Sugar industry is one of the most important agro-based industries in India and is
highly responsible for creating significant impact on rural economy in particular and
countrys economy in general. Sugar industry ranks second amongst major agro-based
industries in India. As per the Government of Indias recent liberalised policy announced
on 12th December, 1986 for licensing of additional capacity for sugar industries during 7th
five-year plan, there will be only one sugar mill in a circular area of 40 sq km. Also the
new sugar mill is allowed with an installation capacity of 2500 TCD (Tonne Sugar Cane
crushed per day) as against the earlier capacity norms of 1250 TCD. Similarly, the
existing sugar mills with sugar cane capacity of about 3500 TCD can crush sugar cane to
the tune of 5000 TCD with a condition imposed that additional requirement of sugar cane
be acquired through increased productivity and not by expansion of area for growing
sugar cane.
Cane sugar is the name given to sucrose, a disaccharide produced from the
sugarcane plant and from the sugar beet. The refined sugars from the two sources are
practically indistinguishable and command the same price in competitive markets.
However, since they come from different plants, the trace constituents are different and
can be used to distinguish the two sugars. One effect of the difference is the odor in the
package head space, from which experienced sugar workers can identify the source.
In the production scheme for cane sugar, the cane cannot be stored for more than
a few hours after it is cut because microbiological action immediately begins to degrade
the sucrose. This means that the sugar mills must be located in the cane fields. The raw
sugar produced in the mills is item of international commerce. Able to be stored for
years, it is handled as raw material shipped at the lowest rates directly in the holds of
ships or in dump trucks or railroad cars and pushed around by bulldozers. Because it is
not intended to be eaten directly, it is not handled as food. The raw sugar is shipped to the
sugar refineries, which are located in population centers. There it is refined to a food
product, packaged, and shipped a short distance to the market. In a few places, there is a
refinery near or even within a raw-sugar mill. However, the sugar still goes through raw
stage.
The principle by-product of cane sugar production is molasses. About 10 15%
of the sugar in the cane ends up in molasses. Molasses is produced both in the raw-sugar
manufacture and also in refining. The blackstrap or final molasses is about 35 40%
sucrose and slightly more than 50% total sugars. In the United States, blackstrap is used
almost entirely for cattle feed. In some areas, it is fermented and distilled to rum or
industrial alcohol. The molasses used for human consumption is of a much higher grade,
and contains much more sucrose.
Sugarcane characteristics:
Sugarcane contains not only sucrose but also numerous other dissolved
substances, as well as cellulose or woody fibre. The percentage of sugar in the cane
varies from 8 to 16% and depends to a great extent on the variety of the cane, its
maturity, condition of the soil, climate and agricultural practices followed.
The constituents of ripe cane vary widely in different countries and regions but fall
generally within the following limits:
Constituent
Water
Sucrose
Reducing sugars
Organic matter other than sugar
Inorganic compounds
Nitrogenous bodies
Ash
Fibre
Percentage range
69.0 75.0
8.0 16.0
0.5 2.0
0.5 1.0
0.2 0.6
0.5 1.0
0.3 0.8
10.0 16.0
Organic matters other than sugar include proteins, organic acids, pentosan,
colouring matter and wax. Organic acids present in cane are glycolic acid, malic acid,
succinic acid and small quantity of tannic acid, butyric acid and aconitic acid. These vary
from 0.5 to 1.0% of the cane by weight. The organic compounds are made up of
phosphates, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates and silicates of sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium and iron chiefly. These are present from 0.2 to 0.6%.
The nitrogenous bodies are albuminoid, amides, amino acids, ammonia, xanthine
bases, etc. These are present to the extent of 0.5 to 1.0%.
Fibre is the insoluble substance in the cane. Dry fibre contains about 18.0%
lignin, 15% water-soluble substances, 45% cellulose and the rest hemicellulose.
The juice expressed from the cane is an opaque liquid covered with froth due to
air bubbles entangled in it. The colour of the juice varies from light grey to dark green.
Colouring matter is so complex that very little is known about them and there is a
great need for research in this direction. Colouring matters consist of chlorophyll,
anthocyanin, saccharatin and tannins.
Canes which have been injured or which are over-ripe contain ordinarily invert
sugar as well. When severe frost damages sugarcane, all buds are killed and the stalk
split. Then the juice produced has low purity, less sucrose, high titrable acidity, and
abnormal amounts of gum, which make processing difficult and at times impossible.
Frost is generally not a very common phenomenon in Indian crops. Insects and pests
cause a greater damage.
Cane juice has an acidic reaction. It has a pH of about 5.0. The cane juice is
viscous owing to the presence of colloids. The colloids are particles existing in a
permanent state of fine dispersion and they impart turbidity to the juice. These colloids
do not settle ordinarily unless conditions are altered. The application of heat or addition
of chemicals brings about flocculation or coagulation. They may be coagulated by the
action of electric current and adsorption by sucrose attractions using porous or flocculent
material. Some colloids are flocculated easily while others do so with great difficulty.
Each colloid has a characteristic pH at which flocculation occurs most easily. It is
known as the isoelectric point of the colloid.
The cane juice is turbid owing to the presence of such colloidal substances as
waxes, proteins, pentosans, gums, starch and silica.
Sweet
Mono-clinic
Very soluble in cold water and dilute
alcohol. Solubility increases with increase
in temperature. It is insoluble in
chloroform, ether and glycerine.
1.05917
Dextro-rotatory
Uses:
All sugars from whatever source are used almost entirely for food. In the United
States, only 1% of sugar consumed is used for nonfood purposes. Technology exists to
convert sucrose into many other substances by fermentation, esterification,
hydrogenation, alkaline degradation, and many others, but the price is prohibitive. In
1981, the value of sugar as a food was 2-4 times its value as a chemical feedstock. As a
food, sugar is all energy, and even brown and raw sugar contains virtually no protein,
minerals or vitamins.
The per capita consumption of sugar is an indicator of degree of economic
advancement of a country. Apparently, human nature is such that one of the first uses of
income above the subsistence level is to satisfy the sweet tooth. The consumption of
sugar in all forms, beet, cane, and corn, in Western Europe and North America is
approximately the same, 60 kg per person each year, and holding steady. However,
eastern countries consume much less sugar, and the poorer third-world countries, much
less. In some isolated and remote areas, the figure is less than one kg per person-year.
The world average is about 20 kg per person each year and increasing. In the United
States, there is a shift toward more use of corn sugar and less of cane and beet sugar
because of price, but this applies only in areas where starch is in great surplus.
The Importance of Sugar in the Diet of Man:
As everybody should know, man cannot live without a certain minimum level of
sugar in his blood, the diabetic providing a good example of what happens when the
blood sugar is not converted into energy, as should be the case in a healthy body. Before
the discovery that insulin is essential for normal body function, a person with a defective
pancreas (where the hormone, insulin, is formed) would have a short, or very short, life
span, depending on the severity of his condition. Such a person was diabetic; his blood
sugar was constantly very high, because only a small proportion of it was converted into
energy, and his body reaction was therefore the same as that of a healthy person with a
low level of blood sugar. He was always hungry, and also thirsty because of the high
osmotic pressure in the blood stream, and since the sugar did not burn as it normally
does, it was treated by the body as foreign matter and was expelled by the kidneys. As the
malfunction became worse, he would slowly starve to death, commonly at a young age.
Let it be remembered, therefore, that sugar is absolutely necessary, and if not
eaten as such, it must be made from other carbohydrates which exists in food; but since
sugar is the lowest in calorific value of all carbohydrates in an ordinary diet, as well as
the cheapest, it should be used liberally, but wisely.
milling, the cane then goes to the crusher rolls, which are similar to the mills, but have
only two rolls, which have large teeth and are widely spaced. These complete the
breaking up of the cane to pieces of the order of 1 3 cm. The large amount of juice is
removed here.
Milling:
The prepared cane passes through a series of mills called a tandem or milling
train. These mills are composed of massive horizontal cylinders or rolls in groups of
three, one on the top and two on the bottom in the triangle formation. The rolls are 50
100 cm diameter and 1 3 m long and have grooves that are 2 5 cm wide and deep
around them. There may be anywhere from 3 7 of these 3 roll mills in tandem, hence
the name. These mills, together with their associated drive and gearing, are among the
most massive machinery used by industry. The bottom two rolls are fixed, and the top is
free to move up and down. The top roll is hydraulically loaded with a force equivalent
about 500 t. The rolls turn at 2 5 rpm, and the velocity of the cane through them is 1025cm/s. After passing through the mill, the fibrous residue, from the cane, called
bagassae, is carried to the next mill by bagassae carriers and is directed from the first
squeeze in a mill to the second by turn plate. In order to, achieve a good extraction, a
system of imbibition is used, bagassae going to the final mill is sprayed with water to
extract whatever sucrose remains; the resultant juice from the last mill is then sprayed on
the bagasse mat going to the next to last mill, and so on. The combination of all these
juices is collected from the first mill and is mixed with the juice from the crusher. The
result is called the mixed juice and is the material that goes forward to make the sugar.
The mills are powered with individual steam turbines. The exhaust steam from the
turbines is used to evaporate water from the cane juice. The capacity of the sugarcane
mills is 30 300 t of cane per hour.
Diffusion:
Diffusion is used universally with sugar beets but is little used with sugarcane.
The process in cane is mostly lixiviation (washing) with only a little true diffusion from
unbroken plant cells. Since the lixiviation is much faster, great effort is expanded in
preparing the cane by breaking it so thoroughly that nearly all of the plant cells are
ruptured. In many instances, diffusers were added to an already existing mill, and,
therefore, the diffuser unit was placed after the crusher rolls. In the diffusers, the
shredded cane travels countercurrent to hot (75oC) water. In the ring diffuser, the cane
moves around in an annular ring. In tower diffusers, the cane moves vertically, and in
rotating drum diffusers, it travels in a spiral. Whatever the apparatus, the juice obtained is
much like juice from mills.
