2)
Y+ k Pot Z.
(24)
The potential of a vector function W is equal to the vector

sum of the potentials of its three components X, Y, Z.
The potential of a scalar function V exists at a point
(x v y v z p ) when and only when the integral
taken
over
all
space converges to a definite value.
If,
were everywhere constant in space the in

tegral would become greater and greater without limit as
the limits of integration were extended farther and farther
for instance,
out into space.
Evidently therefore
if
Jhe potential
is
to exist
must approach zero as its limit as the point (#2 , yv 32 )

few important sufficient conditions
recedes indefinitely.
for the convergence of the potential may be obtained by
transforming to polar coordinates.
Let

x
= r sin
yr
6 cos fa
sin 6 sin fa
z = r cos
dv
209
= r sm0
2
0,
dr dO
Let the point (xv y v ^) which

be chosen at the origin. Then
is
d<f>.
fixed for the integration
=r
r i2
and the integral becomes
PotF= CCCVrsmff dr d0
or simply
If
the
function
dfa
V decrease so rapidly that the product

Vr*
remains finite as r increases indefinitely, then the integral con

verges as
For
far as
the
distant
regions of space are concerned.
let
= 00
= 00
dr d0d<f>
dr d0
d<f>
= QO
Hence the
triple integral
taken over
space outside of a
supposed to be a large quan
all
sphere of radius R (where R is

jR, and consequently converges as far
tity) is less than %TT*
as regions distant from the origin are concerned.
14
VECTOR ANALYSIS
210
If
the function
V remain
finite or if it become infinite so
weakly that the product
Vr
remains finite when r approaches zero, then the integral converges
as far as regions near to the origin are concerned. For let
Vr<K
f CCrrsmddr d0
r
dO
triple integral
R (where
than 2 Tr2
of radius
regions near to
concerned.
R is now
e.
the point
d<f>.
space inside a sphere

supposed to be a small quantity)
all
and consequently converges as

the origin which is the point (x v y v
If at any point (x 2 y2
i.
d<t>
taken over
KR
is less
< C C fadr d0
CCC
Hence the
d<f>
(x x , y v
far as
z 2 ) not coincident with the origin,
z x ), the function
weakly that the product of the value
0/V
becomes infinite so
at
a point near
( X 2> J2> Z 2) ty the square of the distance of that point
(x
2,
y2 z 2 )
,
remains
The
to
from
finite as that distance approaches zero, then
the integral converges as far as regions
are concerned.
are
Zj)
near
to the
proof of this statement
is
point (x 2
y2
z2)
like those given
These three conditions for the convergence of the

integral Pot V are sufficient.
They are by no means neces
The
sary.
integral may converge when they do not hold.
before.
It is
however indispensable
to
know whether or
not an integral
under discussion converges. Unless the tests given above

show the convergence, more stringent ones must be resorted
to.
Such, however, will not be discussed here.
They belong
to the theory of integration in general rather than to the
211
theory of the integrating operator Pot. The discussion of

re
the convergence of the potential of a vector function
three
which
are
scalar
duces at once to that of its
components
functions and
may
be treated as above.
a function of the variables x v y v z l

which are constant with respect to the integration. Let the
The
88.]
potential
is
value of the potential at the point (x v y v z^ be denoted by
The
is
first partial
derivative of the potential with respect to x l
therefore
LIM
The value
^[
of this limit
may
be determined by a simple
Consider
device (Fig. 36).
the potential at the point
due to a certain body T. This

is the same as the potential at
the point
FlG 36
-
due to the same body T displaced in the negative direction by

the amount A x r For in finding the potential at a point P
due to a body T the absolute positions in space of the body

T and the point P are immaterial. It is only their positions
which determines the value of the poten

both body and point be translated by the same
amount in the same direction the value of the potential is un
relative to each other

tial.
If
But now if T be displaced in the negative direction

amount A#, the value of Fat each point of space is
changed.
by the
changed from
where
v C*2> y*
A# 2 = A x r
**) to
v 0*2
VECTOR ANALYSIS
212
Hence
[Pot
V(x v yv
z^ +
[ Pot
LlM
Hence
A #! =
It will be
AX,, yt , *,
= [Pot F<> 2 + A
HX. + A
..,,, .t
a;
2 ,y2 ,
- [Pot
j
/
found convenient to introduce the
limits
of
Let the portion of space originally filled by the

denoted
be
; and let the portion filled by the
by
body
in the negative direction through
translation
its
after
body
integration.
the distance
x l be denoted by
The
regions
Let the region common to both be

m
remainder of
be m; the remainder of
overlap.
Pot
V (a, + A *
y r * 2) f
M and M
and
let the
Then
1
.
rrr
JJJ m
Pot
///
J J JM
/
"\F
(
r
I O/ft
(II
t/n
I
^j 2
/*/*/*
ill
*
Ô/,
*y
*\
1^
f V O1 tl
9 ^
*V*
V91 " J
/
rft>,+ / / /
J J Jm
Hence (25) becomes, when
A ^j
is
<)
T YL
replaced *by
t As all the following potentials are for the point

indices have been dropped.
^_Mrf r2
ar
lf
yi,
its
equal Aic 2
the bracket and
213
C r
J Jf J
my(*
A
Or,
a;
"
^,
==0
LIM
v yy
g2
r12
= rrr
jJJ
LIM
r 12
9 X
when A
^! approaches zero as its limit the regions mand

which are at no point thicker than A #, approach zero ;
and Jf both approach

t
-Jf
There are cases in which
;
,
as a limit.
this reversal of the order in
which the two
limits
are taken gives incorrect results. This is a question of double limits and leads to
the mazes of modern mathematical rigor.
Fis to exist at the surface bounding

the values of the
diminish continuously to zero upon the surface. If Fchanged
suddenly from a finite value within the surface to a zero value outside the de
rivative QVlSî would not exist and the triple integral would be meaningless.
J
If the derivative of
function
V must
For the same reason

within the region T.
V is
supposed to be
finite
and continuous at every point
VECTOR ANALYSIS
214
Then
be assumed that the region

vanishes upon the surface bounding T
if it
T/nvr
i <t\ jvi
rrr
Aôjjj
V(Y
V
ô*
\
OT
<>/
fo
T is
z \
^9y
riaAa;2
finite
Ji
and that
/\
Consequently the expression for the derivative of the poten

tial
reduces to merely
3 Pot
F= r r r
J1/1
J JM
d xl
is
i
r 12
3# 2
dv*
Pot
3^2
^%^ partial derivative of the potential of a scalar function

equal to the potential of the partial derivative of V.
V of the potential ofVis equal to the potential

of the derivative V V.
VPotF=PotVF
(27)
The derivative
This statement follows immediately from the former.

the
upon the left-hand
ables x v
y^
Zj,
it
side applies to the
be written
may
Vr
set
As
of vari
In like manner the
V upon
the right-hand side may be written

atten
2 to call
tion to the fact that it applies to the variables #2 y 2 , z2 of F.
,
Then
To
Pot
F= Pot V F
demonstrate this identity
.3 PotF
V may be expanded
.3 PotF
^J
I
(27)
.
I
T-
SV
+jPot 3-l-
lr
*
PotF
^
in terms of
215

As
i, j,
are constant vectors they
may
be placed under
be
integration and the terms may
the sign of
by means of (26)
The curl
function
VX
and
W are equal
divergence
collected.
Then
of the potential of a vector
respectively to the
potential of the curl
and
divergence of that function.
W = Pot V x W,
curl Pot W = Pot curl W
Vj Pot W = Pot V W,
div Pot W = Pot div W.
V, x Pot
or
and
(28)
or
be proved in a manner analogous to the

even possible to go further and form the dels
These relations
above.
It is
may
of higher order
v v Pot r= Pot v
VF;
(30)
Uf>iac<3*
V- V Pot W = Pot V V W,
V V Pot W = Pot VV W,
V x V x Pot W= Pot V x V x W.
(31)
(32)
(33)
The dels upon the left might have a subscript 1 attached to

show that the differentiations are performed with respect to
the variables x v y v z v and for a similar reason the dels upon
the right might have been written with a subscript 2.
results of this article may be summed up as follows:
Theorem: The
differentiating operator
The
V and the integrating
operator Pot are commutative.

In the foregoing work it has been assumed that the
*89.]
T
was
finite and that the function Fwas everywhere
region
finite and continuous inside of the
region T and moreover
decreased so as to approach zero continuously at the surface

bounding that region. These restrictions are inconvenient
VECTOR ANALYSIS
216
and may be removed by making use of a surface integral.

The derivative of the potential was obtained (page 213) in
essentially the form
otr_ r r r
J J J ,f
xl
SV
r 12 2x 2
J.
-LJ-LJjl
\ô
V2
^2
**
2^
a V2
12
LIM
rrr
T r(g a>
y ff
region
The element
therefore equal to
dt? 2
L
-
Hence
of
volume dv z
=A#
of
the
r
da.
r !2
volume d v 2 ^ n *^ e
di, 2
Hence
$ bounding
in the region
,^2^-^2^2112)
f
JfJfJm-
= TfV
JJ
The element
fgr
i2
Let d a be a directed element of the surface

J!f.
g a)
re gi
^s
equal to
= -Aa; 2 i.da.
/Tf
J\X^J J Jm
>
Consequently
i-da.
^ r !2
(34)
is
217
M with
The volume
integral is taken throughout the region

the understanding that the value of the derivative of
the surface
derivative
of
M.
V at
shall be equal to the limit of the value of that
when
the surface
approached from the interior
is
This convention avoids the difficulty that arises in
connection with the existence of the derivative at the surface
S where V becomes
discontinuous.
taken over the surface
The
S which bounds
M becomes
Suppose that the region

the conditions imposed
the potential
upon
V to
surface integral
is
the region.
infinite.
By
virtue of
insure the convergence of
Vr* < K.
S be
Let the bounding surface

tity which is large.
i
da
<R
a sphere of radius
2
a quan
6 d<f>.
<//*-.
s
The surface integral becomes smaller and smaller and ap

becomes infinite.
proaches zero as its limit when the region
Moreover the volume integral
JLJT^
remains
V is
finite as
M becomes
infinite.
such a function that Pot
Consequently provided
V exists as
far as the infinite
regions of space are concerned, then the equation
=
holds as far as those regions of space are concerned.
ceases to be continuous or becomes infinite
Suppose that
at a single point (x^ y v z^) within the region T.
Surround
VECTOR ANALYSIS
218
this point
surface of this sphere and
all
the region
denote the
T not
included
Then
within the sphere.
r r r
9V
=JJj^^
By
Let
with a small sphere of radius R.
the conditions imposed upon
dv * +
r r
JJ*-^
Vr<K
V
//>"
<//.*
d6
Consequently when the sphere of radius
d^
R
becomes smaller
and smaller the surface integral may or may not become

1
may
or
when
a limit
may not approach
and smaller.
3V
zero.
becomes smaller
Hence the equation
SPotF
SV
has not always a definite meaning at a point of the region

T at which
becomes infinite in such a manner that the
product
Vr
remains
finite.
remains
the point in question so

that the product Vr approaches zero, the constant
is zero
and the surface integral becomes smaller and smaller as
If,
however,
finite at
approaches zero.

approaches a definite limit as
becomes
infinitesimal.
219
Con
sequently the equation
5 Pot
7\
V _ Ap Ob dV
holds in the neighborhood of all isolated pointe at which

remains finite even though it be discontinuous.
Suppose that V becomes infinite at some single point

22 ) not coincident with (x^ y v z^).
(iC2 y 2
According to the
,
conditions laid upon
V
VI*
where
I is
near to
it.
<
K,
the distance of the point (z2 y2 z2 ) from a point

Then the surface integral
,
r !2
need not become zero and consequently the equation
5PotF
= Pot SV
TT
need not hold for any point

if V becomes infinite at #
2 y2
,
r yv z^) of the region.

z2 in such a manner that
(a?
,
VI
But
<K,
then the surface integral will approach zero as
its
limit
and
the equation will hold.
remains finite upon the

Finally suppose the function
surface S bounding the region jT, but does not vanish there.
In this case there exists a surface of discontinuities of V.
Within
this surface
V is
finite
surface integral
F.
without,
it is
zero.
The
VECTOR ANALYSTS
220
does not vanish in general.
Hence the equation
SPotF
=--- =
dX
Pot
9V
-^r
v%i
cannot hold.
Similar reasoning may be applied to each of the three
x
By combining
partial derivatives with respect to v y v z r
the results
it is
Vj
seen that in general
PotF= Pot V2 F+ f f
da.
(35)
F be any function in
F exists. Surround
space, and let it be granted that

each point of space at which V
Let the surface of the
ceases to be finite by a small sphere.
Draw
in
all those surfaces
denoted
be
S.
by
space
sphere
Let
Pot
which are surfaces of discontinuity of
Let these sur
V.
by S. Then the formula (35) holds

where the surface integral is taken over all the surfaces
which have been designated by S. If the integral taken
faces also be denoted
over
all
these surfaces vanishes
when
the radii of the spheres
above mentioned become infinitesimal, then
(27)
This formula
V PotF=PotV
1
F.
a point (x x yv Zj) if
remains always
or becomes infinite at a point (x 2 y2 z 2 ) so that the
will surely hold at

finite
V1
product
finite,
if V possesses no surfaces of
and
the
discontinuity,
if furthermore
product V r remains finite
and
remains
as r becomes infinite.
In other cases special
tests
must be
whether the formula (27) can be used

or the more complicated one (35) must be resorted to.
applied to ascertain
For extensions and modifications of
this theorem, see exercises.

The
relation (27) is so simple
formation that
and so amenable
will in general be
assumed
In cases in which
function that (27) holds.
S of
to trans
to be
221
such a
possesses a
discontinuity
frequently found convenient
to consider V as replaced by another function V which has
in general the same values as Fbut which instead of possess
surface
it is
ing a discontinuity at S merely changes very rapidly from

one value to another as the point (#2 , y2 2 2 ) passes from one
Such a device renders the potential
side of S to the other.
,
of
actual
simpler to treat analytically and probably conforms to

physical states more closely than the more exact
conception of a surface of discontinuity. This device prac

tically amounts to including the surface integral in the
symbol Pot VF:

In fact from the standpoint of pure mathematics it is
better to state that where there exist surfaces at which the
function
V becomes
discontinuous, the full value of Pot
VV
should always be understood as including the surface integral
//.
in addition to the
volume integral
>VF
U
SSSr*J
*J
10
12
and other
Pot V X W, New V
met in the future must be regarded
as consisting not only of a volume integral but of a surface
possesses
integral in addition, whenever the vector function
In like manner Pot
W,
similar expressions to be
a surface of discontinuities.
It is precisely this convention in the interpretation of
formulae which permits such simple formulae as (27) to hold
in general, and which gives to the treatment of the integrat
ing operators an elegance of treatment otherwise unobtainable.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
222
The
irregularities
which may
thrown into the inter
arise are
pretation, not into the analytic appearance of the formulse.

This is the essence of Professor Gibbs s method of treatment.
The
90.]
first partial
derivatives of the potential
also
may
be obtained by differentiating under the sign of integration. 1
= CCC
Jj J
*>-
like
S Pot
3/21*2)
manner
*,
/r/-
\9
..
/..
( 3 7)
for a vector function
/* /* /*
""I
p^
rrr (*,-*!> r^y,,*,)

"^^^ V[(*a-* )H(y ^ )2+(v-^)T
In
2>
~
..
\2
~ \2îa
/^.
Or
^!W=
and
But
1
If
-!
*"-,-
" " d,
r
(38)
12
12
an attempt were made to obtain the second partial derivatives in the same
it would be seen that the volume integrals no longer converged.
manner,
V Pot F =
Hence
/// ^f- d
223
vr
(39)
In like manner
^,,
and
Pot
W = fff
(40)
^*
These three integrals obtained from the potential by the

differentiating operators are of great importance in mathe
matical physics.
Each has
its
own
Conse
interpretation.
quently although obtained so simply from the potential each

Moreover inasmuch as these
given a separate name.
is
integrals
may
even when the potential
exist
is
divergent,
they must be considered independent of it.

They are to
be looked upon as three new integrating operators defined
each upon its own merits as the potential was defined.
Let, therefore,
(42)
12
12
.3
r
If
the potential exists,
= Max W.
then
V Pot F= New F
VxPotW = LapW
V-PotW = MaxW.
The
first is
written
(44)
12
New
V and read
The Newtonian
(45)
of
V!
VECTOR ANALYSIS
224
The reason
for calling this integral the
V represent the
Newtonian
is
that
if
density of a
body the integral gives the force,

of attraction at the point (x^ y v Zj) due to the body. This
The second is written Lap
and
will be proved later.
read "the Laplacian of W." This integral was used to a

considerable extent by Laplace. It is of frequent occurrence
in electricity and magnetism.

If
represent the current
C in space the Laplacian of C gives the magnetic force at the
point (x v y v zj due to the current. The third is written
Max
and read " the Maxwellian of W." This integral was
used by Maxwell. It, too, occurs frequently in electricity
and magnetism.
of magnetization
For instance
I,
represent the intensity

the Maxwellian of I gives the magnetic
potential at the point (x^ y v z^)
if
due
to the magnetization.
To show
that the Newtonian gives the force of attraction

to
the law of the inverse square of the distance.
according
Let dm<i be any element of mass situated at the point
f rce at
in magnitude
x v Vv
z i)
due to
dm
is
equal to
and has the direction of the vector r12 from the
point (xv y v zj to the point (#2 y2 , z 2 ).

,
Hence the
force is
Integrating over the entire body, or over all space according

to the convention here adopted, the total force is
where
V denotes the
density of matter.

The
integral
may
be expanded in terms of
i,
j,
225
k,
12
The
three components
may
be expressed in terms of the po
tential (if it exists) as
12
(42)
It is in this
form that the Newtonian
is
generally found in
books.
To show that the Laplacian gives the magnetic force per

unit positive pole at the point (x v yv z^) due to a distribution
W (#
f electric flux.
z
The magnetic force at (x v yv
2 y<p 2 )
due to an element of current d C 2 is equal in magnitude
,
to
the magnitude d C% of that element of current divided by the

square of the distance r 12 ; that is
dC*
T*2
The
The
is
perpendicular both to the vector
dC 2 and
to the line r 12 joining the points.
direction of the force
element of current
12
direction of the force
vector product of r 12 and
is
dC 2
therefore the direction of the
The
r3
T
12
15
force
is
therefore
VECTOR ANALYSIS
226
Integrating over all space, the total magnetic force acting at

the point (x^ y v z^) upon a unit positive pole is
c r r rJi2 x d CJ2
///
This integral
may
W (x v y v *
2)
r r r*
-J J J
be expanded in terms of
= X(x v
i
yv
The
i,
j,
-î)
i+(y-yi)J+
k components of Lap
i, j,
kÔ
2,
Let
k.
z^ + j Y (x^ y v
4-
r i2=(^ 2
".-
yv
z^)
z%).
(a-*i)k-
W are respectively
C.-^^
(43)
In terms of the potential
Lap
(if
one exists) this
W = 3 gPot Z
S Pot
may
r=lP^_a|2t^
To show
be written
,,
(43)
I be the intensity of magnetization at the

that
is, if I be a vector whose magnitude is
point (x v %>*2)>
equal to the magnetic moment per unit volume and whose
that
if

direction
227
the direction of magnetization of the element d v%
is
from south pole to north pole, then the Maxwellian of I is the

magnetic potential due to the distribution of magnetization.
The magnetic moment of the element of volume d 2 is I d v%.

The potential at (x v y v 24) due to this element is equal to its
t>
magnetic moment divided by the square of the distance r 12

and multiplied by the cosine of the angle between the direc
The potential is
tion of magnetization I and the vector r 12
.
therefore
r 12
dv%
Integrating, the total magnetic potential
is
seen to be
12
This integral
may
also be written out in terms of x, y,
z.
Let-
*ia
i)
xv yv
zl
A+
(y a
~ Vi) B +
(*2
- *i) &
the variables x^ y, z; and instead of

e variables %, ?;, f be used 1 the expression takes
If instead of
O -x
x v y& z z
oq the form given by Maxwell.
According to the notation employed for the Laplacian
Max
w -fff (*.-i
(44)
1
Maxwell
Electricity and Magnetism, Vol. II. p.
9.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
228
The Maxwellian
It
may
of a vector function
is
a scalar quantity.
be written in terms of the potential
Max
W = -=dx-- + SPotF +
l
The Newtonian,
--
3y l
9z l
much used
This form of expression is

upon mathematical physics.
(if it exists) as
(44)"
in ordinary treatises
Laplacian, and Maxwellian, however, should
not be associated indissolubly with the particular physical

interpretations given to them above.
They should be looked
which may be applied, as the

of
functions
position in space. The New
potential is,
any
tonian is applied to a scalar function and yields a vector
as integrating operators
upon
to
The Laplacian
function.
and
is
is
applied to a vector function
The Maxwellian
and yields a scalar function.
a function of the same sort.
yields
applied to a vector function
Moreover, these integrals should not be looked upon as the

are
its
the potential.
of
derivatives
derivatives.
If
the potential exists they

exist when the
But they frequently
potential fails to converge.
Let
91.]
exist
and
and have
(29)
be such functions that their potentials
in general definite values.
V V PotF= V
and
V.
(45)
and by
(45)
and
VF.
V PotF= V. NewF= Max VF

= PotV.VF
(46)
W = V Pot V. W= Pot V V
Pot W = Max W,
V Pot V W = New V. W.
By (27) and (29)

But by
VF = Pot V
(27)
V Pot V = New F,
V.Pot VF=Max VF.
But by (45)
Hence
Pot
Then by
VV
V
Pot
W.
VV
Hence
Pot
229
W = V Max W = New V W
= Pot VV.W
By
(28)
But by (45)
and
Hence
By
Hence
And by
or
Hence
And by
Hence
or
x Pot
W=V x
Pot
V
V
= Pot V x x W.
V x Pot W = Lap W,
V x Pot V x W = Lap V x W.
V x Pot W = V x Lap W = Lap V x W
= Pot V x V x W.
(48)
V V x Pot W = 0,
V Pot V x W = 0.
V Lap W = Max V x W = 0.
(49)
III.
V
V
PotF=
x
0,
(52), Chap.
VxPotVF=0.
V x New V = Lap V V = 0.
(50)
V x V x W = VV W - V V W,
(58), Chap. III.
V.VW = VV-W VxVxW.
(56),
or
(47)
Chap.
III.
V V Pot W New V W
V V Pot W = V Max W
V X W,
V X Lap W.
Lap
(51)
These formulae may be written out in terms of curl and

div
if
desired.
Thus
New V = Max
V F,
(46)
V Max W = New div W
(47)
div
W = Lap curl W
div Lap W = Max curl W =
curl
curl
V V
Pot
Lap
New V = Lap
W = New div W
(48)
(49)
VF=
Lap
(50)
curl
W.
(51)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
230
Poisson s Equation
Let
92.]
any function in space such
"be
that the potential
PotF
has in general a
definite value.
Then
V V PotF= - 4 TrF,
c>
PotF
This equation
The
is
PotF
32
known
Pot r= Vj . New
The
PotF
as Poisson s Equation.
integral which has been defined
solution of Poisson s Equation.
V V
32
subscripts 1
clearly
(52)
as the potential is a
The proof
is
as follows.
*
F= Max V r=T f C
2
and ^ have been attached
what are variables with respect
to
V
^*
to
which the
dv v
designate
differen
tiations are performed.
V .V PotF=V .NewF=ff TVJ--. V2 Fdv a

1
But
and
Vj
V (v V
2
r vt
= - V2
= V2
ru
V F+ V Va Va
2

Hence
- V2
v,
.v.r=rv. v2
V V
2
is
Hence
r !2
- V2
WV
+ v..(V
!2
(V
\
r !2/
But
That
V V = V V2 V
!2
y 13
Integrate
231
to say
Vj
satisfies
= 0.
Laplace
Pot V =
Equation.
f f fV
=rr
J J
^v
-x
V2 Vd v 2
(53)
.rfa.
And by (8)
7*12
The
surface integral is taken over the surface which bounds

the region of integration of the volume integral.
This is
taken " over all space." Hence the surface integral must be
taken over a sphere of radius R, a large quantity, and
must
At the point (x r y^z^)^

of
the
surface
the
however,
integrand
integral becomes in
finite owing to the presence of the term
be allowed to increase without limit.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
232
Hence the surface S must include not only the surface
of the
sphere of radius J2, but also the surface of a sphere of radius

the point (x^y^z^) and B
, a small quantity, surrounding
must be allowed to approach zero as its limit.
As
has been assumed that the potential of

exists, it is
assumed that the conditions given (Art. 87) for the existence
it
That
of the potential hold.
<
Vr <
when
K, when r
i)
and
is
large
small.
= - Va
x
l
= -^
for the large sphere of radius
V,
da =
r r2
*3
4*3
**
12
ii
Then
is
polar coordinates with the origin at the point

Then r12 becomes simply r
Introduce
(#i> #i
-fiT,
is
sm0 d0
dd>.
!2
Hence the surface

For
integral over that sphere approaches zero
as its limit.
Hence when
-R
becomes
infinite the surface integral
large sphere approaches zero as
its
limit.
For the small sphere
1
t
da
r !2
<r
Hence the
= --r5 r 2 sin
7*v
integral over that sphere becomes
d 6.
over the

Let
233
V be
supposed to be finite and continuous at the point

Then for the
( xvl/v z i) which has been selected as origin.
surface integral
is
and equal
practically constant
to its
value
V (*ii Vv *i)
at the point in question.
- f /Vsi
sintf d8
Hence
when
fssintf d
the radius
zero as
its limit.
=-
of the sphere of integration approaches
Hence
>
d<
ff, rv
=- 4 * F
<
V- VPotF=-47rF.
and
In like manner
if
is
< 68)1
(52)
a vector function which has in
general a definite potential, then that potential satisfies Poisson s Equation.
V V Pot W = - 4
The proof
of this consists in resolving
ponents.
For each component
TT
W.
(52)
W into
its
the equation holds.
three
Let
vV. VPotF=-47r F,
V V Pot Z = 4 TT Z.
Consequently
V V Pot (JTi +
Fj + Zk)
= - 4 TT
(JTi
+ Fj +
com
VECTOR ANALYSIS
234
Theorem
If V and
W are such functions of position in space
that their potentials exist in general, then for all points at which
and
Poisson
and continuous
are finite
those potentials
Equation,
V- VPot r=-4irF;
V V Pot W = - 4 TT W.
The
satisfy
(52)
(52)
modifications in this theorem which are to be
points at
V and W become
which
made
taken up here.
It
93.]
Hence
was seen
(46) Art. 91 that
V VPotF = V- NewT=Max
V New V = - 4 V
VF1
TT
(53)
Max VF=-47rF.
or
In a similar manner
Hence
or
it
was seen (51) Art. 91 that
V V Pot W = V Max W V x Lap W

= New V W Lap V x W.
V Max W - V x Lap W = - 4 W,
New V W - Lap V x W = - 4-rr W.
TT
By
virtue of this equality
W=
Lap V x
-7
is
4-7T
where
and
W =
t
W =
-r
4-rr
Lap
4-7T
-
New V- W.
4?T
(54)
(55)
2,
W = -4?r Lap curl W
NewV- W =
-:
(54)
divided into two parts.
W = W! + W
Let
at
discontinuous will not be
Newdiv W.
4-7T
-
(56)
(57)
235
multiplied
Equation (55) states that any vector function
4
TT is equal to the difference of the Laplacian of its curl
by
and the Newtonian
W,
of its divergence.
Lap
4?r
Furthermore
V xW=
V- V x Lap W r
4-7T
-7
But the divergence
of the curl of a vector function
Hence
V.W = divW =
W = - j Vx New V W = 2
VxV Max W
curl of the derivative of a scalar function
Hence
zero.
(58)
But the
is
is zero.
= curl W = 0.
(59)
which has a potential

Consequently any vector function
may be divided into two parts of which one has no divergence
and
of
which the other has no
curl.
This division of
W into
two such parts
is unique.
In case a vector function has no potential but both
and divergence possess
potentials, the vector function
divided into three parts of which the
first
its
curl
may be
has no divergence
the second, no curl; the third, neither divergence nor curl.
W=4
Let
7T
Lap V x
W-4
New V
W + W.
(55)
7T
As before
4?r
and
V
1
Lap V x
W=
V x New V W
4-7T
The divergence
part of
V V
4-7T
Vx
W=
VxV Pot V W =
0.
7T
of the first part
W are therefore zero.
x Pot
and the curl of the second
VECTOR ANALYSIS
236
4?r
x Lap
VxW =
VV
Pot
=
4
-4?r
~ V V Pot V X W.
W - 4?T
W = -- V P o V V x W =
P ot V x
Hence
^
4-7T
Hence
4?r
curl of
V VPot V x W = V x W.
V x Lap VxW = VxW = VxW
is
equal to the curl of the
Lap
-r
47T
into
V V x W = 0.
for
The
Vx
7T
VV
VxVxPotVxW
4-7T
which
is
T: 7T
Thus
the
can have none.
New
divergence of
as the second part has
is
no
Moreover
W= V W
part
VxW
Hence
divided.
curl, the third part
first
l.
2.
equal to the divergence of
the second part

-
4?r
New
W.
is divided.
Hence as the first part has no
the
third
have
can
none. Consequently the third
divergence
This proves the
part
3 has neither curl nor divergence.
statement.
into
which
By means
be seen that any function

3
which possesses neither curl nor divergence, must either
of Art. 96
it
may
237
vanish throughout all space or must not become zero at

In physics functions generally vanish at infinity.
infinity.
Hence functions which represent actual phenomena may be
divided into two parts, of which one has no divergence and
the other no curl.
94.]
Definition
A vector function the
divergence of which
said to be solenoidal.
vanishes at every point of space is

vector function the curl of which vanishes at every point of
space is said to be irrotational.
In general a vector function is neither solenoidal nor irrota

But it has been shown that any vector function which
possesses a potential may be divided in one and only one
tional.
way
Wv W
two parts
into
They have
With
solenoidal
is
and
stated.
been proved in the foregoing sections.

v the operators
respect to a solenoidal function
4?r
Lap V x Wi
Applied
to
an
gives zero.
=V
That
respect to
or curl
is
-j
4-rr
Lap Wi
= Wr
either
W =
an irrotational function W
New
are inverse operators.
_ _L New V
(60)
of
these opera
is
and
4?r
7T
irrotational function
Lap
Lap and
That
With
which one
all
4?r
tors
of
The following theorems may be
the other irrotational.
That
0.
or
2,
(61)
the operators
div
is
=-V
-i-
7T
New
W =W
2
(62)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
238
With
a scalar function
respect to
div and
or
the operators
New,
4-7T
and
also
Max and
-=
4?r
That
is
-V.-i NewF= V
(63)
4 7T
~--Max VF=
and
V.
4?r
TFttA respect to a solenoidal function

-
Pot and
the operators
or curl curl
47T
That
Pot
4?r
With
respect to
an
=V
is
irrotational function
Pot and
That
With
respect
VV W
.
to
Pot Wi
4?r
4?r
_ _L Pot
= Wr
the operators
VV
is
= - VV -L Pot W = W
.
any scalar or vector function V,
operators
Pot and
4-7T
are inverse operator*.
That
(64)
is
V V
(65)
the
_ JL
Pot
v v v= - v v
-i- Pot
-^V V W = - V V 4?r
Pot
4?r
With
a solenoidal function
respect to
F= v
4?r
4?r
and
239
Pot
W = W. (66)
the differentiating
operators of the second order
V V
are equivalent
and
respect to
Wr
irrotational function W
V VW =V
x
With
an
(67)
the differentiat
ing operators of the second order
V V
are equivalent
That
VV
is
VBy
and
VW
= V V-W2
(68)
integrating the equations
and
by means
TT
4^^=- V.NewF
W = V x Lap W - V Max W
of the potential integral Pot
V New F= - Max New F (69)

Pot W = Pot V x Lap W - Pot V Max W
4
Pot W = Lap Lap W - New Max W. (70)
4<7rPotF=:-Pot
4 TT
TT
Hence for scalar functions and irrotational vector functions
New Max
47T
is
an operator which
is
equivalent to Pot.
functions the operator
Lap Lap
For solenoidal
vector
VECTOR ANALYSIS
240
For any
gives the potential.

the potential
gives
of the
vector function the first operator
irrotational
part;
the second^ the
potential of the solenoidal part.

*95.] There are a number of double
volume integrals which

in
are of such frequent occurrence
mathematical physics as
to merit a passing mention, although the theory of
them
will
These double
not be developed to any considerable extent.
They are not scalar func

integrals are all scalar quantities.
tions of position in space.
They have but a single value.
The integrations in the expressions may be considered for
convenience as extended over
The
functions by
vanishing identically outside of certain finite limits deter
mine for all practical purposes the limits of integration in
all space.
case they are finite.

Given two scalar functions
The mutual potential

of the
two functions
Z7,
of position in
or potential product, as
is
it
may
space.
be called,
the sextuple integral
Pot
(71)
One
of the integrations
may
be performed
* 2 y*
yi ,^)
* 2>
Pot
PotVdv,
Ud **
(T2)
In a similar manner the mutual potential or potential product

of
two vector functions
W, W" is
(71)
This
is
ried out
also a scalar quantity.
One
integration
may
be car

Pot (W, W")
The
mutual
=w
or
Laplacian
vector functions
W"
(x v
yv
,)
Laplacian
241
Pot W" dv t
of
product
of position in space
is
two
the sextuple
integral
Lap(W ,W")
=ffffffw
(*! yi
*i)
x
;nr
w" (** y* *) <*i <*"
2-
(73)
One
integration
may
Lap (W, W") =
be performed.
f ( fW"
(^ 2 , ya , * 2 )
Lap
rf
va
(T4)
v yi
The Newtonian product

function
LaP
*i)
"
d r
of a scalar function F,
W of position in space
is
and a vector
the sextuple integral
rf* 2
(75)
By
performing one integration
New ( F, W)
=///W (*
2,
y2
* 2)
New Frf
t,
(76)
In like manner the Maxwellian product of a vector function

and a scalar function F of position in space is the
integral
Max (W,F)
=/////JV(*i^*i) J- W0r2
,2/ 2 ,*2 )rf
W
(77)
16
VECTOR ANALYSIS
242
One
integration yields
Max (W, F)
=fff V(xv y v zj Max W d v
= - New
F, W).
(78)
(53) Art. 93.
By
UPotr = - (V New CO PotF.

[New U Pot F] = (V New V) Pot F + (New IT) V Pot F.
4?r
-(V.NewOPotF=-V.[NewPTotF]+NewtT.NewF
Integrate
ff
47r
|VpotFdi>=-
f f fv.
[Ne
+ C f CtfewU- NewFdv.
4-Tr
Pot
IT,,
F)= f f fNewT. NewFdv

-
Tf
Pot
F New Z7
rf
a.
(79)
surface integral is to be taken over the entire surface S

bounding the region of integration of the volume integral.
The
As
this region of integration is " all space," the surface
S may
be looked upon as the surface of a large sphere of radius R.

