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Stainlesssteel
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inmetallurgy,stainlesssteel,alsoknownasinox
steelorinoxfromFrenchinoxydable,isasteelalloy
withaminimumof10.5%[1]chromiumcontentby
mass.

Contents
1 Description
2 Properties
2.1 Oxidation
2.2 Acids
2.3 Bases
2.4 Organics
2.5 Electricityandmagnetism
2.6 3Dprinting
3 Types
3.1 Grades
3.2 Comparisonofstandardizedsteels
4 Standardfinishes
5 Applications
5.1 Architecture
5.2 Bridges
5.3 Monumentsandsculptures
5.4 Other
6 Maintenance
6.1 Duringinstallation
6.2 Routinemaintenance
6.3 Maintenancetools
7 Recyclingandreuse
8 Healtheffects
9 History
10 Seealso
11 References
12 Externallinks

StainlesssteelcladdingisusedontheWaltDisney
ConcertHall

Description
Stainlesssteeldoesnotreadilycorrode,rustorstainwithwaterasordinarysteeldoes.However,itisnot
fullystainproofinlowoxygen,highsalinity,orpooraircirculationenvironments.[2]Therearedifferent
gradesandsurfacefinishesofstainlesssteeltosuittheenvironmentthealloymustendure.Stainlesssteelis
usedwhereboththepropertiesofsteelandcorrosionresistancearerequired.
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Stainlesssteeldiffersfromcarbonsteelbytheamountofchromium
present.Unprotectedcarbonsteelrustsreadilywhenexposedtoair
andmoisture.Thisironoxidefilm(therust)isactiveandaccelerates
corrosionbyformingmoreironoxideand,becauseofthegreater
volumeoftheironoxide,thistendstoflakeandfallaway.Stainless
steelscontainsufficientchromiumtoformapassivefilmof
chromiumoxide,whichpreventsfurthersurfacecorrosionby
blockingoxygendiffusiontothesteelsurfaceandblockscorrosion
fromspreadingintothemetal'sinternalstructure.[3]Passivation
occursonlyiftheproportionofchromiumishighenoughand
oxygenispresent.

Stainlesssteelisusedforcorrosion
resistanttoolssuchasthisnutcracker

Properties
Oxidation
Highoxidationresistanceinairatambienttemperatureisnormally
achievedwithadditionsofaminimumof13%(byweight)
chromium,andupto26%isusedforharshenvironments.[4]The
chromiumformsapassivationlayerofchromium(III)oxide(Cr2O3)
whenexposedtooxygen.Thelayeristoothintobevisible,andthe
metalremainslustrousandsmooth.Thelayerisimpervioustowater
andair,protectingthemetalbeneath,andthislayerquicklyreforms
whenthesurfaceisscratched.Thisphenomenoniscalled
passivationandisseeninothermetals,suchasaluminiumand
titanium.Corrosionresistancecanbeadverselyaffectedifthe
componentisusedinanonoxygenatedenvironment,atypical
examplebeingunderwaterkeelboltsburiedintimber.
Whenstainlesssteelpartssuchasnutsandboltsareforcedtogether,
theoxidelayercanbescrapedoff,allowingthepartstoweld
together.Whenforciblydisassembled,theweldedmaterialmaybe
tornandpitted,aneffectknownasgalling.Thisdestructivegalling
canbeavoidedbytheuseofdissimilarmaterialsforthepartsforced
together,forexamplebronzeandstainlesssteel,orevendifferent
typesofstainlesssteels(martensiticagainstaustenitic).However,
twodifferentalloyselectricallyconnectedinahumidenvironment
mayactasavoltaicpileandcorrodefaster.Nitronicalloysmadeby
selectivealloyingwithmanganeseandnitrogenmayhaveareduced
tendencytogall.Additionally,threadedjointsmaybelubricatedto
preventgalling.Lowtemperaturecarburizingisanotheroptionthat
virtuallyeliminatesgallingandallowstheuseofsimilarmaterials
withouttheriskofcorrosionandtheneedforlubrication.

Stainlesssteel(row3)resistssalt
watercorrosionbetterthan
aluminumbronze(row1)orcopper
nickelalloys(row2)

Stainlesssteelisnotcompletely
immunetocorrosioninthis
desalinationequipment

Acids
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#References

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Stainlesssteelisgenerallyhighlyresistanttoattackfromacids,butthisqualitydependsonthekindand
concentrationoftheacid,thesurroundingtemperature,andthetypeofsteel.Type904isresistantto
sulfuricacidatroomtemperature,eveninhighconcentrationstype316and317areresistantbelow10%,
and304shouldnotbeusedinthepresenceofsulfuricacidatanyconcentration.Alltypesofstainlesssteel
resistattackfromphosphoricacid,316and317moresothan304Types304Land430havebeen
successfullyusedwithnitricacid.Hydrochloricacidwilldamageanykindofstainlesssteel,andshouldbe
avoided.[5]