Milling achieves 95% extraction of the sucrose in the cane, diffusion 97%
extraction. Diffusion juice contains somewhat less suspended solids (dirt and fibre), and
is of higher purity (sucrose as percent of solids). The diffusion plant costs much less and
takes much less energy to run. The bagasse from diffusion contains much more water.
Bagasse:
The bagasse from the last mill is about 50-wt% water and will burn directly.
Diffusion bagasse is dripping wet and must be dried in a mill or some sort of bagasse
press. Most bagasse is burned in the boilers that run the factories.
Clarification:
The juice from either milling or diffusion is about 12 18% solids, 10 15 pol
(polarization) (percent sucrose), and 70 85% purity. These figures depend upon
geographical location, age of cane, variety, climate, cultivation, condition of juice
extraction system, and other factors. As dissolved material, it contains in addition to
sucrose some invert sugar, salts, silicates, amino acids, proteins, enzymes, and organic
acids; the pH is 5.5 6.5. It carries suspension cane fibre, field soil, silica, bacteria,
yeasts, molds, spores, insect parts, chlorophyll, starch, gums, waxes, and fats. It looks
brown and muddy with a trace of green from the chlorophyll.
In the juice from the mill, the sucrose is inverting (hydrolyzing to glucose and
fructose) under the influence of native invertase enzyme or an acid pH. The first step of
processing is to stop the inversion by raising the pH to 7.5 and heating to nearly 100oC to
inactivate the enzyme and stop microbiological action. At the same time, a large fraction
of the suspended material is removed by settling. The cheapest source of hydroxide is
lime, and this has the added advantage that calcium makes many insoluble salts.
Clarification by heat and lime, a process called defecation, was practiced in Egypt many
centuries ago and remains in many ways the most effective means of purifying the juice.
Phosphate is added to juices deficient in phosphate to increase the amount of calcium
phosphate precipitate, which makes a floc that helps clarification. When the mud settles
poorly, polyelectrolyte flocculants such as polyacrylamides are sometimes used. The heat
and high Ph serve to coagulate proteins, which are largely removed in clarification.
The equipment used for clarification is of the Dorr clarifier type. It consists of a
vertical cylindrical vessel composed of a number of trays with conical bottoms stacked
one over the other. The limed raw juice enters the center of each tray and flows toward
the circumference. A sweep arm in each tray turns quite slowly and sweeps the settled
mud toward a central mud outlet. The clear juice from the top circumference overflows
into a header.
Diffusion juice contains less suspended solids than mill juice. In many diffusion
operations, some or all of the clarification is carried out in the diffuser by adding lime.
The mud from clarification is filtered on Oliver rotary vacuum filters to recovery
the juice. The mud mostly consists of field soil and very fined divided fibre. It also
contains nearly all the protein (0.5 wt% of the juice solids) and cane wax. The mud is
returned to the fields.
Although the clarification removes most of the mud, the resulting juice is not
necessarily clear. The equipment is often run at beyond its capacity and control slips a
little so that the clarity of the clarified juice is not optimum. Suspended solids that slip
past the clarifiers will be in the sugar. Clarified juice is dark brown. The colour is darker
than raw juice because the initial heating causes significant darkening.
Evaporation:
Cane juice has sucrose concentration of normally 15%. The solubility of sucrose
in water is about 72%. The concentration of sucrose must reach the solubility point
before crystals can start growing. This involves the removal by evaporation of 93% of the
water in the cane juice. Since water has the largest of all latent heats of vapourization,
this involves a very large amount of energy. In the energy crunch of the late 1970s, the
DOE found that the sugar industry was one of the largest users of energy. The sugar
industry already knew this very well and had been using multiple-effect evaporators for
saving energy for more than a century.
The working of multiple-effect evaporator can be seen in fig. In each succeeding
effect, the vapours from the previous effect are condensed to supply heat. This works
only because each succeeding effect is operating at a lower pressure and hence boils at
lower temperature. The result is that 1 kg of steam is used to evaporate 4 kg of water. The
steam used is exhaust steam from the turbines in the mill or turbines driving electrical
generators. The steam has therefore already been used once and here in the second use it
is made to give fourfold duty.
The usual evaporator equipment is a vertical body juice-in-tube unit. Several
variations are in use, but the result is the same. The only auxiliary equipment is the
vacuum pump. Today, steam-jet-ejectors are general, although mechanical pumps were
formerly used.
Since the cane juice contains significant amounts of inorganic ions, including
calcium and sulfate, the heating surfaces are quick to scale and require frequent cleaning.
In difficult cases, the heating surfaces must be cleaned every few days. This requires
shutting down the whole mill or at least one heat-exchanger unit while the cleaning is
done. Inhibited hydrochloric acid or mechanical cleaners are usually employed.
Magnesium oxide is sometimes used instead of lime as a source of hydroxide.
Magnesium costs more, but it makes less boiler scale on the heaters. It is also easier to
remove because it is more soluble; however, for the same reason, more gets into the
sugar. Whether it is used or not depends upon the influence, standing, and persuasiveness
of the chief engineer who must keep the plant running and the chief chemist who must
make good sugar.
The evaporation is carried on to a final brix of 65 68. The juice, after
evaporation, is called syrup and is very dark brown, almost black, and a little turbid.
Crystallization:
The crystallization of the sucrose from the concentrated syrup is traditionally a
batch process. The solubility of sucrose changes rather little with temperature. It is about
68 brix at room temperature and 74 brix at 60oC. For this reason, only a small amount of
sugar can be crystallized out of solution by cooling. Evaporating the water must instead
crystallize the sugar. Sucrose solutions up to a super saturation of 1.3 are quite stable.
Above this super saturation, spontaneous nucleation occurs, and new crystals form. The
sugar boiler therefore evaporates water until the supersaturation is 1.25 and then seeds the
pan. The seeding consists of introducing just the right number of small sugar crystals
(powdered sugar) so that, when all have grown to the desired size, the pan will be full.
After seeding, the evaporation and feeding of syrup are balanced so that the
supersaturation is as high as possible in order to achieve the fastest possible rate of
crystal growth, without exceeding 1.3.
The boiling point of a saturated sugar solution at 101.3 kPa (1 atm) is 112oC.
Sugar is heat-sensitive and, at this temperature, thermal degradation is too great. The
boiling is therefore done under the highest practical vacuum at a boiling point of 65oC.
The sugar boiler therefore must manipulate the vacuum along with the steam and feed. A
proof stick on the vacuum pan allows the contents of the pan to be sampled while under
vacuum. When the pan is full, the steam and feed are stopped, the vacuum is broken, and
the batch, or strike, is dropped into a receiver below.
A strike is 50 metric tons of sugar and it is boiled in 90 min. at the end of this
time, the mixture of crystals and syrup, called massecuite, must still be fluid enough to be
stirred and discharged from the pan. In practice, about half of the sugar in the pan is in
crystal form and half remains in the syrup. In this case, the pan yield is said to be 50%.
Some very good sugar boilers are able to achieve as much as 60% yields on first strike.
Vacuum pans:
Vacuum pans have a small heating element in comparison to the very large liquor
and vapour space above it. The heating element was formerly steam coils but is now
usually a chest of vertical tubes called calandria. The sugar is inside the tubes. There is a
large center opening (downcomer) for circulation.
The vacuum pan has a very large discharge opening: typically 1 m dia. At the end
of a strike, the massecuite contains more crystals than syrup and is therefore very viscous.
This large opening is required to empty the pan in a reasonable time. At the top or dome
of the pan, there are viscous entrainment separators. The pan may also be equipped with a
mechanical stirrer. This is usually an impeller in or below the central downcomer, driven
by a shaft coming down all the way from the top. The strike is started with liquor just
above the top of the calandria. The strike level cannot be very near the top because of
vapour space must be allowed for separation of entrainment. In operation, the boiling is
very vigorous with much splashing of liquid.
The vacuum is maintained mostly by condensing the vapours in a barometric
condenser. In some cases, a surface condenser is used. This serves as a source of distilled
water and recovers heat. More often, however, a jet condenser is used in which the cold
condensing water is sprayed into the hot vapour and both condensate and condenser
water are mixed. A supplementary vacuum pump is required to remove noncondensable
gases.
Centrifuging:
The massecuites from the vacuum pans enter a holding tank called a mixer that
has a very solely turning paddle to prevent the crystals from settling. The mixer is a feed
for the centrifuges. In a batch-type centrifuge, the mother liquor is separated from the
crystals in batches of about 1 t at a time.
Boiling systems:
In raw-sugar manufacture, the first strike of sugar is called the A strike, and the
mother liquor obtained from this strike from the centrifuges is called A molasses. The
pan yield in sugar boiling is about 50%. Because crystallization is an efficient
purification process, the product sugar is much purer than the cane juice and the molasses
much less pure. As an approximation, crystallization reduces the impurities by factor of
10 or more in the product sugar. Therefore, almost all of the impurities remain in the
molasses. Enough molasses accumulates from boiling two first strikes to boil a second
strike. The B sugar from the second strike is only half as pure as that from the first strike,
but the B molasses is twice as impure. This can go on to a third strike. At this point, 7/8
of the sugar from the cane juice is in the form of crystals and 1/8 in the C molasses. In
practice, three strikes is about all that can be gotten from cane juice. The trick is to
maneuver to obtain good sugar, but at the same time have the C or final molasses as
impure as possible. The purity of the feed to the final strike is adjusted to obtain the
lowest possible purity of final molasses. Some of the C sugar is redissolved and started
over, some is used as footing for A and B strikes. The C sugar is of very small crystal
size so it is taken into the A or B pans as seed and grown to an acceptable size. This
practice is actually a step backward because it hides impure C sugar in the center of better
A and B sugars. The product raw sugar is a mixture of A and B sugars.