If the functions
and
vanish identically for all points out
side of certain finite limits, the surface integral
must
vanish.
Hence
4
By
TT
Pot ( U, F)
= f f fNew U New Vd v.
(54) Art. 93,
47rW". PotW
= V x Lap W" Pot W

- V Max W" Pot W
.
(79)
But
[Lap
W" x
Pot
W = Pot W V x
Lap
W"
W" V x
Pot
and
Lap
W] = Pot W V Max W"

+ Max W" V Pot W.
Lap W" Pot W = V [Lap W" x Pot W]
+ Lap W" Lap
V Max W"
and
Pot
W=V
-
Hence
4
?r
[Max W" Pot
Hence
243
[Max W" Pot

Max W" Max
-
W]
substituting:
W"
Pot
W = Lap W
Lap
+ Max
W
-V [Max W" Pot W
+ V
[Lap
W" X
Pot
Max W"
].
Integrating
TT
.-
Pot (W, W")
ff fLap W
r c r
Max W Max
/
J J J
PotW x Lap W" da
Lap W" dv
dv
(80)
Max W"PotWWa.
and W" exist only in finite space these surface

taken
over a large sphere of radius B must vanish
integrals
and then
If
now
TT
Pot (W, W")
= f f fLap W
+ 11 fMax
J J J
*
96.]
Lap
W"
dv
Max W" d v.
There are a number of useful theorems
theoretic nature
(80)
of a function-
which may perhaps be mentioned here owing
VECTOR ANALYSIS
244
to their intimate connection with the integral calculus of

The proofs of them will in some instances be given
vectors.
and in some
The theorems
not.
are often useful in practical
applications of vector analysis to physics as well as in purely
mathematical work.
Theorem : If
(#, y, z) be a scalar function of position
V
in space which possesses in general a definite derivative
and if in any portion of space, finite or infinite but necessarily
is
continuous, that derivative vanishes, then the function
constant throughout that portion of space.
VF=0.
Given
F= const.
To show
Choose a fixed point (#15 y v zj in the region.
By
(2) page
180
y> *
V F. d r = V(x, y,z)-V (xv y v zj.
ft* *i
But
fvr.dr =f<)
Hence
F(#,
Theorem
in space
If
y, z)
F" (#, y,
which possesses
dr
= 0.
= V (xv y v zj = const.
2;)
be a scalar function of position
in general a definite derivative
VV
the divergence of that derivative exists and is zero through

out any region of space, 1 finite or infinite but necessarily
if
continuous
and
if
furthermore the derivative
V V vanishes
any finite volume or of any finite portion of

surface in that region or bounding it, then the derivative
vanishes throughout all that region and the function
re
at every point of
duces to a constant by the preceding theorem.

The term throughout any region of space
boundaries of the region as well as the region
1
must be regarded as including the

itself.
V V V=
Given
V F=
and
for a region T,
for a finite portion of surface S.
J^=
To show
Since
245
const.
V Evanishes for the portion of surface
S,
Vis
certainly
Suppose that, upon one side of S and in the

V upon
The derivative
were not constant.
constant in S.
region T,
this side of
has in the main the direction of the normal to
Consider a sphere which lies for the most

part upon the outer side of S but which projects a little
The surface integral of
over
through the surface S.
the surface S.
VF
the small portion of the sphere which projects through the

S cannot be zero. For, as
is in the main normal
VV
surface
to
it
must be nearly
parallel to the
normal to the portion
of spherical surface under consideration.
VT-
Hence the terms
da,
same sign and cannot

surface integral of
over
the
intercepted by
spherical sur
in the surface integral all have the
cancel each other out.

that portion of
S which
VV
The
is
V V is zero. Consequently the surface

V V taken over the entire surface of the spherical
face vanishes because

integral of
segment which projects through S
is
not zero.
f r vr-da= f r fv. vrd*=o.
But
f /Vr da =
Hence
0.
therefore appears that the supposition that

is not
constant upon one side of S leads to results which contradict
the given relation
V 0. The supposition must there
fore have been incorrect and V must be constant not only in
It
V V
but in
all
portions of space near to
in the region T.
By
VECTOR ANALYSIS
246
an extension of the reasoning
is
seen to be constant
throughout the entire region T.

Theorem : If
(x, y, z) be a scalar function of position in
and if through
space possessing in general a derivative
VV
out a certain region
T of
or discontinuous, the divergence

exists
and
is
zero,
and
a constant value
and
V (x, y, z)
vanishes.
continuous
space, finite or infinite,
V VV
of that derivative
V possesses
furthermore the function
if
in all the surfaces

as a limit
bounding the region
when
the point (x, y, z)

approaches
recedes to infinity, then throughout the entire region T the
function
has the same constant value c and the derivative
c
The proof does not
differ essentially
in the case of the last theorem.
eralized as follows
from the one given
The theorem may be gen
Theorem: If V(x,y,
be any scalar function of position
z)
in space possessing in general a derivative
W;
if
U (x,
y, z)
be any other scalar function of position which is either posi

tive or negative throughout and upon the boundaries of a
region T, finite or infinite, continuous or discontinuous;
of
and
the divergence
[
V~\ of the product
exists
and
and at
to c
function
is
and
all the
equal to
Theorem :
if
and upon the boundaries of T

V be constant and equal
furthermore
boundaries of
and
at infinity
then the
constant throughout the entire region
is
if
VV
zero throughout
is
infinity
upon
UV
T and
c.
If
V (#,
be any scalar function of position
y, z)
in space possessing in general a derivative
out any region
V V;
if
through
of space, finite or infinite, continuous or
V VV
of this derivative exists

discontinuous, the divergence
and is zero ; and if in all the bounding surfaces of the region
the normal
component
at infinite distances in
1
of the derivative
The region
(if
VF" vanishes and
such there be) the product
includes
its
boundaries.
247
9 Vj 3 r vanishes, where r denotes the distance measured

from any fixed origin then throughout the entire region T
r2
V Evanishes
the derivative
T V
of
is
and
in each continuous portion
constant, although for different continuous portions
this constant
not be the same.
may
This theorem
may
be generalized as the preceding one
U V F) =
r^SV/Sr = 0.
was by the substitution of the relation
V-VF=Oand Ur*3V/3r =
As
for
for
the foregoing theorems the following

made.
The language is not so precise
be
may
in
as
the theorems themselves, but will perhaps be under
corollaries of
statements
when they
stood
are borne in mind.
V U = V V,
If
then
and
differ
most by a
at
constant.
V-V7=V.VF
If
VZ7 = VF
=
V U V V at all
and
if
in
portion of surface S, then

from
only by a constant at most.
If
V
V.VJ7= V- VF
If
V V 7 = V V F and
any
points
finite
and
differs
V=
and if
V in all the bounding
surfaces of the region and at infinity (if the region extend
thereto), then at all points 7 and Fare equal.
in all the
if
bounding surfaces
and VFare
the region the normal components of VZ7

2
equal and if at infinite distances r (3 U/Sr
of
F/5r)
is
Fare equal at all points of the region

and U differs from F only by a constant.
and W" are two vector functions of position
Theorem If
in space which in general possess curls and
divergences if
zero,
then
?7and
any region I
or infinite but necessarily continuous,

the curl of
is equal to the curl of
and the divergence
of
is equal to the
of
W"; and if moreover
divergence
for
finite
W"
the
two functions
every point of
in
any
Tor bounding
of the region T.
and
finite
it;
W"
volume
then
is
are equal to each other at

in
T or of
equal to
any
finite
W" at
surface
every point
VECTOR ANALYSIS
248
Since
W = V x W", V x
whose curl vanishes
tor function
of a scalar function
(W - W") =
0.
vec
equal to the derivative
is
Let
(page 197).
VF=W
W".
Then V V V=
The theorem
Theorem
tion
if
owing to the equality of the divergences.

therefore becomes a corollary of a preceding one.
If
and
are two vector functions of posi
W"
which in general possess
definite curls
and divergences
throughout any aperiphractic* region T,
necessarily continuous, the curl of
W" and
W";
the divergence of
and if furthermore in
region
then
equal to
Theorem: If
W"
equal to the curl of
equal to the divergence of

all the bounding surfaces of the
and
W"
are equal;
throughout the aperiphractic region T.
and
W" are
two vector functions
which in general possess
tion in space
but not
is
the tangential components
is
is
finite
definite
of posi
curls
and
acyclic region T, finite but not

curl
of
the
is equal to the curl
necessarily continuous,
and the divergence of
is equal to the divergence of
divergences
if
throughout any
W"
bounding surfaces of the region T the

and W" are equal then the func
normal components of
and W" are equal throughout the region acyclic T.
tions
The proofs of these two theorems are carried out by means
W"; and
if
in all the
of the device suggested before.

and
are
Theorem: If
V V
W"
and V V W"
two vector functions such
have in general definite values

in a certain region T, finite or infinite, continuous or discon
tinuous ; and if in all the bounding surfaces of the region
that
is
at infinity the functions
W"
W"
ponents of
tic.
and
are equal ; then
entire
the
region T.
throughout
equal to
The proof is given by treating separately the three com
and
and W".
T may
The
A region which
region
If it encloses
have to be made acyclic by the insertion of diaphragms.

encloses within itself another region is said to be periphrac-
no region
it is
aperiphractic.
249
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER IV
The
line integral of a vector function
W along a curve
C is
defined as
Jfc
The
Wdr=f
J
[Widx + W^dy + W.dz].
line integral of the derivative
V V of
(1)
a scalar function
along a curve C from r to r is equal to the difference

at the points r and r and hence the
between the values of
line integral taken
versely
if
around a closed curve
around any closed curve vanishes, then

V V of some scalar function V.
is
zero
integral of a vector function
the line
is
taken
ri
(2)
(3)
C W dr =
Jo
if
and con
the derivative
/ TO
and
0,
then
W = VF.
theorem by application to mechanics.

surface integral of a vector function
over a surface
defined as
Illustration of the
The
is
= ff
Theorem| The surface integral of a vector functiorTtaken over a closed surface is equal to the volume
integral of the divergence of that function taken throughout
Gauss
the volume enclosed by that surface
VECTOR ANALYSIS
250
= f f {Xdydz+ Ydz
if
Z be
7
X, I
Stokes
the three components

Theorem: The surface
dx + Zdxdy],
(8)
of the vector function
W.
integral of the curl of a
vector function taken over any surface is equal to the line

integral of the function taken around the line bounding the
And
surface.
function
TJ
conversely if the surface integral of a vector

taken over any surface is equal to the line integral
W taken
of a function
curl of
around the boundary, then
//,VxW.*.=/o W.*r,
and
if
is
the
W.
ffjj da =f W
rfr,
then
TI
=V
(11)
x W.
(12)
Application of the theorem of Stokes to deducing the

equations of the electro-magnetic field from two experimental
facts
due to Faraday.
and Gauss
Application of the theorems of Stokes
to the proof that the divergence of the
a vector function
a scalar function
is
is
curl of
zero and the curl of the derivative of

zero.
Formulae analogous to integration by parts
Vv
ff
di
JJ8
t/O
\u
v~]
*/
Vu
rf r,
(14)
rr
JJS
cc ^vwXv yaa=ic i6v yar =

o
8
*/ */
r vVu
t/O
a r,
(16)

I
C CuV *vdv =
/Y vu
Green
/
da=- r r
V v dv =
da
.Vi;-i;V.Vw)rfi;=
__
x * dv.
(i8>
f T TwV -V v
f ttV-y -da
= if v V ^
Kelvin
A/!*
(17)
Theorerii:
x v
ii fV u*vdv,
uv d&-
251
vV *V udv,
f C (uVv
dv
(19)
t?Vw).rfa. (20)
generalization:
i I Tw^7u^vdv=
i?
wV
i^
w^Vv-rfa
da
//
T T TV V
The integrating operator known
[w
V w]
rf v.
as the potential
is
(21)
defined
by the equation
Pot
r=
Pot
V(xyv Z^
=*?
yy *
dxt dy 2 dz y
^^2 ^y 2 ^^-
VPot T=PotVF;
V x Pot W = Pot V x W,
V Pot W = Pot V W,
V V Pot F= Pot V VF,
(22)
(23)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
252
V V Pot W = Pot V V W,
(31)
VV
(32)
W = Pot VV W,
V x V x Pot W = Pot V x V x W.
The
Pot
(33)
integrating operator Pot and the differentiating operator
V are commutative.
The
three additional integrating operators
known
as the
Newtonian, the Laplacian, and the Maxwellian.

__
__
New T=
Lap
Max
W=
f*
f*
W =j
*19
-^
f*
fO? ^9 /
\ Ay *
^^
^-^-
\XT ^7*
J J
?y
i ***.
(42)
2 ^
2
^^2
^2/2
dzv
( 43 )
12
2>
I
dy 2 dz2
rf^2
2*
rf^2 rfy
d^2
If the potential exists these integrals are related to it as fol
lows:
V Pot F= New V,
V x Pot W = Lap W,
The interpretation of the
(45)
physical meaning of the Newtonian
on the assumption that V is the density of an attracting

is electric
body, of the Laplacian on the assumption that
is the
flux, of the Maxwellian on the assumption that
intensity of magnetization. The expression of these integrals

or their components in terms of a?, y, % ; formulae (42) , (43)
,
(44) and
(42)", (43)", (44)".
V New F= Max V F,
V Max W = New V W,
V x Lap W = Lap V x W,
(46)
(47)
(48)
Lap
V
V V
The
potential
W = New V W Lap V X W
= V Max W - V x Lap W.
V. VPotF=-47rW.
(52)
Lap
divided
is
That
(52)
4-7T
Hence
(51)
V. VPotF = -47rF;
F=
W=
(50)
a solution of Poisson s Equation.
is
and
(49)
0,
New V = Lap V V= 0,
Pot
W = Max V x W =
253
V.NewF,
(53)
(55)
into
New V W.
7T
two
of
parts
which one
is,
is
and the other
irrotational, provided the potential

In case the potential does not exist a third term
3
solenoidal
exists.
must be added
vanish.
A list
which both the divergence and the curl

of theorems which follow immediately from
of
equations (52), (52)
(53),
(55)
and which
state that certain
integrating operators are inverse to certain differentiating

Let V be a scalar function,
x a solenoidal vector
operators.
function, and
47T
Lap
an irrotational vector function.
4 7T Lap
-47T
Wj = V x
New V. W,
= 0, V
=-V
7T
Lap
4?T
Then
Wr
(60)
W =
(61)
New W2 = W2
(62)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
254
f_V-
Pot
-NewF = V
(63)
47T
Max
VF=
V.
7T
=V
-- - Pot VV W = - V V
4
x Pot
7T
[--4?r
Pot
- Pot
L- -r
4?r
v.
- -
Pot
7T
= W,
=W
(64)
(65)
vr=- v-v 4?r-
V V W = - V V ! Pot W = W.
4?r
(66)
-V-VWj^VxVxWj
V V W = VV W
(67)
(68)
V = - Max New V
4 TT Pot W = Lap Lap W - New Max W.
4
TT
Pot
(69)
(70)
Mutual potentials Newtonians, Laplacians, and Maxwellians

may be formed. They are sextuple integrals. The integra
tions cannot all be
may
be.
grals.
performed immediately but the first three

Formulae (71) to (80) inclusive deal with these inte
The chapter closes with the enunciation of a number
of theorems of
a function-theoretic nature.
By means
of
these theorems certain facts
concerning functions may be

inferred from the conditions that they satisfy Laplace s equa
tion
and have certain boundary conditions.
Among
tion.
the exercises
The work done in
number
the text
worthy of especial atten

has for the most part assumed
6
is
But many of the formulce connecting

Newtonians, Laplacians, and Maxwellians hold when the poten
tial does not exist. These are taken up in Exercise 6 referred to.
that the potential exists.
255
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER IV
I.
If
is
a scalar function of position in space the line
integral
is
a vector quantity.
That
is
Show
that
the line integral of a scalar function around a

is equal to the skew surface integral of the deriv
closed curve
ative of the function taken over
the contour of the curve.
Show
any surface spanned into
further that
if
V is
constant
the integral around any closed curve is zero and conversely

if the integral around any closed curve is zero the function V
is
constant.
Hint
Instead of treating the integral as it stands multiply

(with a dot) by an arbitrary constant unit vector and thus
reduce it to the line integral of a vector function.
:
it
If
2.
is
a vector function the line integral
x dr
=/w
J
c
is
a vector quantity.
of the function
W.
It
be called the skew line integral

any constant vector, show that if
may
If c is
the integral be taken around a closed curve
H
1
The
first
(cVW cVW)
da
= c/ Wxdr,
four exercises are taken from Foppl s Einfiihrung in die
well sche Theorie der Electricitat where they are
worked
out.
Max-
VECTOR ANALYSIS
256
H-c = c.
and
]JJ V Wda- J J V (W
8
Show
when
a)
taken over a plane curve and the

the portion of plane included by the curve
In case the integral

surface
is
is
that the integral taken over a plane curve vanishes

is constant and conversely if the integral over
any
must be constant.
plane curve vanishes
3. The surface integral of a scalar function
is
This
is
a vector quantity.
Show
that the surface integral
taken over any closed surface is equal to the volume

taken throughout the volume bounded by
integral of
of
that surface.
That
is
Hence conclude that the surface integral over a closed sur

if V be constant and conversely if the surface
integral over any closed surface vanishes the function V must
face vanishes
be constant.
4.
If
W be a vector function, the surface integral

T= f C d&x W
may
be called the skew surface integral.
quantity.
Show
that the
skew
It
is
a vector
surface integral of a vector

function taken over a closed surface
is
equal to the volume
integral of the vector function taken throughout the
bounded by
the surface.
That
257
volume
is
Hence conclude that the skew surface integral taken over

is an
any surface in space vanishes when and only when
That is, when and only when the line
irrotational function.
integral of
5.
W for every closed circuit vanishes.
Obtain some formulae for these integrals which are
analogous to integrating by parts.

6.
The work
potentials of
most part that the
in the text assumes for the
Fand
W exist.
Many
of the relations, however,
be demonstrated without that assumption. Assume that

the Newtonian, the Laplacian, the Maxwellian exist.
For
may
simplicity in writing let
Then
New V =
V Pn V(x v y y *
t
=i^
Lap
Max
W =fffv
12
W (x v y v
W (z
pu
2,
yv
2)
d t> 2 ,
2)
dv v
z^dv v
(81)
(82)
(83)
(84)
c c r
-JJJr^rdvr
17
VECTOR ANALYSIS
258
By
exercise ( 3
It can be
)/// V
shown that
if
v)
(Pit
V is
d v*
such a function that
New V
radius
then this surface integral taken over a large sphere of

R and a small sphere of radius R* approaches zero
when
exists,
small.
becomes indefinitely great; and
indefinitely
Hence
NewF=PotVF.
or
(85)
Prove in a similar manner that
W = Pot V x W,
Max W = Pot V W.
Lap
By means
of (85), (86), (87)
x Lap
it is
(86)
(87)
possible to prove that
W = Lap V x W,
V-New F=Max VF,

V Max W = New V W.
Then prove
/*/*/*
VxLapW=i
I^ 12 VV-W
*J
Hence
Hence
An
x Lap
f*
V-VWdi
l
J *Jf^ 12
V Max W = f/JJPii V V W
and
7.
f*
f*
di? 2
%} <J *J
dvv
W - V Max W = -ffffv V V W d v
x Lap
integral used
W - V Max W = 4
by Helmholtz
is
TT
W.
(88)

or
W be a vector function
H (W) =///
if
Show
Wd
that the integral converges
that
if
259
<9
"2"
V diminishes
so rapidly
when
becomes indefinitely great.

2
Vtf(F) = #(VF) = New(r
(91)
F),
# (W) = # (V W) = Max (r W),

V x H (W) = 5" (V x W) = Lap (r W),
V
(92)
=Jff (V.
VP) = Max(r 2 VF) = 2
Pot
(93)
(94)
(95)
Pot Pot PI
H ( F) = - -L
J
(96)
^ (W) = - -?Pot Pot W.

2
(97)
7T
7T
~2W = VxVx^T(W) + VV.^r (W).

Give a proof of Gauss
8.
(98)
Theorem which does not depend
upon the physical interpretation of a function as the flux of a

The reasoning is similar to that employed in Art. 51
fluid.
and
in the first proof of Stokes s
9.
is
Show
that the division of
Theorem.
W into
two
parts,
page 235,
unique.
10.
Treat, in a
manner analogous
the case in which
to that
upon page
has curves of discontinuities.
220,
CHAPTER V
97.]
AFTER
down
One was
the definitions of products had been laid
and applied, two paths of advance were open.

differential and integral calculus
the other, higher algebra
;
in the sense of the theory of linear
The treatment of
and new symbols
and vector
the
first
homogeneous substitutions.
of these topics led to
new
ideas
to the derivative, divergence, curl, scalar
potential, that
to
is,
V,
V, Vx,
and Pot with the
auxiliaries, the Newtonian, the Laplacian, and the Maxwellian.
The treatment
of the second topic will likewise introduce
the linear vector

novelty both in concept and in notation
function, the dyad, and the dyadic with their appropriate
symbolization.
The
simplest example of a linear vector function is the

The vector r
product of a scalar constant and a vector.
= CT
(1)
r.
more general linear function
be
obtained
may
by considering the components of r individ
Let i, j, k be a system of axes. The components of
ually.
is
a linear function of
r are
i
r,
r,
r.
Let each of these be multiplied by a scalar constant which
may
be different for the different components.

cl i
r,
c2 j
r,
c3
r.

Take these
r
The
components of a new vector
as the
(Cji-^ + j
vector r
is
j-r)
(c a
(c 8
then a linear function of
261
k-r).
(2)
Its
r.
components
components of r each
are always equal to the corresponding
multiplied by a definite scalar constant.

Such a linear function has numerous applications in geom
If, for instance, i, j, k be the axes of a
etry and physics.
and c v
strain
homogeneous
axes, a point
= ix + j
becomes
or
i c
i c
the elongations along these
c 2, c ,
3
-f j c 2
+j
<?
+ bz
y
+
r
2 j
3 z,
r.
This sort of linear function occurs in the theory of elasticity

and in hydrodynamics. In the theory of electricity and
magnetism, the electric force
is
a linear function of the
For isotropic bodies

displacement
the function becomes merely a constant
electric
But
in case the
in a dielectric.
body be non-isotropic, the components of the
force along the different axes will be multiplied
constants k v & 2 , & 3
E
The
the
= i%
i*D +
linear vector function
phenomena
by
different
Thus
.D + k&gk-D.
2 j
is
indispensable in dealing with
of electricity,
magnetism, and optics in non-
isotropic bodies.
98.]
It
is
possible to define a linear vector function, as has
been done above, by means of the components of a vector.

The most general definition would be
VECTOR ANALYSIS
262
Definition
vector r
is
said to be a linear vector func
when
tion of another vector r
the components of r
along
three non-coplanar vectors are expressible linearly with scalar

coefficients in terms of the components of r along those same
vectors.
= XB, + yb + zc, where [abc]

r = # a + y b + z
x = a x + b y + c z
y = a^x + 6 2 y + c z,
z = az x + lz y + c
If
and
and
0,
c,
if
(3)
3 z,
then r
(The constants a^ l v c v
etc., have no connection with the components of a, b, c par
allel to i, j, k.)
Another definition however is found to be
more convenient and from it the foregoing may be deduced.
is
Definition
r.
continuous vector function of a vector
said to be a linear vector function
sum
of
vectors.
when
is
the function of the
any two vectors is the sum of the functions of those

That is, the function /is linear if
/(r 1 +
r2
)=/(r )+/(r a ).
1
(4)
a be any positive or negative scalar and if /

be a linear function, then the function of a times r is a times
Theorem
If
the function of
r.
/0r) = a/(r),
And
(5)
hence
/(a
=
The
obvious
f<Ji)
+ .-)
+ <**f (r a )+ 8 /(*8) +
r1
a 2 r2
a3 r3
(5)
proof of this theorem which appears more or less

is a trifle long.
It depends upon making repeated
use of relation (4).

Hence
/(2r)
In like manner
/ (n r)
where n
Let
is
any positive
= 2/(r).
= nf (r)
integer.
be any other positive integer.

obtained
just
is
is,
Then by
the relation
i r )=-?./
/ (.i)
m (,).
\ m
\ w / =/(
/
Hence
That
263
equation (5) has been proved in case the constant a
a rational positive number.
To show
the relation for negative numbers note that
/(0)=/(0 +
Hence
But
/(0)
/(O) =/(r-r)
= 2/(0).
= 0.
=/( r
+(-r)) =/(r)
r=
Hence
To prove
0)
(5) for incommensurable values of the constant
becomes necessary to make use of the continuity of the

function /. That is
a, it
Let x approach the incommensurable number a by passing

through a suite of commensurable values. Then
Hence
*****.
=a
J (v xi}
=a
~
VECTOR ANALYSIS
264
LlM
=a
v
(ar)=ar.
/(") = / 00
Hence

Theorem:
mined when
linear vector f unction /(r) is entirely deter

its values for three non-coplanar vectors a, b, c are
known.
Let
l=/(a),
m=/(b),
n=/(c).
Since r
is
any vector whatsoever,
it
be expressed as
may
= #a + yb + 3C.
/ (r) = x + y m + z n.
r
Hence
99.]
In Art. 97 a particular case of a linear function was
expressed as
i c
2 j
c3
r.
For the sake of brevity and to save repeating the vector

which occurs in each of these terms in the same way
may be written in the symbolic form
In like manner
b3
be any given vectors, and b p b 2
ap a 2 , a 8
another set equal in number, the expression

r
is
if
this
= a! b
a2 b2
a linear vector function of r
for
a3 b3
owing
to the distributive
(6)
character of the scalar product this function of r satisfies

For the sake of brevity r may be written sym
relation (4).
bolically in the
form
( ai
bx
aa b2
a3 b3
.)
r.
(6)
265
No
particular physical or geometrical significance

attributed at present to the expression
a^ + agbg + .)
(a^ +
to be
is
(7)
should be regarded as an operator or symbol which -con

the vector r into the vector r and which merely
It
verts
affords a convenient
and quick way
of writing the relation
(6).
An
expression a b formed by the juxtaposition

of two vectors without the intervention of a dot or a cross is
Definition
The symbolic sum
called a dyad.
of
two dyads
is
called a
dyadic binomial of three, a dyadic trinomial ; of any num

For the sake of brevity dyadic
ber, a dyadic polynomial.
binomials, trinomials, and polynomials will be called simply
;
The
vector in a dyad is called the antecedent ;

and the second vector, the consequent. The antecedents of a
dyadics.
first
dyadic are the vectors which are the antecedents of the

individual dyads of which the dyadic is composed. In like
manner the consequents of a dyadic are the consequents of
the individual dyads. Thus in the dyadic (7) a p a2 a3
the antecedents and b r b 2 , b 3
the consequents.
are
Dyadics will be represented symbolically by the capital

Greek letters. When only one dyadic is present the letter
will generally be used.
In case several are under consid
eration other
Greek
this notation (7)
capitals will be
and (6) may now be written
By
= aj b
is
read
briefly in the
definition
employed
also.
With
becomes
d>
form
r.
(8)
a2 b2
a3 b 3
The symbol
<P-r
product of
into r because the consequents

bj, b 2 , b 3
dot
r.
It is called the direct

-
are
VECTOR ANALYSIS
266
The
multiplied into r by direct or scalar multiplication.
order of the factors
and r is important.
The direct
product of
r
r into
=r
=r
<P
is
^+a
(a a
a x bj
Evidently the vectors

Definition
is
When
and
is
a3 b 3
a3 b3
(9)
multiplied into r as
is
When
r.
are in general different.
the dyadic
said to be a prefactor to
<#,
b2
a2 b2
r
r
said to be a post/actor to
r is
multiplied in
r,
as
r.
used either as a prefactor or as a postfactor to a

dyadic
vector r determines a linear vector function of r. The two linear
vector functions thus obtained are in general different from

one another. They are called conjugate linear vector func
tions.
The two dyadics
âjbj + ajbg +
=b
and
each of which
may
ax
b2 a2
agbg
b3 a3
...
be obtained from the other by inter
changing the antecedents and consequents, are called conjitr

The fact that one dyadic is the conjugate of
gate dyadics.
another is denoted by affixing a subscript C to either.
Thus
Theorem:
dyadic used as a postfactor gives the same
result as its conjugate used as a prefactor.
r
100.]
Definition
Any two
That
is
r.
dyadics
(9)
and
are said to
be equal
when
or
when
or
when
= W r
=r W
W
r =B
r
r
B
for all values of
r,
for all values of
r,
for all values of
and
(10)
r.

The
third relation
scalar
equivalent to the
is
first.
For,
the
if
r are equal, the scalar
products of any
them must be equal. And conversely if the
r
product of any and every vector s into the vectors
s
into
*T are equal, then those vectors must be equal. In

it may be shown that the third relation is
equiva
and
like
and
vectors
vector
267
manner
lent to the second.
Theorem
Hence
all
dyadic
three are equivalent.
completely determined
is
when
the
values
0.a,
0.b,
0.c,
any three non-coplanar vectors, are known.

This follows immediately from the fact that a dyadic defines
where
a, b, c
are
a linear vector function.
= 0.(#a +
2/b
If
+ zc)==#
?/*b-Mc,
and W are equal provided equa

Consequently two dyadics
tions (10) hold for three non-coplanar vectors r and three
non-coplanar vectors s.
Theorem : Any linear vector function /
may
be represented
to be used as a prefactor and by a dyadic

,
by a dyadic
which is the conjugate of 0, to be used as a postfactor.
The linear vector function is completely determined when
its
values for three non-coplanar vectors (say
known (page
Then
to be
264).
the linear function
is
k) are
equivalent to the dyadic
used as a postfactor; and to the dyadic
=
to be
i, j,
Let
<P (7
used as a prefactor.
= ia +
jb
kc,
VECTOR ANALYSIS
268
The study of linear vector functions therefore is identical

with the study of dyadics.
dyad a b is said to be multiplied by a scalar
Definition :
a when the antecedent or the consequent is multiplied by

when a is distributed in any manner between
that scalar, or
the antecedent and the consequent.
a (ab)
(a a) b
If
= a (a b) =
=aa
11
(a a) (a" b).
is said to be multiplied by the scalar a when

dyadic
each of its dyads is multiplied by that scalar. The product
is written
The dyadic a $
or
<Pa.
applied to a vector r either as a prefactor or
as a postfactor yields a vector equal to a times the vector
obtained by applying
(a 0)
Theorem
utive.
that
to r
The combination
That
is
= a (0
r).
of vectors in a
dyad
is
distrib
is
(a + b)
and
a (b
+ c)
= ac + bc
= ab + ac.
...
This follows immediately from the definition of equality of
For
dyadics (10).
[(a
b) c]
= (a +
b) c
= ac
+ c)]
= a (b + c)
= ab -r +
ac-
= (ab + ac)
(a c
b c)
and
[a(b
Hence
it
r.
follows that a dyad which consists of two factors,

is the sum of a number of vectors, may be
each of which
multiplied out according to the law of ordinary algebra

except that the order of the factors in the dyads must be
maintained.
269
bn+
...
(11)
+ cl-f cm-f cn+

The dyad
therefore appears as a product of the
two vectors
of
it is composed, inasmuch as it
obeys the characteris
the distributive law.
law of products
This is a justifi
a
cation for writing
dyad with the antecedent and conse
which
tic
quent in juxtaposition as
is
customary in the case of products
in ordinary algebra.
Nonion Form of a Dyadic
The
10L]
From
the three unit vectors
i, j,
k nine dyads may

These are
be obtained by combining two at a time.

ii,
ij,
ik,
ji,
jj,
jk,
ki,
kj,
If all the antecedents
pressed in terms of
simplified
i, j,
(12)
kk.
and consequents in a dyadic

be ex
and
if
the
k,
resulting expression be
by performing the multiplications according to the

law (11) and if the terms be collected, the dyadic
distributive
may
be reduced to the
sum
of nine dyads each of
which
is
a scalar multiple of one of the nine fundamental dyads given

above.
= a n ii + a 12 ij +
+ iJi +a 22 jj +
a 13 ik
a 33 kk.
+
This
is
called the nonion
Theorem
dyadics
a 31 ki
4>
a 32 kj
jk
(13)
form of 0.
The necessary and
and
a23
be equal
is that,
when expressed
two
in nonion
VECTOR ANALYSIS
270
form, the scalar coefficients of the corresponding dyads be

equal.
be equal, then obviously
If the coefficients
r= W
<P.
for
and the dyadics by (10) must be equal.

the dyadics
and W are equal, then by (10)
any value
Conversely,
of r
if
for all values of
and
Let
r.
and
each take on the values

(14)
d>
0.i=j.
W.i,
j. </.j
=j.
= k.
?F.i,
k- 0-
= k-
k.
Then
i,j,k.
<P-i
i,
W
.
j,
j,
j.
?F.j,
k = i
<P.k = j.
0- k = k
iT
?T.k
r.k.
But
these quantities are precisely the nine coefficients in the

and W. Hence the corresponding
expansion of the dyadics
1
This
equal and the theorem is proved.
statement
of
the
of
two
analytic
equality
dyadics can some
times be used to greater advantage than the more fundamental
are
coefficients
definition (10) based
upon the conception
of the dyadic as
defining a linear vector function.
dyadic
may be expressed as the sum of nine
dyads of which the antecedents are any three given non-
Theorem
coplanar vectors,
a, b, c
Every antecedent
1,
and the consequents any three given

n.
m,
be expressed in terms of a,
in terms of 1, m, n.
The dyadic
may
and every consequent,
b, c
may
then be reduced to the form
= an
+
-f1
As a
al
& 12
a 21 bl
22
am +
bin +
+a
32
fflai
a 13
an
a 23
bn
m + ^33
(15)
c n.
corollary of the theorem it is evident that the nine dyads (12) are in
None of them may be expressed linearly in terms of the others.
dependent.
271
This expression of <P is more general than that given in

It reduces to that expression when each set of vectors
(13).
with i, j, k.
a, b, c and 1, m, n coincides
Theorem
Any
dyadic
<#
may
be reduced to the
sum
of
three dyads of which either the antecedents or the consequents,
but not both,
be arbitrarily chosen provided they be non-
may
coplanar.
Let
of
it
which
be required to express 4> as the sum of three dyads

Let 1, m, n be any other
a, b, c are the antecedents.
three non-coplanar vectors.
then be expressed as in
may
Hence
(15).
= a (a n +
1
12
m+
a 13 n)
+
or
<P
In like manner
it
if
+
Osi 1 +
b (a 21
c
= aA + bB +
m + 23 n)
m + a 32 n),
32
22
cC.
(16)
be required to express
as the
three dyads of which the three non-coplanar vectors

the consequents
= Ll + Mm +
= an a +
M = a 12 a +
N = a lB a +
L
where
Nn,
sum
of
m, n are
(16)
a 2l b
a 31
c,
a 32
c>
a 23 b
a ZB
c.
22
1,
are unique. Two equal

expressions (15), (16), (16) for
which
have the same three non-coplanar ante
dyadics
The
cedents,
a, b, c,
have the same consequents A,
B,
- -
these
however need not be non-coplanar. And two equal dyadics

which have the same three non-coplanar consequents 1, m, n,
have the same three antecedents.
102. ]
Definition:
position of
or a cross
a and
b.
The symbolic product formed by
two vectors
is
a,
the juxta
b without the intervention of a dot
called the indeterminate product of the
two vectors
VECTOR ANALYSIS
272
The reason
for the
term indeterminate
The two
is this.
products a b and a x b have definite meanings. One is a

certain scalar, the other a certain vector.
On the other hand
the product
ab
is
neither vector nor scalar
it is
purely
symbolic and acquires a determinate physical meaning only

when used as an operator. The product a b does not obey
the commutative law.
law
is
(11)
It does
however obey the
and the associative law
distributive
as far as scalar multiplication
concerned (Art 100).