Bases
The300seriesofstainlesssteelgradesisunaffectedbyanyoftheweakbasessuchasammonium
hydroxide,eveninhighconcentrationsandathightemperatures.Thesamegradesofstainlessexposedto
strongerbasessuchassodiumhydroxideathighconcentrationsandhightemperatureswilllikely
experiencesomeetchingandcracking,especiallywithsolutionscontainingchloridessuchassodium
hypochlorite.[5]

Organics
Types316and317arebothusefulforstoringandhandlingaceticacid,especiallyinsolutionswhereitis
combinedwithformicacidandwhenaerationisnotpresent(oxygenhelpsprotectstainlesssteelundersuch
conditions),though317providesthegreatestlevelofresistancetocorrosion.Type304isalsocommonly
usedwithformicacidthoughitwilltendtodiscolorthesolution.Allgradesresistdamagefromaldehydes
andamines,thoughinthelattercasegrade316ispreferableto304celluloseacetatewilldamage304
unlessthetemperatureiskeptlow.Fatsandfattyacidsonlyaffectgrade304attemperaturesabove150C
(302F),andgrade316above260C(500F),while317isunaffectedatalltemperatures.Type316Lis
requiredforprocessingofurea.[5]

Electricityandmagnetism
Likesteel,stainlesssteelisarelativelypoorconductorofelectricity,
withlowerelectricalconductivitythancopper.Othermetalsin
contactwithstainlesssteelinadampenvironmentmaysuffer
galvaniccorrosion.eventhoughthestainlessmetalmaybe
unaffected.
Ferriticandmartensiticstainlesssteelsaremagnetic.Annealed
austeniticstainlesssteelsarenonmagnetic.Workhardeningcan
makeausteniticstainlesssteelsslightlymagnetic.

Poorselectionofmaterialscancause
galvaniccorrosiontoothermetalsin
contactwithstainlesssteel

3Dprinting
Some3Dprintingprovidershavedevelopedproprietarystainlesssteelsinteringblendsforuseinrapid
prototyping.Oneofthemorepopularstainlesssteelgradesusedin3Dprintingwouldbe316LStainless
steel.Duetothehightemperaturegradientandfastrateofsolidification,stainlesssteelmanufacturedvia
3Dprintingtendstohavemorerefinedmicrostructures.Thisinturnresultsinbettermechanicalproperties.

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However,stainlesssteelisnotusedasmuchasmaterialslikeTi6Al4Vinthe3Dprintingindustry.Thisis
becausestainlesssteelmanufacturedviathetraditionalmethodstendstobemoreeconomically
competitive.

Types
Therearedifferenttypesofstainlesssteels:whennickelisadded,
forinstance,theaustenitestructureofironisstabilized.Thiscrystal
structuremakessuchsteelsvirtuallynonmagneticandlessbrittleat
lowtemperatures.Forgreaterhardnessandstrength,morecarbonis
added.Withproperheattreatment,thesesteelsareusedforsuch
productsasrazorblades,cutlery,andtools.
Significantquantitiesofmanganesehavebeenusedinmany
stainlesssteelcompositions.Manganesepreservesanaustenitic
structureinthesteel,similartonickel,butatalowercost.
Stainlesssteelsarealsoclassifiedbytheircrystallinestructure:

