Unit-1: Operational Amplifier

Definition - General Block Diagram of op-amp - Basics of op-amp -Differential amplifier - Ideal characteristics
of op-amp - Op-amp parameters - Virtual Ground Inverting Op-amp Non inverting Op-amp Adder or
Summing Amplifier Sub tractor Voltage Follower Voltage to Current Converter Integrator
Differentiator Logarithmic Amplifier
Amplifier: It is a device which converts a weak signal (Low Magnitude Signal) at the input side into a Strong
Signal (High Magnitude Signal) at the Output Side.

Output Voltage V0 = AVi

Definition: An operational amplifier or OP-AMP is essentially a High Voltage Gain direct coupled amplifier
with High input impedance and Low Output Impedance to which feedback is added to regulate overall
response.
General Block Diagram of Op-amp:
An Op-amp is a multi-stage amplifier as shown below.

 The input stage is a Dual-Input Balanced Output Differential Amplifier which provides most of the
voltage gain of the amplifier.
The intermediate stage is a Dual-Input Unbalanced Output Differential Amplifier which increases the
overall gain of the op-amp.
Level Shifting Stage is used to shift the dc level at the output of the intermediate stage downward to zero
volts with respect to ground. It is usually an emitter follower with constant current source.
The Output Stage is a complementary Symmetry push-pull amplifier which increases the output voltage
swing and the current supplying capability of the op-amp.
Basics of Op-amp:
Op-amps are one of the basic building blocks of Analog Electronics Circuits.
Op-amps are linear devices that have all the properties used in ideal DC amplification, extensively used
in signal conditioning, filtering & to perform mathematical operations such as Adder, Subtractor,
Integrator, Differentiator etc.,
An Op-amp is fundamentally a voltage amplifying device designed to be used with external feedback
components such as resistors and capacitors between its output and input terminals.
These feedback components determine the resulting function or operation of the amplifier and by
virtue of the different feedback configurations whether resistive, capacitive or both, the amplifier can
perform a variety of different operations, giving rise to its name of Operational Amplifier or Op-Amp.

An operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device which consists of two High Impedance
inputs, one called the Inverting Input, marked with a negative or minus sign, (-) and the otherone
called the Non-inverting Input, marked with a positive or plus sign (+), and one Low Impedance
Output.
If we connect an input signal at the inverting terminal (-) of the op-amp then the amplified output signal
is radians (180 degrees) out of phase with respect to the applied input signal.
If we connect an input signal at the non-inverting terminal (+) then the output signal obtained will be in
phase i.e. it will have no phase shift with respect to the input signal.
Differential Op-Amp:
Differential amplifier is the basic unit of operational amplifier. It amplifies the difference of two input
signals.
The circuit below shows a differential amplifier with two inputs marked V1 and V2.
The voltage that appears at the output, VOUT of the amplifier is the difference between the two input
signals as the two base inputs are in anti-phase with each other, i.e., V0 = Ad (V1-V2).

 The two identical transistors TR1 and TR2 are both biased at the same operating point with their
emitters connected together and returned to the common point, -VEE by way of Resistor RE.

The circuit operated from a dual supply + VCC and VEE which ensures a constant supply.
So as the forward bias of transistor, TR 1 is increased, the forward bias of transistor TR 2 is reduced and
vice versa, then if the two transistors are perfectly matched, the current flowing through the common
emitter resistor, RE will remain constant.
The op-amp operates in two modes. In Differential mode, the two input signals are equal but in opposite
phase, i.e., V1 = - V2.
Therefore, output in differential mode, V0 = Ad (V1 (- V1)) = 2AdV1.
In Common mode, the two input signals are equal and in the same phase i.e., V1 = V2.
Therefore, output in common mode, V0 = Ac (0) => Ac = .
V 1 +V 2
When two inputs are not equal, the common mode output is given by Vc =
.
2
Ideal Characteristics:

An ideal Op-Amp must have the following characteristics:

Input resistance must be infinite, i.e., Rin = .
Output resistance should be as small as Zero i.e., Rout = 0.
Bandwidth should be as wide as infinite.
Voltage gain Av should be as High as Infinite.
Characteristics of the op-amp should not change with temperature.
Output VoltageV0 = 0 when input voltage is zero.
CMRR should tend to infinity, so that the output common mode noise voltage is zero.
Slew rate should be infinity.

Op-Amp parameters:
1. CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio):
To express how successful an amplifier is in providing gain for the differential Signal & rejecting the
common mode signal, a factor called CMRR is used.
It is defined as, the ratio between the differential mode gain Ad, to common mode gain Ac, i.e.,
CMRR = =

A d Differential ModeGain
=
AC
Common Mode Gain

For a differential amplifier, in ideal case, CMRR is infinity.

But in practical case, it is made as High as possible and when CMRR is High, the output common mode
noise is Low.

2. Slew Rate:
It is defined as Maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time.
dV 0
SR = max dt .
Slew rate determines how fast op-amp responds in application of input voltage.
If output responds at the same instant of input applied, then dt = 0 and SR = .

3. Input Bias Current:

The input bias current (IB) is the average of the currents enter into the two input terminals with the
output at zero volts.
Typically the input bias current is around 80nA.
4. Input Offset Current:
The input offset current is the difference between the two input currents of the opamp with the output
at zero volts.
Typically the input offset current for a 741 op-amp is 20 nA.
5. Input Offset Voltage:
In the ideal op amp when both inputs are at zero volts the output should be zero volts.
Due to imbalances within the device a small amount of voltage will appear at the output.
This extra voltage can be eliminated by giving a small voltage called Input offset voltage (VOS) to the
amplifier.
Typically the input offset voltage for a 741 op-amp is around 1mV.
Virtual Ground:
It is a phenomenon in which one of the input terminals will have zero terminal voltage although that
terminal is not connected to ground, i.e., it is virtually grounded.
Explanation:
6
Consider an differential amplifier circuit, in which the gain (A) is 10 and output voltage be 6V.

6
And the input voltage for A = 10 and Vout = 6V is given by Vin =

6
6
10

= 6V = 0.000006V 0V

And now, from the differential amplifier, we have Vin = V1 V2 = 0V and that implies V1 =
V2.
As we have, the non-inverting terminal of an op-amp, i.e., V2 is grounded, V2 = 0V, which also says that
the other terminal V2 is also Grounded Virtually, i.e., V2 = 0V.
Therefore, V2 can also be considered at ground if V1 is at ground. Physically V2 is not connected to the
ground yet we considered V2 at ground, which is called Virtual Ground.
Inverting Op-amp: