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Super Helpful Blog

https://druidgarden.wordpress.com/tag/papermaking/

Hand Papermaking, Part 1: Recycled Papermaking

July 8, 2012

This is a post on papermaking using recycled fibers. I also have two posts on natural
papermaking with cattail heads (which works well) and cattail leaf (which needs some
improvement).

The commercial process of producing paper is an incredibly environmentally destructive one,

contributing to deforestation, air pollution, and water pollution. The consumer demand for paper
is so high that 35% of our trees are logged just for this purpose. The process of making paper
releases greenhouse gasses and toxic chemicals into our air and water. As a druid seeking a
deeper relationship with the land, I work hard to develop alternative means to avoid supporting
harmful practices, like the purchase of new, non-recycled papers. We have massive deforestation
in the worldso much of it driven by the demand for wood-based products.

Towards that end, I have developed ways of recycling paper and using local, abundant plantbased materials for papermaking. This post will detail how to create paper from recycled
materials, such as office paper waste, junk mail, paper scraps, paper bags, etc. I will also soon
post about plant-fiber papermaking.

If you find yourself in need of ritual papers or papers for special purposes, hand papermaking is a
great skill to have. The paper below, containing ashes from Yule and Beltane fires, was made by a
friend of mine as a gift. This sacred paper can be used for all sorts of things!

Papermaking sheet of paper with beltane fire ash

A Short History of Papermaking

Papermaking is an art that is over 5000 years old. The first papers in recorded history papyrus
(ancient Egypt) and Tapa (China). Both were used in record keeping and both were made of plant
fibers local to the area. In AD 105 the Chinese created our first modern paper from waste rags
from fabric. Within five centuries, the Arabic world had developed fine papers and exported these
all over the eastern hemisphere, including parts of Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. Italian
papermakers picked up on the Arabic techniques and improved them, creating the first paper
mill. In the early 14th century, paper was becoming more and more important to European
societiesin both the public and intellectual spheres. Because of this, paper mills spread
throughout Europe during the renaissance and later to the Americas. Jumping toward the
21st century, concerns about whether the information era will cause an end to paper as we know it
have surfaced and the art of handmade papermaking continues to be one practiced by a select
few.

Papermaking Supplies
You can get started making handmade paper for a $30 or less investmentmost of this should be
available secondhand. Heres what youll need:

1) A blender. I have a blender just for papermaking, but its possible to use your regular
blender if you clean it out sufficiently after use (and if you are not using any additives or
chemicals, which I dont recommend you using anyways). I recommend picking up a used blender
at a yard sale or thrift store.

2) A mould and deckle. The mould and deckle is the part of the process that allows you to
form sheets of paper from a vat of pulp. The mould and deckle are two frames with an inside
diameter of whatever size of paper you want. I have moulds and deckles in 8.511 and 1117,
but you can make them of any size. Embroidery hoops and used picture frames can both work for
this purpose. One of them should have a screen (window screening is fine; choose fiberglass over
aluminum if possible) stapled to them. To do the pour method (see below) you need a special
larger deckle that is 3 high.

3) Couching sheets. These are simply sheets that are slightly larger than the size of your
frame (so about 10 x 13 would work for an 8.5 x 11 frame). For couching sheets, you can use
any cotton-based or muslin material. Old bedsheets work really well for thisI recycle my old ones
this way, and ask family and friends to save them for me (or pick some up at yard sales). You can
use any type of cotton fabric or unbleached muslin to hold your paper. Cut your couching sheets
larger than your mould or deckle.

4)

Sponges: Fairly self-explanatory; you can also omit these if you dont have any around.

5) Materials to create pulp: old office paper, envelopes, bills, dryer lint, old clothing, plant
materials, etc! Paper with text or writing is fine and will give you neat effects. I do not
recommend using newspaper because it has a high acid content and will deteriorate faster. You
can also purchase commercial cotton linters or abaca fibersbut I find these expensive and not
necessary for successful papermaking. These fibers strengthen your recycled pulp, giving you a
stronger final recycled paper.