Pipesandfittingsmadeofstainless
steel

Austenitic,or200and300series,stainlesssteelshaveanausteniticcrystallinestructure,whichisa
facecenteredcubiccrystalstructure.Austenitesteelsmakeupover70%oftotalstainlesssteel
production.Theycontainamaximumof0.15%carbon,aminimumof16%chromiumandsufficient
nickeland/ormanganesetoretainanausteniticstructureatalltemperaturesfromthecryogenic
regiontothemeltingpointofthealloy.
200Seriesausteniticchromiumnickelmanganesealloys.Type201ishardenablethrough
coldworkingType202isageneralpurposestainlesssteel.Decreasingnickelcontentand
increasingmanganeseresultsinweakcorrosionresistance.[6]
300SeriesThemostwidelyusedaustenitesteelisthe304,alsoknownas18/8forits
compositionof18%chromiumand8%nickel.[7]304maybereferredtoasA2stainless(notto
beconfusedwithAISIgradeA2airhardeningalloytoolsteelcontainingabout5%
chromium).Thesecondmostcommonaustenitesteelisthe316grade,alsoreferredtoasA4
stainlessandcalledmarinegradestainless,usedprimarilyforitsincreasedresistanceto
corrosion.Atypicalcompositionof18%chromiumand10%nickel,commonlyknownas
18/10stainless,isoftenusedincutleryandhighqualitycookware.18/0isalsoavailable.
Superausteniticstainlesssteels,suchasAlleghenyLudlumalloyAL6XNand254SMO,exhibit
greatresistancetochloridepittingandcrevicecorrosionbecauseofhighmolybdenumcontent(>6%)
andnitrogenadditions,andthehighernickelcontentensuresbetterresistancetostresscorrosion
crackingversusthe300series.Thehigheralloycontentofsuperausteniticsteelsmakesthemmore
expensive.Othersteelscanoffersimilarperformanceatlowercostandarepreferredincertain
applications,forexampleASTMA387isusedinpressurevesselsbutisalowalloycarbonsteelwith
achromiumcontentof0.5%to9%.[8]Lowcarbonversions,forexample316Lor304L,areusedto
avoidcorrosionproblemscausedbywelding.Grade316LVMispreferredwherebiocompatibilityis
required(suchasbodyimplantsandpiercings).[9]The"L"meansthatthecarboncontentofthealloy
isbelow0.03%,whichreducesthesensitizationeffect(precipitationofchromiumcarbidesatgrain
boundaries)causedbythehightemperaturesinvolvedinwelding.
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Ferriticstainlesssteelsgenerallyhavebetterengineeringpropertiesthanausteniticgrades,buthave
reducedcorrosionresistance,becauseofthelowerchromiumandnickelcontent.Theyarealso
usuallylessexpensive.Ferriticstainlesssteelshaveabodycenteredcubicandcontainbetween
10.5%and27%chromiumwithverylittlenickel,ifany,butsometypescancontainlead.Most
compositionsincludemolybdenumsome,aluminiumortitanium.Commonferriticgradesinclude
18Cr2Mo,26Cr1Mo,29Cr4Mo,and29Cr4Mo2Ni.Thesealloyscanbedegradedbythepresence
of chromium,anintermetallicphasewhichcanprecipitateuponwelding.
Martensiticstainlesssteelsarenotascorrosionresistantas
theothertwoclassesbutareextremelystrongandtough,as
wellashighlymachinable,andcanbehardenedbyheat
treatment.Martensiticstainlesssteelcontainschromium(12
14%),molybdenum(0.21%),nickel(lessthan2%),and
carbon(about0.11%)(givingitmorehardnessbutmaking
thematerialabitmorebrittle).Itisquenchedandmagnetic.
Duplexsteelstainlesssteelshaveamixedmicrostructureof
austeniteandferrite,theaimusuallybeingtoproducea50/50
mix,althoughincommercialalloystheratiomaybe40/60.
SwissArmyknivesaremadeof
Duplexstainlesssteelshaveroughlytwicethestrength
martensiticstainlesssteel.
comparedtoausteniticstainlesssteelsandalsoimproved
resistancetolocalizedcorrosion,particularlypitting,crevice
corrosionandstresscorrosioncracking.Theyarecharacterizedbyhighchromium(1932%)and
molybdenum(upto5%)andlowernickelcontentsthanausteniticstainlesssteels.
Thepropertiesofduplexstainlesssteelsareachievedwithanoverallloweralloycontentthansimilar
performingsuperausteniticgrades,makingtheirusecosteffectiveformanyapplications.Duplex
gradesarecharacterizedintogroupsbasedontheiralloycontentandcorrosionresistance.
LeanduplexreferstogradessuchasUNSS32101(LDX2101),S32202(UR2202),S32304,
andS32003.
Standardduplexis22%chromiumwithUNSS31803/S32205knownas2205beingthemost
widelyused.
SuperduplexisbydefinitionaduplexstainlesssteelwithaPittingResistanceEquivalent
Number(PREN)>40,wherePREN=%Cr+3.3x(%Mo+0.5x%W)+16x%N.Usuallysuper
duplexgradeshave25%chromiumormoreandsomecommonexamplesareS32760(Zeron
100viaRolledAlloys),S32750(2507)andS32550(Ferralium),.
HyperduplexreferstoduplexgradeswithaPRE>48andatthemomentonlyUNSS32707
andS33207areavailableonthemarket.
Precipitationhardeningmartensiticstainlesssteelshavecorrosionresistancecomparableto
austeniticvarieties,butcanbeprecipitationhardenedtoevenhigherstrengthsthantheother
martensiticgrades.Themostcommon,174PH,usesabout17%chromiumand4%nickel.

Grades
Thereareover150gradesofstainlesssteel,ofwhich15aremostcommonlyused.Thereareanumberof
systemsforgradingstainlessandothersteels,includingUSSAEsteelgrades.