There are many variations in the boiling scheme, such as two and four billings,
blending molasses, and returning molasses to the same strike from which it came. All of
these tricks are used, depending on cane purity and capabilities of the equipment
available.
Crystallizers:
When the steam is turned off at the end of a sugar boiling, evaporation ceases
immediately and the mixture of crystals and supersaturated syrup in the pan starts toward
equilibrium, which is the po9int of saturation. In relatively pure sugar solutions, this
equilibrium is reached in few minutes well before the syrup crystallization is slower and
reaching equilibrium can take a significant amount of time. In the final strike, the time an
amount to days, so final strikes are not sent directly to the centrifuges, but instead to
crystallize, holding tank is in which the crystals grow as much as possible and the super
saturation in the molasses is reduced to 1.0. Since the intention in handling the final
molasses is to remove as much sugar as possible, advantage is taken of the small
temperature coefficient of solubility and the massecuite is also cooled. The crystallizers
are large tanks, some open-top, with a slow-moving stirrer that is sometimes also a
cooling coil. At the end of the holding time, the massecuite is warmed slightly as it enters
the centrifuge to lower the viscosity and achieve better separation. The limiting factor in
exhaustion of masses is the viscosity. A little more water can always be boiled out, but
the molasses must remain fluid enough to run out of the pan, into the centrifuge and to
flow between the sugar crystals on the centrifuge screens.
Refining:
Sugar refineries are located in large cities. They are near seacoast with harbors
and facilities for receiving raw sugar by ship. They thus can receive sugar from anywhere
in the world, although each refiner has favorites that suit the refinery, market, or have
been the traditional supplier. Refineries are open all year, although the busy season is in
the summer.
Refineries are always large. Their capacity is expressed in terms of daily melt.
Melt is the sugar term for dissolving, and means the amount of sugar melted or processed
each day. The smallest refineries have a daily melt of 450 t, and large ones have as much
as ten times that amount. The yield of refined sugar is nominally 93% of the raw-sugar
input.
Raw sugar is light to da4rk brown in color and sticky. The size of the sucrose
crystals is ca 1 mm. Refiners would like to have raw sugar that is high in sucrose and of
uniform quality; however, they must be prepared to refine anything. Raw sugars are
about 98 pol, although they are always described in terms of the equivalent raw value
expressed as 96 pol, a base value from the 1920s when raw sugars were of this pol.
Terminology changes slightly in the refinery. In raw sugar, syrup is a
concentrated solution going to the pans. After the boiling, the solution separated from the
crystals is molasses. In the refinery, it is liquors that are fed to the pans, and syrups that
are separated from the crystals. Local jargon adds to the confusion with such terms as
greens and jets, meaning syrups, and barrel syrup, meaning final molasses.
Affination:
The first step in refining is to remove the molasses film from the outside of the
raw-sugar crystals. This is done by a washing process known as Affination. Syrup that is
not quite saturated with sucrose is mingled with the incoming raw sugar in a large trough
containing a mixer paddle and scroll. This mixture is then centrifuged and washed in the
centrifuge rather more than less. A uniform crystal size is important in raw sugars
because a mixture of different sizes or broken crystals does not wash well in the
affination centrifuge. The syrup formed is called affination syrup not wash well in the
affination centrifuge. The syrup formed is called affination syrup and is used for
mingling. The sugar is called washed sugar and is ten shades lighter in color than the raw
sugar. It is estimated that 90% of refining is done in this first step. About 10% of the
sugar becomes apart of the affination syrup, which thus keeps increasing in volume and is
sent to the recovery house.
The recovery house is route through a set of equipment in the same building. IT
uses the same processes that are used in the main refinery, but in manner more like a rawsugar operation. As the name suggests, sugar is recovered in the recovery house, but the
main object is to transfer impurities into molasses that contains the least possible amount
of the sucrose. The recovered sugar is called remelt and is sent back to process.
Melting:
The washed sugar is melted in hot water, and usually the pH is adjusted with lime.
Water that contains a little sugar from anywhere in the refinery is called sweetwater, and
if it does not contain much impurity, is used in the melter. The washed sugar liquor
coming from the melter is adjusted to the operating concentration, usually about 65 brix.
The trend is to operate refineries at higher brix up to 68, because if water is not added, it
does not have to be boiled away later. The washed sugar liquor is dark brown and quite
turbid, and appears much darker than the sugar from which it came. The melter liquor is
strained through a plain screen to catch debris in the raw sugar.
Clarification:
The object of clarification is the complete removal of all particulate matter. The
particles in the sugar come from all sources, eg, field soil and fiber which escaped
clarification in the raw-sugar factory; all microbiological life, including yeasts, molds,
bacteria, and their spores; colloids and very high molecular weight polysaccharides; and
foreign contaminants such as insect and rodent dropping. The very diversity of the nature
of the particulate matter and wide range of particle sizes makes clarification a difficult
and critical step in the refining of sugar. One of three processes is used: filtration,
carbonization, or phosphatation.
Phosphatation:
In the phosphate clarification scheme, lime and phosphoric acid are added
simultaneously with good mixing. The phosphoric acid is added in proportion to the milt
at about 0.01-0.02%. The lime is added to bring the pH to 7.8. The calcium phosphate
precipitate forms a floc of no particular crystal structure. It is even better at scavenging
impurities by entrapment than the carbonate precipitate. It also has the useful property of
attaching or entrapping air bubbles. Thus, at the same time that the floc is being formed,
some air is injected, mixed, or pumped into the system. Raising the temperature a few
degrees also helps tiny air bubbles materialize throughout the liquor. The precipitate then
floats to the surface as a scum of 80% organic matte and is scraped off without any
filtration. The mixing is very thorough just as the reagents are added, gentle in a flocdevelopment section, and then minimal in the flotation zone.
The phosphate clarifiers are also called frothing clarifiers and have many sizes
and shapes with scrapers going forward, backward, and around. Some are heated and
some are deep. Sugar is recovered from the scum by clarifying again. The phosphate
system uses only about 1/10 as much reagents as the carbonate system, and so produces
only 1/10 the scum volume.
No matter what the method of clarification, the clarified liquor is brilliantly clear
without any sign of turbidity. It is, however, dark, rather like a cup of weak coffee.
Decolorization:
The key process in sugar refining is decolorization. Color is the principal control
in every sugar refinery. It is the main property that distinguishes refined sugar from raw
sugar. The word color is used loosely. It usually means visual appearance, but in
technical sugar work it means colorant, the material causing the color. It can be classified
in three groups: plant pigments; melanoidins resulting from the reaction of amino acids
with reducing sugars; and caramels resulting from the destruction of sucrose. Many, but
not all, compounds in each of these classes have been identified. In sugar work, color
refers collectively to the optical sum of all the colorants.
Bone char and granular carbon behave similarly in decolorization of sugar. For
the contact with sugar liquor, both are contained in helds called cisterns ca 3 m-dia and 7
m tall and holding 30-40 t carbon. The liquor flows downward with a contact time of 2-4
h. The first liquors are water white with a very gradual yellowing. The cistern stays on
stream until the color of the liquor becomes too great to be handled by the remainder of
the refining process. The decolorization is always greater than 90%. The bone-char cycle
is about 4 d; for granular carbon, it is 4 wk. The first liquors from bone-char treatment are
lighter than the first liquors from carbon. However, from the adsorbent point of view, the
two systems are different.
Heating degreased cattle bones to about 7000C in the absence of air makes bone
char. IT is about 6-10% carbonaceous residue and 90% calcium phosphate from the bone
with an open pore structure supplied by the bone. The surface area available to nitrogen is
100 m2/g. The particle size is about 1 mm. besides being a carbon absorbent; it has ionexchange properties that permit removal of considerable ash from the sugar. These same
ion-exchange properties result in a buffering effect that keeps the pH of the sugar liquor
from falling.
After the decolorization cycle, the sugar is washed out of the bed and then the bed
is washed with the cool water to remove as much as possible of the adsorbed inorganic
salts. The sweet water is of low purity and cannot be recycled. The organic coloring
matter is adsorbed so tightly that no amount of washing will remove it. The water is
therefore drained from the char and the char moved from the cistern to a kiln where the
organic matter is burned off at 5000C, with a little oxygen in the kiln atmosphere to burn
away freshly deposited carbon and keep the pores open.
On bone char, it has been observed ionic constituents in the liquor affect ionic
color removal process. High calcium liquors decolorize well, but high sulfate liquors
decolorize as much as ten times more poorly for an ion-concentration change of only 0.01
N.
Crystallization:
The color of the washed, clarified, and decolorized liquor going into the
crystallization process ranges from water white to slightly yellow. Many refiners polishfilter the sugar liquor at this stage to make sure that it is sparkling clear with no turbidity.
Others rely on good operation upstream and do not polish-filter. In many cases, the brix
has become too low, either on purpose or by error; these liquors first go to the
evaporators to bring the brix to >= 68.The vacuum pans are the same as were described
under Raw Sugar Manufacture, and their operation is the same. They are operated even
more carefully to produce crystals of the desired size. Great care is taken to avoid
conglomerates and fines. Boiling rate and throughput are important. A new strike of some
50 metric tons must be dropped every 90 min to keep up with the production schedule.