TJieorem
The indeterminate product a b
of
two vectors
the most general product in which scalar multiplication
is
is
associative.
The most general product conceivable ought to have

property that when the product is known the two factors
also
known.
Inasmuch
are
Certainly no product could be more general.
as scalar multiplication is to be associative, that
a (ab)
it
the
= (a a) b = a (a b) = (a* a)
is
(a"b),
will be impossible to completely determine the vectors a
and b when
may
their product a b is given.

Any scalar factor
be transferred from one vector to the other. Apart from
this possible transference of a scalar factor, the vectors
posing the product are

other words
known when
the product
is
com
known. In
two indeterminate products a b and a b

are equal, the vectors a and a b and b must be collinear and
the product of the lengths of a and b (taking into account the
Theorem
If the
and b have respec

a and b ) is equal to the
positive or negative sign according as a

tively equal or opposite directions to
product of the lengths of a and b
.
Let
=a
=l
&2
&2
a3
6 3 k,
k,
=a
a2
a3
v = Vi + yj + &,
Then
&b
and
Since
ab
=a
V=
ii
b1
a1
a2 &3
jj
a 2 6 3 jk
a,&,
kj
a 3 6 3 kk.
ij
aj 6 3 ik
<V
ji
o 8 6j ki
a/V
b3
ik
&,
jj
a 2 6 3 jk
+ o,
6t
kj
a3
&3
kk.
corresponding coefficients are equal.
a 1 :a 2 :a s
=a
:a 2 :a 3
which shows that the vectors a and a are
And
ij
ii
=ab
k,
+ a^^
&/
273
&1
:,:6 8
= V-
which shows that the vectors b and
But
al bl
/
-
Hence
collinear.
V.
V are collinear.
= a/ &/.
This shows that the product of the lengths (including sign)

are equal and the theorem is proved.
The proof may be carried out geometrically as follows.
Since
ab
is
equal to a
ab
=a
Let r be perpendicular to b. Then b r

r.
vanishes and consequently Vr also vanishes.
This is true
for any vector r in the plane perpendicular to b.
Hence b and
b are perpendicular to the same plane and are collinear. In
for all values of
like
manner by using a b
to be parallel.
as a postfactor a
and a are seen
Also
ab-b =
a b -b,
which shows that the products of the lengths are the same.
18
VECTOR ANALYSIS
274
The indeterminate product ab imposes Jive conditions upon

the vectors a and b. The directions of a and b are fixed and
The scalar product
likewise the product of their lengths.
a
being a scalar quantity, imposes only one condition upon

The vector product a x b, being a vector quantity,
b.
b,
a and
imposes three conditions. The normal to the plane of a and

b is fixed and also th e area of the parallelogram of which they
The nine indeterminate products (12) of i,j, k

themselves are independent. The nine scalar products
are the side.

into
Only two
are not independent.
of
them
are different.
i.j=j.i=j.k = kj=ki = ik = 0.
and
The nine vector products
are mot independent either; for
ixi = jxj = kxk =

and
ixj
jxk=
jxi,
kxj,
0,
kxi
ixk.
b and a x b obtained respectively from

the indeterminate product by inserting a dot and a cross be
The two products
tween the factors are functions of the indeterminate product.

That is to say, when ab is given, a b and a x b are determined.
For these products depend solely upon the directions of a and b

and upon the product of the length of a and b, all of which
are
if
known when ab
ab
=a
is
known.
=a
That
is
b and a x b
=a
x b
(17)
not hold conversely that if a b and a x b are known

for taken together a b and a X b impose upon the
vectors only four conditions, whereas a b imposes five. Hence
It does
ab
is
fixed
a b appears not only as the most general product but as the

most fundamental product. The others are merely functions
of
it.
Their functional nature
is
notation of the dot and the cross.
brought out clearly by the
Definition:
scalar
known
275
the scalar of
as
be ob
may
tained by inserting a dot between the antecedent and conse

quent of each dyad in a dyadic. This scalar will be denoted
by a subscript S attached
=a
= &1
8
If
<P
+
+
b1
to 0.
bx
a2 b 2
b2
a2
known
In like manner a vector
a3 b 3
a3
...
b3
(18)
as the vector of
may
be
obtained by inserting a cross between the antecedent and con

sequent of each dyad in 0. This vector will be denoted by
attaching a subscript cross to 0.
= aj
x b x + a2 x b2
x b3
a3
be expanded in nonion form in terms of
If
#x =
Or
<? x
=(j
i, j,
(19)
k,
(20)
!3)
<Pj + k.
(P-k-k* ^.j) i+
= a n + a^ + a BZ
+ (^12 - a 2l)
+ 0*31 - a
- a 32 *
28
= i- 0-i + jS
(?-k,
21 )
(20)
(k- (P-i-i. (P.k)
0-j-j.0.i)k.
(i-
(21)
In equations (20) and (21) the scalar and vector of

are
in
terms
of
the
coefficients
of
when
expressed
expanded
in the nonion form.
Hence if
and W are two equal
dyadics, the scalar of
vector of
is
equal to the scalar of

equal to the vector of
From
this it
and the
If
is
W,
appears that
and
and
X
X
= yx
are
(22)
functions of
is
uniquely determined when
They may sometimes
given.
be obtained more conveniently from (20) and (21) than from
(18)
1
and
(19),
and sometimes
A subscript dot might be used
and free from
not.
for the scalar of
liability to misinterpretation.
if it
were
sufficiently distinct
VECTOR ANALYSIS
276
Products of Dyddics
In giving the definitions and proving the theorems

concerning products of dyadics, the dyad is made the under
103.]
What
true for the dyad is true for the

dyadic in general owing to the fact that dyads and dyadics
obey the distributive law of multiplication.
lying principle.
The
Definition:
dyad
is
is
written
(ab)
and
is
by
That
is,
dyad (b
c)
= a(b.c)d = b-c
the antecedent of the
second dyad
into the
,.
(cd)
definition equal to the
(ab)-(cd)
ab
product of the dyad
direct
first
d,
ad.
(23)
and the consequent of the

and consequent
are taken for the antecedent
respectively of the product and the whole is multiplied by

the scalar product of the consequent of the first and the
antecedent of the second.
Thus the two
vectors which stand together in the product
(ab). (cd)
The
are multiplied as they stand.
new
The
other two are left to form
product of two dyadics may be

dyad.
defined as the formal expansion (according to the distributive
law) of the product into a sum of products of dyads. Thus
a
direct
*=(a
r^CCjdj +
and
d>.
?T=(a 1 b 1
a 2 b2
c2
d2
+
+
+a 2 b 2 +
a3 b 3
...)
d3
-..)
a3 b3
c3
+)
+ C3 d3
= a b c 1 d + a b *e 2 d a + a x b x
+ a 2 b 2 -c d +a 2 b 2 .c 2 d 2 + a 2 b 2
+ agbg-c^ + a 3 b 3 -c 2 d 2 + a 3 b 3
+
(c^j +
The
parentheses
may
c2
d2
C3
d3
C3
d3
c3
+
+
d3 H
be omitted in each of these three expressions.
(23)
ajdj
a2 d x
ax d2
c2
bj
bx
-f
c3
277
ax d3
b 2 -c 2 a 2 d 2
b2
b 3 .c 2 a 3 d 2
b 3 -c 3 a 3 d 3
c3
a^j
d3
+
-f-
(23)"
The product
Theorem
regarded as
of
W is
and
two dyadics
a dyadic
W.
W of two dyadics (P and W when

The product
an operator to be used as a prefactor is equiva
W followed
lent to the operator
by the operator 0.
=&..
Let
To show
or
Let ab be any dyad of
ab
cd)
(c d
Hence
(a b
The theorem
<?
and
=b
= ab
r)
d>
W)*T
((?
(ab
d)
=
c
r),
0- (^ 0-
(24)
d any dyad of W.
(ad
c (d
= (b c) (d r) a,
r) = (b c) (d r) a,
r)
ab
(c d
r).
true for dyads.

Consequently by virtue of
it holds true for dyadics in general.
If r denote the position vector drawn from an assumed origin
is
the distributive law
P in
to a point
space, r
= W r will be
= (^(3 r)
another point P and r"

vector of a third point P n
,
That
is
the position vector of

will be the position
to say,
W defines
a trans
formation of space such that the points P go over into the

defines a transformation of space such that the
points P
P
into the points P".
over
Hence W followed by
points
go
f
carries
into
ff
.
The
single operation
also carries
PintoP".
Theorem: Direct multiplication of dyadics obeys the
tributive law.
That
is
dis*
VECTOR ANALYSIS
278
and
(0
Hence
=
W=
0)
W+
W.
(25)
in general the product
4>
(4>+
4>"
...).(
W+
?F"+...)
be expanded formally according to the distributive law.

Theorem : The product of three dyadics <P, W, Q is associa-
may
Thatis
tive.
and consequently
o= t. (ma>
t.r).
either product
parentheses, as
may
(26)
be written without
Q,
(26 )
The
proof consists in the demonstration of the theorem for

three dyads ab, cd, ef taken respectively from the three
dyadics
4>,
Q.
= (bc) ad ef = (bc) (d- e) af,

= (dê) ab -cf = (d e) (b c) af.
ef
(abcd)
ab (cdef)
The proof may
also be given
by considering
as operators
Let
Let
Again
Hence
{^.(f.
{(*
for all values of
r.
F)
J)}
Q\ -r
*. [(f.
{(?
Consequently
(V
J2).r].
T)\
0, W,
and
279
The theorem may be extended by mathematical induction

any number of dyadics. The direct product
Parentheses may
of any number of dyadics is associative.
to the case of
be inserted or omitted at pleasure without altering the result.

It was shown above (24) that
r
T)
(<P
r)
<P
r.
(24)
Hence the product of two dyadics and a vector is associative.

The theorem is true in case the vector precedes the dyadics
and also when the number of dyadics is greater than two.
But the theorem is untrue when the vector occurs between
The product of a dyadic, a vector, and another
the dyadics.
is
dyadic
not associative.
(#.r).
0.(r-
Let ab be a dyad of $, and

(a b
ab
Hence
The
r)
(r
c d)
(ab
d a dyad of
= b r (a c d) = (b
= ab d (r c) = b
r)
results of this article
ab
may
(27)
).
be
(r
c) d,
r) (a
(r
c)
cd).
summed up
as follows
Theorem: The direct product of any number of dyadics

number of dyadics with a vector factor at either
or of any
end or
at
laws of
both ends obeys the distributive and associative

multiplication
parentheses may be inserted or
omitted at pleasure. But the direct product of any number

of dyadics with a vector factor at some other position than at
end is not associative

parentheses are necessary to
the
a
definite meaning.
expression
give
Later it will be seen that by making use of the conjugate
either
dyadics a vector factor which occurs between other dyadics

may be placed at the end and hence the product may be
made
to
assume a form in which
it is
associative.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
280
104.]
Definition:
and
a vector r
respectively
of
The skew products of a dyad ab into

a vector r into a dyad ab are defined
by the equations
= a(b
rx(ab) = (r x
(ab) x
r),
a)b.
The skew product of a dyad and a vector at

dyad. The obvious extension to dyadics is
rrrajbj
a2 b2
xr +
a3 b 3
= r x (a b + a 2 b + a b +
= r x ajbj + r x a 2 b 2 + r x
either
end
is
+ ...
(28)
.)
a3 b3
...
Theorem: The direct product of any number of dyadics

multiplied at either end or at both ends by a vector whether
the multiplication be performed with a cross or a dot is
associative.
But
position than the
in case the vector
end the product
occurs at any other
not associative.
is
= rx(0.y)=rx )
s,
but
!P
(rX^)^(S
jr
-r)
X*.
Furthermore the expressions

s
<P
and
<P
can have no other meaning than

s
<P
=s
(r
<P),
(29)
281
with a cross into a scalar
since the product of a dyadic
Moreover since the dot and the cross may

is meaningless.
be interchanged in the scalar triple product of three vectors
it
appears that
x ^

5F)
(</>
0-(r x
and
0,
r)
(r
r)
(31)
s),
V.
The parentheses in the following expressions

omitted without incurring ambiguity.
<p.(r
(sx
(0-r) x
s)
r).
s,
0*sx(r-0),
(0-r) x
The formal skew product
cannot be
*
of
(ab) x (cd)
x(r.
>).
two dyads a b and
= a(b
(31)
d would be
x c)d.
b x
d are placed side

by side with no sign of multiplication uniting them. Such
In
this expression three vectors a,
c,
an expression
rst
is
called a triad
The theory
and a sum of such expressions, a
of triadics
is
(32)
triadic.
intimately connected with the theory
of linear dyadic functions of a vector, just as the theory of
connected with the theory of linear vector functions

In a similar manner by going a step higher
tetrads and tetradics may be formed, and finally polyads and
dyadics
is
of a vector.
But
the theory of these higher combinations of

The dyadic
vectors will not be taken up in this book.
polyadics.
furnishes about as great a generality as is ever called for in

practical applications of vector methods.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
282
Degrees of Nullity of Dyadics

105.]
It
was shown
be reduced to a
sum
(Art. 101) that a dyadic could always
of three terms at most,
and
this reduction
can be accomplished in only one
way when
or the consequents are specified.
In particular cases
the antecedents
it
may
be possible to reduce the dyadic further to a sum of two

terms or to a single term or to zero. Thus let
= al + bm + cn.
<P
m, n are coplanar one of the three

in terms of the other two as
If
1,
be expressed
= x m + y n.
Then
may
= a#m + ayn + bm + cn,

= (a# + b)m + (ay + c)n.
The dyadic has been reduced to two terms. If 1, m, n were

all collinear the dyadic would reduce to a
single term and if
all
the
would
vanished
vanish.
they
dyadic
Theorem
If a
be expressed as the
dyadic
sum
of three
terms
<p
of
= al + bm +
which the antecedents
then the dyadic
may
a, b, c
are
en
known
be reduced to the
to be non-coplanar,
sum
of
two dyads
when and only when the consequents are coplanar.

The proof of the first part of the theorem has
just been
To prove the second part suppose that the dyadic

could be reduced to a sum of two terms
given.
= dp +
eq
and that the consequents
were non-coplanar.
1,
m, n of
This supposition leads to a contradiction. For let 1 , m n
be the system reciprocal to 1, m, n. That is,
,
_= mx n
[Tmn]
n x

The
vectors
exist
283
and are non-coplanar because
m, n have been assumed to be non-coplanar.

may be expressed in terms of them as
Any
1,
= xl + ym + zn/
<p.r = (al + bm + en) (xl + ym +
m = n n = 1,
1 = m
1
f
zn ).
But
and
m=m
m =1
Hence
=m
= xa +
n
yb
=n
+
giving to r a suitable value the vector

equal to any vector in space.
r
= (dp +
e q)
= d (p
=n
d>
= 0.
z,e.
By
But
vector r
r)
may
e (q
be
made
r).
must be coplanar with d and e. Hence

r can take on only those vector values which lie in the
plane of d and e. Thus the assumption that 1, m, n are noncoplanar leads to a contradiction. Hence 1, m, n must be
coplanar and the theorem is proved.
This shows that
Theorem : If a dyadic
terms
of
which the antecedents
be expressed as the
a, b, c
are
known
sum
to be non-coplanar,
the dyadic
can be reduced to a single dyad
when the consequents 1, m, n are collinear.
when and only
The proof of the first part was given above.

the second part suppose <P could be expressed as
Let
of three
To prove
VECTOR ANALYSIS
284
From
the second equation

postfactor for any vector
r
where a
From
the
V,
first
is
it is
= x a + y b + zc
used as a
the reciprocal system to
a, b, c
gives
expression
= 0.
#lxp+ymxp + znxp
Hence
must be zero
Hence
y, z.
1
Hence
evident that
1,
for every value of
x p
= 0,
r,
mxp =
m, and n are
that
0,
all parallel to
is,
for every value of x,
nxp = 0.
p and the theorem has
been demonstrated.
If the three consequents
1,
m, n had been
known
to be non-
coplanar instead of the three antecedents, the statement of

would have to be altered by interchanging the
the theorems
words antecedent and consequent throughout. There is a fur

ther theorem dealing with the case in which both antecedents
and consequents of
are coplanar.
sum of two dyads.
Then
is
reducible to
the
106.]
the
sum
dyadic which cannot be reduced to

of fewer than three dyads is said to be complete.
Definition:
dyadic which may be reduced to the sum
of
two dyads, but
cannot be reduced to a single dyad is said to be planar. In

case the plane of the antecedents and the plane of the con
the dyadic is expressed as the sum of
two dyads, the dyadic is said to be uniplanar.
dyadic
which may be reduced to a single dyad is said to be linear.
sequents coincide
when
In case the antecedent and consequent of that dyad are
col-

linear, the
dyadic
said to be unilinear.
is
285
If a dyadic
may
be
its terms vanish the

dyadic is said to
In this case the nine coefficients of the dyadic as
expressed in nonion form must vanish.
so expressed that all of
be zero.
The
properties of complete, planar, uniplanar, linear, and

when regarded as operators are as follows.
unilinear dyadics
Let
is
If
complete
and
and
r
t
may
=r
made
be
<P.
to
take on
any
desired
value by giving r a suitable value.
As
is
complete
reciprocal system
s
In like manner
1,
(xl
m, n are non-coplanar and hence have a

m n
,
+ ym + zn
a, b, c
complete dyadic
If
planar
zc.
= xl + ym +
V,
zn.
applied to a vector r cannot give zero
unless the vector r itself

is
=#a + yb +
possess a system of reciprocals a
yb + zc
is
the vector s
zero.
may take
on any value in
the
plane
of the antecedents and t any value in the plane of the consequents
The dyadic
but no values out of those planes.
when
;
of
r
in
reduces
vector
to
as
a
a
used
vector
space
prefactor
every
In particular any vector r

in the plane of the antecedents.
of
the
the
to
is reduced
plane
consequents of
perpendicular
used as a postfactor reduces every
to zero.
The dyadic
vector r in space to a vector in the plane of the consequents
In particular a vector perpendicular to the plane of
of <P.
is reduced to zero.
In case the dyadic
the antecedents of
uniplanar the same statements hold.

is linear the vector s may take on any value collinear
If
with the antecedent of
and t any value collinear with the con-
is
VECTOR ANALYSIS
286
but no other values.

The dyadic
used as a
r
to
the
vector
reduces
line
of
the
antecedent
any
prefactor
In particular any vectors perpendicular to the con
of 0.
The dyadic
are reduced to zero.
used as a
sequent of
sequent of
postfactor reduces any vector r to the line of the consequent

In particular any vectors perpendicular to the ante
of 0.
are thus reduced to zero.
cedent of
a zero dyadic the vectors

matter what the value of r may be.
Definition
nullity.
nullity.
lity
is
If
A
A
A planar dyadic
and
are loth zero no
said to possess one degree of

linear dyadic is said to possess two degrees of
zero dyadic is said to possess three degrees of nul
:
is
or complete nullity.
The
two complete dyadics

is complete; of a complete dyadic and a planar dyadic,
planar of a complete dyadic and a linear dyadic, linear.
Theorem
107.]
direct product of
Theorem: The product of two planar dyadics

except when
the plane of the consequent of the
is
planar
first
dyadic
perpendicular to the plane of the antece
dent of the second dyadic. In this case the product reduces
and only in this case.
to a linear dyadic
in the product
is
Let
B,
\)
Q=
The vector
and
The
= W
r takes
W.
on
all
values in the plane of
Cj
vector
g
a 2 b 2,
\x (bj
=
c x)
takes on the values
=x
(b x
c )
x
ax
y (b x
c2)
(b2
C l)
a2
y 0>2
C)
+y
(bj
c 2 )}
ax
{x (b 2
c x)
ax
E 2>
+ y
(b 2
c 2 )}
a2

Let
where
and
x &i
+y
+y
x (b x
Cj)
x (b 2
Cj) 4-
a2
287
c2
(b l
),
c 2 ).
y (b 2
These equations may always be solved for x and y when

that is, when s has
any desired values x and y are given
1
any desired value in the plane of

determinant
But by
Chap.
(25),
\xb
vector
is
and
sequents of <P;
bj-c,
b2
cx
t>
( ci
2)
and a2
unless the
c2
merely the product
II., this is
0>i
The
V^
b2
EJ
C 2)
perpendicular to the plane of the con

x c 2 to the plane of the antecedents of
cl
Their scalar product vanishes when and only
that
vectors are perpendicular
pendicular.
plane of a x
Consequently
may
when
the
when
the planes are per

take on any value in the
is,
and a2 and
is therefore a planar
dyadic
unless the planes of b x and b 2 , c x and c 2 are perpendicular.
If however b x and b 2 , Cj and c 2 are perpendicular s can take
f
on only values in a certain line of the plane of a x and a^ and

hence <P W is linear. The theorem is therefore proved.
The product
of two linear dyadics is linear

the consequent of the first factor is perpen
In this case the
dicular to the antecedent of the second.
Theorem
except when
and only in this case.

product is zero
Theorem : The product of a planar dyadic into a linear
linear except
planar dyadic
dyadic.
In
when
is
the plane
of the
is
consequents of the
perpendicular to the antecedent of the linear
this case the
product
is
zero
and only
in this
case.
Theorem: The product of a linear dyadic into a planar

dyadic
is
linear except
when
the consequent of the linear
VECTOR ANALYSIS
288
perpendicular to the plane of the antecedents of

In this case the product is zero
the planar dyadic.
and
dyadic
is
only in this case.
immediately evident that in the cases mentioned the

products do reduce to zero. It is not quite so apparent that
It is
they can reduce to zero in only those cases.
The
similar to the one given above in the case of
They
dyadics.
are
the reader.
left to
theorem stated, page 286,
first
is
proofs are
two planar
The proof
of
the
also left to the reader.
The Idemfactor; 1 Reciprocals and Conjugates of Dyadics

If a
dyadic applied as a pre factor or as

a postfactor to any vector always yields that vector the
dyadic is said to be an idemfactor. That is
108.]
Definition
if
or
=r
if
then
is
r for all values of r,
for all values of
r,
The capital I is used as the sym

The idemfactor is a complete dyadic.
an idemfactor.
bol for an idemfactor.
For there can be no direction in which I r vanishes.

Theorem : When expressed in nonion form the idemfactor
I
Hence
ii
+ jj +
kk.
is
(33)
idemfactors are equal.

To prove that the idemfactor takes the form (33) it is
merely necessary to apply the idemfactor I to the vectors
i,
j,
all
respectively.
1
Let
= a n ii+
ki
12 ij
a 32 kj
a 13 ik
a 33 kk.
In the theory of dyadics the idemfactor I plays a role analogous to unity in

The notation is intended to suggest this analogy.
ordinary algebra.

I
. i
= an +
I-i
If
an
In like manner
it
and a 21
may
,
is
The
For
(0
I)
In like manner
Theorem:
it
If a
may
V,
kk.
and
coefficients
Hence
(33)
any dyadic and the idem-
1-0 = 0.
(I
r
may
r)
be.
r,
Hence, page 266,
= 0.
be shown that I
the
is,
and
no matter what the value of
all
which are unity.
all of
That
k.
= a 31 = 0.
direct product of
that dyadic.
a 31
i,
= ii + jj +
Theorem
j 4-
be shown that
vanish except a n a 22 a 33
factor
a 21
289
a, b, c
be two reciprocal systems
of vectors the expressions

I
I
= aa + bb + cc
=aa+b b+c c
(34)
are idemfactors.
For by (30) and (31) Chap.
II.,
= raa + r*bb + r cc
r = ra a + r b b + r.c
r
and
c.
Hence the expressions must be idemfactors by

Theorem
Conversely
if
the expression
= al + bm +
is
an idemfactor
1,
definition.
en
m, n must be the reciprocal system of
a, b, c.
19
VECTOR ANALYSIS
290
In the
dyadic.
place since
first
(P is
possess a set of reciprocals a
hypothesis
Then
<P
a, b, c are
is,
for all values of x, y,
Hence the
z.
That
is,
be any two dyadics, and if the product

l
then the product W 0,
is equal to the idemfactor
the factors are taken in the reversed order, is also
Theorem
non-coplanar and
corresponding coefficients must be equal.
<?
a complete
= xl + ym-\-zn = xsi + y b + zc
for all values of r, that
when
it is
Let
= #a + y V + 20
r $ = r.
By
the idemfactor,
Hence the antecedents
If
(Pand
equal to the idemfactor.
V=L
Let
=L
To show
(0
W)
This relation holds for
must take on
all
=
all
When
r.
(?)
As
Hence by
=r
is
0.
complete r
definition
= I.
product of two dyadics

be taken in either order.
If the
109.] Definition:
values of
desired values.
W
may
0)
(r
is
an idemfactor, that product
two dyadics are so related that
their product is equal to the idemfactor, they are said to be

1
of
V to be complete. For the product

incomplete and hence could not be equal to the
This necessitates both the dyadics * and
two incomplete dyadics
idemfactor.
is

The notation used
reciprocals.
algebra
is
if
0.y=I,
employed
Theorem:
for reciprocals in
ordinary
denote reciprocal dyadics.
to
?F-i
291
=1
and 5T=
That
0-i=L
is,
(35)
Reciprocals of the same or equal dyadics are
equal.
and
be two given equal dyadics, <J>~ 1 and JT"1

their reciprocals as defined above. By hypothesis
Let
0=
~i
W.
and
W,
= ~i.
0-1 = 1=
0- 1
To show
0.
0=,
As
I.0-i
Hence
-1.
0.0~i=0.-\
0-1.0
The
= l.
= I,
= 0-i = I. W~i =
0-i =
~\
-1.
the dyadic whose antecedents are the

and whose conse
reciprocal system to the consequents of
are
the
antecedents
to
the
of 0.
reciprocal system
quents
reciprocal of
is
If a complete dyadic
its
is
reciprocal
For
(al
+ bm + cn)
Theorem
into
0"1
= al + bm + en,
= a +mV+n
1
(1
V+
c )
(36)
=aa + bV +
ce
If the direct products of a complete dyadic
two dyadics
1
W and Q
An incomplete
are equal as dyadics then
dyadic has no
(finite) reciprocal.
W and Q
292
VECTOR ANALYSIS
are equal.
and
If the
product of a dyadic
two vectors
into
(whether the multiplication be performed with a dot

a
or
cross) are equal, then the vectors r and s are equal.
r
That
is,
if
= d> J2,
r =
r =
x
and
if
and
if
= Q,
then r =
then r =
then
This
may
(37)
s,
s,
s.
s,
be seen by multiplying each of the equations
through by the reciprocal of 0,
= 0-i
r = r = 0~!
0-1.0. W =
0-i
0-1.
To
0xr = IXr=0"
=
0X8 = 1X8.
s
1 -
s,
reduce the last equation proceed as follows.
any vector,
Hence
t is
any vector,
for
t.
=t
r is equal to
Equations (37) give what

celation
Let
be
tIxr = tIxs,
t
As
Q=
s.
s.
equivalent to the law of cancomplete dyadics. Complete dyadics may be

is
canceled from either end of an expression just as if they

were scalar quantities. The cancelation of an incomplete
dyadic is not admissible. It corresponds to the cancelation
of a zero factor in ordinary algebra.
110.]
number
Theorem:
The
reciprocal
of the
product of any
equal to the product of the reciprocals

taken in the opposite order.
It will be sufficient to give the proof for the case in which
of dyadics
is
the product consists of two dyadics.
To show
5F-1
0~l
Hence
(0
Hence
?T
y-1 }
( ?F
?F)
and W~
0- 1 )
JF- 1
(P"
0~ l
must be
293
0. 0-l
= I.
I.
reciprocals.
That
The proof for any number of dyadics may be given

same manner or obtained by mathematical induction.
Definition
of times,
The products
by
of a dyadic
itself are called
and so
=
.
in the
taken any number

and are denoted in
<P,
powers of
the customary manner.
is,
0*,
02
0^
forth.
Theorem
The
the reciprocal of
reciprocal of a
power
of
<P is
the power of
<P.
(0)-i
= (0- )" =
1
0-
(37)
The
proof follows immediately as a corollary of the preced

The symbol <P" n may be interpreted as the
theorem.
ing
or as the reciprocal of
nth power of the reciprocal of
the nth power of 0.
If
be interpreted as an operator determining a trans
formation of space, the positive powers of
correspond to
repetitions of the transformation.
The negative powers of

The idemfactor
correspond to the inverse transformations.
that is, no trans

corresponds to the identical transformation
formation at all. The fractional and irrational powers of CP
will
not be defined.
single-valued.
square roots
infinite
They
are seldom used
For instance the idemfactor

1.
But
has the two
in addition to these it has a
system of square roots of the form

<P
and are not
= -ii +
jj
kk.
doubly
VECTOR ANALYSIS
294
Geometrically the transformation
a reflection of space in the j k-plane. This transformation

replaces each figure by a symmetrical figure, symmetrically
situated upon the opposite side of the j k-plane.
The trans
is
formation
sometimes called perversion.
is
The idemfactor
has also a doubly infinite system of square roots of the form
Geometrically the transformation

r
is
= V.T
This transformation replaces each

about
the i-axis through an angle
rotated
equal
a reflection in the i-axis.

its
by
180. The idemfactor thus possesses not only two square
roots but in addition two doubly infinite systems of square
figure
of
roots
and.
means
it
will be seen (Art. 129) that these are
by no
all.
111.]
The
conjugate of a dyadic has been defined (Art. 99)
as the dyadic obtained
by interchanging the antecedents and

and the notation of a subscript
consequents of a given dyadic
C has
been employed.
The equation
r
has been demonstrated.
= 4>
(9)
The following theorems concerning
conjugates are useful.
Theorem
dyadics
is
The conjugate
equal to the sum
:
(d>
T)
The conjugate
of the
sum
or difference of
two
or difference of the conjugates,
=0 C
Wc
of a product of dyadics is equal

to the product of the conjugates taken in the opposite order.
Theorem
295
It will be sufficient to demonstrate the theorem
the product contains
two
(d>.T)c =W c .0 Ct
.
(0
W) c
r = r
(r
<P)
power
(r
V) c =
(4>
The conjugate
W)
= )
5F,
r,
<P)
<^.
r.
c .4> c
of the
power
of a dyadic is the
of the conjugate of the dyadic.
a corollary of the foregoing theorem. The expression

c may be interpreted in either of two equal ways.
Theorem The conjugate of the reciprocal of a dyadic is
This
is
equal to the reciprocal of the conjugate of the dyadic.
=
For
(@~
The idemfactor
)c
its
is
= (&
own
0~
)c
(42)
= Ic = I-
conjugate as
may
be seen from
the nonion form.
= ii +
Hence
(^c)"
Hence
of
two equivalent ways
+ kk
*c
C^)
The expression ^ c-1 may
j j
= (*"%
therefore be interpreted in either

as the reciprocal of the conjugate
or as the conjugate of the reciprocal.

Definition:
If a
to be self-conjugate.
dyadic
is
If it is
equal to
its
conjugate,
it is
equal to the negative of
its
said
con-
VECTOR ANALYSIS
296
For se//-conjugate
said to be anti-self-conjugate.
it is
jugate,
dyadics.
r,
C.
For anti-self-conjugate dyadics
Theorem
way
Any
dyadic
two parts
into
of
r,
may
00.
be divided in one and only one

is
self-conjugate and the
which one
other anti-self-conjugate.
But
0=5(0+0,) + 2 (0-0c).
(& + c) c = c + c +
and
(0
For
|(^~
),
d>,
- 0<,) c = $ - c
(43)
&c)
is
anti-self-conjugate.
accomplished in one way.
and the part

the division has been
self-conjugate;
Thus
Let
and
in another way
were possible to decompose
into a self-conjugate and an anti-self-conjugate part.
Let
Suppose
it
then
Where
Hence
Hence
(0
if
(0
if
conjugate.
= (0 + J2) + (0"-).
+ c=
+ 0) = (0 + ), =
-f J2) is
(0"
J2)
self-conjugate,
is
fi is
self-conjugate.
anti-self-conjugate
is
anti-self-
Any
gate
dyadic which
is
negative and consequently vanishes.
its
and the division
zero
is
both self-conjugate and anti-self-conju
is
to
equal
Hence
297
of
into
two parts
is
unique.
Anti-self-conjugate Dyadics.
In case
112.]
is
The Vector Product
any dyadic the expression
If
should be en
gives the anti-self-conjugate part of 0.
n
is
antinself-con
0".
to
Let
therefore
jugate
equal
tirely
be any anti-self-conjugate dyadic,
<P
Suppose
$c =
20"
=a
But
al
la
But by
0"
lar-hbmr
a
r
a r =
bm r mb r =
nc r =
cn r
r
definition
(a
<P x
0"
Hence
r
0"
+ bm
mb +
= 0" c
(a
(b
x m) x
1)
nc,
nc
r.
r,
r,
(cxn)xr.
b x
4- c
n)
r.
= axl-fbxm4-cxn.
r
=-~
= - 0"
= I0 X
r,
may be stated in a theorem as

Theorem The direct product of any
results
cn
mbr + cnr
Hence
The
= al-hbm-fcn,
=- \ r
X.
follows.
anti-self-conjugate
dyadic and the vector r is equal to the vector product of

minus one half the vector of that dyadic and the vector r.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Theorem
!f
anti-self-conjugate dyadic <P possesses one

It is a uniplanar dyadic the plane of
of
nullity.
degree
:
Any
whose consequents and antecedents

the vector of
perpendicular to
is
<P X ",
<P.
This theorem follows as a corollary from equations (44).

Theorem : Any dyadic
may be broken up into two parts
which one is self-conjugate and the other equivalent to

used in cross multiplication.
minus one half the vector of
of
<p
Any
= <P
or symbolically
113.]
<P X
#x
r,
X.
(45)
vector c used in vector multiplication defines a
For
linear vector function.
cx(r + s)=cxr + cxs.