Comparisonofstandardizedsteels
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ENstandard

ENstandard

Steelno.k.h.sDIN

Steelname

SAEgrade

UNS

1.4109

X65CrMo14

440A

S44002

1.4112

X90CrMoV18

440B

S44003

1.4125

X105CrMo17

440C

S44004

440F

S44020

1.4016

X6Cr17

430

S43000

1.4408

GX6CrNiMo1810

316

S31600

1.4512

X6CrTi12

409

S40900

410

S41000
S30100

1.4310

X10CrNi188

301

1.4318

X2CrNiN187

301LN

1.4307

X2CrNi189

304L

S3043

1.4306

X2CrNi1911

304L

S30403

1.4311

X2CrNiN1810

304LN

S30453

1.4301

X5CrNi1810

304

S30400

1.4948

X6CrNi1811

304H

S30409

1.4303

X5CrNi1812

305

S30500

X5CrNi309

312

1.4841

X22CrNi2520

310

S31000

1.4845

X5CrNi2520

310S

S31008[10]

1.4541

X6CrNiTi1810

321

S32100

1.4878

X12CrNiTi189

321H

S32109

1.4404

X2CrNiMo17122

316L

S31603

1.4401

X5CrNiMo17122

316

S31600

1.4406

X2CrNiMoN17122

316LN

S31653

1.4432

X2CrNiMo17123

316L

S31603

1.4435

X2CrNiMo18143

316L

S31603

1.4436

X3CrNiMo17133

316

S31600

1.4571

X6CrNiMoTi17122

316Ti

S31635

1.4429

X2CrNiMoN17133

316LN

S31653

1.4438

X2CrNiMo18154

317L

S31703

1.4362

X2CrNi234

2304

S32304

1.4462

X2CrNiMoN2253

2205

S31803/S32205

1.4501

X2CrNiMoCuWN2574 J405

S32760

1.4539

X1NiCrMoCu25205

N08904

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#References

904L

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1.4539

X1NiCrMoCu25205

904L

N08904

1.4529

X1NiCrMoCuN25207

N08926

1.4547

X1CrNiMoCuN20187 254SMO

S31254

Standardfinishes
Standardmillfinishescanbeappliedtoflatrolledstainlesssteeldirectlyby
therollersandbymechanicalabrasives.Steelisfirstrolledtosizeand
thicknessandthenannealedtochangethepropertiesofthefinalmaterial.
Anyoxidationthatformsonthesurface(millscale)isremovedbypickling,
andapassivationlayeriscreatedonthesurface.Afinalfinishcanthenbe
appliedtoachievethedesiredaestheticappearance.
No.0:Hotrolled,annealed,thickerplates
No.1:Hotrolled,annealedandpassivated
No.2D:Coldrolled,annealed,pickledandpassivated
No.2B:Sameasabovewithadditionalpassthroughhighlypolished
rollers
No.2BA:Brightannealed(BAor2R)sameasabovethenbright
annealedunderoxygenfreeatmosphericcondition
316Lstainlesssteel,withan
No.3:Coarseabrasivefinishappliedmechanically
unpolished,millfinish
No.4:Brushedfinish
No.5:Satinfinish
No.6:Mattefinish(brushedbutsmootherthan#4)
No.7:Reflectivefinish
No.8:Mirrorfinish
No.9:Beadblastfinish
No.10:Heatcoloredfinishwiderangeofelectropolishedandheatcoloredsurfaces

Applications
Stainlesssteelsresistancetocorrosionandstaining,lowmaintenanceandfamiliarlustremakeitanideal
materialformanyapplications.Thealloyismilledintocoils,sheets,plates,bars,wire,andtubingtobe
usedincookware,cutlery,householdhardware,surgicalinstruments,majorappliances,industrial
equipment(forexample,insugarrefineries)andasanautomotiveandaerospacestructuralalloyand
constructionmaterialinlargebuildings.Storagetanksandtankersusedtotransportorangejuiceandother
foodareoftenmadeofstainlesssteel,becauseofitscorrosionresistance.Thisalsoinfluencesitsusein
commercialkitchensandfoodprocessingplants,asitcanbesteamcleanedandsterilizedanddoesnotneed
paintorothersurfacefinishes.
Stainlesssteelisusedforjewelryandwatcheswith316Lbeingthetypecommonlyusedforsuch
applications.Itcanberefinishedbyanyjewelerandwillnotoxidizeorturnblack.
Somefirearmsincorporatestainlesssteelcomponentsasanalternativetobluedorparkerizedsteel.Some
handgunmodels,suchastheSmith&WessonModel60andtheColtM1911pistol,canbemadeentirely
fromstainlesssteel.Thisgivesahighlusterfinishsimilarinappearancetonickelplating.Unlikeplating,
thefinishisnotsubjecttoflaking,peeling,wearofffromrubbing(aswhenrepeatedlyremovedfroma
holster),orrustwhenscratched.
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Someautomotivemanufacturersusestainlesssteelasdecorativehighlights
intheirvehicles.

