GENERATION OF OVERLAND FLOW

LESLY ANN PAULINE MANAOAT

DIANNE ANGELA MONTEFRIO
FRANCIS REY ODTOHAN
Adamson University
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
OVERLAND FLOW
Overland flow is that portion of runoff
that occurs as sheet flow over a land
surface
without
becoming
concentrated
in
well-defined
channel, gullies, and rills. A common
example is flow over long, graduallysloped
pavements
during
or
immediately following a storm.
CONDITIONS PRODUCING THE
BEST EXAMPLE OF OVERLAND
FLOW
Overland flow or surface runoff
occurs when the amount of water
(usually from rainfall) accumulating
on the land surface exceeds the
infiltration capacity of the soil. This
water is available as surface runoff
or overland flow, flowing on the land
surface down-gradient towards a
river or a local depression in the
topography. Overland flow occurs in
areas with low permeable soils
and/or in areas with high rainfall
rates. A land area producing runoff
which drains to a common outflow
point is called a watershed. When
water flows along the ground, it can
pick up sediments or contaminants
and lead to sedimentation or water
pollution in nearby streams.

Surface runoff may be generated in

three ways:
i.

When the rate of rainfall

exceeds
the
infiltration
capacity of the ground. This is
called
infiltration
excess
overland flow or Horton
overland flow. This occurs
mainly in arid and semi-arid
regions,
where
rainfall
intensities are high.

ii.

When the soil is saturated and

the depression storage is
filled, and rain continues to
fall. This is called saturation
excess overland flow or
saturated overland flow.

iii.

When groundwater is flowing

to the surface (flowing out of
the soil) close to a channel or
a depression. This is called
subsurface storm flow or
interflow.

may be influenced by several other

factors, such as frost/thaw, presence of
stones and crusting.
Particularly in tropical environments,
Hortonian type of overland flow may be
an important generator of overland flow.
In other environments, and in particular in
the temperate regions, the major source
of overland flow is saturated overland
flow. In humid vegetated areas soil
moisture levels tend to build up
downslopes, especially close to streams,
and near saturated areas generate a
disproportionate amount of overland flow
runoff.

Surface runoff is mainly controlled by the

slope and the roughness of the surface.
Evaporation and infiltration are also
affecting factors. The main effect of runoff is observed on the river hydrographs
where the peak values are based on
surface runoff and interflow, as they
combine to give the fast runoff to the river
systems. Surface runoff is one of the
causes of soil erosion.
FACTORS
THAT
CONTRIBUTED
DEVELOPMENT

MAY
TO

HAVE
ITS

As overland flow is the major transporting

agent and in some case also the main
detaching agent, a proper description in
space and time of the generation and
routing of overland flow is crucial.
Regarding the generation of overland
flow, the infiltration rate is the most
sensitive variable. This is in particular true
in cases where the rainfall intensity and
the infiltration rate are of the same order
of magnitude as this may give rise to
simulation rates which relatively
deviate considerably. The infiltration rate

Factors such as soil permeability,

topographic slope, and type and density
of vegetation affect the development and
distribution of overland flow in both time
and space. Bare soil areas will facilitate
infiltration excess overland flow because
the energy of raindrops can lead to the
rearrangement of the surface soil
particles which will then create a crust
and reduce the infiltration capacity. On
the other hand, vegetation protects the
soil and creates pathways for water
infiltration through its roots and thus can
reduce overland flow in an area.
OVERLAND FLOW IN PRODUCING
SIGNIFICANT SUFACE EROSION ON
CHANNEL PLANFORM CHANGE
A flood event may be defined as the high
discharge that exceeds the capacity of
the channel, and so flows beyond bank
full discharge onto the adjacent flood
plain. Different sizes of flood are defined
in terms if discharges above a stated
flood level within that location, or in terms
of a height above bank full. Large flood
discharges are less frequent than smaller
ones. And so floods are described in
terms of their magnitude and frequency.
Channel dimension changes

The channel dimension is the shape and

size of the channel cross-section at a
particular location at a bank full discharge
which is when the channel is full of water
to the top if the banks.
Generally, channel dimensions increase
as we move downstream, and as this
leads to increases to hydraulic radius, the
channel becomes more efficient, and so
there is a relatively greater increase in
channel discharge capacity at bank
full stage. Similarly, bed and bank
materials tend to reduce in size
downstream due to increased weathering
and erosion of the material, and so the
roughness of the channel boundary
decreases, again promoting faster flow.
Channel planform changes
There are three basic channel planform
styles or patterns: straight meandering
and braided. Channel sinuosity is the
common measurement used to
distinguish between these three basic
patterns.

WAYS IN WHICH OVERLAND FLOW

COULD
BE
REDUCED
OR
PREVENTED
Increase soil moisture capacity
The most effective way to improve soil
moisture capacity is to increase
groundcover. Vegetation intercepts and
slows water so that it has time to soak
into the soil and infiltrate through the soil
profile where it becomes available to
plant roots. Higher and denser vegetation
encourages more infiltration. Vegetation
also improves soil health and structure,
further improving soil moisture capacity.
Other ways to improve infiltration include
reducing soil compaction, and ripping
along slope contours to encourage
infiltration and prevent build-up of surface
water. However, on land prone to mass
movement where soil is already
waterlogged, attempting to increase
infiltration could increase the potential for
land slips.
Slow down water flow
As overland flows speed up they become
more erosive, so it is important to slow
down overland flows to minimise erosion.
Flow speed is determined by:
surface roughness
slope steepness
slope length
A rough surface intercepts flowing water,
breaks up its force and slows it down.
Roughness is best achieved with dense
vegetation close to the ground. Slope
steepness has a major effect on soil
erosion because water runs faster down
steep slopes. It is difficult to change the
natural slope so it is important it is to use
other techniques such as groundcover
and banks to slow water speed. On long
slopes, water flow builds up speed and
volume, so slopes need to be broken up
into shorter sections to keep water flows
manageable. This can be done by
planting vegetated strips across the slope
to slow the flow, or building banks to

intercept the water and convey it to a

water course or storage area.
The overland flowing water could be
beneficial by helping to reduce the
drought risk, if it could be controlled and
encouraged to infiltrate the soil.
Grass hedges are a cheap and effective
structure for controlling overland flow and
for filtering nutrients and pollutants. Grass
hedges facilitate deposition of eroded
materials by reducing the carrying
capacity of overland flow and encourage
water infiltration into the soil. The
effectiveness of the grass hedges is
influenced by the length, width and
thickness of the vegetative filter, the
characteristics of the runoff area, the
precipitation intensity and the slope
gradient.
REFERENCES:
Abbot, M.B., & Refsgaard, J.C. (1996).
Distributed Hydrological Modeling.
Netherlands, AN: Kluwer Academic
Publishers
Tolba, M.K.(2001). OUR FRAGILE
WORLD: Challenges and Opportunities

for Sustainable development. Oxford, OX:

Eolss Publishers Co. Ltd

Anderson, R.S., & Anderson, S.P.

(2010). Geomorphology: The Mechanics
and Chemistry of Landscapes. United
Kingdom, UK: Cambridge University
Press

Department of Primary Industries. Saving

Soil - A landholders guide to preventing
and repairing soil erosion

Wu, J.Y., Huang, D., Teng, W.J. & Sardo,

V.I. (2010). Grass hedges to reduce
overland flow and soil erosion. Agronomy
for Sustainable Development, Springer
Verlag/EDP Sciences/INRA, 2010, 30 (2),
<10.1051/agro/2009037>. <hal00886503>