6) Paper additives (optional) paper additives come in two forms. Those that you add to the
paper for a functional reason (such as paper sizing) and those you add to the paper for effect
(such as cold water fabric dyes sprinkled over the top, dried flowers, confetti, glitter, etc).

7) A basin or sink in which to work. I recommend using a sink if you have a garbage
disposalthe excess pulp can then go through the disposal. If you dont have a garbage disposal
in your sink, I would use a basin instead so that you dont have to sieve the pulp out of the sink
before releasing the water down the drain.

Additional things helpful to the papermaking process:

Easy Access to water and electricity. For modern papermaking, having your blender close by
and a sink is very necessary. Obviously, water and electricity dont combine well, so take
reasonable safety precautions when using this equipment.

A workspace that you dont mind getting wet. Ive made paper in kitchens, garages, and
outside in the sun. All are good choices. Papermaking is VERY messy, so choose your workspace
carefully.

Old Towels: For cleaning up your mess. Trust me, it will happen!

A sunny day with little wind: Your paper dries quickly outside in the sun (2-4 hours). In my
part of the world, it takes 2-3 days to dry indoors due to our high humidity level.

What can go in handmade paper?

You can put all kinds of inclusions in handmade paper. Here are a few of my favorites:

Dried flowers from the garden

Dried anything from the garden that is soft

Bits of fabric and yarn (cut up small)

Paper scraps and junk mail

Tea bags (used)

Dryer lint

Dried leaves and herbs

Cut grass

Coffee filters (used)

Paper towels used (with paint, not food!)

Bits of letters

Book pages (removed from books falling apart, etc)

Tissue paper (recycled from gifts)

Old clothing, torn up small

The sky is the limit. For things that are thicker or harder, soak them at least 24 hours before you
put them in your blender. I advise against anything super-hard like pine cones or very hard seeds
or nut podsthey simply wont blend well and will cause you problems in your paper.

Stages of Papermaking

Prepare your of recycled materials and paper inclusions.

Begin by tearing up the paper you want to recycle into 1.5 squares. I stress that tearing is
important because you want to retain as much of the paper fiber as possible (if you cut it, youll
cut the fibers and end up with weaker paper). Tear up a good bit, and then place them in a
bucket or large bowl of water. Allow the fibers to soak at least an hour (for standard office paper)
or much longer (for heavier stuff such as cardstock). I recommend soaking thicker papers like
watercolor paper, abaca fibers, and so forth overnight.
If you are using flowers, tea, or plant matter with your paper and dont want them bleeding into
the paper (can look cool, but not always what you want) youll also need to boil those for 10
minutes or so. This keeps the pigments in the flowers from spreading into your paper, creating
small halos around the plant. Personally, I like the effect but not everyone does.

Prepare your work area

Set your blender up as close to your sink/vat as possible. Fill your vat/sink up with enough water
to completely cover the mould and deckle when they are placed inside (about 1-2 over is a good
amount).
Prepare a place to lay and press the paper after you create ittake an old towel or other
absorbent surface and lay it near your work area. This is where you will transfer your freshly
couched sheets.
Your couching sheets should be damp before use, especially if you are using a thicker material like
felt. You can soak them and then let them sit out, or even hit them with a spray bottle before use.

Create your pulp

Once you have soaked your pulp, grab a decent handful of it and place it into the blender, filling
the blender up about 1/3 of the way. Fill up the blender to the top with water. If you use too
much pulp youll stress the blender, and if you use too little, youll be a bit inefficient in your pulp
production. Give the pulp a good blend for a solid pulp, 30-40 seconds is sufficient. As you are
blending, watch to make sure all the fibers are spinning. If they arent, then you have too much
pulp in the blenderremove some and add more water.