Architecture
Stainlesssteelisusedforbuildingsforbothpracticalandaestheticreasons.
Stainlesssteelwasinvogueduringtheartdecoperiod.Themostfamous
exampleofthisistheupperportionoftheChryslerBuilding(pictured).
Somedinersandfastfoodrestaurantsuselargeornamentalpanelsand
stainlessfixturesandfurniture.Becauseofthedurabilityofthematerial,
manyofthesebuildingsretaintheiroriginalappearance.Stainlesssteelis
usedtodayinbuildingsbecauseofthisdurabilityandthefactitisa
weldablebuildingmetalthatcanbemadeintoaestheticallypleasingshapes.
AnexampleofabuildinginwhichthesepropertiesareexploitedistheArt
GalleryofAlbertainEdmonton,whichiswrappedinstainlesssteel.
Type316stainlessisusedontheexteriorofboththePetronasTwinTowers
andtheJinMaoBuilding,twooftheworld'stallestskyscrapers.[12]

The630foothigh(190m),
stainlessclad(type304)
GatewayArchdefinesSt.
Louis'sskyline

TheParliamentHouseofAustraliainCanberrahasastainlesssteelflagpole
weighingover220tonnes(240shorttons).
TheaerationbuildingintheEdmontonCompostingFacility,thesizeof14
hockeyrinks,isthelargeststainlesssteelbuildinginNorthAmerica.

Bridges
TheHelixBridgeisapedestrianbridgelinkingMarinaCentrewith
MarinaSouthintheMarinaBayareainSingapore.
CalaGaldanaBridgeinMinorca(Spain)wasthefirststainlesssteel
roadbridge.
SantFruitosPedestrianBridge(Catalonia,Spain),archpedestrian
bridge.
PadreArrupeBridge(Bilbao,Spain)linkstheGuggenheimmuseum
totheUniversityofDeusto.[13]

Monumentsandsculptures

ThepinnacleofNewYork's
ChryslerBuildingisclad
withNirostastainlesssteel,a
formofType302[11][12]

Unisphere,constructedasthethemesymbolofthe1964NewYorkWorld'sFair,isconstructedof
Type304Lstainlesssteelasasphericalframeworkwithadiameterof120feet(37m)(NewYork
City)
GatewayArch(pictured)iscladentirelyinstainlesssteel:886tons(804metrictonnes)of0.25in
(6.4mm)plate,#3finish,type304stainlesssteel.[14](St.Louis,Missouri)
UnitedStatesAirForceMemorialhasanausteniticstainlesssteelstructuralskin(Arlington,Virginia)
Atomiumwasrenovatedwithstainlesssteelcladdinginarenovationcompletedin2006previously
thespheresandtubesofthestructurewerecladinaluminium(Brussels,Belgium)
CloudGatesculpturebyAnishKapoor(Chicago,Illinois)
SibeliusMonumentismadeentirelyofstainlesssteeltubes(Helsinki,Finland)
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TheKelpies(Falkirk,Scotland)
ManofSteel(sculpture)underconstruction(Rotherham,England)
JurajJnokmonument(Terchova,Slovakia)

Other
Automotivebodies
TheAlleghenyLudlumCorporationworkedwithFordonvariousconcept
carswithstainlesssteelbodiesfromthe1930sthroughthe1970s,as
demonstrationsofthematerial'spotential.The1957and1958Cadillac
EldoradoBroughamhadastainlesssteelroof.In1981and1982,the
DeLoreanDMC12productionautomobileusedstainlesssteelbodypanels
overaglassreinforcedplasticmonocoque.IntercitybusesmadebyMotor
CoachIndustriesarepartiallymadeofstainlesssteel.Theaftbodypanelof
thePorscheCaymanmodel(2doorcoupehatchback)ismadeofstainless
steel.Itwasdiscoveredduringearlybodyprototypingthatconventional
steelcouldnotbeformedwithoutcracking(duetothemanycurves
andanglesinthatautomobile).Thus,Porschewasforcedtouse
stainlesssteelontheCayman.

Anartdecosculptureonthe
NiagaraMohawkPower
buildinginSyracuse,New
York

Passengerrailcars
Railcarshavecommonlybeenmanufacturedusingcorrugated
stainlesssteelpanels(foradditionalstructuralstrength).Thiswas
particularlypopularduringthe1960sand1970s,buthassince
declined.OnenotableexamplewastheearlyPioneerZephyr.
Notableformermanufacturersofstainlesssteelrollingstock
includedtheBuddCompany(USA),whichhasbeenlicensedto
Japan'sTokyuCarCorporation,andthePortuguesecompany
Sorefame.ManyrailcarsintheUnitedStatesarestillmanufactured
withstainlesssteel,unlikeothercountrieswhohaveshiftedaway.