Hence
it
dyadic.
must be
possible to represent the operator c
as a
This dyadic will be uniplanar with plane of
antecedents and consequents perpendicular
to
c,
so that
be found as follows
I- (c x !)
(31)
(I
c)
=I
Hence
and
This
may
(I
c)
I}
(c
I)
= (I
c = r
c)
(I
be stated in words.
(!
r
c)
= {I
(c
1,
-
I)
(c
I)}
r.
= (e x I)
c) = r (c x I).
r
it
The dyadic may
will reduce all vectors parallel to c to zero.
By
its
r,
(46)

Theorem : The vector
a vector r
is
used as prefactors
and
If c precedes r the dyadics are to be
r.
follows
if c
The dyadics
as postfactors.
r,
I are anti-self-conjugate.
In case the vector
used in vector multiplication with

x c or c X I used in direct
equal to the dyadic I
multiplication with
299
c is a unit vector the application of the
any vector r in a plane perpendicular to c is

to
equivalent
turning r through a positive right angle about
the axis c.
The dyadic c X I or I x c where c is a unit vector
operator c
to
therefore turns
any vector
perpendicular to
right angle about the line
an
c as
If r
axis.
c through a
were a vector
lying out of a plane perpendicular to c the effect of the dyadic

I X c or c x I would be to annihilate that component of r which
is
and turn that component
parallel to c
of r
which
is
perpen
dicular to c through a right angle about c as axis.

If the dyadic be applied twice the vectors perpendicular to
r are rotated
direction.
through two right angles.
are reversed in
They
If it be applied three times they are turned
through
three right angles.

Applying the operator I x c or c X I four
times brings a vector perpendicular to c back to its original
position.
The powers
(I
(I
c)
c)
(I
x
5
c)
(c
(I
of the dyadic are therefore
I)
c)
I)
=-I
(c
=-
(c
(c
x
6
I)
x
I)
law as far as
its
- cc),
=-c x
= I - c c,
=I
It thus appears that the dyadic I
(I
=c
c or c
I,
(47)
x
I
I.
obeys the same
powers are concerned as the scalar imaginary
1 in algebra.
The dyadic
Ixc orcxlisa
For vectors
parallel to c it acts
avoid this effect
and obtain a true
vectors perpendicular to
as an annihilator.
To
quadrantal versor only for
c.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
300
quadrantal versor for
vectors r in space it is merely neces

sary to add the dyad c c to the dyadic I X c or c X I.
all
X = Ixc +
If
=
=
The dyadic
idemfactor.
The quadrantal
imaginary
plete
and
conjugate
two
and
i, j,
+ 2cc,
iXc + cc,
The dyadic X is com

x c is anti-self-
parts of which I
c c, self-conjugate.
k are three perpendicular unit vectors
xj-j
jk,
= ik-ki,
Ixk=k x I=ji
may
(48)
appears as a fourth root of the

versor
is analogous to the
Ixi = ixl = kj
as
cc,
a scalar algebra.
1 of
consists of
If
114.]
therefore
= cxI +
cc
(49)
ij,
be seen by multiplying the idemfactor
and k successively.
These expressions represent

quadrantal versors about the axis i,j, k respectively combined
into
i, j,
with annihilators along those axes.

They are equivalent,
i
to
in
direct
when used
x, jx, k X respectively,
multiplication,
jj,
The expression
j,
an idemfactor for the plane of

but an annihilator for the direction k. In a similar
(I
ner the dyad k k
is
k)
is
an idemfactor for the direction
k,
and
man
but an
301
These partial
annihilate! for the plane perpendicular to k.
idemfactors are frequently useful.

If a, b, c are any three vectors and a , V,
the reciprocal
system,
aa + bb
used as a prefactor is an idemfactor for all vectors in the
plane of a and b, but an annihilator for vectors in the direc
tion
c.
Used
as a postfactor it
an idemfactor for
is
all vectors,
and V, but an annihilator for vectors

In like manner the expression
in the plane of a
direction c
in the
cc
used as a prefactor is an idemfactor for vectors in the direction

c, but for vectors in the plane of a and b it is an annihilator.
Used
as a postfactor
direction c
an idemfactor for vectors
is
it
the
but an annihilator for vectors in the plane of a
and V, that is, for vectors perpendicular

If a and b are
any two vectors
(a
in
x b) x
=I
x (a x b)
of
c.
= ba - ab.
(50)
For
{(a
x b) x I}r =
(a
x b) x
= bar
ab
T = (ba
ab>r.
The
vector a x b in cross multiplication is therefore equal to

the dyadic (b a
a b) in direct multiplication.
If the vector
is
used as a prefactor the dyadic must be so used.

(a xb)
r
This
is
(a
x b)
(b a
=r
a b)
(ba
r,
- ab).
a symmetrical and
easy form in which to
the formula for expanding a triple vector

product.
(51)
remember
VECTOR ANALYSIS
302
Reduction of Dyadics
115.]
be any complete dyadic and let r be a unit

the vector r
Let
Then
vector.
is
Normal Form
to
When
r.
r takes
on
values consis
all
that is, when the terminus

being a unit vector
the vector r
of r describes the surface of a unit sphere,
tent with
its
and
varies continuously
surface
to a
sum
terminus describes a surface.
This
an
It is in fact
is closed.
Theorem
its
ellipsoid.
always possible to reduce a complete dyadic

of three terms of which the antecedents among
It
is
themselves and the consequents among themselves are mutu

This is called the normal form of 0.
ally perpendicular.
<P
To
= ai
+ ck
k.
demonstrate the theorem consider the surface described
by
As
bj
0-r.
this is a closed surface there
which makes
must be some
direction of r
maximum
or at any rate gives r as great

a value as it is possible for r to take on. Let this direction
of r be called i, and let the corresponding direction of r
r
the direction in which r takes on a value at least as great as

be called a. Consider next all the values of r which
any
in a plane perpendicular to
lie
of r lie in a plane
1
This
may
be proved as follows
r
Hence
By expressing
degree.
is
Hence
the ellipsoid.
owing
.r=l=:
r,
r
The corresponding values
i.
to a fact that
:
r^*-1
(*
r is a linear vector
(P
= r .*c
l
-i.* - 1)-
in
nonion form, the equation r
describes a quadric surface.
-1
=r V r
r = is seen to be of the second
.
The
only closed quadric surface

Of
303
must be at least as great

this
b
and
Call
let
the
any
corresponding direction
of r be called j.
Finally choose k perpendicular to i and j
function.
as
these values of r one
other.
upon the
positive side of
plane of
and
Let
j.
be the
r = k.
value of r which corresponds to

Since the dyadic
it
k
into
c
be
a,
b,
i,
j,
changes
may
expressed in the form
= ai +
<P
show
It remains to
bj
ck.
that the vectors
as determined
a, b, c
above are mutually perpendicular.
= (ai +
= (ai
dr
dr
When
-f-
r is parallel to
perpendicular to di
perpendicular to
dr
i,
ck)-r,
bj
ck) -dr,
Since r
j-dr +
di +
maximum and
is
bj
ck-
di
r is parallel to
dr.
hence must be
a unit vector
is
Hence when
r.
di
ai
bj
is
always
kdr = 0.
vanishes, and if
Hence when r is
But when
parallel to i, r is perpendicular to both b and c.
r is parallel to i, r is parallel to a.
Hence a is perpendicular
Consider next the plane of j and k and the
to b and c.
plane of b and c. Let r be any vector in the plane of j and k.
If
dr
further
is
perpendicular to j, r
b vanishes.
perpendicular to k, r
is
dr
r
-dr
When
r takes the
hence
is
=r
value
-b
j,
+ ck)r,
(bj
+ ck)
(bj
dr
is
perpendicular to dr
f
.
-f r
dr,
c
k-dr.
maximum
in this plane
and
Since r is a unit vector it is
VECTOR ANALYSIS
304
Hence when
and
perpendicular to dr.
is
perpendicular to
Hence
j,
But when
c is zero.
is
parallel
r is parallel to
j,
to
j,
dr
takes the
Consequently b is perpendicular to c.
It has therefore been shown that a is perpendicular to b and
value
c,
b.
and that b
perpendicular to
is
denoted by
a,
J, c
Then
4>
where
Consequently the three
c.
are mutually perpendicular.
antecedents of
= ai
the dyadic
+bj
takes the form
+ck
k,
(52)
are scalar constants positive or negative.
Theorem: The complete dyadic
116.]
They may be
reduced to a
sum
of three dyads
<?
may always
be
whose antecedents and
whose consequents form a right-handed rectangular system

of unit vectors and whose scalar coefficients are either all
positive or all negative.
&=
The proof of
made on page 20
(ai
fcj j
+ ck
k).
(53)
the theorem depends upon the statements

if one or three vectors of a
right-handed
that
system be reversed the resulting system is left-handed, but

if two be reversed the system remains right-handed.
If then
one of the coefficients in (52)
other two axes

are negative.
may
If
two
the directions of the
negative, the directions of the

be reversed. Then all the coefficients
is
of the coefficients in (52) are negative,
two vectors
to
which they belong may
be reversed and then the coefficients in
Hence
the
in
are all positive.
any case the reduction to the form in which all

are positive or all are negative has been
coefficients
performed.
As a limiting case between that in which the coefficients

are all positive and that in which they are all negative comes

them
the case in which one of
takes the form

<P
and
is
The
planar.
= ai +&j
i
a and
coefficients
The dyadic then
zero.
is
305
(54)
may always
be taken
positive.
By a proof similar to the one given above it is
show that any planar dyadic may be reduced to
to
possible
The vectors i andj are perpendicular, and the
this form.
vectors i and j are likewise perpendicular.
It
might be added that
in case the three coefficients a,
&, c
in the reduction (53) are all different the reduction can be
performed in only one way. If two of the coefficients (say

a and 6) are equal the reduction may be accomplished in an
ways in which the third vector k is always

the same, but the two vectors i j to which the equal coeffi
cients belong may be any two vectors in the plane per
number
infinite
of
In
pendicular to k.
all
these reductions the
three scalar
have the same values as in any one of them.

6, c are all equal when $ is reduced
coefficients will
If the three coefficients a,

to the
normal form
may
space.
In
are the
same
may be accomplished
The three vectors
ways.
(53), the reduction
in a doubly infinite
number
of
be any right-handed rectangular system in

these reductions the three scalar coefficients
all of
as in
any one of them.
These statements
will
not be proved. They correspond to the fact that the ellipsoid

which is the locus of the terminus of r may have three
different principal axes or it
maybe an
ellipsoid of revolution,
or finally a sphere.
Theorem
Any
self -con jugate
the form
where
Let
a, &,
= aii +
and
dyadic
may
be expressed in
+ ckk
&jj
(55)
are scalars, positive or negative.

<P
= ai
-f
Jj
+
20
6jj
+ck
k,
+ ckk
(52)
,
VECTOR ANALYSIS
306
0.0 c =a*i
&2j j
jj
+c a k k
+ c 2 kk.
= 0^
Since
0*
I
and
**
j j
+ kk
0= 0*.
n +j j
were not parallel (& 2

a 2 !) would annihilate
two vectors i and i and hence every vector in their plane.
a 2 I) would therefore possess two degrees of
(0*
nullity
If
and be
But
linear.
it is
this dyadic is not linear.
be parallel.
k and k
In like
are parallel.
if a, 6, c
are different
Hence i and i must

planar.
manner- it may be shown that j and j
The dyadic
therefore takes the form
It
is
0=
where
apparent that
aii
a, J, c are positive or
bjj
+ ckk
negative scalar constants.
Double Multiplication
Definition : The double dot product of two dyads is

117.]
the scalar quantity obtained by multiplying the scalar product
of the antecedents by the scalar product of the consequents.
The product
is
denoted by inserting two dots between the
ab:cd
= a-c bd.
(56)
This product evidently obeys the commutative law
ab:cd
1
The
= cd:ab,
researches of Professor Gibbs upon Double Multiplication are here

first time.
printed for the
307
to the dyads and

with regard to the vectors in the dyads. The double dot
product of two dyadics is obtained by multiplying the prod
uct out formally according to the distributive law into the
and the distributive law both with regard
sum
number
of a
If
of double dot products of dyads.

a2 b2
a3 b3
d2
c8
d3
W = G! d +
and
=a
c2
...
4-
a 1 b 1 :c 2 d 2
a 1 b 1 :c 3 d 3
+ aab^Cjdj +
a 2 b 2 :c 2 d 2
a 2 b 2 :c 3 d 3
a 3 b 3 :c 2 d 2
a 3 b 3 :c 3 d s
b 1 :o 1 d 1
a 3 b 3 :c 1 d 1
aa
c1
+ a 3 -c 1
+
(56)
.
c2
b 2 d2
a 2 -c 3
b2
d3
bg.djH-a3.C2
b 3 -d 2
a 3 .c 3
b 3 .d 3
bg-d!
-f
d2
...............
Definition:
The
double cross product of
which the antecedent
two dyads
---
(66)"
is
the
the vector product of the

dyad
antecedents of the two dyads and of which the consequent is
the vector product of the consequent of the two dyads.
The
of
product
dyads
is
is
denoted by inserting two crosses between the
abcd = axc
b x
d.
(57)
This product also evidently obeys the commutative law
ab
cd
= cd
ab,
VECTOR ANALYSIS
308
and the distributive law both with regard to the dyads and
with regard to the vectors of which the dyads are composed.
The double cross product of two dyadics is therefore defined
as the formal expansion
of the product according to the
law into a sum of double cross products of
distributive
dyads.
=a
*F = c
If
b1
a2 b 2
a3 b3
&1
c2
d2
C3
<P
and
*
y=
(a^ +
=a
b1
a2 b2
aa b3
a2 b 2
a3b
d3
) x
...
(c^ +
C2
d2
+ c3 a3 +
1
Ojdj
ax bx
a2 b 2
M! +
a3 b3
cjdj
x
c2
d2
c3
d3
c3
d3
^ c3
d3
ajbj
c2
d2
a2 b2
c2
d2
a3 b3
c!
b2
xd
+ a 3 xc 3
b3
xd +a3 xc 2 bgXdj +a 3 xc 3
-fa 2
xc 2
b2
xd2 + a2 xc 3
............
Theorem
The double dot and double
...
...)
(57)
ba
b3
...
(57)"
cross products of
two dyadics obey the commutative and distributive laws of

But the double products of more than two
multiplication.
dyadics (whenever they have any meaning) do not obey the
associative law.
d>
W :0
$>*=*$
*
(<P
The theorem
is
T)
Q*
(58)
(^x)-
sufficiently evident
without demonstration.

Theorem
dyads
is
The double dot product
of
309
two fundamental
equal to unity or to zero according as the two
dyads are equal or different.
ij:ki
= i-k
= 0.
Theorem: The double cross product of two fundamental

dyads (12)
is
equal to zero
consequents are equal.
either the antecedents or the
if
But
if
neither antecedents nor con
sequents are equal the product is equal to one of the funda

mental dyads taken with a positive or a negative sign.
That
is
ij
ij
There
*ik
=ix
*ki =i x k
x k
= +jk.
a scalar triple product of three dyads in

which the multiplications are double. Let <P, 5T, Q be any
exists
three dyadics.
The expression
*
is
WiQ
a scalar quantity. The multiplication with the double

must be performed first. This product is entirely in
cross
dependent of the order in which the factors are arranged or

Let ab, cd, and ef be
the position of the dot and crosses.

three dyads,
ab*cd:ef=[ace]
That
[bdf].
(59)
the product of three dyads united by a double cross

is equal to the product of the scalar triple
product of the three antecedents by the scalar triple product
From this the statement made
of the three consequents.
is,
and a double dot
the dots and crosses be interchanged

the order of the factors be permuted cyclicly the two
above follows.
or
if
For
if
scalar triple products are not altered.
If the cyclic order of
VECTOR ANALYSIS
310
reversed each scalar triple product changes

Their product therefore is not altered.
the factors
sign.
is
A dyadic
118.]
may
Let
cross.
= al + bm +
<P
=
ss=
+ bm +
(al
a x a
be multiplied by
en)
(al-f
itself
with double
en
bm +
en)
Ixm + axc Ixn
x b
+bxa mxl+bxb m x m + b
+ cxa nxl + cxb
The products
n x
main diagonal
Hence
in the
equal in pairs.
m+
a, b, c
and
1,
m, n are non-coplanar this
may
+ b/m +
The product
fl>
is
a species of power of 0.
The
garded as a square of
notation
$2
mxn
n x
The
vanish.
0
It
will be
(60)
may be re
employed
been
to represent this product after the scalar factor 2 has
stricken out.
= (bxc mxn + cxa nxl + axb Ixm) (61).

= 0*0
^
J
The
product of a dyadic
expressed as the
three dyads with itself twice repeated is
triple
</>*$:
<P
$2
sum
of
<P
:0=(bxc mxn-fexa nxl + axb Ixm)

:
(al
+ bm +
en).
In expanding this product every term in which a letter is

repeated vanishes. For a scalar triple product of three vec-

tors two of which are equal
reduces to three terms only
:0=[bca] [mnl] +
is
311
Hence the product
zero.
[cab] [nlm]
[abc] [linn]
= 3 [a b c] [Imn]
2
0*0:0 = 6 [abc] pmn].
or
The
product of a dyadic by
triple
itself
twice repeated
is
equal to six times the scalar triple product of its antecedents

multiplied by the scalar triple product of its consequents.
is a species of cube.
It will be denoted by
8
The product
after the scalar factor 6 has
been stricken out.
0*0:0
(62)
119.]
If
be called the second of
and
8,
the third of
0, the following theorems may be stated concerning the

seconds and thirds of conjugates, reciprocals, and products.
Theorem
The second
of the conjugate of a dyadic
to the conjugate of the second of that dyadic.
the conjugate
is
The
is
equal
third of
equal to the third of the dyadic.
<*,).= <.),
Theorem: The second and third of the reciprocal of a

dyadic are equal respectively to the reciprocals of the second
and
third.
<*-
),
(*,)-!=*,*
(f ). = (*,)->-*.1
Let
<p- 1
= al + bm + cn
= a + m b +n c
l
+bm +cn
n
(36)
VECTOR ANALYSTS
812
(*)
-1
[a
c ] [!
[a b c]
But
=1
(0,)-* =
and
[a b c ] [a be]
Hence
(1
(0-
+ m b + n c)
m n]
= 1.
[1 m n ] [Imn]
= 0,-*.
[1
).,
=[abc] [Imn],
[abc] [Imn]
C^-Oa = IX W] [1 m n ].
(0,)- = (*-), = 0,-*.
1
Hence
Theorem: The second and third of a product are equal

respectively to the product of the seconds and the product of
the thirds.
(f.f),
= *,.*,
(0. *),= *,
of
^3-
Choose any three non-coplanar vectors 1, m, n as consequents

and let 1 m n be the antecedents of W.
,
= al + b m + en,
?T =
d + m e + n
r = ad + be + cf,
(
W\ =bxc exf + cxa fxd + axb dxe,
<P = bxc
mxn-fcxa nxl + axb Ixm,
?T = m x n
e x f + n x
f x d +
x m dxe.
= bxc exf + cxa fxd + axb dxe.
Hence 2
2
?F
Hence
(# 5T) = <?
(^. JT) 8 = [abc] [def]
<P
f,
5P*
313
= [abc] [Imn],
rg = P m n ] [defj.
= [a be] [def].
8
z
8
Hence
Hence
(0.F),=
Theorem
The second and
equal respectively to the
Theorem
The
power of a dyadic are

and third of
of the second
(*"),
= W=0,"
(0
)8
The second
third of a
powers
the dyadic.
y,.
03
of the idemfactor
third of the idemfactor
is
is
the idemfactor.
unity.
=I
(6T)
1=1
lg
1.
Theorem: The product of the second and conjugate of

a dyadic is
idemfactor.
equal
0,=
a
<P
2
=b
$<,
la
[1
m n]
(b
The antecedents
a, b, c of
be non-coplanar.
Then
(b
a b
Hence
120.]
of
Let a dyadic
three dyads of
non-coplanar.
+ mb +
c
c)
[abc]
<& c
be given.
Ixm,
nc,
x a b+
the dyadic
x b
sum
(68)
8 I,
mxn + cxa nxl + axb
C ;=
 3 1
Let
it
be reduced to the
which the three antecedents are
VECTOR ANALYSIS
314
= al + b m +
=b
cn,
mxn + cxa nxl + axb
x m,
[Imn].
Theorem: The necessary and sufficient condition that a
be complete is that the third of
be different from
dyadic
zero.
For
the
it
was shown (Art. 106) that both the antecedents and
consequents of
Hence
two
the
a complete
are
dyadic
scalar triple products
non-coplanar.
which occur in
cannot vanish.

shall vanish but the
dyadic $ be planar is that the third of
second of <P shall not vanish.
was shown (Art. 106) that if a dyadic

be planar its con
n
must
be
and
1,
m,
sequents
planar
conversely if the conse
It
quents be coplanar the dyadic

<P
dyadic
must vanish.
is
Hence
planar.
But $2 cannot
for a planar
vanish.
Since
a,
have been assumed non-coplanar, the vectors b x c, c x a,

a x b are non-coplanar.
Hence if 2 vanishes each of the
b, c
vectors
mxn, nxl, Ixm vanishes
linear.
But
and not
linear.
that
is, 1,
m, n are
this is impossible since the dyadic
is
col-
planar

non-vanishing dyadic be linear is that the second of 0, and
consequently the third of 0, vanishes.
For if
be linear the consequents
Hence
<P
their vector products vanish
vanish.
1,
each of
must be zero and hence these consequents

of the third,
n,
are collinear.
and the consequents
If conversely <P2 vanishes,
The vanishing
m,
of
its
of
consequents
are collinear.
unaccompanied by the vanish
ing of the second of a dyadic, implies one degree of nullity.
The vanishing
of the second implies
two degrees
of nullity.

The vanishing
results
may
of the dyadic itself
is
315
complete nullity.
The
be put in tabular form.
^0,
is

complete.
is
0,
<P
planar.
It follows immediately that the third of
(69)
is linear.
0,
any anti-self-conjugate
For any such
dyadic vanishes; but the second does not.

dyadic is planar but cannot be linear.
Nonion Form.
Invariants of a Dyadic
be expressed in nonion form
If
121.]
Determinants. 1
= au ii +
+
The conjugate
of
<P
a81 ki
a 12
i j
a 32 kj
a 18 ik
(13)
a 33 kk.
has the same scalar coefficients as 0, but
they are arranged symmetrically with respect to the main

diagonal.
Thus
( 70 )
The second of $ may be computed.

Let
term.
What
it
Take, for instance, one
be required to find the coefficient of ij in
C? .
2
can yield a double cross product equal to

vector
ij?
product of the antecedents must be i and
Hence the
the vector product of the consequents must be j.
terms in
The
antecedents must be
and k
These terms are

021J
a 31 k i
and the consequents, k and
= - a2l a 33
k = a 31 a 23
x33 kk
J
a 23 j
i.
iJ
i j.
1 The results hold

only for determinants of the third order.
determinants of higher orders is through Multiple Algebra.
The extension
to
VECTOR ANALYSIS
316
Hence the term
This
is
the
in
first
ij
in
$2
is
minor of a*12
19 in the determinant
a
ai
a*
This minor
taken with the negative sign. That is, the

coefficient of i j in 2 is what is termed the cofactor of the
is
coefficient of
ij
in the determinant.
The
cofactor
is
merely
minor taken with the positive or negative sign
according as the sum of the subscripts of the term whose
first minor is under consideration is even or odd.
The co
the
first
any dyad in 2 is easily seen to be the cofactor of

corresponding term in $. The cofactors are denoted
efficient of
the
generally by large letters.

is
the cofactor of a*
is
the cofactor of a 12
is
the cofactor of a 32
33
n
With
this notation the
second of
becomes
ik
kk
The value of the third of

sum of three dyads
<P
may
(71)
be obtained by writing
as the
(a n
a 21
a sl k)
+ (a 12 i + a 22 j +
+ (a 13 i + a 23 j +
a 32 k) j
a 33 k)k

^3
This
For
and
is
[Oil
21 J
"31
(21 *
idea of the
is
a1
ai
az
aQ
a*
most
a 33 k )
(72)
determinant
(72)
is
very natural when
On
is
the other hand
be expressed in that form the conception of
the third of $,
The
frequently called the determinant of
regarded as expressed in nonion form.

unless
22 J
written
 c
=0
(68)
or
or
Hence 0"1
more natural.
=
(73)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
318
If the
determinant be denoted by
(73)
If
is
a second dyadic given in nonion form as
ki
6 31
& 32
kj
& 33
kk,
W of
the two dyadics may readily be found

by actually performing the multiplication
the product
On
+
U+
a 12
iJ
6 32)
:
621
kJ
a 18
a
6 81 ) ii
( a 31 6 12
W = an in +
(a u
a 32
6 23
a 12 6 12
6 12
a la 622
ik
a 33
& 33>
kk
o 18 J 18
6 21
31
Since the third or determinant of a product is equal to the

product of the determinants, the law of multiplication of
determinants follows from (65) and
(74).

a.
"11
"21
an
"11
a 22
a23
Ojrtn
dinn
6
19
"12
io
"31
&12
13
&22
6 23
"21
& 32
6 33
^31^
&,
22
23
a 32
!3
*32
4-
"11 "13
a 12
!3
& 13
22
23
6
31 13
32
*21
6 22
319
a 33
(76)
The rule may be stated in words. To multiply two deter

minants form the determinant of which the element in the
mth row and nth column
is
the
sum
elements in the rath row of the
column
of the products of the
first
determinant and nth
of the second.
= al
If
<?
= bxc mxn + cxa nxl + axb Ixm.
Then
I
=(^2 ) 3 =
Hence
<P
Hence
cxa axb]
[bxc
= (<P2 ) =
[a b c]
2
[1
[mxn nxl Ixm]
m n] 2 =
n
"22
33
the third order
122.]
is
is
dyadic
a2
<P,
has three scalar invariants
the scalar of the second of
or determinant of 0.
quantities are
(77)
which are independent

expressed. These are
the scalar of
of the cofactors of a given determinant of

equal to the square of the given determinant.
three scalar quantities
which
*ia
22
The determinant
<P
If
that
of the
<P,
is
form in
and the third
be expressed in nonion
form these
VECTOR ANALYSIS
320
(78)
*11
*18
hi
32
No
33
matter in terms of what right-handed rectangular system

may be expressed these quantities are
of these unit vectors
The
the same.
in the
sum
scalar of
the
of
first
sum
the
is
The
main diagonal.
of the three coefficients
scalar of the second of
is
the
minors or cofactors of the terms in the
main diagonal. The third of

is the determinant of the
These three invariants are by far the most
coefficients.
important that a dyadic
Theorem : Any dyadic
the three invariants
By
may
0%&
(P
#n
x a 12
21
#22
#31
#32
2S
a 13
#23
#33
x2
x*
be seen by actually performing the expansion.

__
x i) 2
This equation
scalar x.
That
x I) 3
(#
(<p
dyadic
cubic equation of which

are the coefficients.
(0-xI\*(0-xY) c = (0-xl\
(68)
Hence
as
possesses.
satisfies a
is
f<p
_ x !)<; =
0^ +
an identity holding for
It therefore holds,
if
x2
all
x*.
values of the
in place of the scalar x, the
which depends upon nine scalars be substituted.
is
But the terms upon the
left are identically zero.
Hence
321
This equation may be called the Hamilton-Cayley equation.

Hamilton showed that a quaternion satisfied an equation
analogous to this one and Cayley gave the generalization to
A matrix of the Tith order satisfies an algebraic
matrices.
equation of the nth degree.
The analogy between
the theory
In fact,
of dyadics and the theory of matrices is very close.
a dyadic may be regarded as a matrix of the third order and
conversely a matrix of the third order may be looked upon as
addition and multiplication of matrices and
dyadics are then performed according to the same laws.
of higher
generalization of the idea of a dyadic to spaces
The
a dyadic.
dimensions than the third leads to Multiple Algebra and the

theory of matrices of orders higher than the third.
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
vector r
said to be a linear function of a vector r
is
the components of r are linear homogeneous functions

Or a function of r is said to be a
of the components of r.
when
linear vector function of r
two vectors
is
the
sum
(ri
when the function
of the
sum
of
of the functions of those vectors.
ra
)=f(r
1)
f(r a ).
(4)
These two ideas of a linear vector function are equivalent.

A sum of a number of symbolic products of two vectors,
which are obtained by placing the vectors in juxtaposition

without intervention of a dot or cross and which are called
is called a dyadic and is represented by a Greek
dyads,
function of
dyadic determines a linear vector
a vector by direct multiplication with that vector
capital.
= &1
-
=a
bj
bx
a2 b2
a2 b2
21
+
r
a3 b3
a3 b3
r H
(7)
(8)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
322
Two
dyadics are equal when they are equal as operators

upon all vectors or upon three non-coplanar vectors. That
is,
when
<P
= W
r for all values or for three non-
coplanar values of
or
=r
coplanar values of
or
(10)
r,
for all values or for three non-
=s W
r,
r for all values or for three
coplanar values of r and
non-
s.
may be represented by a dyadic.

the
law of multiplication with
distributive
Dyads obey
regard to the two vectors composing the dyad
Any
(a
linear vector function
+ b + c+
) (1
+m+n+
...)
= al + am + an+
+
bl
+ bm + bn +
cl
+ cm + en +
(11)
Multiplication by a scalar is associative. In virtue of these

two laws a dyadic may be expanded into a sum of nine terms
by means of the fundamental dyads,

ii,
ij,
ik,
ji,
Jj,
Jk,
ki,
kj,
kk,
(12)
= a n ii + a 12 + a 18 ik,
= ai + <*22 +
k
= a 31 k + a 82 k + a 33 k k.
as
ij
J *
JJ
<*23 J
( 13 )
two dyadics are equal the corresponding coefficients in

their expansions into nonion form are equal and conversely
If

Any
dyadic
which
the
323
may be expressed as the sura of three dyads of

antecedents or the consequents are any three
This expression of the dyadic
given non-coplanar vectors.
is
unique.
The symbolic product ab known

general product of
scalar
is
two vectors
in
as a dyad is the most

which multiplication by a
It is called the indeterminate product.
associative.
The product imposes
upon the vectors a and
five conditions
Their directions and the product of their lengths are

determined by the product. The scalar and vector products
b.
indeterminate product. A scalar and

from any dyadic by inserting a dot
be
obtained
may
and a cross between the vectors in each dyad. This scalar
are functions of the
a vector
and vector are functions
of the dyadic.
=
b8 +
b + a
*! + a
x b + a x b +
X = &1 x bj + a
0, = i-0.i + j*0-j + k 0*k
= a n -f a 22 + #339
i - i
k-k
j) i + (k
0*
= (j
(i-
0i)
0-j -j
(18)
(19)
(20)
k)
(21)
The direct product of two dyads is the dyad whose ante

cedent and consequent are respectively the antecedent of the
first dyad and the consequent of the second multiplied by
the scalar product of the consequent of the
the antecedent of the second.
(ab)
(c d)
first
dyad and
JL
(b
c)
a/ *T
(23)
the formal expansion,

into the
according to the distributive law, of the product
The
direct product of
two dyadics
is
VECTOR ANALYSIS
324
sum
Direct multiplication of dyadics

or of dyadics and a vector at either end or at both ends obeys
the distributive and associative laws of multiplication. Con
of products of dyads.
sequently such expressions as
Q.W.T,
s.0-?
$>.W.Q
s.^.^.r,
*,
(24)-(26)
may be written without parentheses; for parentheses may

be inserted at pleasure without altering the value of the
product. In case the vector occurs at other positions than
at the
end the product
The skew product
no longer associative.
dyad and a vector may be defined
is
of a
by the equation
(ab) x
x (ab)
The skew product
= a b x r,
= r x a b.
of a dyadic
(28)
and a vector
is
equal to the
formal expansion of that product into a sum of products of

dyads and that vector. The statement made concerning the
associative law for direct products holds when the vector is
connected with the dyadics in skew multiplication.
The
expressions
r
^ x r,
?F,
x$
$ x
s,
s,
<P
(29)
be written without parentheses and parentheses may be

inserted at pleasure without altering the value of the product.
may
Moreover
s
(r
<P)
= (s
<p.(rx
r)
?P)
<P,
(<P
(0 x
r)
r)
W.
(r
s),
(31)
But the parentheses cannot be omitted.

The necessary and sufficient condition that a dyadic may
be reduced to the sum of two dyads or to a single dyad or
to zero is that, when expressed as the sum of three
dyads of which the antecedents (or consequents) are known
325
to be non-coplanar, the consequents (or antecedents) shall

be respectively coplanar or collinear or zero. A complete
dyadic is one which cannot be reduced to a sum of fewer
than three dyads.
planar dyadic
is
one which can be
reduced to a sum of just two dyads. A linear dyadic

which can be reduced to a single dyad.
is
one
A
is
complete dyadic possesses no degree of nullity. There

no direction in space for which it is an annihilator. A
-
planar dyadic possesses one degree of nullity. There is one

direction in space for which it is an annihilator when used as
a prefactor and one
when used
dyadic possesses two degrees
as a postfactor.
of
nuljity.
linear
There are two
independent directions in space for which it is an annihilator

when used as a prefactor and two directions when used as a
A zero dyadic
possesses three degrees of nullity

It annihilates every vector in space.
or complete nullity.
The products of a complete dyadic and a complete, planar,
postfactor.
or linear dyadic are respectively complete, planar, or linear.

The products of a planar dyadic with a planar or linear dyadic
where
between the consequents of the
first dyadic and the antecedents of the second introduce one
more degree of nullity into the product. The product of a
are respectively planar or linear, except in certain cases
relations of perpendicularity
linear dyadic
by a
linear dyadic
is
in general linear
but in
case the consequent of the
first is perpendicular to the ante

cedent of the second the product vanishes. The product of
any dyadic by a zero dyadic is zero.