The boiling schemes used in the refinery are more extensive and more extensive
and variable than those used in the raw house. This is because the starting material is of
much higher purity. Ordinarily, three, four, or five strikes of refined sugar are obtained.
The syrup from the fourth strike may handle in different ways. It may be used in
the recovery house, but is more likely used in making specialty syrups or brown sugars. It
may also be sent back to decolorization or clarification, and recycled.
The refined sugar centrifuges are always batch type because they leave the
crystals intact. The centrifuging is easy and the cycles are short.
The drying of the sugar from the centrifuges is done by rotary dryer using hot air.
This dryer is universally misnamed the granulator because by drying in motion, it keeps
the sugar crystals from sticking together, or keeps them granular. The hot sugar from the
granulator is cooled in an exactly similar rotary drum using cold air.
Conditioning:
The sugar from the coolers would appear to be finished, but after a few days
storage it becomes wet with water trapped inside the grain because of the very high rate
crystallization and drying. After a few days, this moisture migrates outside the crystal and
the sugar is wet again. A process known as conditioning removes the moisture, in which
the sugar is stored for four days with a current of air passing through it to carry away the
moisture. In one system, a single silo is used with sugar being continuously added to the
top and removed from the bottom, and a current of dry air blowing upward. In another
system, the sugar is stored in a number of small bins. It is continuously transferred from
bin to bin with dry air blowing around the conveyors that move the sugar.
Packing, storing and shipping:
Sugar is sometimes stored in bulk and then packaged as needed. Others package
the sugar and then warehouse the packages. The present trend is away from consumersized packages and toward bulk shipments.
MATERIAL BALANCE
5000 tpd of sugarcane are to be processed. Assuming that the factory operates for
20 hours per day. Thus we shall require processing 250 tons of sugarcane per hour.
Note: 1. All units where otherwise mentioned are in tons per hour.
2. The word analyses wherever use implies particular materials following per
hour in tons.
Basis: 250 tons per hour
Choosing standard Indian cane quality as below:
Water
Sucrose
Reducing sugars
Fibre
Ash and other impurities
Thus 250 tons cane feed per hour will contain:
Water
Sucrose
Reducing sugars
Fibre
Ash and other impurities
70.0 %
14.0 %
0.5 %
13.0 %
2.5 %
175.00
35.00
1.25
32.50
6.25
250.00
(2) Clarifier
Reagent used: lime (0.5 kg lime/ton of sugar cane)
Thus lime to be added = 0.5 250 = 125 kg = 0.125 ton
Assume 96% efficiency of clarifier to remove impurities.
Therefore impurities to be removed = 0.96 6.25 = 6.00
Total sludge from clarifier = 0.125 + 6.0 = 6.125
Amount of clarified juice entering in the evaporator = 244 6.0 = 238
This clarified juice is fed to the first effect of the quadruple effect evaporator and
analyses as follows:
Water
203.25
Sucrose
33.25
Impurities
0.25
Reducing sugars
1.25
Thus total juice
238.00
% of solids in this juice = {(33.25 + 0.25 + 1.25) 100}/238 = 14.60
(3) Evaporator
Typical evaporator load = 75 80% of clarified juice
Assume 76% of clarified juice as evaporator load.
Thus evaporator load = 0.76 238 = 180.88
Input to the evaporator = (203.25 water + 33.25 sucrose + 0.25 impurities + 1.25 reducing
Sugars)
= 238
Water removed in the evaporator = 180.88
Water remaining in the juice = 203.35 180.88 = 22.37
Hence output of evaporator analyses as follows:
Water
22.37
Sucrose
33.25
Impurities
0.25
Reducing sugars
1.25
Thus total solution
57.12
% of solids in this concentrated solution = {(33.25 + 0.25 + 1.25) 100}/57.12 = 60.84
(4) Crystallizer 1
Crystallization of concentrated juice is done in a vacuum pan crystallizer. Crystallization
is done at vacuum not exceeding 25 in (635mm).
Hence assume 580 mm Hg vacuum in crystallizer.
Therefore absolute pressure = 760 - 560
= 280 mmHg
= (280 1.013)/760 bar
= 0.2666 bar
Thus boiling point (from steam table) at this pressure = 61.420C
Boiling point rise = 40C
Solubility of sucrose in water is given by
Y = 68.18 + 0.1348 t + 0.000531 t
Where Y is % sucrose at saturation
t is temperature in 0C
At 65.42oC, Y becomes = 73.03%
Therefore sucrose per kg of water = Y/(100 Y) = 73.03/(100 - 73.03)
= 2.71 kg Sucrose/ kg of water
But since impurities are present. Therefore purity can be calculated as
Purity = wt. of sucrose/ total wt. of solids
= 3.25/(33.25 + 0.25 + 1.25)
= 0.957 i.e. 95.7%
Hence the solubility is reduced by factor called solubility coefficient.
For purity of 95.7%, Solubility coefficient = 0.97
Thus effective solubility = 2.71 0.97
= 2.6287 kg of sucrose/kg of water
Input to crystallizer = (22.37 water + 33.25 sucrose + 1.25 reducing sugars + 0.25
impurities)
Assume 92% of sucrose recovery as crystal with respect to initial sucrose content in feed.
Weight of sucrose crystal formed = 0.92 33.25
= 30.59
Weight of reducing sugar crystals = 0.33 1.25
= 0.4125
Moisture associated with crystals = 1% of crystal weight
= 0.01 30.59 + 0.01 0.4125
= 0.3059 + 0.004125
= 0.3100
Sucrose in molasses = 33.25 - 30.59
= 2.66
Reducing sugar left in molasses = 1.25 0.4125 = 0.8375
Total sugar in molasses = 2.66 + 0.8375 = 3.4975
Water required to dissolve this = 3.4975/2.6287 = 1.331
Hence water to be evaporated = initial water associated water water in molasses
= 22.37 0.31 1.331
= 20.729
Out put of crystallizer:
(a) Solids: 31.4375
(30.59 sucrose + 0.3059 water) crystals +
(0.4125 reducing sugars + 0.004125 water) crystals +
0.125 impurities
(b) Molasses: 4.9535
Reducing sugars
Impurities
Total
= 14.8403
= 0.4135
= 0.125
= 44.4393
Here no impurities are present, hence there is no need to consider solubility coefficient.
Assume 92% sucrose recovery as crystals with respect to initial sucrose content in feed.
Therefore weight of crystals formed = 0.92 28.4793 = 26.2010
Moisture associated = 0.01 26.2010 = 0.26201
Sucrose in molasses = 28.4793 26.2010
= 2.2783
Therefore water in molasses = 2.2783 2.71 = 0.8407
Hence water to be evaporated = initial water associated water water in molasses
= 14.8403 0.26201 0.8407
= 13.7376
Assume 10% of molasses adheres to crystal in centrifuge.
Therefore molasses adhered = 0.10 (2.2783 + 0.8407)
= 0.10 3.1190
= 0.3119
Wet crystals from centrifuge analyses as follows:
Sucrose
= 26.2010 + {(0.3119 2.2783)/3.119}
= 26.4288
Water
= 0.26201 + {(0.3119 0.8407)/3.119}
= 0.3461
Total
= 26.7749
(11) Drying
The deterioration of sugar is retarded and the loss in test is reduced if the moisture
content of the sugar is reduced. With a dryer, the moisture content may be reduced to
between 0.2 and 0.5%.
Drying by contact with hot air involves heating the air, to increase the capacity for
absorbing water and bringing it into intimate contact with the sugar from which it
evaporates the moisture.
Assume that the final moisture content is 0.2%.
Weight of dry crystal is 26.4288 as calculated before.
Therefore final sugar produced = 26.4288 (1 0.002) = 26.4818
Thus overall yield of refined sugar based on cane crushed = (26.4818 250) 100
= 10.59%
Thus moisture to be removed = m = 26.7749 26.4818
= 0.2931 tons/hr
= 293.1 kg/hr
There are two possible methods of circulation of air and sugar.
i.e. parallel flow and countercurrent flow.
For safety, the calculation is based on most unfavourable condition, i.e. it is assumed that
the ambient air is saturated. On the other hand, the air leaving a dryer is generally not
saturated; it is assumed that in case of countercurrent flow, it has absorbed only two-
thirds of the quantity of water that it could have absorbed if it had left in a saturated
condition.
We have then, in the case of countercurrent condition,
A = (100 m) {(2 3) (H1 H0)} = (1500 m) (H1 H0)
Where A weight of air to be passed through dryer (kg/hr)
m moisture to be removed (kg/hr)
H0 weight of water vapour contained in saturated air at a temperature t0 of entry
air to the heater (ambient temperature) in kg/1000 kg
Taking ambient temperature as 30oC.
From fig. 36.3 (Hugot)
H0 = 26 kg water/1000 kg saturated air
H1 weight of water vapour contained in saturated air at the temperature t1 of exit
From the dryer in kg/1000 kg
The temperature of air leaving the dryer is in between the 45 52oC.
Assuming it as 50oC.
From fig. 36.3 (Hugot)
H1 = 85 kg water/1000 kg saturated air
Therefore A = (1500 293.1) (85 26) = 7451.69 kg/hr
Thus weight of air to be passed through the dryer = A = 7451.69 kg/hr
Hence volume of air required = V = A (a0 + e0)
From fig. 36.3 and 36.4 (Hugot)
a0 = density of air at t0 = 1.12 kg/m3
e0 = weight of vapour contained in saturated air at t0 = 0.03 kg/m3
Therefore V = 7451.69 (1.12 + 0.03) = 6479.73 m3/hr
HEAT BALANCE
(1) Crusher
The normal power required to crush sugar cane is given by
PN = 0.15 F n D --------------------------------------(1)
Where PN normal power (h.p)
F load of crusher ( tons)
n economical rotational speed (rpm)
D mean diameter of the rollers (m)
Here we will take 2 roller crusher. Many types of crushers have been designed and tried
but only two have achieved general importance. These were
(a) The Krajewski and
(b) The Fulton
The Fulton type is named after the Firm which has predominantly contributed to its
design and wide use. It is the only type used at the present day.