Recycled paper and blender

Note: How much you blend the pulp can affect how your paper looks. If you blend the pulp only
partially, youll end up with a much different effect than if you blend it completely. For a complete
blend, youll want to start on low for about 15 seconds then move to the highest setting for
another 15-20 seconds.
Blending time and speed will determine how quickly your papers turn to pulp. When using
recycled papers, you may consider blending them less to give you a neat effect. Blending them
for only a few seconds will leave portions of the text readable and give you very unique sheets of

paper with flecks of text that can still be read! You can combine different colors of paper for a
confetti look too. Here is an image of a piece of freshly pulled paper with text bits from a recycled
book combined with some recycled purple tissue paper pulp:

Freshly Pulled Paper

Method 1: The Pull Method

The first method of papermaking (and the way its traditionally done) is to pour your pulp into a
large vat of water and pull sheets from it. The Pull Method allows you to create many sheets of
paper similar in appearance. The paper from the pull method is also thinner than that of the Pour
Method (discussed below). Both have their benefits.
To get the right consistency of pulp in the vat, youll probably need to add three or so blenderfulls
of pulp to your vat.
Once you have added the pulp, swish it around with your hand to get any that may have settled,
and then slip your mould and deckle into the pulp. Hold the mould and deckle together, making
sure that the mould (the part with the screen) has the screen facing up. Pull the mould and
deckle straight up (moving the mould and deckle together back and forth a bit to swishing around
the pulp and water a bit to even it out as you pull). Stop moving the mould and deckle once most
of the water drains out.

Pull method for papermaking

Take one of your dampened couching sheets and place it over the freshly pulled piece of paper.
You can use a sponge to get off a bit of excess water, then take the sheet to your absorbent cloth
and flip the entire mould over. The paper should come off the mould and stay on the couch
sheet. Sometimes it is a bit stubborn, and I find that if you pull on the edges of the couch sheet
away from the mould, it helps get the paper unstuck.

Couching Papers

You can continue to pull sheets of paper, couch them, and lay them on top of each other (creating
a stack) until you have created all that you want to. After you pull 5-8 sheets of paper, youll
notice that your pulp will thin out considerably. Continue to add new blenderfulls of pulp (and
additional water) as necessary as you go along. You can subtly change the color of the pulp as
you add blenderfulls by changing the types of recycled papers you put into the pulp.

Method 2: The Pour Method

This is a method I developed to allow me to create marbleized paper techniques and also to
create thicker papers. It also allows you to experiment with different recipes for paper, one
blenderfull at a time. I highly recommend it for mail art, as you get thicker papers which are
useful for sturdy bases and backgrounds. For this technique you will need a larger deckle (3)
high.
Place your mould and deckle in the vat of water. The top of the deckle should stick out of the
water, preventing the water inside from flowing out.

Pour method

Create your pulp as normal in your blender. Instead of pouring the pulp directly into the vat, pour
about a blenderfull into the inside of the deckle. Swish it around with your fingers till you see
the pulp evenly spread within the deckle. Grab the mould and deckle and pull the whole thing out
of the waterand you have your sheet of paper!
You can experiment with all sorts of techniques with this method including combining two
different types of pulp or making layers of color.

Give it a little color!

Some of the sheets in my examples have been treated with a powdered cold water fabric dye or
natural dyes (walnut ink, berry dyes, etc.). You can do one of two things:
1) While the paper is still wet (just after pressing), you can take the package of dye and sprinkle
some of it on each sheet (as shown in my pictures of my paper drying). This gives you a speckled
effect, and is really quite stunning.
2) You can also add dye to your paper while you are making it. Add a few tablespoons to your
pulp in your vatand use gloves to pull your paper!

3) If you want color and dont want to deal with the dye, you can also add colored sheets of
recycled paper, brightly colored tissue papers, natural plant dyes (like chamomile or pokeberry) or
even construction papers to your pulp and blend it well. All of these options produce great paper
with fantastic color!

Dyed papers

Drying and pressing your paper

Once you have a decent sized stack of wet papers, take your stack outside. I find the easiest
thing to do is to press it by using a piece of board on the sidewalk or driveway. I stand on it for
about a minute, allowing much of the water to be removed.
Next, I remove each sheet (keeping them on their couching sheets still) and lay them in the sun to
dry.