A dyadic which when applied to any vector in space re
produces that vector is called an idemfactor. All idemfactors
are equal
and reducible
= ii +
I = aa +
I
Or
The product
to the
of
form
jj
kk.
bb + cc
(33)
(34)
any dyadic and an idemfactor
is
that dyadic.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
326
product of two complete dyadics is equal to the idemfactor the dyadics are commutative and either is called
If the
the reciprocal of the other.

complete dyadic may be
canceled from either end of a product of dyadics and vectors
as in ordinary algebra ; for the cancelation is equivalent to
multiplication by the reciprocal of that dyadic.
dyadics possess no reciprocals.
They correspond
The reciprocal
of a product
Incomplete
to zero in
equal to the
ordinary algebra.
product of the reciprocals taken in inverse order.
(0.
5F)-
5F-1
0-i.
is
(38)
The conjugate
of a dyadic is the dyadic obtained by inter

The
order
the
of the antecedents and consequents.
changing
the
of
the
con
a
is
to
of
product
equal
product
conjugate
jugates taken in the opposite order.
(0.
Wc
9%=
C.
(40)
The conjugate of the reciprocal is equal to the reciprocal of

the conjugate.
dyadic may be divided in one and only
one way into the sum of two parts of which one is self-
conjugate and the other anti-self-conjugate.
anti-self-conjugate dyadic or the anti-self-conjugate

any dyadic, used in direct multiplication, is equivalent
to minus one-half the vector of that dyadic used in skew
Any
part of
multiplication.
T=-j0
xr,
(44)
A dyadic of the form c
I or I
used in direct multiplication

used in skew multiplication.
is
c is anti-self-conjugate
and
equivalent to the vector o

Also
= (I x c)
<P = (I x
c)
= (c x I)
= (c x I)
327
(46)
r,
0.
The dyadic c X I or I x c, where c is a unit vector is a quadran tal versor for vectors perpendicular to c and an annihilator
for vectors
parallel to
The dyadic Ixc + ccisa true

The powers of these dyadics
c.
quadrantal versor for all vectors.
behave like the powers of the imaginary unit V^l, as ma

y
be seen from the geometric interpretation. Applied to the
unit vectors
i, j,
= kj - j k,
etc.
The vector a x b in skew multiplication

(a x b) X I in direct multiplication.
(ax
(a
r
=1
b)
b)
x (ax
x b)
(a
is
(49)
equivalent to
b)=ba-ab
(50)
= (b a a b) r
= r (b a - ab).
(51)
complete dyadic may be reduced to a sum of three

dyads of which the antecedents among themselves and the
among themselves each form
a right-handed
rectangular system of three unit vectors and of which the
scalar coefficients are all positive or all negative.
consequents
0=
This
is
(ai
called the normal
plete dyadic
may
6,
Any
+ ck
(53)
k).
form of the dyadic.
An
incom
The reduction
unique in case
In case they are not
is
be accomplished in more than

self-conjugate dyadic may be reduced to
the normal form

4>
in
ftj j
are different.
different the reduction
one way.
be reduced to this form but one or more of
the coefficients are zero.

the constants a,
may
= aii +
which the constants
a, S, c
6jj
+ ckk,
(55)
are not necessarily positive.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
328
cross multiplication of dyads
defined by the equations
is
ab:cd =
ac
abcd = axc
b.d,
(56)
bxd.
(57)
cross multiplication of dyadics

obtained by expanding the product formally, according to
the distributive law, into a sum of products of dyads. The
double dot and double cross multiplication of dyadics is com
is
mutative but not associative.

One-half the double cross product of a dyadic
If
called the second of 0.
is
<P
=i
<Px
<P
by
itself
= b xc mxn + cxa nxl+axb Ixm.
(61)
One-third of the double dot product of the second of

is
called the third of
and
is
and
equal to the product of the
scalar triple product of the antecedents of
and the
scalar
triple product of the consequent of 0.
0a
The second
The third of
= \0$ 0:
<P=[abc] [Imn].
of the conjugate
the conjugate
original dyadic.
is
is
(62)
the conjugate of the second.

equal to the third of the
The second and
third of the reciprocal are
the reciprocals of the second and third of the second and

The second and third of a product are the
third of a dyadic.
products of the seconds and thirds.
(*c\
= (*.)*
(65)

The product
to the
and conjugate
of the second
329
of a dyadic
^^c=^
conditions for the various degrees of

nullity
expressed in terms of the second and third of 0.
= 0,

is
and the idemfactor.
product of the third
complete
is
0,
= 0, $2 = 0,
3
be
may
planar
(69)
is linear.
0,
The
closing sections of the chapter contain the expressions

(70)-(78) of a number of the results in nonion form and the
deduction therefrom of a number of theorems

concerning
determinants. They also contain the cubic equation which is
satisfied
by a dyadic
03
This
_ Qa
02
+ 0^
03
^ _
[
called the Hamilton-Cayley equation.
is
cients
4>.
S,
<P<i
variants of
S,
and
The
coeffi
are the three fundamental scalar in
<P.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER
Show
1.
(79)
that the
two
given in Art. 98 for
definitions
a linear vector function are equivalent
Show
that the reduction of a dyadic as in (15) can be

accomplished in only one way if a, b, c, 1, m, n, are given.
2.
3.
Show
Show
4.
from
zero,
linear
5.
of
r,
(
any value
unless both
consequents
for
is
of r different
and
parallel to
are
r.
any three non-coplanar values
330
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Prove the statements made in Art. 106 and the con
6.
verse of the statements.
Show
7.
and
<P
that
Q is
if
are equal.
complete and
Q= W Q
if
then
Give the proof by means of theory
developed prior to Art. 109.

8.
Definition
Two
?r
dyadics such that
that
two dyadics that are commutative

are said to be
Show
that
if
homologous.
any number of dyadics are homo
logous to one another, any other dyadics which may be obtained
from them by addition, subtraction, and direct multiplication
is
to say,
are
homologous to each other and to the given dyadics. Show

homologous dyadics are homolo
~l
~l
the statement that if
also that the reciprocals of
gous.
or
Justify
which are equal, be called the quotient of

rules
addition,
governing
subtraction,
by
?F,
(P,
then the
multiplication
division of homologous dyadics are identical
and
with the rules
it being
governing these operations in ordinary algebra
understood that incomplete dyadics are analogous to zero,
and the idemfactor, to unity. Hence the algebra and higher
analysis of homologous dyadics
is
practically identical with
that of scalar quantities.
Show
9.
10.
that (I
Show
c)
X $ and
that whether or not
a, b, c
(c
I)
& = c X #.
be coplanar
abxc+bcxa+caxb = [abc]I
bxca+cxab+axbc=[abc]L
and
If a, b, c are coplanar use the above relation to prove

11.
the law of sines for the triangle and to obtain the relation
with scalar coefficients which exists between three coplanar
vectors.
This
may
be done by multiplying the equation by a
unit normal to the plane of a, b,

12.
What
is
and
the-condition which
coefficients in the
c.
must
subsist
between the
expansion of a dyadic into nonion
form
if

the dyadic be self-con jugate
self-conjugate
13.
What,
if
331
the dyadic be anti-
Prove the statements made in Art. 116 concerning the

of ways in which a dyadic may be reduced to its
number
normal form.
14.
The necessary and
be zero
self-conjugate dyadic
an anti-
that the vector of the
is
dyadic shall be zero.

15.
Show
that
be any dyadic the product
if
<P C is
self-conjugate.
16.
Show how
to
make
use of the relation
$x
to
demonstrate that the antecedents and consequents of a self

conjugate dyadic are the same (Art. 116).
17.
Show
that
and
(0
18.
Show
that

=
2
&
+ 4>*V +
the double dot product
the dyadic vanishes.

by
for
a
linear
condition
dyadic in the f orin
20.
Show
that
Show
Show
that

?F
+ V*
that the scalar of a product of dyadics is

changed by cyclic permutation of the dyadics. That is
21.
un
CHAPTER VI
123.]
IN the foregoing chapter the analytical theory of

been dealt with and brought to a state of
dyadics has
completeness which
is
nearly final for practical purposes.
There are, however, a number of new questions which present

themselves and some old questions which present themselves
under a new form when the dyadic is applied to physics
or geometry. Moreover it was for the sake of the applica
them was developed. It is

then the object of the present chapter to supply an extended
tions of dyadics that the theory of
application of dyadics to the theory of rotations
and to develop, as
far as
may
and
strains
appear necessary, the further
analytical theory of dyadics.
That the dyadic
$ may
be used to deuote a transformation
of space has already been mentioned.
knowledge of the
precise nature of this transformation, however, was not needed

at the time.
Consider r as drawn from a fixed origin, and r
as
drawn from the same
origin.
r
Let now
= 0-r.
This equation therefore may be regarded as defining a trans

formation of the points P of space situated at the terminus of
r into the point
remains fixed.
Points in the
situated at the terminus of r
the finite regions of space.

r
becomes a point
rf
finite
Any
The
regions of space
point upon a line
=b+ xa
=$ b+#$
origin
remain in

Hence
straight lines go over into
same
333
straight lines
and
lines
line a
go over by the transformation into

lines parallel to the same line
a.
In like manner planes
and
into
the
over
of
planes
go
quality
parallelism is invariant.
parallel to the
Such a transformation
strain
known
is
as a homogeneous strain.
of frequent occurrence in
Homogeneous
physics. For
the
of
deformation
the
infinitesimal
instance,
sphere in a fluid
(Art. 76)
is
is
a homogeneous strain.
geneous strain
is
generally
known by
In geometry the homo

different names.
It is
called an affine collineation with the origin fixed.

Or it is
known as a linear homogeneous transformation. The equa
tions of such a transformation are
= an x +
y< =
x
Theorem
124.]
l2
13
If the dyadic
of the points of space
which
is
gives the transformation

due to a homogeneous strain,
the second of 0, gives the transformation of plane areas

2
which is due to that strain and all volumes are magnified by
,
that strain in the ratio of
3,
the third or determinant of
to unity.
= al + bm + cn
r = <P.r = al-r-f bm r -f cnr.
into a, b,
Hence
The vectors 1 m n are changed by
and m are
the planes determined by m and n n and
Let
<P
c.
transformed into the planes determined by b and c, c and

a and b. The dyadic which accomplishes this result is
$2
Hence
due to
=r
b x
mxn + cxa nxl + axb
a,
Ixm.
denote any plane area in space, the transformation

replaces s by the area s such that
if s
VECTOR ANALYSIS
334
important to notice that the vector s denoting a plane

not transformed into the same vector s as it would
It is
area
be
is
if it
denoted a
the latter case
upon
This
line.
acts
on
is
evident from the fact that in
whereas in the former case
acts
<P
s.
To show
that volumes are magnified in the ratio of <P Z to

choose
unity
any three vectors d, e, f which determine the
volume of a parallelepiped [d e f]. Express
with the vec
tors
which form the reciprocal system
The dyadic
to d,
e,
f as consequents.
changes d, e, f into a, b, c (which are different

m n ).
a, b, c above unless d, e, f are equal to 1
Hence the volume [d e f ] is changed into the volume [a b c].
<P
from the
= [abc][dVf]
[d e fr^Cdef].
= [d e f] $3
[a b c]
8
Hence
The
But
volume [a b cj to [d e f] is as <P3 is to unity.

d, e, f were any three vectors which deter
mine a parallelepiped. Hence all volumes are changed by
ratio of the
the vectors
the action of
in the
same
ratio
and
this ratio is as
Eotations about a Fixed Point.
is
to 1.
Versors
Theorem : The necessary and sufficient condition that

125.]
a dyadic represent a rotation about some axis is that it be
reducible to the form
= i i+j j +
where
k and
i, j,
are
k k
two right-handed rectangular
systems of unit vectors.
Let
(1)
= #i-f-f-3k

Hence
335
reducible to the given form the vectors
if C? is
i, j,
and any vector r is

j
to
its
relative
i, j, k into the same posi
position
changed from
Hence by the transformation no
tion relative to i ,j ,k
are changed into the vectors
of shape
change
which carries
body
suffers
i, j,
The
effected.
is
k into
The
vectors
i,
j,
Conversely suppose the
no change of shape
to a rotation.
strain reduces to a rotation
that
is,
suppose
k must be carried
it
subjected
into another
right-handed rectangular system of unit vectors. Let these

be i j , k
The dyadic <P may therefore be reduced to the
,
form
Definition
+ j j+k
i i
dyadic which
i i
is
k.
+jj + k k
and which consequently represents a rotation
is
called a
versor.
Theorem: The conjugate and reciprocal of a versor are
and conversely
the conjugate and reciprocal of a

dyadic are equal the dyadic reduces to a versor or a versor
equal,
if
multiplied by the negative sign.
= i+j
Let
Hence the
second part
If
Hence
first
+k
part of the theorem
is
k,
proved.
let
= ai + b j + ck,
-i
=<P C
aa4-bb
To prove
the
VECTOR ANALYSIS
336
Hence (Art. 108) the antecedents a, b, c and the consequents

Hence (page 87) they
a, b, c must be reciprocal systems.
must be either a right-handed or a left-handed rectangular
system of unit vectors. The left-handed system may be
changed to a right-handed one by prefixing the negative
Then
sign to each vector.
(iy
#.*rff,tnt).
The
unity
Hence
third or determinant of a versor
is evidently equal to
that of the versor with a negative sign, to minus one.
the criterion for a versor may be stated in the form
$
Or inasmuch
{/
= I.
3> n
3
as the determinant of
if (P* (P C =I, it is
=1
(%\
\ /
plus or minus one
is
only necessary to state that if

C
is
\.
a versor.
There are two geometric interpretations of the transforma

such that
tion due to a dyadic
__.
j
(J/ 1
The transformation due
to
_j_
is
k k)
_j_
(3)
one of rotation combined with
The dyadic
reflection in the origin.
i+j
+k
k causes a
it is a versor.
The negative
in space and
vector
of
direction
the
reverses
then
every
sign
replaces each figure by a figure symmetrical to it with respect
rotation about a definite axis
to the origin.
By
reversing the directions of
and
the
system i j k still remains right-handed and rectangular,

but the dyadic takes the form
,
= i+j j-k
i
or
<P
(i i
+j
-k
) .(i
k,
+k
k).

Hence
the
transformation due to
337
a rotation due to
is
a reflection in the plane of i and

j + k k followed by
k k causes such a transfor
i i + j j
the
For
j
dyadic
mation of space that each point goes over into a point sym
i+j
metrically situated to it with respect to the plane of i and j

Each figure is therefore replaced by a symmetrical figure.
transformation that replaces each figure by
Definition :
.
a symmetrical figure is called a perversion and the dyadic

which gives the transformation is called a perversor.
The
criterion for a perversor
is
that the conjugate of a

and that the determi
dyadic shall be equal to its reciprocal
nant of the dyadic shall be equal to minus one.

4>.<P C
Or inasmuch
as
if
= I,
= I,
C? c
or minus one the criterion

-
I0I=-1.
the determinant
must be plus
take the form
may
= I,
(3)
<
(3)
0,
a perversor.
is
from geometrical considerations that the prod

uct of two versors is a versor of two perversors, a versor
It is evident
but of a versor and a perversor taken in either order, a

perversor.
.
126.]
If the axis of rotation
be the i-axis and
measured positive
of rotation be the angle q
if
the angle
in the positive
trigonometric direction, then by the rotation the vectors

such that
i, j, k are changed into the vectors i ,j ,k
i
=
k =
The dyadic $
tion
is
i i
+j
cos q
j
sin q
sin y,
k cos
q.
k k which accomplishes
this rota
VECTOR ANALYSIS
338
= ii +
cos q (jj
+ kk) +
sin q (k
- jk).
(4)
jj +kk = I-ii,
kj-jk = I x
i.
Hence
i i
cos q (I
i)
sin q I
,( 5 )
i.
more generally in place of the i-axis any axis denoted

unit vector a be taken as the axis of rotation and if as
the
by
before the angle of rotation about that axis be denoted by q,
If
which accomplishes the rotation
the dyadic
=aa +
To show
that this
rotation apply
it
a a)
cos q (I
is
sin q I
a.
(6)
dyadic actually does accomplish the

r.
The dyad a a is an idemfactor
to a vector
for all vectors parallel to a; but an annihilator for vectors
a a is an idemfactor
perpendicular to a. The dyadic I
for all vectors in the plane perpendicular to a; but an
annihilator for all vectors parallel to a.
The dyadic I x a
a quadrantal versor (Art. 113) for vectors perpendicular
is
to a; but
an annihilator for vectors parallel to

a
r be parallel to
0.r =
Hence
leaves unchanged
which
are parallel to
vectors)
.
Hence
= cos
aar =
a.
If then
r.
all
vectors (or components of
a.
If r is perpendicular to a
q r
sin q a
r.
the vector r has been rotated in
its plane through the

in
its
vector
were
space
component parallel
angle q.
any
but its component perpendicular to a
to a suffers no change
The whole
is rotated about a through an angle of q degrees.
If r
therefore rotated about a through that angle.

Let a be given in terms of i, j, k as
vector
is
a l a z ik

-r
a 2 a x ji
a z a l ki
Hence
$ = {&J 2
ki
cos #)
{a
a s (1
a 1 (1
kk,
- cos 2) +
C1
{^3^2 (1
cos q)
(1
cosg)
ik,
+ Okk.
i i
S i n 2} lj
a3
a a sin ^^ ik
a 3 sin q} ji
al
jj
S l n 2l J
a 2 sin q}
cos ^)
(1
cos q}
c s ?)
kk,
~~
cos 2)
cos^)
a3
cos #}
"" COS
( a 2 a 3 (1
2)
+ {3
a x kj
a i a 2 (1
kj
~a
{ 2
jk
3 ij
(1
a2 a3
= 0ii-a
+
+
339
j j
= ii + jj +
a2
4-
ki
ajsin^} kj
+ cosg} kk.
(7)
be written as in equation (4) the vector of

and the scalar of
may be found.
If
127.]
+ cos q
(j
xj
 s
The
+ cosg
axis of rotation
+k x
k)
2 sin q
sin q (k
x k)
j+k -k) +sing

a = 1 + k cos q.
(j
i is
<P
(k
seen to have the direction of
-k),
<P X ,
the negative of the vector of 0.

This is true in general.
The direction of the axis of rotation of any versor is the
negative of the vector of (P. The proof of this statement

depends on the invariant property of $ x
Any versor
may be reduced to the form (4) by taking the direction of i
.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
340
coincident with the direction of the axis of rotation.

this reduction has
been made the direction of the axis
After
is
seen
But <P X is not altered by the

to be the negative of <P X
nor is the axis of
reduction of <P to any particular form
Hence the direction of
rotation altered by such a reduction.
.
the axis of rotation
is
The tangent
$x
always coincident with
tion of the negative of the vector of
of one-half the angle of version q

sin q
the direc
<?.
cos q
is
ON
(8)
4> s
The tangent of one-half the angle of version is therefore

determined when the values of <# x and <P S are known. The
$ x and
vector
the scalar
(P s ,
which are invariants of
mine completely the versor
<?.
Let
ft
ft
deter
Let the magnitude
in the direction of the axis of rotation.
of
<P,
be a vector drawn
be equal to the tangent of one-half the angle q of
version.
The
vector
ft
determines the versor
<P
completely,
ft
will be
called the vector semi-tangent of version.

By (6) a versor $ was expressed in terms of a unit vector
parallel to the axis of rotation.
<p
Hence
if ft
There
is
= aa +
cos q (I
a a)
sin q I
a.
be the vector semi-tangent of version
a more compact expression for a versor
in terms
of the vector semi-tangent of version.

Let c be any vector in
The
version
carries
represented by ft
space.
c
ft
c into c
ft
c.

show
It will be sufficient to
For
ft.
if c
341
this in case c is perpendicular to
component of it) were parallel to ft the

ft x would be zero and the statement
(or any
result of multiplying by
would be that
In the
c is carried into c.
nitudes of the two vectors are equal.

(c
(c
ft
c)
(c
ft
c)
(c
=c
ft
ft
x c)-=
c)
ft
and
c are
The term
+ftxc-ftxc
ftft
ft
mag
2c-ftxc
ft
ft.c.
by hypothesis perpendicular
+ ftxc.ftxc=:c 2
c-c
place the
cc-hftxc ftxc + 2cftxc
cc + ftxcftxc = cc +
Since
first
For
c vanishes.
(l
tan 2
Hence the
\ q).
equality.
second place the angle between the two vectors
is
In the
equal to
q.
ftxc)(c + ftxc)_cc ft x c ft x c
2
2
c
c* (1 + tan 2 i j)
(1 + tan -2 q)
2
(c
= cos
c
ft
(c
c
(1
c)
(1
(c
tan 2
+ ft x c)
1
2)
Hence the cosine and

and c + ft x c are equal
the angle q
tan 2 i q)
tan i 2
2 c
_
c
(1
= sin
(ft
tan
c)
I j)
*
j.
sine of the angle between c

ft X c
and
sine of
respectively to the cosine
and consequently the angle between the vectors
must equal the angle
q.
Now
VECTOR ANALYSIS
342
ftXC=(I
and
(c
(I
x Q)
+a x
(I
(I
-I
c)
Ixft)-C
(I
1
tt)-
ft)
-(I-Ixft) =
Ixft.
Multiply by c
(I
x a)
x Q)- 1
(c
-Q
(I
-I
X Q)- 1
c)
=c+
a x
c.
Hence the dyadic
(I
carries the vector c
what the value
of
ft
c.
tt)
(10)
x c into the vector c + ft X c no matter

Hence the dyadic
determines the
version due to the vector semi-tangent of version

The dyadic I + 1 x ft carries the vector c
ft.
ft
into
+ ft.ft)c.
(I
(I
(I
+ I X Q)
=c+
ftxc)
(c
ft)
QX
(c
c)
ftxc
=c+Q
ftxc
Qc=
ftx(ftxc)
(1
+Q
Q) C
Hence the dyadic

1
carries the vector c
dicular to
ft
ftft
ft
c into
the vector
as has been supposed.
(I
c, if
be perpen
Consequently the dyadic
+ Ixft) 2
1 + ft-ft
produces a rotation of all vectors in the plane perpendicular

to ft.
If, however, it be applied to a vector x ft parallel to ft
the result is not equal to x ft.
+ IXQ)-(I + IXQ) *V-*

i + O-O
(I
I
+ IXQ)
+ Q.Q
Q
v
"l
*Q
+ Q-

To
obviate this difficulty the dyad
for all vectors perpendicular to
merator.
The
versor
may
(P
(i
(i
ft)
(Ixft)-(I xft)
Hence substituting
ft)
an annihilator
is
nu
be added to the
IXft)*
ft-ft
2 1
ft
ft
(i
ft)
(i
ft)
= l.ftft-ft.ftl.
may
may
xft) x
^(l-ft.ft)I
This
=i+
(I
which
then be written
ftft+CI
1
Q, ft,
ft,
343
+
+
2ftft
ft
+ 2Ixft
ft
be expanded in nonion form.
Let
(11)
128. ]
If a is a unit vector a dyadic of the
form
= 2aa-I
(12)
a liquadrantal versor. That is, the dyadic

turns the
a
of
about
the
axis
two
space
points
right angles.
through
is
This may be seen by setting q equal to
TT
in the general
expression for a versor
aa
4-
cos q (I
a a)
sin q I
a,
it may be seen directly from

geometrical considerations.
The dyadic <P leaves a vector parallel to a unchanged but re
or
verses every vector perpendicular to a in direction.

Theorem: The product of two biquadrantal versors
versor the axis of which
is
is
perpendicular to the axes of the
VECTOR ANALYSIS
344
biquadrantal versors and the angle of which is twice the

angle from the axis of the second to the axis of the first
Let a and b be the axes of two biquadrantal
versors.
The
product
=(2bb-I).(2aa-I)
is
is
any two versors

Consider the common perpendicular to a and b.
certainly a versor;
a versor.
for the product of
The biquadrantal versor 2 a a I reverses this perpendicular

in direction. (2bb I) again reverses it in direction and con
sequently brings it back to its original position. Hence the
product Q leaves the common perpendicular to a and b un
changed.
The
a
therefore a rotation about this line as axis.
is
cosine of the angle from a to
2 b
a b a
Hence the angle

from a to
of the versor
2 (b
is
is
a)
- 1 = cos
(b, a).
equal to twice the angle
b.
Theorem
Conversely any given versor
as the product of
lie in
-a
two biquadrantal
may be
versors, of
expressed
which the axes
the plane perpendicular to the axis of the given versor

to one half the
and include between them an angle equal

angle of the given versor.
For let Q be the given versor.
Let a and b be unit vectors
Furthermore
perpendicular to the axis
let the angle from a to b be equal to one half the angle of
Then by the foregoing theorem
this versor.
J? x
of this versor.
J2=(2bb-I).(2aa-I).
(14)
two biquad
rantal versors affords an immediate and simple method for
compounding two finite rotations about a fixed point. Let
The
d>
and
resolution of versors into the product of
be two given versors.
Let b be a unit vector per-
345
and W. Let a be a unit vector

pendicular to the axes of
perpendicular to the axis of <P and such that the angle from
a to b is equal to one half the angle of 0. Let c be a unit
vector perpendicular to the axis of W and such that the angle
from b to c is equal to one half the angle of
Then
.
</>
= (2bb-I).(2aa-I)
$T=(2ec-I).(2bb-I)
V.
But
(2
bb
- I)
(2
bb
1)2. (2
aa
- I).
equal to the idemfactor, as may be seen from

represents a rotation through four right angles
is
I)
the fact that
(2 cc
it
or from the expansion
(2bb-I).(2bb-I) = 4b.b bb-4bb +

W <P = (2 c c - I) (2 a a - I).
Hence
The product
of
into
a and
is
If
and
tangents of
= I.
a versor the axis of which
and the angle of which
perpendicular to
one half the angle from a to
is
is
equal to
c.
two versors of which the vector semiversion are respectively QJ and ft^ the vector
are
Q3
semi-tangent of version
a ~
of the product
q 1 + a 2 +a 2
xa
<P is
i-a.-a,
0=(2bb-I) (2aa-I)
= (2 c c - I) (2 bb - I).
<P = (2cc-I)
(2aa-I).
Let
and
~y
iff
ba
x
(V
-2aa -2b
= 4a
b b
X a,
<?)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
346
= 4(a.b)
?T
=4c
b cb
rx = 4
=4
<p
(ST.
But
[abc]
Q2
b,
= bxc
1,
axb
C^
ft
b b
b b
xb
r,
axe
b b
b b
Qr
ft
abbc
=1
r-^r
_a
c)
[abc]J b
a b
a* b b
bxc
(b
= axe
+cx
a-bb-c
x (axb)
x b)
=
" (a
2 aa
2 cc
b b
bx
= (bxc)
Q 2 x Qj
Hence
Hence
^=T
b
x Q
2 c c
<p) x
= axb-,
= 4 ca c x a,
2
0)^ = 4 (c-a) -l.
(?F.
Hence
2 bb
ca
-l,
= 4(c.b) 2 -l
?r5
JF
a*bb*c
847
This formula gives the composition of two
finite rotations.
If the rotations be infinitesimal
infinitesi
Neglecting infinitesimals of the second order the for
mal.
mula reduces
The
ftj
and Q^ are both
to
combine according to the law of

This demonstrates the parallelogram law for
infinitesimal rotations
vector addition.
angular velocities.
The
If the
60.
Right Tensors, Tonics, and Cyclotonics
icSy
129.]
subject was treated from different
and
standpoints in Arts. 51
<P
dyadic
be a versor
it
may
be written in the
form (4)
= ii +
cos q (jj
The
axis of rotation
axis
is q.
is i
+ kk) +
and the angle
= ii +
.
This
is
- jk).
of rotation about that
be another versor with the same axis and
Let
an angle of rotation equal to q
Multiplying
sin q (kj
cos q
(j j
+ kk) +
sin q r (kj
y=
+ ? ) (j j + k k)
+ Bin(j+ 9 )(kj-jk).
i i
cos (g
the result which was to be expected
two versors
jk).
of
the product of
which the axes are coincident
and with an angle equal

the two given versors.
the same axis
(16)
is
a versor with
to the
sum
of the
angles of
If a versor be multiplied
by itself, geometric and analytic
considerations alike make it evident that
2
and
4>
i i
= ii +
cos
2q
cos
nq
(j j
(j j
+ kk) +
+ kk) +
sin 2 q (k j
sin
nq
(kj
- j k),
j
k).
VECTOR ANALYSIS
348
On the
kj-jk.
hand
other
4>
equal jj
+ kk;
and

let
= ii +
cos n q (PS
or
d>
(cos q
+n
cos 11
<P
^1
sin q
2
is
$ 2)n
zero and into itself
sin q
is
n
2)
1
q sin # fl^""
^ raised to any power reproduces
The dyadic
The dyadic
<P
2
itself.
(Pf
= <Pr
raised to the second
2
power gives the negative
raised
to
the
third
the
power,
<#!
negative of <P2 ; raised
to the fourth power,
raised
to
fifth power, <PZ and so
the
l
of
<P
The dyadic
on (Art. 114).
multiplied by
is
equal to
Hence
1
(71-1) (71-2)
:
nq
in these
-- 71
j sin q
~l
-2
cos
<P
cos n
+n
? sin q
cos n
"3
"# sm^ +
Thus the ordinary expansions for cos nq and sin 715 are
obtained in a manner very similar to the manner in which
they are generally obtained.
The expression for a versor
Let
a,b, c be
may be generalized as follows.

three
non-coplanar vectors and a V, c , the
any
;
reciprocal system.
<p
= aa
4-
cos q
Consider the dyadic
(bb
cc
sin q
(cb
be
).
(17)
349
This dyadic leaves vectors parallel to a unchanged. Vectors

in the plane of b and c suffer a change similar to rotation.
Let
r
<P
= cos p b +
= cos
This transformation
(p
may
sin
q) b
c,
sin (p
q)
c.
be given a definite geometrical

The vector r, when p is regarded
interpretation as follows.
as a variable scalar parameter, describes an ellipse of
b and
c are
this ellipse
two conjugate semi-diameters (page
r
is,
the ellipse
cylinder.
Let
117).
be regarded as the parallel projection of the
unit circle
That
which
= cos p +
i
and the
sin q
same
are cut from the
circle
The two semi-diameters
j.
and
ject into the conjugate semi-diameters a
of the circle pro
and b
of the ellipse.
The radius
vector r in the ellipse projects into the radius vector

f in the unit circle. The radius vector r in the ellipse which
is
equal to
r,
such that
f
Thus the vector
projects into a radius vector r in the circle
= cos (p + q) +
i
sin
r in the ellipse is so
(jp
+ q) j.
changed by the applica
as a prefactor that its projection f in the unit circle

rotated through an angle q.
This statement may be given a neater form by making use
tion of
is
of the fact that in parallel projection areas are

definite constant ratio.
The vector
changed in a
r in the unit circle
may
be regarded as describing a sector of which the area is to the

area of the whole circle as q is to 2 TT. The radius vector f
then describes a sector of the

is
to the area of the
dyadic
$ applied as
of which b and
whole
ellipse.
The
area of this sector
ellipse as q is to 2
a prefactor
to
TT.
Hence
a radius vector r in an
the
ellipse
two conjugate semi-diameters advances

that vector through a sector the area of which is to the area of
c are
VECTOR ANALYSIS
350
the whole ellipse as q is to
radius vector r
sector q from
it is
similarity to
its
Such a displacement
be called an
of the
elliptic rotation through a
an ordinary rotation of which
the projection.
Definition
= aa +
is
may
2-Tr.
dyadic
cos q (bb
of the form
cc )
The
called a cyclic dyadic.
sin q (c
versor
is
V - be )
(17)
a special case of a
cyclic dyadic.
It is evident
from geometric or analytic considerations that
the powers of a cyclic dyadic are formed, as the powers of a
versor were formed, by multiplying the scalar q by the power

to which the dyadic is to be raised.
n
= aa +
cos
If the scalar q is
nq (b b
c c )
sin
nq
(c
an integral sub-multiple of 2
27T
TT,
bc
that
).
is, if
= m,
1
it is
possible to raise the dyadic
namely, the
may then
power w, that
it
to
such an integral power,
becomes the idemfactor
be regarded as the
mth
root of the idemfactor.
q and 2 TT are commensurable it is possible

to raise
to such a power that it becomes equal to the idemfactor and even if q and 2 TT are incommensurable a power of
d>
may be found which differs by as little as one pleases from
In like manner
the idemfactor.
if
Hence any cyclic dyadic may be regarded
as
a root of the idemfactor.

1
in
It is evident that fixing
an
the result of the application of

to all radii vectors
it for all vectors in the
plane of b and c. For any
ellipse practically fixes

vector in that plane may be
the ellipse.
<
regarded as a scalar multiple of a radius vector of
<Z>
where
dyadic
The transformation represented by
Definition:
130.]
a,
itself is called
right tensor
The order
ii
+ &jJ+ckk
are positive scalars
6, c
in
351
may
is
the
(18)
The
called a ^rare strain.
rtÂtf tensor.
be factored into three factors
which these factors occur
is
The
immaterial.
transformation
is
such that the
and
components of a vector remain un
altered but the k-component
is
altered in the ratio of c to 1.
The transformation may therefore be
described as a stretch or
elongation along the direction k. If the constant c is greater

than unity the elongation is a true elongation but if c is less
:
than unity the elongation is really a compression, for the ratio

Between these two cases
of elongation is less than unity.
comes the case in which the constant
is
unity.
The lengths
of the k-components are then not altered.

as
the successive
to the dyadic
may
be regarded
or simultaneous elongation of the

i, j, and k respectively in the
If one or more of the constants
com
ponents of r parallel to
ratios
a to
a, 6, c
1, b
to 1, c to 1.
than unity the elongation in that or those directions

becomes a compression. If one or more of the constants is
is less
unity,
The
components parallel to that direction are not altered.

i, j, k are called the principal axes of the strain.
directions
Their directions are not altered by the strain whereas,

constants #,
The
if
the
be different, every other direction is altered.

scalars a, 6, c are known as the principal ratios of
&, c
elongation.
was seen that any complete dyadic was

the normal form
In Art. 115
reducible to
it
VECTOR ANALYSIS
352
where
constants.
a, J, c are positive
This expression
factored into the product of
two dyadics.
0=
k)
(ai
0=
or
The
+ ck
ftj j
i+j
(i
factor
which
It
(i i
k k)
+j
(aii
+j
6jj
k),
turns the vectors
i,
j,
be
(19)
+ ckk).
k k
the same in either method of factoring
is
may
k into the vectors
is
a versor.
The vector
semi-tangent of the versor
i>i
The other
^ + k kls ixi
+
i
+j xj + k xk
+j .j + k.k"
i.i-
factor
ai
+ ck k
aii
or
a right tensor and represents a pure strain.