Surgicaltools,suchasthese
hemostats,arecommonlymadeof
stainlesssteel

Aircraft
Buddalsobuiltanairplane,theBuddBB1Pioneer,ofstainless
steeltubeandsheet,whichisondisplayattheFranklinInstitute.
TheAmericanFleetwingsSeaBirdamphibiousaircraftof1936was
alsobuiltusingaspotweldedstainlesssteelhull.
TheBristolAeroplaneCompanybuilttheallstainlesssteelBristol
188highspeedresearchaircraft,whichfirstflewin1963.

Stainlesssteelisoftenusedfor
everydaykitchensinks,appliances,
andcookware

Theuseofstainlesssteelinmainstreamaircraftishinderedbyits
excessiveweightcomparedtoothermaterials,suchasaluminum.
Airports

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Stainlesssteelisamoderntrendforroofingmaterialforairportsdue
toitslowglarereflectancetokeeppilotsfrombeingblinded,also
foritspropertiesthatallowthermalreflectanceinordertokeepthe
surfaceoftheroofclosetoambienttemperature.TheHamad
InternationalAirportinQatarwasbuiltwithallstainlesssteel
roofingforthesereasons,aswellastheSacramentoInternational
AirportinCalifornia.
Jewelry

Stainlesssteelisoftenusedfor
cookware

Valadium,astainlesssteeland12%nickelalloyisusedtomake
classandmilitaryrings.Valadiumisusuallysilvertoned,butcanbe
electroplatedtogiveitagoldtone.Thegoldtonevarietyisknown
asSunliteValadium.[15]Other"Valadium"typesofalloyaretrade
nameddifferently,withsuchnamesas"Siladium"and"White
Lazon".
Surgeryanddentistry
Surgicaltoolsandmedicalequipmentareusuallymadeofstainless
steel,becauseofitsdurabilityandabilitytobesterilizedinan
autoclave.Inaddition,surgicalimplantssuchasbone
reinforcementsandreplacements(e.g.hipsocketsandcranial
plates)aremadewithspecialalloysformulatedtoresistcorrosion,
mechanicalwear,andbiologicalreactionsinvivo.

Stainlesssteelisusedforindustrial
equipmentwhendurabilityand
cleanabilityareimportant

Stainlesssteelisusedinavarietyofapplicationsindentistry.Itis
commontousestainlesssteelinmanyofthesterilizedinstruments
suchasneedles,[16]endodonticfilesinrootcanaltherapy,metalpostsinrootcanaltreatedteeth,temporary
crownsandcrownsfordeciduousteeth,andarchwiresandbracketsinorthodontics.[17]Thesurgical
stainlesssteelalloys(e.g.,316lowcarbonsteel)havealsobeenusedinsomeoftheearlydental
implants.[18]
Kitchens
Stainlesssteelisoftenpreferredforkitchensinksbecauseofitsruggedness,durability,heatresistance,and
easeofcleaning.Inbettermodels,acousticnoiseiscontrolledbyapplyingresilientundercoatingtodampen
vibrations.Thematerialisalsousedforcladdingofsurfacessuchasappliancesandbacksplashes.
Cookwareandbakewaremaybecladinstainlesssteels,toenhancetheircleanabilityanddurability.
Becausestainlesssteelisapoorconductorofheat,itisoftenusedasathinsurfacecladdingoveracoreof
copperoraluminum,whichconductheatmorereadily.

Maintenance
Iftreatedorstoredincorrectly,anygradeofstainlesssteelmaydiscolororstain.Tomaintainoptimum
appearance,thesurfaceshouldbecaredforregularly.
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Duringinstallation
Thequalityofinstallationaffectsthedurabilityandlifespanofstainlesssteel.[19]Therefore,itisimportant
tomakesurestainlesssteelisingoodconditionbeforeinstallation.Normally,givingitaquickcleanis
enoughpriortoinstallation.However,ifsurfacecontaminationispresent,moreattentionisrequired.In
fieldssuchasaerospace,pharmaceuticalsandfoodhandling,anextremelyhighstandardofcleanlinessmay
berequiredsoextracareshouldbetaken.