Drying Papers

Often, I will mist them and iron them to get them completely flat once again.
Alternatives to pressing include using a larger commercial press overnight, or even using an
vintage laundry press to press your sheets dry faster!

Handmade Paper Projects

There are just so many things you can do with handmade paper. Here are a few recent things
that I made with papers:

Handmade journals

Pages for Book with Hand-carved stamp

Recipie cards

Papermaking, Part II: Papermaking From Plant Materials

(Cattail Fibers) July 9, 2012
In my last post, I detailed the steps for making handmade paper from recycled materials. In that
post, I also detailed the basic steps of making paper, from blending to couching to pulling and
pressing sheets. Recycled fibers are a great way to start, but you may find yourself interested in
papermaking techniques using nothing but what is available from the land around you. Plantbased papermaking is an advanced papermaking technique, so I suggest you start with recycled
papers, and once you are comfortable with that process, move onto this one.
Im going to be using cattail fibers, specifically, those of the flower head/seeds/fluff as an example
for this post. You can use a lot of different fibers for the plant-based paper process, including
reeds (with hard, woody bits removed, cattail leaves, burdock (the whole plant), various grasses,
etc.). We also have a lot of invasive phragmites around here; I have found that their leaves (but

not stems) make excellent paper too. Each potential papermaking plant requires a getting to
know you stage for example, burdock stems make better paper than the leaves, unless you dry
the whole thing first. What you want in a plant is some strong fibers so that your paper has
strength, but not so woody that stems, etc get into your paperthick stems wont cook down in
the process Im describing below. So something like the leaves of reeds, or the leaves (but not
stems) of corn work for this. Creating pulp from locally-sourced plants is pretty much an
experiential art form, so you really just need to pick the plants, boil them down, make some pulp,
and see what happens! But the cattail fibers are a pretty safe bet for your first attempt, hence
why they are used as my example here.

Finished piece of cattail fiber paper

Ethical Foraging and Gathering

Make sure when you are gathering wild materials that you are doing so in an ethical manner. This
includes:

Do not over-harvest: pick only in areas that have a healthy amount of the plant growing, and
leave plenty behind. Dont ever harvest endangered plants.

Make sure you have permission: public lands and state parks are often off limits; gain
permission from private landowners before harvestingchances are, if you share with them
what you are doing (or a bit of your end product), they wont care. You should also ask
permission from the spirits of the land.

Consider your timing: part of why I harvest the cattail heads in the spring is because the plant
is dead; I am just harvesting the seed pods.

Be thankful: remember to be thankful for all that you take from the land. In some pagan
traditions, people leave a little offering like a silver coin, etc, near the plant. Honestly, I kinda
think this is pretty silly. If Im going to leave an offering in thanks, I do one of two things: leave
something that would be edible to wildlife (e.g. some wheat berries or sunflower seeds or
apples) or else do something that helps the land (like participating in a river clean-up). Make
whatever you are doing in thanks count and have an actual, lasting impact.

Gathering Cattail Heads

I happen to live in an area with a ton of wetlands, so cattails make a perfect locally-sourced paper
pulp. I go out in the springearly spring is fineand gather the dried heads from the previous
season. You can find them in great numbers along roadsides or near ponds. On a warm spring
day, I went out and gathered a large box full of the headsprobably about 40-50 or so of them.
Unlike most foraging, where you have to be concerned about gathering from near roadsides, with
papermaking materials you dont, since you wont be ingesting any of the materials. I should add
that if you are gathering anything in a marshy area, having a good pair of rubber boots is a wise
idea.

Box of cattail heads, collected in spring along the roadside!

Preparing Fibers
Preparing plant-based fibers for papermaking requires some additional steps from the recycled
paper instructions I posed last time. First, you obviously need to get the fibers in a pulp-like
state. For cattail fibers, this includes pulling them off their stems and soaking them in a vat of
water. (I used the stems to help start a fire, so they are not wasted; you can also compost the
stems.)

Pulling fibers off of stems and placing in pot of water

Since youll be using something caustic to break down the fibers, its really important that you use
a pot that wont react to strong alkalai. An enamel pot is a good choice for this; I also understand
that stainless steel works, but I only have used an enamel pot.