In the first
case the strain has the lines i , j , k for principal axes: in
is
the second,
i, j,
the same,
k.
a to
1,
In both cases the ratios of elongation are

If the negative sign occurs
b to 1, c to 1.
the product the version and pure strain must have

associated with them a reversal of directions of all vectors in
before
space
that
is,
a perversion.
Theorem:
Hence
reducible to the product of a

Any dyadic
versor and a right tensor taken in either order and a positive
or negative sign.
Hence the most general transformation
representable by a dyadic consists of the product of a rota
is
tion or version about a definite axis
through a definite angle

a
strain
either with or without perver
pure
accompanied by
sion.
The rotation and strain may be performed in either
In the two cases the rotation and the ratios of elonga

tion of the strain are the same ; but the principal axes of the
order.
strain differ according as
it is
performed before or after the
353
system of axes being derivable from the other
rotation, either
by the application of the versor as a prefactor or postfactor

respectively.
and its conjugate

be given the product of
ratios
of
is a right tensor the
elongation of which are the
ratios
of
of
the
elongation of (P and the axes of which
squares
If a dyadic
are respectively the antecedents or consequents of
ing as
in the product.
follows or precedes
4>
(ai
C
.
6 j
(aii
i i
accord
+ ck
+ ckk ),
6 jj
62 j
k),
k k
(20)
kk.
The general problem
of finding the principal ratios of elonga

the
tion,
antecedents, and consequents of a dyadic in its
normal form, therefore reduces to the simpler problem of find
ing the principal ratios of elongation and the principal axes

of a pure strain.
The
131.]
natural and immediate generalization of the
right tensor
is
the dyadic
where
and a
a, 6, c
,
= aaa + &bb +
ccc
(21)
are positive or negative scalars and where a, b, c

Neces
are two reciprocal systems of vectors.
and a
sarily a, b, c
Definition
<P
are each three non-coplanar.
dyadic that
may
be reduced to the form

(21)
is
called a tonic.
The
effect of a tonic is to leave
directions a, b, c in space.
coplanar
into its components parallel to
23
a,
unchanged three nonIf a vector be resolved

b, c
respectively these
VECTOR ANALYSIS
354
components are stretched in the ratios a to 1, & to 1, c to 1.

more of the constants a, &, c are negative the com
If one or
ponents parallel to the corresponding vector a, b, c are re

versed in direction as well as changed in magnitude. The
tonic
may be
factored into three
factors
which each
of
stretches the components parallel to one of the vectors
a, b, c
but leaves unchanged the components parallel to the other

two.
The value
cc )
(aa
of a tonic
is
+ &bb + ccXa
not altered
any three vectors respectively
if
in place of a, b, c
collinear with
them be sub
provided of course that the corresponding changes

are necessary be made in the reciprocal system a , b , c .
stituted,
which
But with the exception
of this change, a dyadic
which
is
expressible in the form of a tonic is so expressible in only

one way if the constants a, 6, c are different. If two of the
constants say J and c are equal, any two vectors coplanar

with the corresponding vectors b and c may be substituted
in place of b
and
c.
If all the constants are equal the tonic
reduces to a constant multiple of the idemfactor.

non-coplanar vectors may be taken for a, b, c.
The product
same
is
of
two
which the axes
tonics of
commutative and
is
Any
a, b, c
three
are the
a tonic with these axes and
with scalar coefficients equal respectively to the products of

the corresponding coefficients of the two dyadics.
=a
aa
+ \bV + ^ cc
c2
0. y =
The
=a
a 2 aa
+ ^^bV-f c^cc
(22)
generalization of the cyclic dyadic
aa
is
<?
cc
cos q (b
= a aa
-1-
V+
1 (b
c c )
V+
cc )
sin q (c b
(c
bc)
V - be ),
(23)

where
355
which a
are three non-coplanar vectors of
a, b, c
V,
the reciprocal system and where the quantities a, 6, c, are

This dyadic may be changed
positive or negative scalars.
into a more convenient form by determining the positive
is
p and
the positive or negative scalar q (which

TT) so that
always be chosen between the limits
may
and
(24)
scalar
c=psinq.
That
is,
and
tan
=.
(24 y
Then
+
This
may
cc
The
be ).
(cV
(25)
be factored into the product of three dyadics
0= (aaa + bV + cc
{aa
+ p sin
cos q (b b 4- o c
order of these factors
is
(a a
+ p bV + jpcc )
sin q
(cV
immaterial.
- be )}.
The
first is
a tonic
parallel to b and c but

stretches those parallel to a in the ratio of a to 1. If a is
which leaves unchanged vectors
negative the stretching must be accompanied by reversal

in direction. The second factor is also a tonic. It leaves
unchanged vectors
parallel to a
but stretches
the plane of b and c in the ratio

cyclic factor.
to 1.
all
The
vectors in
third
is
Vectors parallel to a remain unchanged ; but

which b and c are conjugate
radii vectors in the ellipse of
semi-diameters are rotated through a sector such that the

area of the sector is to the area of the whole ellipse as q to
2
TT.
Other vectors in the plane of b and
may
be regarded
as scalar multiples of the radii vectors of the ellipse.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
356
Definition :
dyadic which
= a aa + p cos
<P
owing
(bb
is
cc
+p
sin q (c
be
(25)
),
to the fact that it combines the properties of
the
cyclic dyadic and the tonic is called a cyclolonic.

The product of two cyclotonics which have the same three
vectors, a, b, c as antecedents and the reciprocal system
for consequents
a third cyclotonic and
is
is
com
mutative.
cc
5F
= a2 aa
0.
W*
5P*=
+jp2 cos j2 (bb

<?
=a
sinq l (cb
be )
+ jpa
sin q 2 (cb
be
Reduction of Dyadics
132.]
cc
+ p p 2 cos (q l + j a ) (bb + cc )
sin ( 2l + & (c b - b c ).
(26)
a 2 aa
+ Pi P*
+p
to
Canonical Forms
Theorem : In general any dyadic
may
be reduced
The dyadics for which

be
regarded as limiting cases
impossible may
be represented to any desired degree of approxi
either to a tonic or to a cyclotonic.
the reduction
which may
is
mation by tonics or cyclotonics.

From this theorem the importance of the tonic and cyclo
tonic which have been treated as natural generalizations of
the right tensor and the cyclic dyadic may be seen. The
proof of the theorem, including a discussion of all the
long and somewhat tedious.

The method of proving the theorem in general however is
If three directions a, b, c may be found which are
patent.
special cases that
left
may
arise, is
unchanged by the application of $ then
<P
must be a
If only one such direction can be found, there exists

a plane in which the vectors suffer a change such as that due
to the cyclotonic and the dyadic indeed proves to be such.
tonic.

The question
to find the directions
is
357
which are unchanged
by the application of the dyadic 0.

If the direction a is unchanged, then
=aa
al).a = 0.
a
or
(0
The dyadic
aI
is
(27)
therefore planar since
it
reduces vectors
In special cases, which are set

aside for the present, the dyadic may be linear or zero.
In
in the direction a to zero.
any case
if
the dyadic
<P-aI
reduces vectors collinear with a to zero
it
possesses at least
one degree of nullity and the third or determinant of

W) z
Z
-a

0.
+
1
(28)
<P
2 :
a2
W+
:
W^
^ - a3 1 8
= I and I3 = 1.
I2
But
Hence the equation becomes

a3
The value
is
of
- a2
a which
0^ -03 = 0.
satisfies
(29)
the condition that
Let x replace
a solution of a cubic equation.
a.
The
cubic equation becomes
x*
- x*
d> 3
2S
= 0.
(29)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
358
value of x which
Any
equation will be such
this
satisfies
that
(*-aI), = 0.
That
is
xI
to say, the dyadic
(28)
is
planar.
vector per
pendicular to its consequents is reduced to zero. Hence

The further discussion
leaves such a direction unchanged.
of the reduction of a dyadic to the form of a tonic or a cyclotonic depends merely upon whether the cubic equation in x
has one or three real roots.
Theorem
133.]
x*
If the cubic equation
- x*
4> s
has three real roots the dyadic

to a tonic.
For
let
= a,
2*
are
a I,
<P
61,
Let
in general planar.
vectors
drawn perpendicular
b,
a,
=c
The dyadics
be the three roots of the equation.

-b = &b,
c = cc.
0b
But
= a a,
m (a
Hence
and
m(a
c)
m=
Hence
0,
c)
or a
vectors
a, b, c
(b
c)
n(b
TI
= 0,
c)
or b
0.
it
is
still
are coplanar, the roots are

the roots are distinct, the
if
In case the roots
always possible to choose three

in such a manner that the equa
non-coplanar vectors a, b, c
This being
tions (30) hold.
reciprocal to a, b, c
c.
a, b, c
are necessarily non-coplanar.
are not distinct
a a,
= 0.
= 6 b.
= c,
Consequently if the vectors

not distinct; and therefore
ncb
359
so, there exists a
and the dyadic which
system a
carries a, b, c into
b b, c c is the tonic
Theorem
If the cubic
x*
equation
- x* 4> a +
has one real root the dyadic

a cyclotonic.
The cubic equation has one

tive or negative according as
the root be a.
d>
2S
may
in general be reduced to
This must be posi

Let
positive or negative.
real root.

(29)
to the plane of
I.
(<P-aI) .a
= 0.
Determine a also so that

a
and
(0- a I) =
a and a be so adjusted that a a l.

This cannot be accomplished in the special case in which a
let the lengths of
VECTOR ANALYSIS
360
and a are mutually perpendicular.

;
the plane perpendicular to a
(0
Let b be any vector in
- a I)
= 0.
Hence <Pb is
3
<P
b, $
b, and
perpendicular to a
l
2
<P~
b, 0~
b, etc., will all be perpendicular to a and lie in
one plane. The vectors <P b and b cannot be parallel or
would have the direction b as well as a unchanged and
thus the cubic would have more than one real root.
2
The dyadic
a,
b, b into
b, 
</>
[<p.a
But
Hence
The
a a
vectors
b)
(.b)
and
b1
b_!
=;r #-b
(&-
b
b2
or
The
Xb
(b 2
vectors b 2
b1
= 27ib 2
b x -f
b_!
=2nb
b3
bx
Their
Hence
(31)"
let
(32)
= /r
#~ 2
etc.
(33)
etc.
b,
X b,
= 0.
b) x b x
b and b x are
b2
Then
=p
(31)
b2
b_ 2
b.
><Pb xb.
have the same sign,

s
b)
to each other.
^ = a-i*
Let also
(0
(31)
b].
the same plane.
all lie in
vector products are parallel to a
<P-b
</>
</>.b]
parallel.
Let
= 27ib r
b + b = 2nb 3
b_!
+ b_ = 2 n b_
2
(34)
etc.,
etc.

Lay
off
861
from a common origin the vectors

b, bj,
Since
is
b2
b_j,
etc.,
not a tonic, that
b_2, etc.
since there
is,
no direction
is
in
the plane perpendicular to a which is left unchanged by

takes
these vectors b OT pass round and round the origin as
all positive and negative values.

The value of
Let
therefore lie between plus one and minus one.
on
= cos
b-j + bj = 2 cos q b.
n
Then
Determine
n must
(36)
q.
from the equation
= cos q b + sin q c.
sin q c.
b_j = cos q b
bx
Then
Let a , b
f
,
be the reciprocal system of a,

was so determined that a
sible since a
Then
=1
pos
= cos q (bV + ccO + sin q (c V - be ).

ra = 0, ?F.b = b
.})_ = b.
& = a a = $ a,
(a *& + p
b,
(a aa + p W) b = p b =
b_ =p b = d> b_r
(a aa + p
)
1,
Hence
is
and since
Let
are non-coplanar.
a, b, c
This
b, c.
The dyadic a a a
the vectors
+pW
changes the vectors
a,
= (a aa + p
b,
W)
and
b and
= a aa + ^ cos j (bb +
4- ^?
The dyadic
a,
b_ x respectively.
sin q (c
b^
into
Hence
cc7 )
b o ).
in case the cubic equation has only one real

reducible except in special cases to a cyclotonic.
The theorem that a dyadic in general is reducible to a tonic
or cyclotonic has therefore been demonstrated.
root
is
VECTOR ANALYSIS
362
There remain two cases 1 in which the reduction

impossible, as can be seen by looking over the proof. In
134.]
is
the
first
place
if
tonic form be
place
if
the constant n used in the reduction to cyclofalls through. In the second
1 the reduction
the plane of the antecedents of
and the plane of the consequents are perpendicular the

and a used in the reduction to cyclotonic form are
vectors a
perpendicular and it
a a shall be unity.
is
impossible to determine a such that
The reduction
n=l,
If
b_1
b_1
Let
Choose
Consider the dyadic
*P
<P
b1
through.
2b.
= 2b.
b =b
b_r
b1
=b
W = a aa + p (bV + co )
y.a = aa=<P.a,
pb
+ pc
?p*.o=jt)c=
Hence
falls
= a aa + p
pbi
pb 1
(b
V+
JP
<P
b,
b=
cc )
4-
c.
+ p cb r
(37)
may be
seen best by
into three factors which are independent of the
to this dyadic
factoring it
order or arrangement
.(aa + bb
cc
cb
).
In these cases it will be seen that the cubic equation has three real roots.
In one case two of them are equal and in the other case three of them. Thus
these dyadics may be regarded as limiting cases lying between the cyclotonic in
which two of the roots are imaginary and the tonic in which all the roots are real
The limit may be regarded as taking place either by the pure
distinct.
imaginary part of the two imaginary roots of the cyclotonic becoming zero or by
two of the roots of the tonic approaching each other.
and

The
ratio
863
factor represents an elongation in the direction a in a

1.
The plane of b and c is undisturbed. The
first
a to
second factor represents a stretching of the plane of b and

the ratio
The
to 1.
last factor takes the
(I
(I
+ cb
+ oV)
c in
form
= #a,
+ c V) x b = x b + x o,
x c = x c.
(I + c V)
A dyadic of the form I + cb leaves vectors parallel to a and c

unaltered. A vector #b parallel to b is increased by the vec
tor c multiplied
by the
ratio of the vector
# b to
b.
In other
words the transformation of points in space is such that the

plane of a and c remains fixed point for point but the points
in planes parallel to that plane are shifted in the direction c
by an amount proportional to the distance of the plane in

which they lie from the plane of a and c.
Definition
dyadic reducible to the form

I
+ cb
is called a shearing dyadic or shearer and the geometrical

transformation which it causes is called a shear. The more
general dyadic
<P
= a aa + p
(b
V+
c c )
+ oV
(37)
The trans
will also be called a shearing dyadic or shearer.
formation to which it gives rise is a shear combined with
elongations in the direction of a and is in the plane of b and c.
If n
1 instead of n
+1, the result is much the same.
The dyadic then becomes
$
$=
= a aa
aa + bb + cc )
-,p (bV
f
(a
{aa
+ c<0 - c V
-p
(b D
cc )>
(37)
(I
cV).
VECTOR ANALYSIS
364
The
factors are the
same except the second which now repre
sents a stretching of the plane of b and c combined with a

reversal of all the vectors in that plane. The shearing dyadic
then represents an elongation in the direction a, an elonga
combined with a reversal of direction in the plane of

b and c, and a shear.
tion
Suppose that the plane of the antecedents and the plane of

Let
the consequents of the dyadic
are perpendicular.
0al
these planes be taken respectively as the plane of j and

the plane of i and j. The dyadic then takes the form
The
a I
<p
coefficient
+B
must vanish.
j j
+ Ck +Dk
i
k and
j.
For otherwise the dyadic
Bk)
planar and the scalar a + B is a root of the cubic equation.

With this root the reduction to the form of a tonic may be
is
carried on as before.
new
This
case occurs.
Nothing new
Let
may be reduced
arises.
as follows to the
But
if
vanishes
form
ab + bc
where
Square
V=a
=b c =
and b V = 1.
W = A D ki = ac
c
Hence a must be chosen parallel to k

The dyadic W may then be transformed
Then
=A
and
into
V= CiA+DDi
=AD*,
b
i.
parallel to
i.

With
the dyadic
and hence the dyadic
this choice of a, b, V, c
ab + be
desired form
= al +
= aaa + abb +
or
This
may
reduces to the
reduced to
<P is
ab + bc
ace
(38)
+ aV +
be
be factored into the product of two dyadics the
order of which
The
365
is
immaterial.
factor al represents a stretching of space in all

directions in the ratio a to 1.
The second factor
first
what may be called a complex
represents
r
= IT +
r+ bc -r=
ab
r-t-aV-r + bc
If r is parallel to a it is left unaltered
is
tional to the
if
by the dyadic Q.
If
it is
magnitude of the vector
In like manner
r.
changed by the addition of a term

equal to b and which in magnitude is
r is parallel to c it is
which in direction
is
proportional to the magnitude of the vector
= (I + ab -f bc ).zb=
Q *xc = (I + ab + be ) xc =
-zb
Definition
dyadic which
<P
is
-r.
changed by the addition of a term

in direction equal to a and in magnitude propor
r is parallel to
which
For
shear.
= aI +
may
r.
zb + a a
xc
4-
#b.
be reduced to the form
ab + bc
(38)
called a complex shearer.
The complex shearer as well as the simple shearer men

tioned before are limiting cases of the cyclotonic and tonic
dyadics.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
366
135.]
of dyadics
more systematic treatment

which may
arise
may
of the various kinds
be given by means of the
Hamilton-Cayley equation
03
02
0^
and the cubic equation in x

x*
S x*
<P
25
= 0.
(29)
are the roots of this cubic the Hamilton-Cayley

equation may be written as
If a,
&, c
- al)
(0
(
+ p*I) =
In general the Hamilton-Cayley equation which
0.
is
(41)
an equa
is the equation of lowest

tion of the third degree in
degree
which is satisfied by 0. In general therefore one of the above
equations and the corresponding reductions to the tonic or

cyclotonic form hold. In special cases, however, the dyadic
may
satisfy
an equation of lower degree. That equation

which may be satisfied by a dyadic is called
of lowest degree
its characteristic
I.
(- 61) = 0.
(0-aI) 3 = 0.
(
= aaa +
is
is
case the dyadic

so expressed that
0=
= al +
cb
=a
be
sin q (eb
cc )
+ cb
be
).
may
be
Two
of the
The following reduction

number of ways.
(bb
cc
).
a complex shearer and
al + ab
In the sixth case the dyadic

may be reduced to the form
4>
is
+p
again a tonic.
be accomplished in an infinite
fifth
may
(bb
= aaa +
a simple shearer and
is
In the fourth case the dyadic
In the
be reduced
a cyclotonic and
cc )
ratios of elongation are the same.
may
may
form
6bb + ccc
d>
367
-f
be
may
be
again a simple shearer which
is
4-
(aa
bb + cc
+ cb
In the seventh case the dyadic is again a tonic which may be

reduced in a doubly infinite number of ways to the form
= al = a(aa +
/
bb + cc
).
These seven are the only essentially different forms which a

dyadic may take. There are then only seven really different
kinds of dyadics
three tonics in which the ratios of elonga

two alike, or all equal, and the cyclo
tion are all different,
tonic together with three limiting cases, the

the one complex shearer.
two simple and
VECTOR ANALYSIS
368
Summary
VI
of Chapter
The transformation due to a dyadic is a linear homogeneous

The dyadic itself gives the transformation of the
in
The second of the dyadic gives the trans
space.
points
formation of plane areas. The third of the dyadic gives the
strain.
ratio in
which volumes are changed.
The necessary and
sufficient condition that a dyadic repre
sent a rotation about a definite axis

the form
or that
i i
4> c
or that
=I
c= I

(1)
(2)
The
necessary and sufficient condition that a dyadic repre

sent a rotation combined with a transformation of reflection
by which each
figure is replaced
by one symmetrical
to it is
that
= -(i +
$ <P C = I*
0.00 = 1,
i
or that
or that
A dyadic of the form

(1)
is
(1)
k k)
^3 =
3
(iy
<0.
called a versor
(3)
;
one of the form
a perversor.
If the axis of rotation of a versor be chosen as the i-axis
the versor reduces to
= ii + cos q (j + kk) + sin q (kj - j k)

= ii + cos q (I ii) + sin q I x
(4)
or
If
i.
any unit vector a

<p
The
is
= aa +
(5)
directed along the axis of rotation
cos q (I
a a)
sin q 1
axis of the versor coincides in direction with
(6)
X.

If a vector be
drawn along the
axis
and
if
369
the magnitude of
the vector be taken equal to the tangent of one-half the angle

of rotation, the vector determines the rotation
completely.
This vector
is
called the vector semi-tangent of version.
In terms of
the versor
<P
(9)
be expressed in a number of
may
was.
<P
dft
a-ft
/
cos q (I
<D
(I
a-ay
or
aa\
sin q
(I
ft)
-I
(10)
x Q)- 1
J^ + axQ)
tf
=
1
If
is
(10)
(loy
Q-ft
a unit vector a dyadic of the form

<P
= 2aa-I
(11)
a biquadrantal versor. Any versor may be resolved into

the product of two biquadrantal versors and by means of
such resolutions any two versors may be combined into
is
another.
of version
for the vector semi-tangents
is
dyadic reducible to the form
<P
is
The law of composition
= aa + cos q (bb + cc + sin q

)
called a cyclic dyadic.
simple rotation
an
It
(cb
-W)
(17)
produces a generalization of
elliptic rotation, so to speak.

24
The
pro-
VECTOR ANALYSIS
370
duct of two cyclic dyadics which have the same antecedents

a, b, c and consequents a b c is obtained by adding their
cyclic dyadic
angles q.
idemfactor.
where
may
be regarded as a root of the
A dyadic reducible to the form

= aii +bjj + ckk
#, &, c are positive scalars is called
(18)
a right tensor.
It
represents a stretching along the principal axis i, j, k in the

a to 1, b to 1, c to 1 which are called the principal ratios
ratio
This transformation
is a pure strain.
as
the product of a versor,
be
expressed
Any dyadic may
and
a
or
a right tensor,
positive
negative sign.
of elongation.
=
<P=
or
(a i
(i i
+j
&j
k k)
(i i
j j
Jjj
ckk).
k k).(aii
k k)
(19)
Consequently any linear homogeneous strain may be regarded

as a combination of a rotation and a pure strain accompanied
or unaccompanied by a perversion.
The immediate generalizations of the right tensor and the
cyclic dyadic is to the tonic
= aaa + &bb + ccc
(21)
and cyclotonic
cc
or
<P
+ c(cV-bc)
= aaa + p cos q (bb + cc )+^sing (cV
where
= + V 62 + c 2
and tan I q
*
=2?
-.
(23)
be )
(25)
(24)
dyadic in general may be reduced either to the form

(21), and is therefore a tonic, or to the form (25), and is
The condition that a dyadic be a
therefore a cyclotonic.
Any
tonic
is
that the cubic equation
+ 0^ x -
<J>
(29)

have three real
shall
roots.
Special cases
371
in
which the
may be accomplished in more ways than one arise

The condition that a
the equation has equal roots.
reduction
when
dyadic be a cyclotonic is that this cubic equation shall have

only one real root. There occur two limiting cases in which
the dyadic cannot be reduced to cyclotonic form.
cases it may be written as
4>
and
is
=aaa
+jp (bb
a simple shearer, or
it
is
a complex shearer.
cc )
+ cb
(37)
takes the form
= al +
and
In these
ab + bc
Dyadics
(38)
may
be classified accord
ing to their characteristic equations
=0
1) =
(<P-aI).(0-&I).(<P-cI)
(#
a I)
(<P
cos q
+ jp
tonic
cyclotonic
=
simple shearer
special tonic
(0_ <*!)($ &I) =
8
complex shearer
(0 a I) =
2
special simple shearer
(0 a I) =
special tonic.
(0 a I) =
(0
a I)
(#
& I)
CHAPTER
VII
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
Quadric Surfaces
If
136.]
be any constant dyadic the equation

r
= const.
(1)
The constant, in case it be not zero, may

quadratic in r.
and hence the equation takes
be divided into the dyadic
is
the form
= 1,
r = 0.
or
The dyadic
is
may
be assumed to be
(2)
For
self -conjugate.
an anti-self-conjugate dyadic, the product
if
r is
The proof of this state

identically zero for all values of r.
ment is left as an exercise. By Art. 116 any self-conjugate
dyadic is reducible to the form
-- t
JJ
If
Hence the equation
=1
represents a quadric surface real or imaginary.

The different cases which arise are four in number.
sign
is
negative
it is
If the
a real ellipsoid. If one

an hyperboloid of one sheet; if two are
signs are all positive, the quadric
is
QUADRIC SURFACES
373
If the three signs are

negative, a hyperboloid of two sheets.
is
the
quadric
imaginary. In like manner the
negative
all
equation
r
seen to represent a cone which may be either real or

imaginary according as the signs are different or all alike.
is
Thus
the equation
0-
= const.
The
represents a central quadric surface.

a cone in case the constant is zero.
quadric surface
may
Conversely any central

be represented by a suitably chosen self-
form
in the
conjugate dyadic
surface reduces to
d>
= const.
evident from the equations of the central quadric

surfaces when reduced to the normal form. They are
This
is
#2
2
7/
The corresponding dyadic
The most general

the vector r
z
= const.
c
<Pis
a*
scalar expression
o*
which
and which consequently when
c*
quadratic in
set equal to a con
is
stant represents a quadric surface, contains terms like

r
where
a, b, c, d,
a) (b
(r
r,
r)
e are constant vectors.
c,
The
e,
first
two terms
and
are of the second order in r ; the third, of the first order
the
independent of r. Moreover, it is evident that these

four sorts of terms are the only ones which can occur in a
scalar expression which is quadratic in r.
last,
But
and
r
(r
a) (b
=r I
=r
r)
r,
ab
r.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
374
Hence the most general quadratic expression may be reduced

to
where
a constant dyadic,
is
a constant scalar.
a constant vector, and
The dyadic may be regarded
desired.
conjugate
To be rid of the linear term r
as
self-
if
by
replacing r
by
-t). 0-
(r
<P
Since
equal.
of origin
<P
A+ C=0
+
<P
(7=0.
and third terms are
Hence
r
now
is
2 r
(J
is
or t
is
incomplete
is self -conjugate.
as the case
If
may
+C =
f
t)
t
may
= 5L 0-
0.
be chosen so that
A.
reducible to the central form

r
In case
A-
complete the vector
Hence the quadric
is
-t)
-A-t- A +
= 0-t
IA
L
of
(r
self-conjugate the second
is
r
If
-t) +
(r
t
make a change
A,
t.
r
it is
= const.
untplanar or unilinear because
lies in
the plane of
or in the line
be the equation
and the reduction to central form is still pos

But unless A is so situated the reduction is impossible.
soluble for t
sible.
The quadric surface is not a central surface.

The discussion and classification of the various
quadrics
here.
is
an interesting
The present
object
exercise.
is
It will not
to develop so
much
non-central
be taken up
of the theory
QUADRIC SURFACES
375
of quadric surfaces as will be useful in applications to mathe

matical physics with especial reference to non-isotropic
media. Hereafter therefore the central quadrics and in par

ticular the ellipsoid will be discussed.
137.]
The tangent plane may be found by

r
di
Since

= 0.
two terms are equal and
dr.0-r = 0.
(5)
perpendicular to <P r. Hence

normal to the surface at the extremity of the vector
The increment d r
this
normal be denoted by
BT
r is
is
and
let the unit
r)
n.
<P
(6)
Let
r.
normal be
(0
#2
Vr
r)
r*
Let p be the vector drawn from the origin perpendicular to
The perpendicular
the tangent plane, p is parallel to n.
distance from the origin to the tangent plane is the square
root of p p. It is also equal to the square root of r p.
r
Hence
= r cos
r
Ll!
p.p
Or
(r,
=p
p)
= p2
as
p and
p.
= , JL = L
.
p.p
r0r = rH =
But
Hence inasmuch
l.
IT are parallel,
0.r = !T=-^-.
p.p
they are equal.
(T)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
376
On
page 108 it was seen that the vector which has the direc
tion of the normal to a plane and which is in magnitude equal
from the origin to the plane
to the reciprocal of the distance
may
be taken as the vector coordinate of that plane.
Hence
the above equation shows that <P r is not merely normal to

the tangent plane, but is also the coordinate of the plane.
That
the length of <P r is the reciprocal of the distance

to the plane tangent to the ellipsoid at
the extremity of the vector r.
is,
from the origin
The equation
of the ellipsoid in plane coordinates
may be
found by eliminating r from the two equations.

(
Hence
= H 0-
0- 1
Hence the desired equation
= 1,
If
= JT 0"
H.
is
H-0-i-H = l.
(8)
*4 +y+"
c
kk.
= #i-t-yj+3k,
N = ui + v + wk,
Let
and
where
u, v,
the reciprocals of the intercepts of the

the axes i, j, k. Then the ellipsoid may be
are
plane N upon
written in either of the two forms familiar in Cartesian
geometry.
or
K 0- 1 .N = a 2
wa
2
Z>
v2
c2
w 2 = 1.
(10)
QUADRIC SURFACES
377
The locus of the middle points of a system of

in an ellipsoid is a plane.
chords
This plane is
parallel
called the diametral plane conjugate with the system of
138.]
drawn tangent
to the
ellipsoid at the extremity of that one of the chords
which
chords.
It is parallel
the plane
to
passes through the center.

Let r be any radius vector in the ellipsoid. Let n be the
vector drawn to the middle point of a chord parallel to a.
Let
= s + x a.
If r is a radius vector of the

ellipsoid
Hence
= (B +
2 #
<D
a)
.
(s
2? a
= 1.
# a = 1.
x a)
Inasmuch as the vector s bisects the chord parallel to a the

two solutions of x given by this equation are equal in mag
nitude and opposite in sign. Hence the coefficient of the
linear
term x vanishes.
,.
Consequently the vector

locus of the terminus of
s is
= 0.
perpendicular to
the center of the ellipsoid, perpendicular to

to the tangent plane at the extremity of a.
If b is
with
a.
The
therefore a plane passed through
s is
a,
and
parallel
any radius vector in the diametral plane conjugate

_
a,
0.
The symmetry of this equation shows that a is a radius

vector in the plane conjugate with b. Let c be a third radius
vector in the ellipsoid and let it be chosen as the line of
intersection
with a and
of the diametral
b.
Then
a
d>
planes conjugate respectively
= 0,
c = 0,
a = 0.
(11)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
378
The
vectors
a, b, c
The
vectors a , b
For
=a
V=a
may
b, <P
b,
-b
by
c.
= 1,
V=b
=c
b = 0,
a =c
= 1,
c = b
a = 0.
a, b, c.
= 1,
= 0,
be therefore expressed in the forms
= a a + b b + cV,
0" = aa + bb + cc.
(12)
and
If for
a, <D
form the system reciprocal to
The dyadic
V=
a,
and
<P
Let
the dyadic 0.
are changed into
convenience the three directions
a,
b,
c,
be called a
system of three conjugate radii vectors, and if in a similar

manner the three tangent planes at their extremities be called
a system of three conjugate tangent planes, a number of
geometric theorems may be obtained from interpreting the
system of three conjugate radii vectors

in
a
be
obtained
may
doubly infinite number of ways.
The volume of a parallelepiped of which three concurrent
invariants of 0.
edges constitute a system of three conjugate radii vectors is

constant and equal in magnitude to the rectangular parallele
piped constructed upon the three semi-axes of the ellipsoid.
For let a, b, c be any system of three conjugate axes.
0- 1 = aa + bb +
The determinant
or third of
pendent of the form in
0" 1
which
is
is
-i=[abc]
cc.
an invariant and inde

expressed.
2
.
QUADRIC SURFACES
But
0-!:=a 2
if
ii
=a6
[a b c]
Hence
<P
and
<Ps~~\
3,
The sum
it is
kk,
c.
In like manner by inter
This demonstrates the theorem.

preting
& 2 jj
379
possible to
show that:
drawn to an
of the squares of the radii vectors
ellipsoid in a
system of three conjugate directions
is
constant
and equal to the sum of the squares of the semi-axes.

The volume of the parallelepiped, whose three concurrent
edges are in the directions of the perpendiculars upon a system
of three conjugate tangent planes and in magnitude equal to
the reciprocals of the distances of those planes from the
center of the ellipsoid,
constant and equal to the reciprocal

upon the semi-axes of the
is
of the parallelepiped constructed

ellipsoid.
The sum
of the squares of the reciprocals of the three per
pendiculars dropped from the origin upon a system of three

conjugate tangent planes is constant and equal to the sum of
the squares of the reciprocals^ the semi-axes.
If i, j, k be three mutually perpendicular unit vectors
4>
tf^-i
Let
a, b, c
= i*
0-i
i .
+j
+j

<P a
i, j,
k.
=b
-i
But
j
*
the three terms in this expression are the squares of the

reciprocals of the radii vectors drawn respectively in the i, j,
directions.
Hence
VECTOR ANALYSIS
380
The sum
of the squares of the reciprocals of three mutually

perpendicular radii vectors in an ellipsoid is constant. And
in a similar
manner: the sum
of the squares of the perpen
diculars dropped from the origin
dicular tangent planes

139.]
The equation
mined by the vector a
upon three mutually perpen
constant.
is
of the polar plane of the point deter

l
is
= 1.
(13)
For let s be the vector of a point in the polar plane. The

vector of any point upon the line which joins the terminus of
s and the terminus of a is
y
If this point lies
upon the surface
8*0*8+
If the terminus of
of the ratio
+ #a
x + y
s
2 xy
s lies
two values
must be equal
in the polar plane of a the
x:y determined by
in magnitude
and opposite in
this equation
Hence the term
sign.
in x y
vanishes.
Hence
=1
is
the desired equation of the polar plane of the terminus
of
a.
Let a be replaced by
or
The polar plane becomes
z a.
(p
(P
= 1,
1
-
z
1
It is evidently
immaterial whether the central quadric determined by * be
real or imaginary, ellipsoid or hyperboloid.
QUADRIC SURFACES
When
381
the polar plane of the terminus of z a

approaches the origin. In the limit when z becomes infinite
the polar plane becomes
increases
= 0.
Hence the polar plane of the point at infinity in the

a is the same as the diametral plane conjugate with
direction
This
a.
frequently taken as the definition of the diame

In case the vector a is a radius
tral plane conjugate with a.
vector of the surface the polar plane becomes identical with
statement
is
the tangent plane at the terminus of

s
<P
=1
or
The equation
a.
IT
=1
therefore represents the tangent plane.

The polar plane may be obtained from another standpoint
are given,
which is important. If a quadric Q and a plane
P = r c C = 0,
r - 1) + k (r
c -
and
the equation
(r
C)
represents a quadric surface which passes through the curve

and is tangent to Q along that
of intersection of Q and
curve.
In like manner
Q
Q
the equation
if
=T
= T*
r
(r
two quadrics Q and Q are given,
=
-r-l =
r
1)
(r
0,
1)
represents a quadric surface which passes through the curves

of intersection of Q and Q and which cuts Q and Q at no
f
other points.
In case this equation
is
factorable into
two
equations which are linear in r, and which consequently rep

resent two planes, the curves of intersection of Q and Q
become plane and
lie
in those
two planes.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
382
A is any point outside of the quadric and if all the tangent

planes which pass through A are drawn, these planes envelop
If
a cone. This cone touches the quadric along a plane curve

the plane of the curve being the polar plane of the point A.
For let a be the vector drawn to the point A. The equation
of any tangent plane to the quadric is
s
If this plane contains
the conditions which
plane passes through
= 1.
A, its equation is satisfied by a. Hence

must be satisfied by r if its tangent
are
a
r
<P
= 1,
r = 1.
r
The points r therefore lie in a plane r (<P a) = 1 which

on comparison with (13) is seen to be the polar plane of A.
The quadric which passes through the curve of intersection
of this polar plane with the given quadric and
the quadric along that curve

r
(r
Hence
By
k (a
through the point
If this passes
(a
- 1) +
a - 1) + k
r - 1) (a
(r
which touches
is
- I) 2 = 0.
-4,
(a
- 1) -
(a
= 0.
r - I) = 0.
this is easily seen
transforming the origin to the point

whose vertex is at that point
I)
to be a cone
140.]
Let
sible in the
be any self-conjugate dyadic.
It is expres
form
where A, 5,
more let
are positive or negative scalars.
A<B<G
- Bl =
(<7- B) kk
(5
- A)
ii.
Further-
QUADRIC SURFACES
VC B
Let
Then
=c
and
0- Bl = cc-aa = \
Let
Then
=p
j(c
-(pq
The dyadic $ has been expressed
The reduction has assumed

are different
<P
J.
= q.
sum of
the sum
as the
(14)
a constant
qp.
tacitly that the constants -4, B,
from each other and from
This expression for
= a.
qp).
multiple of the idemfactor and one half
pq +
+ a)(c-a)+(c-a)(c+a)
and
= 51 +
<P
VB A
383
zero.
closely related to the circular
is
sections of the quadric surface

r
Substituting the value of $,
5r
Let
+
r
r
r
= 1 becomes
r = 1.
r
p q
be any plane perpendicular to
= 1.
=n
p.
r.r-ftt q
By
substitution
= 0.
This
is a sphere because the terms of the second order all

the
have
same coefficient B. If the equation of this sphere
be subtracted from that of the given quadric, the resulting
that of a quadric which passes through the inter

The difference
section of the sphere and the given quadric.
equation
is
r (r
n)
Hence the sphere and the quadric
= 0.
intersect in
curves lying in the planes
and
= n.
two plane
VECTOR ANALYSIS
384
Inasmuch as these curves lie upon a sphere they are circles.