Routinemaintenance
Maintenanceisrequiredtomaintainthequalityandappearanceofsteel.Dependingontheenvironment,it
iscarriedoutbetweenoneandtentimesperyear.Apropermaintenanceroutinesignificantlyprolongsthe
lifeofstainlesssteel.[20]

Maintenancetools
Softclothandwater:suitableforcosmeticissuesandgeneralcleaning
Milddetergent:neededifstainscannotbeeasilyliftedwithwater
Glasscleaner:usefulforremovingfingerprintsandsimilarstains

Recyclingandreuse
Stainlesssteelis100%recyclable.Anaveragestainlesssteelobjectiscomposedofabout60%recycled
materialofwhichapproximately40%originatesfromendoflifeproductsandabout60%comesfrom
manufacturingprocesses.[21]AccordingtotheInternationalResourcePanel'sMetalStocksinSociety
report,thepercapitastockofstainlesssteelinuseinsocietyis80180kginmoredevelopedcountriesand
15kginlessdevelopedcountries.
Thereisasecondarymarketthatrecyclesusablescrapformanystainlesssteelmarkets.Theproductis
mostlycoil,sheetandblanks.Thismaterialispurchasedatalessthanprimepriceandsoldtocommercial
qualitystampersandsheetmetalhouses.Thematerialmayhavescratches,pitsanddentsbutismadetothe
currentspecifications.

Healtheffects
Stainlesssteelisgenerallyconsideredtobebiologicallyinert,butsomesensitiveindividualsdevelopaskin
irritationduetoanickelallergycausedbycertainalloys.

History
Thecorrosionresistanceofironchromiumalloyswasfirstrecognizedin1821byFrenchmetallurgistPierre
Berthier,whonotedtheirresistanceagainstattackbysomeacidsandsuggestedtheiruseincutlery.
Metallurgistsofthe19thcenturywereunabletoproducethecombinationoflowcarbonandhighchromium
foundinmostmodernstainlesssteels,andthehighchromiumalloystheycouldproduceweretoobrittleto
bepractical.
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In1872,theEnglishmenClarkandWoodspatentedanalloythat
wouldtodaybeconsideredastainlesssteel.[23]
Inthelate1890sHansGoldschmidtofGermanydevelopedan
aluminothermic(thermite)processforproducingcarbonfree
chromium.Between1904and1911severalresearchers,particularly
LeonGuilletofFrance,preparedalloysthatwouldtodaybe
consideredstainlesssteel.[24]
FriedrichKruppGermaniawerftbuiltthe366tonsailingyacht
GermaniafeaturingachromenickelsteelhullinGermanyin
1908.[25]In1911,PhilipMonnartzreportedontherelationship
betweenchromiumcontentandcorrosionresistance.On17October
1912,KruppengineersBennoStraussandEduardMaurerpatented
austeniticstainlesssteelasNirosta.[26][27][28]
Similardevelopmentsweretakingplacecontemporaneouslyinthe
UnitedStates,whereChristianDantsizenandFrederickBecketwere
industrializingferriticstainlesssteel.In1912,ElwoodHaynes
appliedforaUSpatentonamartensiticstainlesssteelalloy,which
wasnotgranteduntil1919.[29]

Anannouncement,asitappearedin
the1915NewYorkTimes,ofthe
[22]

developmentofstainlesssteel
Alsoin1912,HarryBrearleyoftheBrownFirthresearchlaboratory
inSheffield,England,whileseekingacorrosionresistantalloyfor
gunbarrels,discoveredandsubsequentlyindustrializedamartensiticstainlesssteelalloy.Thediscovery
wasannouncedtwoyearslaterinaJanuary1915newspaperarticleinTheNewYorkTimes.[22]Themetal
waslatermarketedunderthe"Staybrite"brandbyFirthVickersinEnglandandwasusedforthenew
entrancecanopyfortheSavoyHotelinLondonin1929.[30]BrearleyappliedforaUSpatentduring1915
onlytofindthatHayneshadalreadyregisteredapatent.BrearleyandHaynespooledtheirfundingandwith
agroupofinvestorsformedtheAmericanStainlessSteelCorporation,withheadquartersinPittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.[31]

InthebeginningstainlesssteelwassoldintheUSunderdifferentbrandnameslike"Alleghenymetal"and
"Nirostasteel".Evenwithinthemetallurgyindustrytheeventualnameremainedunsettledin1921one
tradejournalwascallingit"unstainablesteel".[32]In1929,beforetheGreatDepressionhit,over25,000
tonsofstainlesssteelweremanufacturedandsoldintheUS.[33]

Seealso
Argonoxygendecarburization
CrucibleIndustries
Listofbladematerials
Listofsteelproducers
Paneledgestaining
PittingResistanceEquivalentNumber
Marinegradestainless
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#References