For this type usual roller dimensions are 660 1220 mm
Here D = 660 mm and L = 1220 mm
Load of crusher = F = 250 tons
To calculate speed:
The peripheral speed generally adopted for the crusher is 30 40% greater than that of
the mills.
The economic peripheral speed of mill is given by
VE = (30 D) (D + 0.73) m/min
D is calculated in milling tandem calculation = 1016 mm
Therefore VE = (30 1.016) (1.016 + 0.73)
= 17.46 m/min
Hence peripheral speed for crusher is given by
VE crusher = 1.35 VE mill
= 1.35 17.46
= 23.57 m/min
Now the relation between peripheral speed and rotational speed is given by
nE = VE ( D)
= 23.57 ( 0.66)
= 11.37 rpm
Therefore from equation (1)
PN = 0.15 250 11.37 0.66 = 281.31 h.p
(2) Milling tandem
Assume 5 mill tandems and each mill consists of three rollers.
Hence number of rollers = N = 15
(4) Evaporator
Saturated steam required, which is calculated in process design part is
S = 12.3625 kg/s
Saturation temperature of steam = 113.89o& DW ZKLFK N-NJ
Therefore heat supplied by this steam = S
= 12.3625 2218.2
= 27422.5 kW
Steam economy = amount of water evaporated (i.e. evaporator load)/steam used
= 50.245/12.3625
= 4.064
(5) Crystallizer 1
As we known from material balance calculation, crystallizer operates at 580 mmHg
vacuum.
At this pressure, boiling point of water is 61.42oC.
But boiling point rise (BPR) is 4oC.
Temperature in crystallizer = 65.42oC
Heat balance in crystallizer can be written as
FhF + mss = LhL + VH ---------------------------------------------(1)
F = feed rate to crystallizer
= (22.37 + 33.25 + 1.25 + 0.25) (1000 3600)
= 15.87 kg/s
Cpf = 4.19 2.35 X
Here X = 0.6084
Therefore Cpf = 2.7603 kJ/kgoK
Feed temperature = Tf = 55.45oC
Taking base temperature as 0oC.
But hF = Cpf (Tf 0) = 2.7603 55.45 = 153.06 kJ/kg
ms = steam rate required in kg/s
Assume steam is available at same pressure as that of clarifier.
+HQFH s = 2256.9 kJ/kg
L = output of crystallizer
= (31.4375 + 4.9535) (1000 3600)
= (36.391 1000) 3600
= 10.11 kg/s
Cpl = 4.19 2.35 X
Where X = fraction of solids in crystallizer output
= 31.4375/36.391
= 0.955
Thus Cpl = 4.19 2.35 0.955 = 1.95 kJ/kgoK
Temperature of output of crystallizer = Tl = 65.42oC
But hL = Cpl (Tl 0) = 1.95 65.42 = 127.31 kJ/kg
V = amount of water evaporated in the crystallizer
Green Syrup
75% DS,
Temp = 72&
43&
Washed Sugar
29.909 T/hr
98.96% DS
Temp = 43&
Affination
Greens
Therefore for 31.932 tons/hr, green syrup has to be added = (10 31.932) 45
= 7.096 tons/hr
(9) Crystallizer 2
Assume operation temperature and pressure same as that of crystallizer1.
At this pressure, boiling point of water is 61.42oC.
Sucrose solution from decolourizer = (28.4793 sucrose + 14.8403 water)
= 43.3196 tons/hr
= 12.03 kg/s
--------------------------------(1)
(10) Drying
To calculate the heating surface of air heater:
The air heater generally consists of tubes, which are supplied with steam at about 5
kg/cm2. The condensate leaves at bottom.
The heating surface of this small heat exchanger will be given by
A = Q [U {T (t1 + t0)/2}]
Where A heating surface of air heater (m2)
Q quantity of heat to be transmitted in kcal/hr
U heat transfer coefficient in kcal/(m2hroC)
T temperature of saturated steam employed in oC.
t0 temperature of cold air entering = 30oC
t1 temperature of hot air leaving = 50oC
Assume steam is available at 5 kg/cm2 i.e. 490.5 kPa
Therefore T = 152oC (from steam table)
As suggested by Hugot, U = 10 kcal/(m2hroC)
The quantity of heat Q to be transferred is calculated from the fact that it consists of three
principle terms.
(I) The heat necessary to heat the weight of air is given by
q1 = M C (t1 t0)
M = amount of air entering = 7451.69 kg/hr
C = specific heat of air = 0.24 kcal/kgoK
Therefore q1 = 7451.69 0.24 (50 30) = 35768.11 kcal/hr
(II) The heat necessary to evaporate the water contained in the sugar is given by
q2 = m [607 + 0.3 t1 t0]
m = amount of water evaporated = 293.1 kg/hr
Thus q2 = 293.1 [607 + 0.3 50 30]
= 173515.2 kcal/hr
The quantity q2 of heat correspond to that given up by the hot air between T| reached at
the outlet from the air heater and t1, which has not been included in q1.
(III) The heat necessary to heat the vapour contained in the weight M of air, assumed
saturated is given by
q3 = M H0 C| (t1 t0)
|
C = specific heat of vapour = 0.475 kcal/kgoK
H0 = it is expressed as kg of water per kg of air = 0.026
Therefore q3 = 7451.69 0.026 0.475 (50 30)
= 1840 kcal/hr
The heat lost to ambient air is taken into account by writing the expression for Q as
follows:
Q = 1.25 (q1 + q2 + q3)
= 1.25 (35768.11 + 173515.2 + 1840)
= 263.90 103 kcal/hr
In this liquid outlet, the solids per 100 parts of water = (33.96 100) (100 33.96)
= 51.42
Therefore boiling point rise1 = BPR3 = 1.2oC
IV Effect
Liquid outlet from fourth effect = L4 = 15.865 kg/s
Now the solid balance is, L3 X3 = L4 X4
Therefore X4 = 0.6084
In this liquid outlet, the solids per 100 parts of water = (60.84 100) (100 60.84)
= 156.36
1
o
Therefore boiling point rise = BPR4 = 3.6 C
To calculate t
Steam is available to first effect at 9 psig.
i.e. Ps = 9 + 14.695
= 23.695 psia
But 1 psia = 6894.8 N/m2
Thus Ps = 23.695 6894.8 = 163.372 kN/m2 = 1.634 bar
Therefore T1s = 387oK = 113.89oC
The pressure in the vapour space of the 4th effect is at a vacuum of 26 in Hg.
i.e. P4 = 30 26 = 4 in Hg absolute
= 1.96 psia
= 13.56 kPa
= 0.1356 bar
Thus T5s = 325oK = 51.85oC
Therefore t = T1s T5s = 113.89 51.85 = 62.04oC
Effective t = t (BPR1 + BPR2 + BPR3 + BPR4)
= 62.04 (0.5 + 0.7 + 1.2 + 3.6)
= 56.04oC
To calculate t in each effect
Neglecting the sensible heat necessary to heat the feed to the boiling point, approximately
all the latent heat of condensing steam appears as latent heat in the vapour.
Hence q1 = q2 = q3 = q4
U1A1t1 = U2A2t2 = U3A3t3 = U4A4t4
Usually, the areas in all effects are equal.
Therefore U1t1 = U2t2 = U3t3 = U4t4
According to Hugot, the overall heat transfer coefficients in each effect are given as
follows:
Effect
U [Btu/hrft2oF]
1
400-500
2
275-375
3
200-275
4
125-150
1
450
2555
2
325
1845
3
250
1420
4
140
795
= 80.99oC
IV Effect
T4s = saturated temperature of steam to fourth effect = t3 BPR3
= 80.99 1.2
= 79.79oC
Boiling point of solution = t4 = T4s t4
= 79.79 24.34
= 55.45oC
T5s = saturated temperature of steam to condenser = t4 BPR4
= 55.45 3.6
= 51.85oC
Effect 1
T1s = 113.89oC
t1 = 106.31oC
Effect 2
T2s = 105.81oC
t2 = 95.32oC
Effect 3
T3s = 94.62oC
t3 = 80.99oC
Effect 4
T4s = 79.79oC
t4 = 55.45oC
Condenser
T5s = 51.85oC
Heat Balance
Heat capacity of sugar solution
The heat capacity of sugar solution in each effect is calculated from equation
Cp = 4.19 - 2.35 X (kJ/kgoK)
Weight fraction of dissolved solids
Xf = 0.146
X1 = 0.1803
X2 = 0.2355
X3 = 0.3396
X4 = 0.6084
Enthalpy data
Temperature (oC)
I Effect
The heat balance for first effect is as follows:
S1s + Fhf = V1H1 + L1h1
1s = H1s h1s = 2698.0 479.8 = 2218.2 kJ/kg
F = 66.11 kg/s
Taking reference temperature as 0oC and feed to the first effect is at 96oC.
Thus Tf = 96oC
hf = Cpf (Tf 0) = 3.8469 96 = 368.504 kJ/kg
H1 = H2s + Cp BPR1
Where Cp is heat capacity of steam.