Hence planes perpendicular to p cut the quadric in circles.
In like manner it may be shown that planes perpendicular to
q cut the quadric in
follows
The proof may be conducted
circles.
.5 r
= 1.
p q
If r is a radius vector in the plane passed
through the center
of the quadric perpendicular to p or q, the term r
Hence
ishes.
as
p q
van
the vector r in this plane satisfies the equation
B r-r = l
and
is
of constant length.
section.
mean
The
may
section
radius of the section
is
is
therefore a circular
equal in length to the
semi-axis of the quadric.
For convenience
stants
The
A, B,
let the
quadric be an ellipsoid.
The
are then positive.
The con
1
reciprocal dyadic (P"
be reduced in a similar manner.
B
Let
Then
\B
1-*
-^
\A
and
= f f - dd = \
-i.
=
(f
d) (f
- d)
+ (f-d)(f +
Let
Then
+ =u
d
0-i
and
= 4 1 + I*
>
d)j
= v.
O v + vu).
(15)
QUADRIC SURFACES
385
The vectors u and v are connected intimately with the cir

cular cylinders which envelop the ellipsoid
r
=1
or
-N N+N
For
(t>~
N=
N=
uv
1.
1.
z>
If
now N
uv
be perpendicular to u or v the second term, namely,

N, vanishes and hence the equation becomes
N N = B.
-
That
is,
the vector
is
of constant length.
But
the equation
the equation of a cylinder of which the elements and tan

gent planes are parallel to u. If then N N is constant the
is
The
cylinder is a circular cylinder enveloping the ellipsoid.
radius of the cylinder is equal in length to the mean semi-axis
of the ellipsoid.
There are consequently two planes passing through the

origin and cutting out circles from the ellipsoid. The normals
to these planes are p
extremities of the
two
and
mean
q.
The
through the
There are also
circles pass
axis of the ellipsoid.
circular cylinders enveloping the ellipsoid.
of the axes of these cylinders are
n and
v.
The
Two
direction
elements of
these cylinders pass through the extremities of the
mean
axis
of the ellipsoid.
These results can be seen geometrically as follows. Pass

a plane through the mean axis and rotate it about that
The section is an
axis from the major to the minor axis.
ellipse.
One
axis of this
ellipse is the
mean
axis of
the
This remains constant during the rotation. The

ellipsoid.
other axis of the ellipse varies in length from the major to the
minor axis of the ellipsoid and hence at some stage must pass
through a length equal to the mean
25
axis.
At
this stage of
VECTOR ANALYSIS
386
the rotation the section
is
In like manner consider
circle.
the projection or shadow of the ellipsoid cast upon a plane

parallel to the mean axis by a point at an infinite distance
from that plane and in a direction perpendicular to it. As the

ellipsoid is rotated about its mean axis, from the position in
which the major axis is perpendicular to the plane of projec
tion to the position in
to that plane, the
mean
which the minor axis
axis of the ellipsoid as one axis.
The
ellipsoid to the
some stage
it
mean
At
other axis changes
major and hence at
passes through a value equal to

this stage the shadow and projecting
of the rotation
axis.
perpendicular
shadow and the projecting cylinder have the
from the minor axis of the

the
is
cylinder are circular.
The
necessary and sufficient condition that r be the major

1
or minor semi-axis of the section of the ellipsoid r $ r
by a plane passing through the center and perpendicular to a

r be coplanar.
is that a, r, and
Let
and
:
Furthermore
if
r is to
maximum
=1
= 0.
d r $ r = 0,
d r a = 0.
d r r = 0,
r
Differentiate
<P
be a major or minor axis of the section; for r is a

or a mininum and hence is perpendicular to dr.
r are all ortho

These three equations show that a, r, and
are
dr.
Hence
vector
same
to
the
coplanar.
they
gonal
Conversely
if
[a r
4>
[a r
<P
= 0.
= 0,
r]
dr may be chosen perpendicular

"
(16)
r]
to their
common
plane.
QUADRIC SURFACES
Hence
maximum
r is a
or a
minimim and
387
is
one of the prin
cipal semi-axes of the section perpendicular to

141.]
of an ellipsoid in the
form
?T 2
instead of
This
may

a dyadic such that W*
a square root of
is
equal to
may
<P.
But
and written as $*.
<P
a.
an advantage to write the equation
It is frequently
membered that there
are
be regarded as
must be re
it
other square roots of
<P
for
example,
and
For
this reason it is necessary to bear in
root which
is
meant by
been denoted by
The equation
mind that the square
that particular one which has
of the ellipsoid
.r.
or
Let
<P* is
may
.r
be the radius vector of a unit sphere.
the sphere
is
= 1.
The equation of
VECTOR ANALYSIS
388
?Trit becomes
evident that an ellipsoid may be

transformed into a unit sphere by applying the operator
If r
r, and vice versa, the unit sphere may

be transformed into an ellipsoid by applying the inverse oper
~l
Furthermore if a, b, c are
to each radius vector r
ator
to each radius vector
a system of three conjugate radii vectors in an ellipsoid
a-
moment
c,
a
a
Hence the three
=c
c = c
F2
a
If for the
=b
b =b
?F 2
denote respectively
=V V=c
V=V c =c
a
^.0 = 1,
a = 0.
radii vectors
a
c of
a,
b,
= 1,
= 0.
the unit sphere into
which three conjugate radii vectors in the ellipsoid are trans

~
formed by the operator W 1 are mutually orthogonal. They
form a right-handed or left-handed system of three mutually
perpendicular unit vectors.
Theorem :
ellipsoid
Any
ellipsoid
be transformed into any other
may
by means of a homogeneous
strain.
Let the equations of the ellipsoids be

r
and
By means
ellipsoid are
of the strain
01.
of the strain
= 1,
r = 1.
r
0* the
changed into the

r
By means
<P
radii vectors r of the first
radii vectors r
r,
.r
of a unit sphere
= l.
~l the radii vectors r
of this unit
sphere are transformed in like manner into the radii vectors f

Hence by the product r is changed
of the second ellipsoid.
into f .
f
= r-
r.
(19)
QUADRIC SURFACES
389
The transformation may be accomplished in more ways

The radii vectors r of the unit sphere may be
transformed among themselves by means of a rotation with or
than one.
without a perversion.
vectors in the sphere
Hence the semi-axes
Any three mutually orthogonal unit

may be changed into any three others.
of the first ellipsoid may be carried over
strain into the semi-axes of the second.
by a suitable
The
strain is then completely determined and the transformation

can be performed in only one way.
142.] The equation of a family of confocal quadric sur
faces
is
--ir-
a*
If r
and
o*
c*
1 are two surfaces of the
family,
2
62
nl
TI
kk
.-..
0-1
(a
y-i
(a
Hence
- 71^11+
-
7i
2)
i i
0- - r- 1 ^
(7i 2
r
is
-n
- 74)
+ ((^-w^kk,
2) j j
(ii
7l*
(c
- n2 )
k.
two quadrics
=1
r = 1
that the reciprocals of
multiple of the idemfactor
+ j j + kk)
sufficient condition that the

r
and
Tin
-tti)jj
2
(&
The necessary and
be confocal,
(&
7&
<P
and
differ
by a
390
VECTOR ANALYSIS
If
two confocal quadrics
Let the quadrics be
and
Let
Then
the quadrics
= 1,
r = 1.
r and s =
s and r =
1 .
r,
~l
be written in terms of
may
s
and
do so at right angles.

r and
r be perpendicular. That is,
s
But
W~l
= 0.
r- +
s =
= 4> rl
= ?r-i s +
rs - s
.
=s
W~l
1 *
I)
s,
=1-s
5T-1
In like manner
r
= 0X
Add:
= FS = S
f
2 a
= (0- 1
s
1
(P""
=s
is
If the parameter
<P~l
- P"
s = 0,
(0~
Hence
and the theorem
I)
= 0- s <P~
S = S
S
s
s = x s
1
1.
proved.
n be allowed
to vary
from
oo to
+ oo
the
resulting confocal quadrics will consist of three families of

which one is ellipsoids another, hyperboloids of one sheet ;
;
and the
third, hyperboloids of
two
sheets.
By
the foregoing
QUADRIC SURFACES
391
theorem each surface of any one family cuts every surface

The surfaces form a triply
of the other two orthogonally.
orthogonal system. The lines of intersection of two families
(say the family of one-sheeted and the family of two-sheeted
hyperboloids) cut orthogonally the other family
the family
The points in which two ellipsoids are cut by
of ellipsoids.
these lines are called corresponding points upon the two ellip
soids.
It
may
be shown that the ratios of the components of
the radius vector of a point to the axes of the ellipsoid

through that point are the same for any two corresponding
points.
For
let
any
ellipsoid be given
The neighboring
ellipsoid in the family is represented
dyadic
a
kk
JJ
dn
dn
y-\
= $-i
and
by the
11
"
Inasmuch as
by the dyadic
dn
ldn.
homologous (see Ex.
are
8, p.
330)
dyadics they may be treated as ordinary scalars in algebra.

Therefore if terms of order higher than the first in dn be
omitted,
0+&dn.
The two neighboring
ellipsoids are
and
By
r
f
(19)
+#
(0 +
(#
<Z>
r=
f
(I
then
= 1,
d n)
d n)-i
1,
r,
I<Pdn)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
392
The
vectors r and r differ
perpendicular to
r which is
by a multiple of
the ellipsoid 0. Hence the termini of r and
upon one
r are corresponding points, for they lie
of the lines
which cut the family of ellipsoids orthogonally. The com

ponents of r and f in the direction i are r i = x and
f
dn
=x=r
=x
*r
dn
a2
-.
ft
/>
The
ratio of these
The axes of the

Their ratio
a.
A/a
,.,
In
like
components
is
ellipsoids in the direction

is
dn
V& 2
manner
dn
"l
..
by
fj\
A a
i
are
Va2
~*
dn
dn = y- j V^ 2
and
d n and
dn = z
-.
Hence the ratios of the components of the vectors r and r

drawn to corresponding points upon two neighboring ellip
soids only differ at most by terms of the second order in d n
from the
ratios of
the axes of those ellipsoids.
It follows
immediately that the ratios of the components of the vectors
drawn
to corresponding points
upon any two
ellipsoids, sepa
rated by a finite variation in the parameter n, only differ at

most by terms of the first order in dn from the ratios of the
axes of the ellipsoids and hence must be identical with them.

This completes the demonstration.
The Propagation of Light in Crystals 1

143.]
The
electromagnetic equations of the ether or of any
infinite isotropic
netic
1
medium which
is
transparent to electromag
waves may be written in the form
The
To treat
following discussion must be regarded as mathematical not physical.

the subject from the standpoint of physics would be out of place here.
THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN CRYSTALS

d2
Pot
where
.FD
and
units,
VF
the electrostatic force
In case the medium
due to the function F.
is
(i)
the electric displacement satisfying the

hydrodya constant of the dielectric meas
0,
is
namic equation V D =
ured in electromagnetic
constant
V.D = O
+ VF=O,
393
not isotropic the

becomes a linear vector function 0. This function
is
self-conjugate as is evident from physical considerations.

it will be taken as 4 TT <D.
The equations
For convenience
then become
-4-7T0.D +
U/
Operate by
V-D=0.
VF=0,
(2)
(/
x.
x Pot
47rVxVx0.D =
0.
(3)
CL t
The
last
term disappears owing to the fact that the curl of
the derivative
VF vanishes
(page 167).
The equation may
also be written as
Pot
-r-y
47rVxVx<P.D =
0.
(3)
VxVx=VV.-V.V.
But
Remembering that V D and consequently

-n _
V -V-TT2 vanish and that Pot V V is equal
a
and
(t t
to
TT
the
equation reduces at once to

,72 Tk
dt*
0.D
VV
D,
VD =
0.
(4)
Suppose that the vibration D is harmonic. Let r be the

vector drawn from a fixed origin to any point of space.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
394
D=A
Then
where
and
cos
(m
f)
and n a constant
are constant vectors
scalar
The vibrations take place in

represents a train of waves.
That is, the wave is plane polarized. The
the direction A.
wave advances in the direction m. The velocity v of that ad
n by m, the magnitude of the vector
m. If this wave is an electromagnetic wave in the medium
considered it must satisfy the two equations of that medium.
vance
the quotient of
is
Substitute the value of
The value
of
in those equations.
V V
D,
VV
and
D,
D may
be
obtained most easily by assuming the direction i to be coinci

r then reduces to
i
r which is equal to
dent with m.
m x.
The
variables y
D=i
V V
VV
Hence
d>
3D
D
m2 i
m A
i-
sin
(m x
n f)
cos
(m x
n f)
4>
sin
(m
cos
r
(mx
VV* 0.D = -mm.
</>.D.
7i
nf).
nf)
D.
the harmonic vibration
tions (4) of the
f)
m m
d>
Hence
A m
m2
(m x
dX
-j--^
if
no longer occur in D.
# D
Moreover
is
to satisfy the
equa
medium
n2 D
and
-z
V V
Hence
= A cos
and
= m-m

7i
The vector s
s is
(5)
=-
in the direction of advance m.
the quotient of
velocity of the wave.
of
<P
n2
Introduce
395
This
n.
by
The
vector
The magnitude
the reciprocal of the

may therefore be called
is
the wave-slowness.
D
This
may
D.
s s
also be written as
(s
D)
=s
x (0
It is evident that the
wave slowness
A.
(7)
depends not at
upon the phase of the vibration but only upon
The motion
s.
n t\
Dividing by the scalar factor cos (m x
A = sx(0A)xs = ss
D)
its
all
direction.
wave not plane polarized may be discussed by

wave into waves which are plane polarized.
the
decomposing
a
Let
be
a vector drawn in the direction A of the
144.]
of a
displacement and
let
the magnitude of a be so determined
that
d>
1.
(8)
The equation (7) then becomes reduced

a = sx
(<2>*a)
to the
Xs = s-s #-a
a
a = 1.
form
ss-#-a
(9)
(8)
These are the equations by which the discussion of the velocity

or rather the slowness of propagation of a wave in different
directions in a non-isotropic
=s
medium may
a
be carried on.
=s
s.
(10)
VECTOR ANALYSIS
396
Hence the wave slowness

direction a
equal in
is
magnitude (but not in direction) to the
drawn
radius vector
due to a displacement in the
in the
ellipsoid
=1
in that
direction.
axa = = ss
=s
But the
s(aX #
first
a)-
a x
The wave-slowness
<P
a twice and vanishes.
<P
aXs #
term contains
a x
<P
[a
a]
= 0.
a.
Hence
(11)
therefore lies in a plane with the

direction a of displacement and the normal
a drawn to the
ellipsoid a
=1
at the terminus of a.
Since s is perpen
a
dicular to a and equal in magnitude to
it is evidently com
determined
as
pletely
except
regards sign when the direction
is
known.
<P
Given the direction of displacement the
line of
advance of the wave compatible with the displacement is com

pletely determined, the velocity of the advance is likewise
known.
The wave however may advance
in either direction
along that line. By reference to page 386, equation (11) is seen

to be the condition that a shall be one of the principal axes of
the ellipsoid formed by passing a plane through the ellipsoid
perpendicular to
there are
s.
Hence
two possible
for
any given direction of advance

These are the
lines of displacement.
principal axes of the ellipse cut
from the
ellipsoid a
by a plane passed through the center perpendicular

line of advance.
minateness of
=1
to the
To these statements concerning the deterwhen a is given and of a when s is given just
such exceptions occur as are obvious geometrically. If a and

a are parallel s may have any direction perpendicular to a.
This happens when a is directed along one of the principal
axes of the ellipsoid.
If s is perpendicular to
circular sections of the ellipsoid a
plane of the section.
one of the
may have any direction in the
When
slowness
397
the direction of displacement is allowed to vary the

To obtain the locus of the terminus of s, a
varies.
must be eliminated from the equation
=s
-s
(I
a
or
The dyadic
SB
s s
(P)
<P
a
a
= 0.
(12)
in the parenthesis is planar because
vectors parallel to
The
a.
third or determinant
it
annihilates
This
is zero.
gives immediately
(I
or
(0-
This
is
#) 8
ss)
= 0,
= 0.
a scalar equation in the vector
(13)
It is the locus of
s.
the extremity of s when a is given all possible directions.

number of transformations may be made. By Ex. 19, p. 331,
(
Hence
Dividing out the
common
factor
and remembering that $
self-conjugate.
s1
--
Hence
-r
-8
Let
= 0.
8-1.8
S
1
si)- -8
(CM-s-
8*8
-=
(P
= 0.
(14)
is
VECTOR ANALYSIS
398
/^_W/_J_\ JJ++
jj
[i_g
i-i.i*-^_-jj
Let
Then
= xi +
+ zk
yj
s2
and
20
uk
[ir^J
= #2 +
y*
z 2.
the equation of the surface in Cartesian coordinates
z*
j?/
i-_
l-fl2
is
-72
0.
(14)
The equation
in Cartesian coordinates
may
be obtained
rp n f1 v f
rr\
from
directly
The determinant
a2
x2
x y
x
By means
of this dyadic
is
x y
6
y^
of the relation s 2
= x2 +
0.
(13)
z 2 this
assumes the
forms
n
~T~
"22
s
~~" -^
c2
or
This equation appears to be of the sixth degree. It is how

ever of only the fourth. The terms of the sixth order cancel
out.
The
Suppose that a
represents the wave-slowness.
polarized in the direction a passes the origin at a
vector
plane wave

At
certain instant of time with this slowness.
unit of time
it
will
have travelled in the direction
equal to the reciprocal of the
magnitude
of
s.
be in this position represented by the vector

If
= ui +
vj
399
the end of a
s,
a distance
The plane
will
(page 108).
wit
the plane at the expiration of the unit time cuts off intercepts
upon the axes equal to the reciprocals of u, v, w. These
quantities are therefore the plane coordinates of the plane.
They are connected with the coordinates of the points in the
plane by the relation
ux + vy + wz =
If different plane
waves polarized
\.
in all possible different
directions a be supposed to pass through the origin at the
same instant they will envelop a surface at the end of a unit

of time.
This surface is known as the wave-surface. The
perpendicular upon a tangent plane of the wave-surface is the
reciprocal of the slowness and gives the velocity with which
the
wave
The equation
travels in that direction.
surface in plane coordinates u,
v,
is
of the wave-
identical with the
equa
tion for the locus of the terminus of the slowness vector
The equation
s.
is
=
(15)
where
=u
-f
v2
+ w2
This may be written in any of the
The
The equations
forms given previously.

Wave-Surface.
page 397
if
the variable vector
surface
is
in vector
s
known
as FresneVs
form are given on
be regarded as determining a
plane instead of a point.

145.]
In an isotropic medium the direction of a ray of
light is perpendicular to the wave-front.
the direction of the
wave
advance.
The
It is the
same as
velocity of the ray
VECTOR ANALYSIS
400
In a non-isotropic
The ray does not travel per
equal to the velocity of the wave.
is
medium
this is
no longer
true.
pendicular to the wave-front
that
is,
in the direction of the
And
the velocity with which the ray travels

wave s advance.
In fact, whereas the
is greater than the velocity of the wave.
wave-front travels off always tangent to the wave-surface, the

ray travels along the radius vector drawn to the point of tan-
The wave-pknes envelop the

wave-plane.
wave-surface; the termini of the rays are situated upon it.
Thus in the wave-surface the radius vector represents in mag
the
gency of
nitude and direction the velocity of a ray and the perpen

upon the tangent plane represents in magnitude and
dicular
direction the velocity of the wave.
surface the surface which
If instead of the
wave-
the locus of the extremity of the
is
wave slowness be considered
seen that the radius vector
it is
represents the slowness of the wave; and the perpendicular

upon the tangent plane, the slowness of the ray.
Let v be the velocity of the
Then
ray.
=1
because
the extremity of v lies in the plane denoted by s. Moreover

the condition that v be the point of tangency gives d v per
pendicular to s. In like manner if a be the slowness of the
1 and the condition
ray and v the velocity of the wave, s v
of tangency gives d s perpendicular to v.
Hence
r
and
v
may
dv
= 0,
=1
and
v
0,
be expressed in terms of
a
da
=s
s . d a
and a a = s s. Then
and

ds
or
But
ds
since v
0,
=x
= # (s
Hence
<P
(s
=s
op
= 0,
<P
v and
(s
direction.
ds
= 0.
a)
a),
a)
s.
(17)
=xs
8*8
a
a have the same
<P
401
= 0.
Hence the ray velocity v
is perpendicular to
a, that is, the
the
to
the
tangent plane
ellipsoid at the
ray
extremity of the radius vector a drawn in the direction of the
displacement. Equation (17) shows that v is coplanar with
velocity lies in
a and
plane.
The
The
s.
vectors
In that plane
angle from
Making use
it is
(16) (17),
a,
s to
a, s,
s is
is
and v therefore
lie
in one
perpendicular to a ; and v , to
equal to the angle from a to $
a.
a.
the relations already found (8) (9) (11)

easy to show that the two systems of vectors
of
and
x v
are reciprocal systems.

tions take
a,
a,
s,
a)
(<P
a be replaced by a the equa
If
on the symmetrical form
=
-a =
a = s x a
s = a x v
=a
.v =a
s
-a
x a
=1
Thus
=v
=a
0-1
a
.
= 1,
= 1,
x a xv
x
= 1.
(18)
a dual relation exists between the direction of displace

on the one hand ;
ment, the ray-velocity, and the ellipsoid
26
VECTOR ANALYSIS
402
and the normal to the ellipsoid, the wave-slowness, and the

~l
on the other.
ellipsoid
146.]
It
was seen that
cular sections of
if
was normal
to one of the cir
the displacement a could take place in

any
For all directions in
direction in the plane of that section.

this plane the
wave-slowness had the same direction and the
same magnitude.
Hence the wave-surface has a singular
plane perpendicular to s. This plane is tangent to the surface

along a curve instead of at a single point. Hence if a wave
travels in the direction s the ray travels along the elements of
the cone drawn from the center of the wave-surface to this
curve in which the singular plane touches the surface. The

two directions s which are normal to the circular sections of
are called the
wave
primary
These are the axes of equal
optic axes.
but unequal ray velocities.

In like manner v being coplanar with a and
velocities
[4>
The
a v
a]
[a
v <P~l
a
0.
equation states that if a plane be passed through

the center of the ellipsoid <P~l perpendicular to V, then a
a will be directed along one of the prin
which is equal to
last
Hence if a ray is to take a definite

It is more con
direction a may have one of two directions.
venient however to regard v as a vector determining a plane.
The first equation
cipal axes of the section.
[0
a v a]
states that a is the radius vector
drawn
in the ellipsoid
to
the point of tangency of one of the principal elements of the

if by a
principal
parallel to v
cylinder circumscribed about
element
element is meant an
passing through the extremities
:
of
the major or minor axes of orthogonal plane sections

Hence given the direction v of the ray, the
of that cylinder.
two
are those radii vectors

possible directions of displacement
VARIABLE DYADICS
of the ellipsoid
which
lie in
403
the principal planes of the cylin
der circumscribed about the ellipsoid parallel to v

If the cylinder is one of the two circular cylinders which
the direction of displacement
may be circumscribed about
.
may
be any direction in the plane passed through the center

and containing the common curve of tangency
of the ellipsoid
The ray-velocity for all

these directions of displacement has the same direction and
It is therefore a line drawn to one
the same magnitude.
of the cylinder with the ellipsoid.
At this singular
of the singular points of the wave-surface.
number
of
infinite
an
there
are
tangent planes envelop
point
ing a cone. The wave-velocity may be equal in magnitude
and direction to the perpendicular drawn from the origin to
any of these planes. The directions of the axes of the two
are
circular cylinders circumscriptible about the ellipsoid
the directions of equal ray-velocity but unequal wave-velocity.
They are the radii drawn to the singular points of the wave-
surface
and are called the secondary
optic
axes.
travels along one of the secondary optic axes the
If a ray
wave planes
travel along the elements of a cone.
Variable Dyadics.
The Differential and Integral Calculus
Hitherto the dyadics considered have been constant.

vectors which entered into their make up and the scalar
147.]
The
coefficients
which occurred in the expansion in nonion form

For the elements of the theory and for
have been constants.
elementary applications these constant dyadics suffice. The

introduction of variable dyadics, however, leads to a simplifica
and unification of the differential and integral calculus of

vectors, and furthermore variable dyadics become a necessity
in the more advanced applications
for instance, in the theory
tion
of the curvature of surfaces
body one point of which
and in the dynamics of a
is fixed.
rigid
VECTOR ANALYSIS
404
W be
a vector function of position in space. Let r be

the vector drawn from a fixed origin to any point in space.
Let
= dx i + dy j +
5W
3W
+ dy
^dx-^
$#
c?y
k,
5W
Hence
dz
dz-Ti
c/
---h 3W + k 5W)
W = d r H SW
dx
dz
(
-=
The expression enclosed
is
is
a dyadic.
It thus
The
first partial
in the braces
appears that the differential of

the differential change of position.
and the consequents the
>
dy
antecedents are
derivatives of
c?r,
i, j,
k,
W with re
The expression is found in a manner precisely

spect of x, y, z.
W.
analogous to del and will in fact be denoted by
=i-
+j
k-.
(1)
dW = dr.VW.
Then
This equation
is
(2)
like the one for the differential of a scalar
function F.
dV=dr VF.
It
may be regarded
nonion form
as defining
VW.
If
expanded into
VW becomes
VW = 11 3x
.
+
if
.5X
ki
.9Y
3Z
-+
-+kj T
kk-^--,
3z
z
dz
ls
<y
VARIABLE DYADICS
405
and
x which were applied to a vector
The operators
function now become superfluous from a purely analytic
For they are nothing more nor less than the
standpoint.
and the vector of the dyadic
scalar
V W.
W = V W = (V W)*
curl W = V x W = (V W)
div
(4)
(5)
x.
The
analytic advantages of the introduction of the variable
VW
dyadic
ator
In the first place the oper

to
a
vector
function just as to a scalar
applied
In the second place the two operators
and
x
are therefore these.
V may be
function.
V W. On
are reduced to positions as functions of the dyadic
the other hand from the standpoint of physics nothing is to

be gained and indeed much may be lost if the important in
and
as the divergence and curl
x
terpretations of
of
W be forgotten
of the scalar and vector of

If
and their places taken by the analytic idea
VW.
the vector function
be the derivative of a scalar
function V^
dW = dVF=e?r
V V F=
where
i i
+
75x
<y
Qty
**dy dx
+
The
zero
=
<y
=- +
c/
32
k^
<y x
32
c/
F"
T
dy d z
TT
&y
- + kj
-g- + k k
dzdx
9zSy
result of applying
be a dyadic.
is
kj
ij
VVF",
This dyadic
twice to a scalar function
is self -conjugate.
Its vector
V V V is evidently
3 V
92 V
3 F
V-VF= (VVF)*= 0-22 + T-2 + TT
its scalar
is
seen to
Vx VV
VECTOR ANALYSIS
406
If
V three
cally to a scalar function
sum
times, the result
symboli
would be a
of twenty-seven terms like

*
r
c/
This
an attempt were made to apply the operator
is
a triadic.
r,
^r
;r-
vx dy &z
,etc.
Three vectors are placed in juxtaposition
without any sign of multiplication. Such expressions will

not be discussed here. In a similar manner if the operator
be applied twice to a vector function, or once to a dyadic func

tion of position in space, the result will be a triadic and hence
outside the limits set to the discussion here.
x and
may however be applied

respectively a dyadic and a vector.
V-
=i
30
= i._
+
3x
50
+
^Sy
30
dy
u, v,
w are vector functions
Vx
=V
x u
V 0= V
and
=i
if
Vx 0=
x*
i{-
X)v
V
^
^-) +
+j
I*
j^
**
to yield
30
(7)
30
-.
T
3z
(8)
k,
of position in space,
Vx
+V w
k.
Vxvj
+V
operators
k x ^-,
9z
+ k-
where
T r
=u i+v +w
If
Or
+
^dx
The
to a dyadic
v
v
-f
k,
(7)
(8)
k w,
W
=-
-++
< 8 >"
In a similar manner the scalar operators (a V) and (V V)

may be applied to 0. The result is in each case a dyadic,
VARIABLE DYADICS
(a.V)
a8
32
-
y*
V V as
The
individual steps
(10)
z2
applied to vector func
no longer necessarily to be regarded
the dyadic
(9)
^,
as single oper
be carried out by means of
may
VW.
(a
(V
W=a
V) W = V
V)
= a V W,
(V W) = V V W.
(V W)
But when applied to a dyadic the operators cannot be inter

preted as made up of two successive steps without making use
of the triadic V 0. The parentheses however may be removed
without danger of confusion just as they were removed in
case of a vector function before the introduction of the dyadic.
Formulae similar to those upon page 176
may
differentiating products in the case that the

lead to dyadics.
(u v)
= >V u v +
be given for
differentiation
V v,
V(vxw)=Vvxw Vwxv,
Vx
(v
= w V v V v w v V w + V w v,
V (v w) = V v w + V w v,
V (v w) = V v w + v V w.
x w)
Vx
V
(v
.
w)
=V
(u #)
VxVx
<P
The
principle in these
ciated before, namely
:
x v
=Vu
= VV.
and
all
w
<P
<P
v x
V w,
V
V V
0,
<P,
etc.
similar cases is that
The operator
V may be treated
enun
sym-
VECTOR ANALYSIS
408
The
bolically as a vector.
must be
to which
x (vw)
Vx
Hence
(v
(v
Hence
148.]
(v w)] v
x w)
=V
w)
(v
[V
[V
[V x
it
[V
x vw
=Vv
V w.
V w.
v x
x w)] T + [V
(v
x w)] w
(v
(v
x w)]^
x w,
V (w x v)] = V w x
V(vxw) = Vvxw v w x
=
x w)] v
implies
+ [V x (vw)]^
[Vx (vw)] w = V xvw,

- [v x V w] v = - v
(v w)] v =
[V x
which
upon each factor of a product
Thus
it is applied.
Again
differentiations
carried out in turn
v.
v.
It
was seen (Art. 79) that
curve of which the
initial
of that function at r
and r
if
denote an arc of a
and the
final point is r
point
the line integral of the derivative of a scalar function taken
along the curve is equal to the difference between the values
Cd r
Jc
Jo
may
by no means the same
vector
V W = 0.
be well to note that the integrals
fdr.VW
are
F(r)- F(r ).
V W = W (r) - W (r ),
Cd r
and
It
VF=
r*
In like manner
is r
dx cannot be
and
thing.
fvw
VW
placed arbitrarily
dr
is
upon
a dyadic.
The
either side of
it.
VARIABLE DYADICS
409
to the fundamental equation (2) the differential di

W. The differentials must be written
necessarily precedes
Owing
before the integrands in most cases. For the sake of uni

they always will be so placed.
formity
of
Passing to surface integrals, the following formulae, some

which have been given before and some of which are new,
may
be mentioned.
ff
ax
VW=
fdr
ff da. Vx W=
fdr*
r/daVx0=
dr
<
The
line integrals are taken over the complete bounding curve

of the surface over which the surface integrals are taken.
In
like
manner the following
relations exist
between volume and
surface integrals.
fff dv VW=rfa W
///
<*
*-
VECTOR ANALYSIS
410
The
surface integrals are taken over the complete bounding

which the volume integrals
surface of the region throughout

are taken.
Numerous
formulae of integration by parts like those upon

The reader will rind no difficulty in
page 250 might be added.

obtaining
also be
them
The
for himself.
extended to other cases.
integrating operators may

the potentials of scalar
To
and vector functions the potential, Pot

added.
The Newtonian
cian and Maxwellian of dyadics
Pot
<?
</>,
of a dyadic
may
be
of a vector function and the Lapla-
may
be defined.
New W =
// ^Î^> dV
d,
Max * =
The
analytic theory of these integrals may be developed as

The most natural way in which the demonstrations
before.
may
sum
be given
is
by considering the vector function
W as
the
of its components,
W = Xi+
Fj + ^k
as expressed with the constant consequents

and the dyadic
i, j, k and variable antecedents u, v, w, or vice versa,
These matters will be

tering
upon them
at all
left at this point.
was
The
object of en
to indicate the natural extensions
which occur when variable dyadics are considered. These ex

tensions differ so slightly from the simple cases which have
THE CURVATURE OF SURFACES
411
gone before that it is far better to leave the details to be worked

out or assumed from analogy whenever they may be needed
rather than to attempt to develop
them
in advance. It
mention what the extensions are and
cient merely to
is suffi
how they
treated.
maybe
The Curvature of Surfaces 1
There are two different methods of treating the cur

vature of surfaces. In one the surface is expressed in para149. ]
metic form by three equations
x =/i
<X
v)
or
=/a O>
=f
*0
=/8 <X
")>
(u, v).
analogous to the method followed (Art. 57) in dealing

with curvature and torsion of curves and it is the method
This
is
employed by Fehr in the book to which reference was made.

In the second method the surface is expressed by a single
equation connecting the variables x,y,z
,
The
latter
method
z)
thus
= 0.
of treatments affords a simple application of
the differential calculus of variable dyadics.

Moreover, the
most
to
the
results
connected
important
dyadics lead naturally
with the elementary theory of surfaces.