Fiber is ready for cooking!

Once your cattail fibers are in the pot, you want to add some Soda Ash (usually found in the form
of Arm and Hammer Super Washing Soda). Super Washing Soda can be a bit tricky to find; look
for it in your grocery store in the cleaning supplies near the laundry detergents. I used to not be
able to find it at all in Indiana, so I ordered it online in bulk (bulk because I also use it for laundry
detergent and some other purposes). But in Michigan, our local Kroger store carries it. I usually
add about 3/4 a cup to a pot the size of this one; the ratios dont have to be exact.
Mix in your soda ash and bring your concoction to a boil (but not a rapid one, a simmer is fine).
Cook your pulp and soda ash mixture for about 3-4 hours; make sure you have good ventilation

while cooking (use the stove fan, open window, etc.). Stir it every 30 min or so, making sure it
doesnt burn. I use a wooden spoon for this purpose, as I know it wont react with the soda ash
(but I dont use that spoon for cooking).
As it cooks, youll notice that the fibers start to darken. This is because the soda ash is going to
break down the non-cellulose content in the fiberand we want the cellulose, but not the other
stuff, for paper.
After 3-4 hours turn off the heat and let your pot cool down for a while. Once your pulp can be
handled, drain your pot. Put on some rubber gloves and rinse out your fibers so that you get all of
the Soda Ash out of there. Youll need to touch your pulp in later stages, so you dont want it to
be caustic. For this purpose, I usually use a colander or else some cheeseclothanything that
you can rinse and strain the fibers is fine.

Pulp cooks for several hours

You can put your fibers back in the pot, adding additional water. They are now ready to make into
paper!
Blending and Pulling Sheets
Now that you have your pulp prepared, you can go ahead and treat it like any recycled pulp
(which some additional considerations in the couching step). I have more detailed instructions in
my previous post, but the basic steps are:
1)
Blend your fibers: this is especially important with plant-based fibers, even short ones like
the cattail fiber. This will give you a more uniform pulp and better results. Dont put too much
pulp in the blender at onceits really thick stuff. For some pulps, like reed, youll really need to
blend for a while. The cattail blends quickly and easily. Some others, not so much. Really serious

papermakers doing plant fiber paper actually buy professional blenders that help break down the
pulp. But if you are reading this post, my guess is that you arent that serious yet

Blender full of pulp

2)
Add your fibers to a vat of water (we are using the pull method for this, as detailed in my last
post).

Pouring pulp into vat

3)

Pull your sheets of paper out of the vat using a mould and deckle.

Pulling sheet of paper from vat

Freshly pulled sheet of paper

4)
Couch your sheets of paper. Please note that some plant fibers are really hard to couch
effectivelyand even harder to peel from a sheet of newly pressed paper sheets (this is when you
stack the couched sheets on top of one another). Because of this, I suggest that you stack and
press no more than three of them. If you have trouble pulling the pressed sheets apart, simply
dont press them at this stage. Just take a sponge and soak out as much of the water as you can.
Not pressing them to remove excess water means that they will take a lot longer to dry, but youll
end up with nice sheets. I had this problem less with cattail than I did with burdock and
phragmite. I found that if I pressed only a few sheets of paper, and didnt press too much water
out of them, they didnt stick too badly.

Couching Sheets of Paper

5)
Let your paper dry, then enjoy! You can iron your paper or press it overnight to get it to
flatten out.

Sheets of paper drying (mostly cattail, but also some recycled and 1-2 burdock sheets); cattail is in various
satges of drying, which is why its shaded differently

Stack of cattail paper! So awesome!