H1 = 2638.8 + 2.048 0.5 = 2684.82 kJ/kg
h1 = Cp1 t1 = 3.7663 106.31 = 400.4 kJ/kg
L1 = 66.11 V1
Therefore S 2218.2 + 66.11 368.504 = V1 2684.82 + (66.11 V1) 400.4
2218.2 S 2284.42 V1 = 2042.53
S 1.0299 V1 = 0.9208
------------------------------------------------------------------(1)
II Effect
The heat balance for second effect is as follows:
V12s+ L1h1 = V2H2 + L2h2
2s = H1 h2s = 2684.82 438.8 = 2246.02 kJ/kg
H2 = H3s + Cp BPR2
Where Cp is heat capacity of steam.
H2 = 2667.5 + 2.009 0.7 = 2668.91 kJ/kg
h2 = Cp2 t2 = 3.6366 95.32 = 346.641 kJ/kg
L2 = 66.11 V1 V2
Therefore
V1 2246.02 + (66.11 V1) 400.4 = V2 2668.91 + (66.11 V1 V2) 346.641
V1 1.0591 V2 = 1.6212 -------------------------------------------------------------------(2)
III Effect
The heat balance for third effect is as follows:
V23s+ L2h2 = V3H3 + L3h3
3s = H2 h3s = 2668.91 396.7 = 2272.21 kJ/kg
H3 = H4s + Cp BPR3
Where Cp is heat capacity of steam.
H3 = 2643.0 + 1.963 1.2 = 2645.36 kJ/kg
h3 = Cp3 t3 = 3.3919 80.99 = 274.71 kJ/kg
L3 = 66.11 V1 V2 V3
Therefore
V2 2272.21 + (66.11 V1 92) 346.641 = V3 2645.36 + (66.11 91 92 93)
274.71
------------------------------------------------(3)
IV Effect
The heat balance for third effect is as follows:
V34s+ L3h3 = V4H4 + L4h4
4s = H3 K4s = 2645.36 N-NJ
H4 = H5s + Cp BPR4
Where Cp is heat capacity of steam.
H4 = 2595.0 + 1.9075 3.6 = 2601.867 kJ/kg
h4 = Cp4 t4 = 2.7603 55.45 = 153.06 kJ/kg
L4 = 66.11 91 92 93 94
Therefore
V3 2315.66 + (66.11 91 92 93) 274.71 = 2601.867 V4 + (66.11 91 92
V3 94) 153.06
V4 = 3.2842 91 92 + 0.8960 V3 --------------------------------(4)
But V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 50.245
-----------------------------------------------------------(5)
V2 = 12.2015 kg/s
V3 = 12.9880 kg/s
V4 = 13.7540 kg/s
Material balance in each effect is as follows:
I Effect
Liquid outlet from first effect = L1 = F V1
= 66.11 11.3015
= 54.8085 kg/s
Now the solid balance is, F Xf = L1 X1
Therefore X1 = (66.11 0.146) 54.8085 = 0.1761
In this liquid outlet, the solids per 100 parts of water = (17.61 100) (100 17.61)
= 21.37
Therefore boiling point rise = BPR1 = 0.5oC
II Effect
Liquid outlet from second effect = L2 = L1 V2
= 54.8085 12.2015
= 42.6070 kg/s
Now the solid balance is, L1 X1 = L2 X2
Therefore X2 = (54.8085 0.1761) 42.6070 = 0.2265
In this liquid outlet, the solids per 100 parts of water = (22.65 100) (100 22.65)
= 29.28
o
Therefore boiling point rise = BPR2 = 0.7 C
III Effect
Liquid outlet from third effect = L3 = L2 V3
= 42.6070 12.9880
= 29.6190 kg/s
Now the solid balance is, L2 X2 = L3 X3
Therefore X3 = (42.6070 0.2265) 29.6190 = 0.3259
In this liquid outlet, the solids per 100 parts of water = (32.59 100) (100 32.59)
= 48.35
Therefore boiling point rise = BPR3 = 1.15oC
IV Effect
Liquid outlet from fourth effect = L4 = 15.865 kg/s
Now the solid balance is, L3 X3 = L4 X4
Therefore X4 = 0.6084
In this liquid outlet, the solids per 100 parts of water = (60.84 100) (100 60.84)
= 156.36
Therefore boiling point rise = BPR4 = 3.6oC
To calculate t
|
|
Condenser
T5s = 51.85oC
Heat Balance
Heat capacity of sugar solution
The heat capacity of sugar solution in each effect is calculated from equation
I Effect
The heat balance for first effect is as follows:
S1s + Fhf = V1H1 + L1h1
1s = H1s K1s = 2698.0 N-NJ
F = 66.11 kg/s
Taking reference temperature as 0oC and feed to the first effect is at 96oC.
Thus Tf = 96oC
hf = Cpf (Tf N-NJ
H1 = H2s + Cp BPR1
Where Cp is heat capacity of steam.
H1 = 2685.5 + 2.055 0.5 = 2686.53 kJ/kg
h1 = Cp1 t1 = 3.7662 106.37 = 400.61 kJ/kg
L1 = 66.11 91
Therefore S 2218.2 + 66.11 368.504 = V1 2686.53 + (66.11 91) 400.61
2218.2 S 91 = 2056.42
S 305 V1 = 0.9271
------------------------------------------------------------------(1)
II Effect
-----------------------------------------------------------(5)
V1 = 11.0969 kg/s
V2 = 12.3980 kg/s
V3 = 13.0216 kg/s
V4 = 13.7285 kg/s
S = 12.3625 kg/s
To calculate areas in each effect
q1 = S 1s = 12.3625 2218.2 = 27422.50 kW
q2 = V1 2s = 11.0969 2242.93 = 24889.57 kW
q3 = V2 3s = 12.3980 2268.91 = 33461.09 kW
q4 = V3 4s = 13.0216 2306.57 = 30035.23 kW
A1 = q1 (U1 W1|) = (27422.50 103) (2555 7.52) = 1427.24 m2
A2 = q2 (U2 W2|) = (24889.57 103) (1845 9.00) = 1498.90 m2
A3 = q3 (U3 W3|) = (33461.09 103) (1420 13.48) = 1470.00 m2
A4 = q4 (U4 W4|) = (30035.79 103) (795 26.09) = 1448.00 m2
The mean area = Am = (A1 + A2 + A3 + A4) 4 = 1461 m2
All areas are within 5% of mean area. Thus this is acceptable.
Tube details
Most generally used diameters today ranges from 1.25 to 2.00 in. outer diameter and
most generally used lengths of tubes ranges from 4 to 15 ft.
Let us choose 2 in. nominal diameter, 80 schedule, brass tubes of 12 ft length.
Therefore Outer diameter = do = 60.325 mm
Inner diameter = di = 49.2506 mm
Length = L = 12 ft = 3.6576 m
Tube pitch(
3T
2. CONDENSER
The condenser is a horizontal condenser designed to condense 14.1295 kg/s of
water vapour coming from the fourth effect of evaporator at a temperature of 55.45C
and at a pressure of 13.56 kPa. At this pressure the saturation temperature is 51.45C. But
the degree of superheat is very less; hence assuming water vapour is at saturated
temperature only. The coolant used is water, which is supplied at an inlet temperature of
30C and leaves at an outlet temperature of 40C.
(1) Heat balance
Latent heat of vapourisation of water at 51.45C = = 2378 kJ/kg
Amount of heat removed from the vapour = Q = mv
= 14.1295 2378
= 33599.95 kW
Amount of water to be circulated (mw):
mw Cp t = mv = Q
At average temperature i.e. 35oC, Cp of water = 4.182 kJ/kgoK
mw 4.182 103 (40 - 30) = 33599.95 kW
mw = (33599.95 1000) / (4.182 103 10)
mw = 803.44 kg/s
Amount of water required = 803.44 kg/s
(2) Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)
TLMTD = [(51.85 - 30) - (51.85 - 40)] [ln {(51.85 - 30) (51.85 - 40)}]
= 16.34C
Since condensation occurs at constant temperature, hence correction factor is not needed.
(3) Routing of fluids
Allocating the fluids with the lowest flow rate to the shell side will normally give
the most economical design and also the higher pressure stream should be allocated to the
tube side. High pressure tubes will be cheaper than a high pressure shell.
Here water is available at atmospheric pressure and steam is available at vacuum.
Hence take steam on shell side and water on tube side.
(4) Heat transfer area
From table 10-10 (Perry hand book), the designing overall heat transfer
coefficient for steam-water system is in the range of 400 1000 Btu/(hrft2oF) i.e. 2271.32
5678.3 W/(m2oK) and it includes total dirt factor 0.0005 (hrft2oF)/Btu i.e. Rd = 8.81
10-5 (m2oK)/W
Assume Ud = 2300 W/m2K
Total heat transfer area = A = Q/(U TLMTD)
= (33599.95 1000) (2300 16.34)
= 894.04 m2
Let us choose tubing characteristics as follows:
1 O.D, 20 BWG , length of 10 ft laid on a 5/4 pitch.
Outer diameter of tube = do = 1 = 25.4 mm
Inner diameter of tube = di = 0.93 = 23.622 mm
fk = 0.16
Number of baffles, now Nb+1 = L/ls
= 2.998/1.4938
=2
Therefore Nb = 2
To calculate pressure drop for shell side, we have to consider three zones.