Let r be a radius vector drawn from an arbitrary fixed
The increment d r
origin to a variable point of the surface.
lies in
the surface or in the tangent plane
at the terminus of
Hence the
surface.
drawn
to the surface
r.
derivative
Vîs
collinear with the
Moreover, inasmuch as
normal to the
F and the negative of F when
1 Much of what follows is

practically free from the use of dyadics.
especially true of the treatment of geodetics, Arts. 155-157.
This
is
VECTOR ANALYSIS
412
VF
may be
equated to zero give the same geometric surface,
In
considered as the normal upon either side of the surface.
case the surface belongs to the family defined
by
F (#, y, z) = const.
the normal
increases.
V F lies upon that side upon which the constant

Let V F be represented by N the magnitude of
which may be denoted by N, and

in the direction of
IT.
let
n be a unit normal drawn
Then
(1)
If s is the vector
drawn
to
any point in the tangent plane
r and n are perpendicular.

r, s
the equation of the tangent plane is
the terminus of
at
Consequently
(s-r)
and in
like
manner the equation
of the normal line is
(s-r)x VjF=0,
or
where k
is
= r + & V JP
a variable parameter.
These equations may be
translated into Cartesian form

150.]
and give the familiar results.

The variation dn of the unit normal to a surface
plays an important part in the theory of curvature,

perpendicular to n because n is a unit vector.
dn
is
-*
N
The dyadic
dicular to
iv 2
nn
413
is
an idemfactor for
vectors perpen
all
n and an annihilator for vectors
parallel
to
n.
Hence
dn
= d n,
n n)
(I
V^.(I-nn)=0,
and
N
Hence
rf
But
dr
<*
.-*,.
Hanco
N N
VV .F
= dr
nn).
(I
n n).
(I
~"> V
^ P-").
(2)
> = (I-..
Let
dn = dr
Then
<P.
(4)
In the vicinity of any point upon a surface the variation d n of

the unit normal
radius vector
r.
The dyadic
is self-con
N4> c =
Evidently (I
is
(I
and in
(I
Hence
self-conjugate.
jugate.
For
- nn), (VV F) c
- n ri) c =
a vector parallel to
fore planar
a linear function of the variation of the
is
n,
- n n)
<P C is
(I
and by (6) Art. 147
equal to 0.
the dyadic
- nn)^
produces
When applied
zero.
lie
to
It is there
fact uniplanar because self-conjugate.
antecedents and the consequents
VV F
The
in the tangent plane to
VECTOR ANALYSIS
414
the surface.
It is possible
form
4>
(Art. 116) to reduce
=a
i i
to the
b j j
(5)
and j are two perpendicular unit vectors lying in the

tangent plane and a and b are positive or negative scalars.
where
dn = dr
The
vectors
and the scalars
The dyadic
of the surface.
151.]
The
conic r
a, 6
C? is
a and
is, if
the point
but
if
have the same

the conic
is
j j ).
vary from point to point
variable.
1 is called the indicatrix of the
surface at the point in question.
that
i i
(a
an
If this conic is
an hyperbola, that
ellipse,
convex at
sign, the surface is
is, if
a and
have opposite signs the surface is concavo-convex. The curve

r .
r = 1 may be regarded as approximately equal to the
intersection of the surface with a plane drawn parallel to the
tangent plane and near to
it.
r be set equal to zero
If r
a pair of straight lines. These are the asymp

If they are real the conic is an hyperbola ;
totes of the conic.
the result
if
is
imaginary, an
ellipse.
Two
directions on the surface
which
are parallel to conjugate diameters of the conic are called
con
The directions on the surface which coin

jugate directions.
cide with the directions of the principal axes i j of the
,
indicatrix are
known
as the principal directions.
They are a
The directions upon the
special case of conjugate directions.
surface which coincide with the directions of the asymptotes

of the indicatrix are
the
surface
is
known
as asymptotic directions.
convex, the indicatrix
is
an
ellipse
In case
and the
asymptotic directions are imaginary.

In special cases the dyadic
may be such that the
cients a and
form
b are equal.
= a(i
may
i
+j
coeffi
then be reduced to the
(5)

in an infinite
any two
convex.
is
cible to the
form
<p
The
i
The
and j may be
becomes a
indicatrix
The surface in the neighborhood of an

The asymptotic directions are imaginary.
In another special case the dyadic
to
The
perpendicular diameters of this circle

Such a point is
directions upon the surface.
an umbilic.
umbilic
directions
pair of
give principal
called
The
of ways.
perpendicular directions.
Any
circle.
number
415
$ becomes
i i
linear
and redu
(5)"
indicatrix consists of a pair of parallel lines perpendicular

is called a parabolic point of the surface.
Such a
point
further discussion of these
and other
special cases will be
omitted.
The quadric surfaces afford examples of the various kinds

The ellipsoid and the hyperboloid of two sheets
of points.
The indicatrix of points upon them is an ellipse.
are convex.
The hyperboloid of one sheet is concavo-convex. The in
The indicatrix
dicatrix of points upon it is an hyperbola.
a
is
a
The
circle.
of any point upon
points are all
sphere
umbilies. The indicatrix of any point upon a cone or cylinder
The points are parabolic. A sur
is a pair of parallel lines.
face in general
may have upon
hyperbolic, parabolic,
152.]
it
points of
all
types
elliptic,
and umbilical.
line of principal curvature
upon a surface
is
curve which has at each point the direction of one of the prin
The direction of the curve at a
cipal axes of the indicatrix.
point is always one of the principal directions on the surface at
that point. Through any given point upon a surface two per
pendicular lines of principal curvature pass. Thus the lines
of curvature divide the surface into a system of infinitesi
mal rectangles. An asymptotic line upon a surface is a curve

which has at each point the direction of the asymptotes of the
indicatrix.
The
direction of the curve at a point
one of the asymptotic directions upon the surface.
is
always
Through
VECTOR ANALYSIS
416
any given point of a surface two asymptotic

lines are
the surface
if
lines pass.
These
Even when real

The angle
angles.
convex.
is
imaginary
they do not in general intersect at right
between the two asymptotic lines at any point is bisected by

the lines of curvature which pass through that point.
The necessary and
sufficient condition that a
curve upon a
surface be a line of principal curvature is that as one advances

along that curve, the increment of d n, the unit normal to the
surface
rfn= 0. dr
dr
Then
dr
is
For
to the line of advance.
is parallel
i i
(a
+
yj
b j j )
dr
evidently d n and d r are parallel when and only when

The statement is therefore proved.
parallel to i or j .
It is frequently taken as the definition of lines of curvature.
The
differential equation of a line of curvature is
dnxdr = 0.
Another method of statement
is
(6)
that the normal to the surface,
the increment d n of the normal, and the element d r of the

surface
is
lie
in
one plane when and only when the element d r
an element of a
line of principal curvature.
The
differential
equation then becomes

[n
dn
rfr]
= 0.
(7)
The
necessary and sufficient condition that a curve upon a

surface be an asymptotic line, is that as one advances along
that curve the increment of the unit normal to the surface is
perpendicular to the line of advance.
= dr
dn dr = dr
dn
If then
dn
dr
is
zero
asymptotic direction.
dr
tf>
For
<P
dr.
r is zero.
The statement
is
Hence d r
is
therefore proved.
an
It

is
417
The
frequently taken as the definition of asymptotic lines.
an asymptotic
differential equation of
dn
line is
= 0.
(8)
Let P be a given point upon a surface and n the

153.]
normal to the surface at P. Pass a plane p through n. This
p is normal to the surface and cuts out a plane section.

Consider the curvature of this plane section at the point P.
Let n be normal to the plane section in the plane of the
section,
n coincides with n at the point P. But unless the
plane
cuts the surface everywhere orthogonally, the normal

n to the plane section and the normal n to the surface will not
plane
coincide,
d n and d n will also be
of the plane section lying in
is
The curvature
different.
(Art. 57).
____
ds
As
far as numerical value is concerned the increment of the
unit tangent t and the increment of the unit normal n are

Moreover, the quotient of d r by d s is a unit vector
equal.
dn
in the direction of
Consequently the scalar value of C
d n
ds
By
hypothesis
d (V
Hence
dn
dn dr
dr
ds
ds 2
ndr = n
=n
at
d r)
= dn
d2
= dn
and
n
d
-dr
d2
= 0.
d2
= 0,
r.
Since n and n are equal at P,
Hence
C=
- - --
dn*dr = dr
ds^2
<P
j-^2
ds
27
dr
= dr3
dr
<P
dr
dr
3
( 9)
is
VECTOR ANALYSIS
418
C7
= a --
dr
ar
ar
ar
Hence
tf= a
cos 2 (i
dr)
& cos 2
or
(7= a
cos 2 (i , rfr)
b sin 2 (i
The
dr),
dr).
(10)
interpretation of this formula for the curvature of a
normal section
as follows
is
When
the normal to the surface from
to
the plane p turns about

C of the
, the curvature
plane section varies from the value a when the plane passes
through the principal direction i , to the value b when it
The values
passes through the other principal direction j
of the curvature have algebraically a maximum and minimum
.
in the directions of the principal lines of curvature.

b
have unlike signs, that
at Pj there exist
the surface
The sum
is
and
concavo-convex
which the curvature of a
for
These are the asymptotic directions.

two normal sections
normal section vanishes.

154.]
is, if
two directions
If a
of the curvatures in
at right angles to one another is constant and independent of

the actual position of those sections.
For the curvature in
one section
is
Cl =
and
a cos 2
(i
dr)
b sin 2 (i
dr),
in the section at right angles to this

(7 2
Hence
=a
sin 2 (i
di)
O l + C2 =
b cos 2 (i
4>
dr).
(11)
which proves the statement.
show that the
invariant $% s is equal to the pro

duct of the curvatures a and b of the lines of principal curv
It is easy to
ature.
4>t
Hence the equation
x*
<P a
= ab
x
0^ 3
(12)

is
the quadratic equation which determines the principal curv
atures a and I at any point of the surface.
and
equation the scalar quantities a

of
419
F(x,
By means
of this
be found in terms
may
(I-nn)
y, z).
N
(nn
VV^ )^ =
VV.F- nn)^ = (nn nn
Hence
9.
(nn.
Hence
= -(VV^)
-^
(nn
(nn^
VV^)^ = nn: VVJ^=n. VV F

<^^
= V.V^
VFVF:WF
--
T--- --
n.
(13)
**
î
CIS)
These expressions may be written out in Cartesian coordinates,

but they are extremely long. The Cartesian expressions for
are even longer.
The vector expression may be obtained
2/5
as follows:
(I
nn) 2
= nn.
Hence
S-IA\
Given any curve upon a surface. Let t be a unit

tangent to the curve, n a unit normal to the surface and m a
155.]
VECTOR ANALYSIS
420
x t. The three vectors n, t, m constitute

The vector t is parallel to the element d r.
vector defined as n
i, j, k system.
Hence the condition
an
for a line of curvature

t
x d n
= 0.
(15)
Hence
m d n=
= = m dn +
n d m = 0.
Moreover
Hence
Hence
d (m
n)
becomes
dm
= 0.
x dm
= 0,
d m.
(16)
dmxdn = Q.
or
The increments
of
m and of n
and of
a line of principal curvature.

geodetic line upon a surface
is
(16)
r are all parallel in case of
a curve whose osculating

That the
plane at each point is perpendicular to the surface.
is the shortest line which can be drawn between

two points upon a surface may be seen from the following
Let the surface be smooth and
considerations of mechanics.
geodetic line
let a
smooth
elastic string
which
surface be stretched between any
acting under
is
constrained to
two points of
it.
lie
in the
The
string
own
tensions will take a position of equili

brium along the shortest curve which can be drawn upon the
surface between the two given points.
Inasmuch as the
its
string is at rest
surface
must
lie
upon the surface the normal
reactions of the
in the osculating plane of the curve.
Hence
that plane is normal to the surface at every point of the curve

and the curve itself is a geodetic line.
The
vectors t and
mine that plane.
dt
lie
in the
osculating plane and deter

is a geodetic, the normal
In case the curve
to the osculating plane lies in the surface
perpendicular to the normal
n.
Hence
and consequently
is
421
n*tx<2t = 0,
n x
or
The
(17)
t = 0.
differential equation of a geodetic line is therefore
[n
dr d 2 r] =0.
(18)
Unlike the differential equations of the lines of curvature

and the asymptotic line, this equation is of the second order.
The
surface
is
therefore covered over with a doubly infinite
system of geodetics. Through any two points of the surface

one geodetic may be drawn.
As
one advances along any curve upon a surface there is

necessarily some turning up and down, that is, around the
axis m, due to the fact that the surface
is
curved.
There may
may not be any turning to the right or left. If one advances

along a curve such that there is no turning to the right or
left, but only the unavoidable turning up and down, it is to be
or
expected that the advance

that
total
t,
is,
along the shortest possible route
Such
along a geodetic.
amount
form an
of deviation
i, j,
dt
Hence
is
is
in fact the case.
from a straight
line is
d t.
The
Since
n,
k system
I
Since t
is
= tt +
nn + mm.
= tt*dt + nndt + mm*dt.
a unit vector the
first
term vanishes.
The second
term represents the amount of turning up and down; the

third term, the
amount
to the right or left.
Hence
dt
is
the proper measure of this part of the deviation from a

In case the curve is a geodetic this term
straightest line.
vanishes as was expected.

curve or surface
156.]
may
be
mapped upon
a unit
fixed origin is
sphere by the method of parallel normals.
of a
assumed, from which the unit normal n at the point
VECTOR ANALYSIS
422
given surface
of a sphere.
upon the surface
points P of a curve
the points P will
r
sphere.
The terminus
is laid off.
If the
of this normal lies
normals to a surface at all
are thus constructed from the

trace a curve
This curve
is
upon
same
origin,
the surface of a unit
called the spherical image of the given
In like manner a whole region

be mapped upon a region T the sphere.
curve.
T of
the surface
may
T upon
region T upon
The
region
the sphere has been called the hodogram of the

the surface. If d r be an element of arc upon the surface the
corresponding element upon the unit sphere
dn=
If
da be an element
is
dr.
of area
upon the surface, the corre

is d*! where (Art. 124).
sponding element upon the sphere
da
=a
<P
= a6
The
ratio of
hodogram
curvature at
i i
d a.
& j j
xj
dd = ab nn
Hence
its
<P
= ab
nn.
d a.
an element of surface at a point

is
(19)
P to the area of
equal to the product of the principal radii of
P or to
the reciprocal of the product of the prin
cipal curvatures at P.
was seen that the measure of turning to the right or left

is m
d t. If then
is any curve drawn upon a surface the
total amount of turning in advancing along the curve is the
It
integral.
dt.
(20)
For any closed curve this integral may be evaluated in a

manner analogous to that employed (page 190) hi the proof
of Stokes s theorem.
Consider two curves
and
near

The
together.
which the integral undergoes when

changed from C to C is
variation
the curve of integration
is
f m-
fm.dt= Cs
(m
dt.
di)= fSm dt+ Cm*Sdt
d(m-8t) =
S
dmSt-hmd
Cm* dt= C Sm* dt- C dm*
81
+ C d (m
St
The integral of the perfect differential d (m

when taken around a closed curve. Hence
S
mdt=
The idemfactor
8m
f or t
and
is
(2t
Sm
= tt +
= m
By
Sk
= m nn
dt,
Si).
S t) vanishes
dm
dt
nn + mm,
e2t
m m vanish. A
dm S
be effected upon the term

S
423
similar transformation
mdt= /(Smn n^t rfmn
differentiating the relations
may
Then
t.
n-St).
and n
it is
seen that
c?mn=:--m^n
Hence
/m^t=/
(m
dt
Sn t*dn
Sim rft=/(mxt-8nx^n)=
dn
t.
m dn
I
Sn)
Sn x dn.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
424
The
the
differential
Sn x dn
hodogram upon
represents the element of area in

the unit sphere. The integral
8n
<J
da
represents the total area of the hodogram of the strip of

surface which lies between the curves C and C
Let the
f
C start at
curve
any desired
quired in
2 TT.
The
a point upon the surface and spread out to
The
size.
total
amount
making an infinitesimal
of turning which
circuit
is re
about the point
is
total variation in the integral is
f 8 fin. rft=f m.dt-27T.
But
if
H denote the total area of the hodogram.
Hence
dt
= 2 TT
iT=27r
or
H+
or
The
area of the
Cm*
fm
dt
-JET,
rft,
(22)
= 27r.
hodogram of the region enclosed by any

amount of turning along that curve
closed curve plus the total

is
equal to 2 TT.
If the surface in question is
convex the area
will appear positive when the curve upon the

so described that the enclosed area appears positive.
upon the sphere

surface
If,
is
however, the surface
is
concavo-convex the area upon the

This matter of the sign of the
sphere will appear negative.
hodogram must be taken

above.
into account in the statement
made

157.]
If the
closed curve
geodetic lines the
The
amount
is
425
a polygon whose sides are
of turning along each side is zero.
total turning is therefore equal to the
sum
of the exterior
The statement becomes : the sum of

angles of the polygon.
the exterior angles of a geodetic polygon and of the area of
the hodogram of that polygon (taking account of sign) is
equal to 2 TT. Suppose that the polygon reduces to a triangle.
If the surface is
convex the area of the hodogram
and the sum of the exterior angles of the triangle

2 TT.
TT.
is
positive
is less
than
The sum of the interior angles is therefore greater than

The sphere or ellipsoid is an example of such a surface.
If the surface is
negative.
concavo-convex the area of the hodogram
The sum
this case less
than
is
of the interior angles of a triangle is in
TT.
Such a surface
sheet or the pseudosphere.
There
is
is
the hyperboloid of one
an intermediate case in
which the hodogram of any geodetic triangle is traced twice in

opposite directions and hence the total area is zero. The sum
of the interior angles of a triangle upon such a surface is equal
TT.
Examples of this surface are afforded by the cylinder,
to
cone, and plane.

surface is said to be developed
when
it is
so deformed that
upon the surface retain their length. Geodetics remain

One surface is said to be developable or applicable
geodetics.
upon another when it can be so deformed as to coincide with
lines
the other without altering the lengths of lines.

Geodetics
upon one surface are changed into geodetics upon the other.
The sum
any geodetic triangle remain un

From this it follows
the
of
process
developing.
changed by
that the total amount of turning along any curve or the area
of the
of the angles of
hodogram
of
any portion of a surface are also invariant
of the process of developing.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
426
Harmonic Vibrations and
The
158.]
motion
The
differential
Bivectors
equation of rectilinear harmonic
is
integral of this equation
be reduced by a suitable
may
choice of the constants to the form
=A
sin
t.
This represents a vibration back and forth along the X-axis

0.
Let the displacement be denoted by
about the point x
D in place of x. The equation may be written
This
is
=i A
Consider
=i A
sin
n t.
cos
m x.
a displacement not merely near the point x
but along the entire axis of
sin
x.
At
points x
Or,
where
in
a positive or negative integer, the displacement is at all

times equal to zero. The equation represents a stationary
is
wave with nodes at these points. At points midway between

these the wave has points of maximum vibration. If the
equation be regarded as in three variables x, y, z it repre
wave the plane of which is perpendicular to
the axis of the variable x.
sents a plane
The displacement given by
Dx
is
the equation
cos
(m x
f)
(1)
wave perpendicular to the axis of x but

The vibration is harmonic and advances
likewise a plane
not stationary.
along the direction
with a velocity equal to the quotient of

n by m.
If v be the velocity;
the period; and
the
427
wave
length,
n
= -,
m
^p
2?r
I
TT
= -.
(2)
The displacement
=j A
D2
differs
cos
(m x
nt)
from Dj in the particular that the displacement takes
The wave as
place in the direction j, not in the direction i.
before proceeds in the direction of x with the same velocity.
This vibration is transverse instead of longitudinal. By a
simple extension
it is
seen that
= A cos
(m x
t)
a displacement in the direction A. The wave advances

along the direction of x. Hence the vibration is oblique to
is
the wave-front.
A still
by substituting m
r for
more general form may be obtained
m x.
= A cos
Then
r
(m
(3)
t).
This is a displacement in the direction A. The maximum

amount of that displacement is the magnitude of A. The
wave advances in the direction m oblique to the displace
ment; the velocity, period, and wave-length are as before.
So much for rectilinear harmonic motion. Elliptic har
monic motion may be defined by the equation
The general
integral
r
The
is
obtained as
= A cos
discussion of waves
viously.
(p. 117).
may
The general wave
advancing in the direction
+B
sin
t.
be carried through as pre
harmonic
of
elliptic
is
seen to be
motion
VECTOR ANALYSIS
428
= A cos
dV
(m
A sin
(m
t)
sin
(m
(4)
t).
t)
+ B cos (m
t)
(5)
the velocity of the displaced point at any moment in the

This is of course
differ
ellipse in which it vibrates.
is
entirely
ent from the velocity of the wave.

An interesting result is obtained by adding up the dis
placement and the velocity multiplied by the imaginary
unit
-+
The
and divided by
= A cos
(m
A sin (m
n.
t)
t)
sin
+ B cos (m
expression here obtained, as far as
its
form
n f)
(m
n t) }.
is
concerned,
an imaginary vector. It is the sum of two real vectors of

which one has been multiplied by the imaginary scalar
1.
is
Such a vector
is
ordinary imaginary scalars
may
be called biscalars.
found very convenient in the discussion of

harmonic motion. Indeed any undamped elliptic har
of bivectors
elliptic
The
The use
called a bivector or imaginary vector.
is
monic plane wave may be represented as above by the pro

duct of a bivector and an exponential factor. The real part
of the product gives the displacement of
pure imaginary part gives

divided by n.
any point and the
the velocity of
displacement
The
analytic theory of bivectors differs from that of

much as the analytic theory of biscalars
It is unnecessary to have
differs from that of real scalars.
159.]
real vectors very
any distinguishing character
for bivectors just as
it is
need-

less to
vector
429
have a distinguishing notation for biscalars. The bimay be regarded as a natural and inevitable extension
It is the
of the real vector.
formal
sum
of
two
real vectors
which one has been multiplied by the imaginary unit

1.
There
The usual symbol i will be maintained for
of
not
much
likelihood of confusion with the vector
1is
for the
reason that the two could hardly be used in the same place
and for the further reason that the Italic i and the Clarendon
i
Whenever
differ considerably in appearance.
it
becomes
especially convenient to have a separate alphabet for bivectors the small Greek or German letters may be called upon.
bi vector
may be
expressed in terms of
i, j,
k with com
plex coefficients.
If
= TJ +
and
ri
=x
=#
or
i r2
= #i +
yj + z.
Two
bivectors are equal when their real and their imaginary

Two bivectors are parallel when one is the
parts are equal.
product of the other by a scalar (real or imaginary). If

a bivector is parallel to a real vector it is said to have a real
direction.
In other cases
direction.
The value
of
it
has a complex or imaginary
the sum, difference, direct, skew,
and indeterminate products of two bivectors is obvious with

out special definition. These statements may be put into
analytic form as follows.
Let
Then
if
r
if
= TJ +
r =
s,
||
= s2 + i s2
r = B and r 2 = s 2
r = x s = (x + i # 3 )
and
r2
s,
VECTOR ANALYSIS
480
r
+s=
(r 1
<>!
= (r
r
r
rs
i(r 2
- r2
B!
BI
(r l s l
s 1)
s )
2
r2 s2)
s ),
2
2)
r2
(r l
+ i (r
(T I s 2
s2
r2
Sl ),
ra
x)
r 2 Sj).
Two
bivectors or biscalars are said to be conjugate when

their real parts are equal and their pure imaginary parts
differ
is
The conjugate
only in sign.
of a real scalar or vector
The conjugate
equal to the scalar or vector itself.
and
sort of product of bivectors
of
any
biscalars is equal to the pro
similar
duct of the conjugates taken in the same order.
made
and
differences.
be
sums
may
concerning
statement
Oi +
i r )
2
Oi +
Ol +
r2> ( r l
- * r2 ) = r
(r i
*2 )
(r x
~ * F2> =
If the bivector r
= TJ
- i r2 ) =
(rl rl
TJ
rt
i r2
F2 r2>
r2 ,
x TV
( r2 F l
-r
r2>-
multiplied by a root of unity

or cyclic factor as it is frequently called, that is, by an imagi
nary scalar of the form
cos q
where
the conjugate
is
4- i r2 be*
= a + ib,
a 2 + & 2 = 1,
sin q
multiplied by a
i 6,
(7)
and hence the four
products
are unaltered
Thus
by multiplying the bivector
by such a
if
r
TI
= r/ +
TI
i r
2
*z
=
r2
(a
=r
+
x
iV) (r x
T!
r2
i r2 ),
r2 , etc.
factor.
160.]
bivector by
closer examination of the effect of

multiplying a
a cyclic factor yields interesting and important
Let
geometric results.
ri
* r
a
Then
By
( cos ?
in the real
rx
=i
cos ^
ra
= r2
cos q
reference to Art. 129
duced
431
it
sin 2) ( r i
r2 sin
ra)-
( 8)
T I sin j.
will be seen that the
and imaginary vector parts
change pro
of a bivector
by
multiplication with a cyclic factor, is precisely the same as

would be produced upon those vectors by a cyclic dyadic
d>
=aa +
cos q
used as a prefactor.
(bb
c c )
q (c b
- be )
b and c are supposed to be two vectors

and r2 a is any vector not in
collinear respectively with r x

their plane.
- sin
Consider the ellipse of which TJ and r2 are a

It then appears that r^
pair of conjugate semi-diameters.
and
r2
ellipse.
are also a pair of conjugate
They
semi-diameters of that
are rotated in the ellipse
a sector of which the area
is
from
to the area of the
toward
whole
r 1$
by
ellipse
?r.
Such a change of position has been called an
rotation
elliptic
through the sector q.
The ellipse of which T I and r2 are a pair of conjugate semi-
as q
is
to 2
diameters
When
is
called
the directional
ellipse
of the bivector
r.
the bivector has a real direction the directional ellipse
reduces to a right line in that direction. When the bivector

has a complex direction the ellipse is a true ellipse. The
angular direction from the real part T I to the complex part r2
considered as the positive direction in the directional
If the real and imagi
ellipse, and must always be known.
is
nary parts of a bivector turn in the positive direction in the

if in the negative direc
ellipse they are said to be advanced
tion they are said to be retarded.
Hence multiplication of a
;
VECTOR ANALYSIS
432
bivector by
cyclic
factor retards
sector equal to the angle
in
it
its directional
ellipse
by
of the cyclic factor.
It is always possible to multiply a bivector
by such a cyclic
and imaginary parts become coincident
the ellipse and are perpendicular.
factor that the real
with the axes of

r
To
(cos q
sin q) (a
b) where a
accomplish the reduction proceed as follows

r
If a
(cos 2 q
i sin
2 q) (a
b)
Form
(a
b).
= 0,
r
(cos 2 q
Let
and
sin 2 q) (a
=a+
tan 2 q
With
= 0.
b).
i 6,
-.
this value of q the axes of the directional ellipse are
given by the equation

a
-f i
(cos q
sin q)
r.
In case the real and imaginary parts a and b of a bivector

are equal in magnitude and perpendicular in direction both a
and b in the expression for r r vanish. Hence the angle
q
is
The
indeterminate.
directional ellipse
bivector whose directional ellipse

lar bivector.
The necessary and
is
If
is
condition r
called a circu
is
= 0,
r circular.
r = zi + 2/j + *k,
2
r = x* + y* + z = 0.
r
The
is
a circle.
non-vanishing bivector r be circular
a circle
is
= 0, which for real vectors
implies r
not sufficient to ensure the vanishing of a bivector.
= 0,
The

bivector
The
circular, not necessarily zero.
is
a bivector vanish
condition that
that the direct product of
is
433
it
by
its
con
jugate vanishes.
Oi +
i r2 )
(r x
then
- t r2 ) = r
= r2 =
F!
rx
and
conjugate and
that
it
= 0,
becomes equal to
becomes equal to
their product
The condition
161.]
ra
= 0.
In case the bivector has a real direction

its
r2
two bivectors be
r.
parallel is that
the product of the other by a scalar factor. Any biscalar factor may be expressed as the product of a cyclic
If
factor and a positive scalar, the modulus of the biscalar.
one
is
two bivectors
ellipses
by only a cyclic factor their directional

Hence two parallel vectors have their
are the same.
differ
directional ellipse similar
and
similarly placed
the ratio of
similitude being the modulus of the biscalar.

It is evident
that any two circular bivectors whose planes coincide are
parallel.
A circular
vector and a non-circular vector cannot
be parallel.
The condition that two bivectors be perpendicular
r
is
or
rt
Consider
first
coincide.
r2
83
=r
= 0,
s2
r2
BI
= 0.
the case in which the planes of the bivectors
Let
r
The
(TJ
i r2 ),
=I
dicular to r2 ,
and b are biscalars.

and s l may be taken
condition r
scalars a
ra
(s 1
rx
may
i g2 ).
be chosen perpen
in the direction of ra
then gives
82
and
rx
28
s2
ra
nl
= 0.
The
VECTOR ANALYSIS
434
The
equation shows that r2 and
first
hence
and
sl
s2
s2
are perpendicular and
are
perpendicular. Moreover, the second

shows that the angular directions from rx to r2 and from s to
1
s are the same, and that the axes of the directional
2
ellipses
of r
and
are proportional.
Hence the conditions
for perpendicularity of
whose planes coincide are that

similar, the
two bivectors
their directional ellipses are
is the same, and the

1
axes
of
the
are
If both vectors
major
ellipses
perpendicular.
have real directions the conditions degenerate into the per
angular direction in both
pendicularity of those directions. The conditions therefore

hold for real as well as for imaginary vectors.
Let r and
be two perpendicular bivectors the planes of

Resolve T I and r2 each into two com
which do not coincide.
ponents respectively parallel and perpendicular to the plane
The components perpendicular to that plane contribute

nothing to the value of r s. Hence the components of rx
of
s.
and
r2 parallel to the plane of s
perpendiqular to
s.
To
form a bivector
this bivector
and
which
is
the conditions
stated above apply. The directional ellipse of the bivector r

is evidently the
projection of the directional ellipse of r upon
the plane of
Hence,
ellipse of
s.
two bivectors are perpendicular the directional

either bivector and the directional ellipse of the
if
other projected upon the plane of that one are similar, have
the same angular direction, and have their major axes per
pendicular.
Consider a bivector of the type
162.]
where
and
are bivectors
and
position vector of a point in space.
TI
is
a biscalar.
r is the
It is therefore to be con-
1 It should be noted
that the condition of perpendicularity of major axes is not
the same as the condition of perpendicularity of real parts and imaginary parts

sidered as real,
be considered as
is
real.
the scalar variable time and
is
435
also to
Let
A = Aj +
A*p
m = ni + i mj
D
As
has been seen before, the
represents a train of plane
factor
waves of
(A x
elliptic
Aj)
e <(mt
~ nif)
harmonic vibra
The
vibrations take place in the plane of Aj and A2 ,

in an ellipse of which A x and A% are conjugate semi-diam
tions.
The displacement of the vibrating point from the

eters.
center of the ellipse is given by the real part of the factor.
The velocity of the point after it has been divided by nj
is given by the pure imaginary part.
The wave advances
mr
The other factors in the expres

""* is a
The factor
damper in the
direction m 2
As the wave proceeds in the direction m^ it
dies away.
The factor e*** is a damper in time. If na is
negative the wave dies away as time goes on. If n2 is posi
The
tive the wave increases in energy as time increases.
in the direction
sion
are dampers.
.
presence (for unlimited time) of any such factor in an ex

pression which represents an actual vibration is clearly inad
missible.
It contradicts the
law of conservation of energy.
In any physical vibration of a conservative system na
is
ne
cessarily negative or zero.
The general
expression (9) therefore represents a train of

plane waves of elliptic harmonic vibrations damped in a
definite direction and in time.
Two such waves may be com
pounded by adding the bivectors which represent them. If

n t is the same for both the resulting
the exponent m r
train of waves advances in the same direction and has the
VECTOR ANALYSIS
436
same period and wave-length
as the individual waves.
vibrations, however, take place in a different ellipse.
The
If the
waves are
the resultant
is
(A
By combining two
directions but
- m*-
Ae-^- e-""
is
<mi
**.
waves which advance in opposite
in other respects equal a system of
obtained.
(mi
(e
The theory of
B)
trains of
which are
stationary waves
- lr
- n0
+ A e~ m
+ $-"i") = 2Acos
bivectors
and
(n^
r)
e- m*
e^ int
their applications will not be
The object in entering at all upon this very

short and condensed discussion of bivectors was first to show
carried further.
the reader
how
the simple idea of a direction has to give way

to the more complicated but no less useful idea of a directional
is
when
the generalization from real to imaginary vectors

made, and second to set forth the manner in which a single
ellipse
bivector
D may
waves of
elliptic
vectors
be employed to represent a train of plane

harmonic vibrations. This application of bi
may be used to give
the Theory of Light a wonderfully
1
simple and elegant treatment.
1
Such use of bivectors is made by Professor Gibbs in his course of lectures on
" The
Electromagnetic Theory of Light" delivered biannually at Yale University.
Bivectors were not used in the second part of this chapter, because in the opinion
of the present author they possess no essential advantage over real vectors until
the more advanced parts of the theory, rotation of the plane of polarization by
magnets and
crystals, total
and metallic
reflection, etc., are reached.
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Bicentennial Anniversary, as a partial indica

FOUNDED UPON THE LECTURES OF

GIBBS, PH.D., LL.D.

Formerly Professor of Mathematical Physics in Yale University

EDWIN BIDWELL WILSON,

Professor of Vital Statistics in

Harvard School of Public Health

Copyright, 1901 and 1929

Fifth Printing, October, 1925

Seventh Printing, October, 1951

Ninth Printing, April, 1947

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

PKEFACB BY PROFESSOR GIBBS

more than one quarter, that the substance of that trea

perhaps in fuller form, should be made accessible to

As, however, the years passed without my finding the

Analysis in the year 1899-1900 undertake the preparation of

adequate number of examples as to meet the wants of stu

undertook to adapt the lectures of Professor Gibbs

engaged upon his work to appear in the same

Principles in Statistical Mechanics, that it was understood no

expected from him.

entirely free to use my own

discretion alike in the selection

endeavor to use the freedom thus granted

only in so far as was necessary for presenting his method in

used in the follow

far the greater part of the material

tromagnetic Theory (Electrician Series, 1893) and in Professor

previous study of Quaternions has

also been of great assistance.

The material thus obtained has been arranged in the way

been distributed throughout the body of the book as fast as

practical use of the book.

has been taken in avoiding the introduction of unnecessary

make its necessity evident and its meaning easy to grasp.

the theory of Vector Analysis, but as a text-book from which

may be learned. Hence a summary, including a list

The subject of Vector Analysis naturally divides itself into

and third are mutually independent. Either may be taken

this division of the subject, the

divided into six chapters of which two deal with

treat of addition, subtraction, scalar

knowledge of only the elements of Trigonometry and Ana-

Those who are well versed in Quaternions

and IV. contain the treatment

those topics in Vector Analysis which, though of less value

tance to students of physics. Chapters V. and VI. deal with

to the fact that it leads to Multiple Algebra or the Theory

development of certain higher parts of the theory, a

although they will doubtless criticise this portion of the book

the more so for the

reason that whatever system of notation be employed ques

and occasion no new difficulty to the student of Vector

more than half a century

which have been made during

introduce Quaternions into

decade toward the adoption of some form of

completeness has been published.

In fact Heaviside says

in hopes that the chapter