Marinegradestainless
Rouging
Stainlesssteelfiber
Stainlesssteelsoap

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References
1."TheStainlessSteelFamily"(PDF).Retrieved8December2012.
2."WhyisStainlessSteelStainless?".Retrieved6September2013.
3.JianhaiQiu."StainlessSteelsandAlloys:WhyTheyResistCorrosionandHowTheyFail"
(http://www.corrosionclinic.com/corrosion_resources/stainless_steels_why_how_p1.htm).Corrosionclinic.com.
Retrievedon29June2012.
4.Ashby,MichaelF.DavidR.H.Jones(1992)[1986]."Chapter12".EngineeringMaterials2(withcorrections
ed.).Oxford:PergamonPress.p.119.ISBN0080325327.
5.Davis(1994),StainlessSteels,JosephR.,ASMInternational,p.118,ISBN9780871705037
6.Habara,Yasuhiro.StainlessSteel200Series:AnOpportunityforMn
(http://www.manganese.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/81061/07
_Stainless_Steel_200_Series_An_Opportunity_for_Mn__Y_Habara_Nippon_Metal_Industry_Co.pdf).Technical
DevelopmentDept.,NipponMetalIndustry,Co.,Ltd.
7.StainlessSteelGrade304(UNSS30400)(http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=965).azom.com
8.ASTMA387/A387M06aStandardSpecificationforPressureVesselPlates,AlloySteel,Chromium
Molybdenum
9.MaterialPropertiesData:MarineGradeStainlessSteel(http://www.makeitfrom.com/data/?
material=316_Stainless_Steel).Makeitfrom.com.Retrievedon29June2012.
10."310310SStainlessSteel".TubingChina.comStainlessSteelDirectory.
11.Startofproduction:Firstcoilonnewmill
(https://web.archive.org/web/20130530232431/http://www.thyssenkruppnirosta.de/index.php?id=576)atthe
WaybackMachine(archived30May2013).thyssenkruppnirosta.de
12.WhatisStainlessSteel?
(https://web.archive.org/web/20060924043735/http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm/ci_id/11021.htm)atthe
WaybackMachine(archived24September2006)nickelinstitute.org
13."Stainlesssteelbridge""StainlessSteelBridgeinBilbao"Check|url=value(help).Outokumpu.
14.GatewayArchFactSheet(http://www.nps.gov/jeff/planyourvisit/gatewayarchfactsheet.htm).Nps.gov.
Retrievedon29June2012.
15."WhatisValadium?".
16.Malamed,Stanley(2004).HandbookofLocalAnesthesia,5thEdition.Mosby.ISBN0323024491.p.99
17.Anusavice,KennethJ.(2003)Phillips'ScienceofDentalMaterials,11thEdition.W.B.SaundersCompany.
ISBN0721693873.p.639
18.Misch,CarlE.(2008)ContemporaryImplantDentistry.Mosby.ISBN0323043739.pp.277278
19."MaintenanceofStainlessSteelProducts".2013.Retrieved11October2013.
20.Kopecki,E.(1937).CleaningStainlessSteel.ASTMInternational.
21."TheRecyclingofStainlessSteel("RecycledContent"and"InputComposition"slides)"(Flash).International
StainlessSteelForum.2006.Retrieved19November2006.
22."Anonrustingsteel".NewYorkTimes.31January1915.
23.http://www.airedalesprings.co.uk/itscomplicatedthediscoveryofstainlesssteel/
24.http://www.bssa.org.uk/about_stainless_steel.php?id=31
25."AProposaltoEstablishtheShipwreckHalfMoonasaStateUnderwaterArchaeologicalPreserve"(PDF).
BureauofArchaeologicalResearch,DivisionofHistoricalResources,FloridaDepartmentofState.May2000.
26."ThyssenKruppNirosta:History".Retrieved13August2007.
27.GermanPatentOffice:DeutschesReichspatentNr.304126,erteiltam18.Oktober1912
(https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=DE000000304126A)
28.GermanPatentOffice:DeutschesReichspatentNr.304159,erteiltam21.Dezember1912
(https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=DE000000304159A)
29.Carlisle,RodneyP.(2004)ScientificAmericanInventionsandDiscoveries(https://books.google.com/books?
id=pDbQVE3IdTcC&pg=PA380),p.380,JohnWileyandSons,ISBN0471244104
30.Howse,Geoffrey(2011)APhotographicHistoryofSheffieldSteel,HistoryPress,ISBN0752459856
31.Cobb,HaroldM.(2010).TheHistoryofStainlessSteel.ASMInternational.p.360.ISBN1615030107.
32.Moneypenny,J.H.G.(1921)."UnstainableSteel".MiningandScientificPress.Retrieved17February2013.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#References

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33.BonnierCorporation(1930).PopularScience.BonnierCorporation.pp.31.ISSN01617370.

Externallinks
ComprehensiveInformationAboutStainlessSteel
(http://www.ssina.com/overview/history.html)byThe
StainlessSteelInformationCenter

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title=Stainless_steel&oldid=714230794"

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