1) End zones, 3e (there are two end zones)
2) Cross flow zones, 3c, (Nb 1) crosses
3) Window zones, 3w (Nb zones)
Thus total pressure drop is
(3s)t = 2 3e + (Nb 1) 3c + Nb 3w
1) 3 LQ FURVV IORZ VHFWLRQ
2
2
0.14
3c = {(b fk mv Nc) ( Sm )} (w /b)
Where b = 0.002
fk = 0.16
Nc = {Ds [1 2 (lc/Ds)]}/Pp
lc = baffle cut = 0.25 Ds = 0.5335 m
Pp = pitch parallel to flow = (3/2) Pt = 0.866 31.75 = 27.4963 mm
Therefore Nc = number of tubes row crossed in one cross flow section
= {2.134 [1 (2 0.25)]} 0.0274963
= 39
Thus 3c = [0.002 0.16 (14.1295)2 39] [0.7 (0.7969)2]
= 5.6048 kPa
2) 3 LQ HQG ]RQHV
3e = 3c [1 + (Ncw Nc)]
Where Ncw = number of effective cross flow rows in each window
= (0.8 lc) Pp
= (0.8 0.5335) 0.0275
= 15.52 i.e. 16
Thus 3e = 5.6048 [1 + (16/39)] = 7.904 kPa
3) 3 LQ ZLQGRZ ]RQHV
2
3w = [b mv (2 + 0.6 Ncw)] (Sm Sw )
-4
Where b = 5 10
Sw = area of flow through windows = Swg Swt
Swg = gross window area
Swt = area occupied by tubes
= (Nt/8) (1 Fc) d02
Fc = fraction of tubes in each cross flow
Here lc/Ds = 0.25 and Ds = 84
From fig 10-18, p 10-29 (Perry hand book)
Swg = 1000 in2 = 0.6452 m2
From fig 10-16, p 10-28
Fc = 0.66
Therefore Swt = (3784/8) (1 0.66) (0.0254)2
= 0.3259 m2
Thus Sw = 0.6452 0.3259 = 0.3193 m2
Hence 3w = [5 10-4 (14.1295)2 (2 + 0.6 16)] [0.7969 0.3193 0.7]
= 6.5 kPa
(3s)t = 2 7.904 + 0 + 1 6.5 = 22.31 kPa
But actual pressure drop is 40% of this value.
Therefore (3s)t = 0.4 22.31 = 8.92 kPa
This is also within the permissible limit of a maximum pressure drop of 14 kPa.
So this is acceptable.
ts = (PDo) (2fJ + P)
= (1.7856 3000) [(2 980 0.85) + 1.7856]
= 3.22 mm
The actual thickness must be much more so as to allow for corrosion and give rigidity to
the shell.
Therefore it may be taken as ts = 12 mm
(2) Tube sheet thickness
To find tube sheet thickness
K = [Es ts (Do ts)] [Et Nt tt (do tt)]
Where Es = elastic modulus of shell
Et = elastic modulus of tube
Do = outside diameter of shell = 3 m
do = outside diameter of tube = 60.325 mm
ts = shell thickness = 12 mm
tt = tube wall thickness = 5.5 mm
Nt = number of tubes in shell = 2108
Therefore K = [19 105 12 (3000 12)] [9.5 105 2108 5.5 (60.325 5.5)
= 0.1128
F = [(2 + K) (2 + 3 K)]
= [(2 + 0.1128) (2 + 3 0.1128)]
= 0.951
The effective tube sheet thickness is given by
tts = FDo [(0.25 P) f]
= 0.951 3000 [(0.25 1.7856) 980]
= 60.89 mm
with corrosion allowance the thickness may be taken as 64 mm.
(3) Check for tube thickness
The tube thickness is given by
tt = Pdi (2fJ P)
The permissible stress for brass = 538 kg/cm2 and J = 1
Therefore tt = (1.7856 49.25) [(2 538 1) 1.7856]
= 0.082 mm
But provided thickness is 5.5 mm. Therefore chosen tubes have strength to withstand
with operating conditions.
(4) Evaporator drum diameter
The following equations help to determine the drum diameter. The diameter of the drum
may be same as that of the calendria. However it is necessary to check the size from the
point of satisfactory entrainment separation.
Rd = (V/A) [0.0172 {(l - v) v}]
2. CONDENSER
Material:
Carbon and low alloy steel
Carbon steels: up to 540oC
Low alloy steels: up to 590oC
Design pressure: by adding a minimum of 5% to the maximum working pressure.
Design temperature: 10oC higher than the maximum temperature that any part of the
exchanger is likely to attain in course of operation.
Corrosion allowance: 1.5 mm for carbon and cast iron.
(A) Shell Side:
Material of construction: Carbon steel
Design pressure = 1 atm = (1.01325 105) 9.81 = 10328.75 kgf/m2 = 1.033 kgf/cm2
Design temperature = 51.85 + 8.15 = 60oC
Shell inside diameter = Ds = 2134 mm = 2.134 m
No. of shell passes = 1
No. of tube passes = 4
Permissible stress for carbon steel = 12.8 kgf/mm2 (IS: 3609 1966)
Fluid: water vapour
Inlet temperature = 51.85C
Outlet temperature = 51.85C
(1) Shell thickness
Minimum thickness of shell plates excluding of corrosion allowance in mm (IS: 2825)
ts = (Pd DS)/{(200 f J) - Pd}
W3 = Wo H
= Hp
= 0.0188 MN
Total flange moment is,
Mo = W1a1 + W2a2 + W3a3
The values of a1, a2 and a3 for loose type except lap joint flange is given by
a1 = (C B)/2 = (2.21 2.15)/2 = 0.03 m
a3 = (C - G)/2 = (2.21 2.144)/2 = 0.033 m
a2 = (a1 + a3)/2
= 0.0315 m
Mo = 0.36 0.03 + 0.0058 0.0315 + 0.033 0.0188
= 1.16 10-2 MJ
For bolting up condition:
In this case the total flange moment is given by
Mg = W a3
Where W = {(Am + Ab)Sg}/2
= {(6.223 10-3 + 44 1.54 10-4) 138}/2
= 0.8969 MN
a3 = (C G)/2 = 0.033 m
Therefore Mg = 0.8969 0.033
= 0.0296 MJ
Since Mg > Mo, hence moment under bolting-up condition, Mg is controlling.
Therefore M = Mg = 0.0296 MJ
(V) Calculation of flange thickness
t2 = (M CF Y) (B ST)
K = A/B
= outer diameter of flange/ inner diameter of flange
= 2.248/2.15
= 1.046
Therefore Y = 38
Assume CF = 1 (for initial calculation CF may be taken as unity and finally its magnitude
can be checked.
Therefore t2 = (0.0296 1 38) (2.15 100)
Thickness t = 0.072 m
Actual bolt spacing = BS = ( C)/n
= (3.14 2.21)/44
= 0.068 m
Bolt pitch correction factor = CF = [BS/2d + t)]1/2
= [0.068/2 0.018 + 0.072)]1/2
= 0.7935
Therefore CF1/2 = 0.891
The flange thickness calculated above is to be multiplied by CF1/2
Hence actual flange thickness = CF1/2 t
= 0.891 0.072
= 0.064 m
= 64 mm
(B) Tube Side:
Tube and tube sheet material: stainless steel
Number of tubes = 3784
Outside diameter of tube = 25.4 mm
Length of tube = 10 ft = 3.048 m
Fluid: water
Pitch () = 31.75 mm
Allowable stress = 10.06 kgf/mm2
Working pressure = 1 atm = 1.033 kgf/cm2
Design pressure = 1.1 1.033 = 1.1363 kgf/cm2
Inlet temperature = 30C
Outlet temperature = 40C
Weight of tubes:
W2 = [Nt (do2 - di2) L tube material]/4
tube material = 7800 kg/m3
W2 = [3784 3.14 (0.02542 - 0.0236222) 3.048 7800]/4
= 6158.48 kg
Weight of tube sheets:
W3 = (2 D2 t )/4
= (2 3.14 2.152 0.03603 7800)/4
= 2040.60 kg
Liquid load in the shell:
W4 = (shell volume - tube volume) liquid
= [(Ds2L)/4 - (Ntdo2L)/4] 989
= [{( 2.152 3.048)/4} {(3784 0.02542 3.048)/4}] 989
= (10.902 5.844) 989
= 5002.19 kg
Liquid load in tubes:
W5 = (Nt di2 L liquid)/4
= (3784 3.14 0.0236222 3.048 994)/4
= 5024.30 kg
Therefore total weight W = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 + W5
= 19489.04 kg
Hence, Q = (19489.04/2) [3.048 + (4 0.257)/3]
= 33040.42
M1 = 33040.42 48.02 [1 - {(1 48.02/3.048) + (106.72 25.72)/ (2 48.02 3.048)}/
(1 + 4 25.7/3 3.048)]
Thus M1 = 137475.13 kg cm
The bending moment at the center of the span is given by
M2 = (QL/4) [{1+2(R2-H2)/L2}/ {1 + (4H/3L)} - (4A/L)]
M2 = (33040.42 3.048/4) [{1+2(106.72-25.72)/304.82}/ {1+ (4 25.7/3 304.8)} - (4
48.02/304.8)]
Therefore M2 = 1199158.58 kg cm
(II) Stress in shell at the saddle
At the top most fiber of the cross-section:
f1 = M1/ (K1R2t)
For an angle of 120, K1 = 0.107
t = thickness of shell = 8 mm
f1 = 137475.13/ (0.107 3.14 106.72 0.8)
= 436.85 kg/cm2
Sulphur and Lime Houses: The washings of sulphur and lime house would contain a
considerable amount of inorganic solids, which include carbonates and sulphates. The
effluents from these two units when combined would give neutral pH value of waste.
This wastewater does not contribute to organic pollution but can be characterized as
inorganic wastewater.
Wastewater parameters
BOD: - This is the measure of the oxygen consuming capabilities of organic matter.
During decomposition, organic effluents exert a BOD that can deplete oxygen supply.
BOD is generally measured and expressed in parts per million or milligrams per litre. The
effluents from a raw sugar factory can vary between hundred to several thousands mg/l.
Dissolved Oxygen: - This is water quality constituent. It is measured and expressed as
parts per million or mg/l.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS): - Suspended solids when they settle form sludge on the
stream, lakebed and they are most damaging to the life in water.
The different modes of disposal of wastes are:
Disposal into water bodies (River/Nallah, stream)
Evaporation in open pits
Disposal into ocean
Press mud for fertilizer
Bagasse for paper and pulp and fibre
(B) Solid Wastes
Bagasse: It is estimated that bagasse contributes to 33.3% residue of the total cane
crushed. It has a calorific value of about 1920 kcal/kg and is mainly used as fuel in
boilers for steam generation.
Press Mud: It contains all non-sucrose impurities along with CaCO3 precipitate and
sulphate. Press mud from double sulphitation process contains valuable nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, etc, and therefore used as fertilizer. The press mud
from double carbonation process is used for land filling and is not used as manure.
(C) Air Pollutants
The bagasse, on burning, produces particulates, viz., unburnt fibres, carbon
particles and gaseous pollutants like oxides of nitrogen, water vapour and other organic
compounds. Of the particulate waste, the heavier particles slowly settle down in the
surrounding area. Such dust fall leads to the problems of cleaning, reduction in property
value, effect on vegetation, etc. The main gaseous pollutants are CO, which is altogether
not measured by any unit, and CO2 is reported to be in the range of 12 14%.
Mainly used for condenser, bearing cooling, sulphur/lime houses and crystallizer for
formation of crystal
In condenser, water gets mixed with vapour. However, adjusting pH along with
make-up water to keep dissolved solids in check can recycle it.
Evaporator cooling water contains entrained sugar and acid because of excess of SO2
and can be recycled. Improvement in the designs of evaporator/pan boiler can reduce
the loss. Losses will also be due to evaporation, splashing and percolations.
Keeping the temperature of incoming water between 30o and 35oC can reduce losses
due to evaporation. Splashing and percolation can be checked by proper
maintainance.
Cooling water for bearings, power generation, etc., can be reused safely.
Water requirement before evaporator storage is about 1/5 to of steam used while
that used after evaporator requires approximately equal amounts, as for steam.
Careful attention is required after evaporator stage to control water usage.
Hot water can be used in place of cold water to reduce the quantity of steam required.
It is preferable to use 18 20% maceration by equally adjusting it from the top and
the bottom of bagasse bed feeding to the last mill at a pressure of 7 14 kg/cm2 rather
than merely pouring the same at 25 to 30% of cane (about 5 7% water can be
saved).
If maceration is high enough, there will not be any need of dilution water for juice.
To reduce water quantity, light molasses can be used for magma making.
Washing Water: Wash water may contain sugar and therefore requires treatment and
should not be recycled. Periodic cleaning results in high BOD and it also contain caustic
soda and weak acids. Returning it to the service water tank can reuse water.
Testing Water: This water is safe for returning it to the service water tank.
Oil and Grease: providing suitable oil and grease traps can eliminate this.
Chemical Reuse: The stored and settled supernatant can be reused with a little addition of
fresh caustic soda for next cleaning operation.
Molasses Handling: It is necessary to store molasses in RCC tanks or steel tanks above
ground level. Otherwise, there is a possibility of ground water contamination. The high
BOD of molasses may cause pollution problems due to mishandling.
(C) Product Recovery
The by-products available from sugar mills are bagasse, furnace ash, molasses
and filter mud. The uses of these byproducts are given below. If all the byproducts are
used for transformation into value added products, (resource recovery), it will minimize
the pollution to large extent.
Bagasse: These are used for steam, power, charcoal, briquettes and methane & producer
gas.
Molasses: These are used for fertilizer and cattle feed.
Filter mud: For fertilizer.
Boiler ash: For foundry material.
Safety:
Sugar in boiler feed water causes water to foam, which will lead accidents. If not
present in large quantity. It is decomposed by heat into products that are detrimental to
the tubes and shells of boilers causing pitting and overheating.
If sugar is present in small amounts their traces will be eventually accumulated on
the boiler tubes as a harmful and dangerous carbonaceous deposit.
The break down of sugar also forms harmful organic acids. To prevent this lime is
added to feed water to maintain pH = 8.0. A pronounced odour develops in the steam if
boiler water contains sugar. Under such conditions the contaminated feed water is turned
to sewer and the boilers are blown off.
To prevent these hazards tests are conducted to determine amount of sugar traces
in water. The most commonly used tests are Naphthol test and Aresenomolybdate test.
Given in the literature is the cost versus size Nomograph, from which the cost of cane
sugar plant within the crushing capacity between 500 5000 TPD can be calculated.
The cost for 5000 TPD crushing capacity plant with Chemical Engineering Plant Cost
Index (CE) =130 (Basis = 1957 -59; CE = 100) is as follows:
Cost for 5000 TPD crushing capacity = Rs. 10.25 x 107 /To find present cost:
A cost index is merely an index value for a given point in time showing the cost at
that time relative to a certain base time. If the cost at some time in past is known, the
equivalent cost at the present time can be determined by multiplying the original cost by
the ratio of the present index value to the index value applicable when the original cost
was obtained.
Obtained from the Internet that Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index is given as:
Cost index in 2002 = 402
Original cost value is obtained when cost index was 130.
Thus,
Present cost of Plant
= (original cost) {(present cost index)/(past cost index)}
= (10,25,00,000 /-) (402/130) = Rs. 31.70 107 /Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
= Rs. 31.70 107 /Generally fixed capital investment cost is 85% of total capital investment.
Therefore Total Capital Investment
= (FCI)/0.85 = 37.29 107 Rs.
b.
c.
d.
Piping Installed:
RANGE
RANGE
e.
Electrical, installed:
Let Electrical cost
(B) Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); includes costs for
sales offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.
Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 15% of total product cost
Distribution and selling costs = 15% of 34.07 107 /= 0.15 34.07 107
= Rs. 5.1105 107 /(C) Research and Development costs: (about 5% of total product cost)
Consider the Research and development costs = 5% of total product cost
Research and Development costs = 5% of 34.07 107 /= 0.05 34.07 107
= Rs. 1.7035 107 /(D) Financing (interest): (0-10% of total capital investment)
Consider interest = 5% of total capital investment
i.e. interest = 5% of 43.3186 107 = 0.05 43.3186 107
= Rs. 2.1660 107 /Thus, General Expenses = Rs. 10.6835 107 /(III) Total Product cost = Manufacture cost + General Expenses
= (29.1254 107) + (10.6835 107)
Therefore Total product cost = Rs. 39.8089 107 /Gross Earnings/Income:
Wholesale Selling Price of cane sugar per T = Rs. 8000 /As we know sugar factory operates only 120 - 200 days in a year and the production of
cane sugar per hour is 26.4818 T per hour (from material balance). The working hours
per day are 20.
Assuming factory operates only 150 days in a year.
Total Income = Selling price per T Quantity of product manufactured (T/year)
= 8000 (26.4818 20) T/day 150 days/year
Total Income = Rs. 63.56 107 /Gross income = Total Income Total Product Cost
= (63.56 107) (39.8089 107)
Gross Income = Rs. 23.75 107 /Let the Tax rate be 40%.
Taxes = 40% of Gross income
= 40% of 23.75 107 = 0.40 23.75 107
Taxes = Rs. 9.50 107 /Net Profit = Gross income - Taxes = Gross income (1- Tax rate)
Net profit = (23.75 107) (1 0.40) = Rs. 14.25 107 /-
Rate of Return:
Rate of return = (Net profit 100)/ Total Capital Investment
Rate of Return = (14.25 107 100)/ (43.3186 107)
Rate of Return = 32.89%
Payout period = (FCI)/(Net profit + Depreciation)
= (37.7251 107)/(14.25 107 + 3.8443 107)
= 2 years
boiler feed. Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used to provide the
cooling water required on site.
Electricity: - Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is
ordinarily required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are required for
running the various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and
general use and thus be considered, as one major factor is choice of plant site.
Environmental Impact And Effluent Disposal:
Facilities must be provided for the effective disposal of the effluent without any
public nuisance. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for various
effluents should be considered and attention should be given to potential requirements for
additional waste treatment facilities. As all industrial processes produce waste products,
full consideration must be given to the difficulties and coat of their disposal. The disposal
of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations, and the appropriate
authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that
must be met.
Local Community Considerations:
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community.
Climate:
Adverse climatic conditions at site will increase costs. Extremes of low
temperatures will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for
equipment and piping. Similarly, excessive humidity and hot temperatures pose serious
problems and must be considered for selecting a site for the plant. Stronger structures will
be needed at locations subject to high wind loads or earthquakes.
Political And Strategic Considerations:
Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by
governments to direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high
unemployment. The availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site
selection.
Taxation And Legal Restrictions:
State and local tax rates on property income, unemployment insurance, and
similar items vary from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on zoning,
building codes, nuisance aspects and others facilities can have a major influence on the
final choice of the plant site.
Costs:
Adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of connecting pipe between
equipment, and least amount of structural steel work can minimize the coat of
construction. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and
maintenance.
Process Requirements:
An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need to
elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump.
Convenience Of Operation:
Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow
easy access to equipment.
Convenience Of Maintenance:
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn
for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst
or packing should be located on the out side of buildings. Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places
under cover.
Health And Safety Considerations:
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and
confine the effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be
provided from each level in process buildings.
Future Plant Expansion:
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service
pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.
Modular Construction:
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturers site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping
and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.
The advantages of modular construction are:
1.
2.
3.
A detailed plant layout is drawn and submitted with this thesis report. This plant layout is
just a reference plant layout. There may be a lot of changes in actual plant layout.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.