Papermaking III: Cattail Leaf Paper (A

Learning Experience) December 11, 2012

In my quest for sustainable art supplies and things for daily living, Im always experimenting with
ways of replacing commercially produced materials with homemade ones. And so, my
papermaking quest continues. For earlier posts on papermaking, you can read about the basic
process for recycled paper here and making cattail head paper here.
I had a friend recently ask me about making handmade paper from the cattail leaves in winter. I
was skeptical because of their toughness (and my lack of a Hollander blender, which is a
industrial-strength blender that is a papermakers dream for preparing tough fibers) but I thought
Id give it a go and post the results here. Im going to walk you through my process and talk
about what worked and the things I would change. I will start by saying that making paper from
any kind of natural material is a lengthy process, and the tougher the fibers, the more difficult the
process. This is why I posted about cattail seed/head fibers firstthey are really simple compared
to leaf fibers

The overall process of turning tough fibers into paper: For most plant materials, to create
pulp, you have to break down the non-cellulose materials in the plant (usually through boiling in
soda ash or lye). This is usually a lengthy process. If you are cooking fibers, you want an enamel
or stainless steel potan aluminum pot will react with the Soda Ash or lye that you need to use to
break down fibers. A typical cooking takes about 4 hours. Soda ash (Arm and Hammer Super
Washing Soda) can be used in your home. It kind of stinks, but its not toxic. If you are breaking
fibers down with lye (which is needed for some really tough fibers) then you will need to boil your
pulp outside because lye is toxic and releases some toxic fumes. This is where having an outdoor
rocket stove can be so useful! After you boil the fibers down, you will rinse them, beat them, and

then rinse them again. At this stage, hopefully, you will have something resembling pulp! So this
is the basic process that I used for the cattail leaf fibers, although, as I describe, each time you
work with a new material it is a learning experience.
Harvesting Leaves: If you are a home papermaker and lack any equipment heavier than a
typical home blender, you absolutely do not want to attempt anything with with tough stalk
material (like stalk of phragmites or the stalk of the cattail). They are too tough and difficult for
you to use. So I decided just to harvest the cattail leaves (many of which are brown and dead by
my pond). I harvested enough for a test batch (and in this first photo, youll see that I also
harvested some other reed things I dont know the name of but I plan on trying to make paper
from at a later point.) I will also say that if you are serious about making this paper, harvesting is
the easiest part.

Harvested Fibers

Soaking and Preparing Leaves for Cooking. I brought the leaves back inside, I pulled out
any that were rotten or otherwise looked dark or partially broken down That left me with a bunch
of leaves that I tore up and added to a pot of water to soak overnight. Heres the first thing I
would changethe fibers I ripped were WAY to long. I left them about 5 long, thinking that they
would break down further with beating and cooking. Uh, no, they dont. So I would suggest taking
scissors to them and chopping them up to 1 and 1/2 pieces. This will save you trouble later.

Fibers in pot before soaking

Cooking fibers. After a full 24 hour soak, I was ready to cook my fibers. I cooked them on high
for 4 hours with a half a cup of soda ash (Super Washing Soda). It stunk up the house, but thats
how it goes when you are making paper

. Here is a shot of the fibers as they are cooking.

The fibers will get less hard, and more pliable. Theyll also get a lot darker. Once the fibers cool,
dump the water and rinse the fibers a few more times.

Cooking fibers

Beating fibers. After your fibers are cool, you can go ahead and beat them a bit. Cattail leaves
have some stuff inside of them that isnt good for paper (it makes things kind of sticky) so its
always necessary to beat them after cooking them. I started with a little wooden mallet, but I
quickly shifted to using my rubber boots and jumping on the whole stack because, hey, its cold
outside in Michigan in December and that little mallet would have taken an hour. They spurt
water too, so stomping them is best. This is really where you start to see the pump taking form.

Mashing Fibers with Mallet

Better mashing of fibers

Rinse fibers. At this point, I took my fibers back into the kitchen and rinsed them. I was done
for the day, so I left them sit on the counter soaking in more water overnight.

Rinsing fibers

Cutting fibers. Now, if I had a professional hollander blender, I could avoid the beating fibers
and rinsing and cutting, and just stick the things in the hollander blender. But I dont have one, so
fiber prep is a lot of work. I found that my fibers were WAAAAYYY to long to make a good pulp,
and there was no way a regular or immersion blender or household tabletop blender could handle
them due to their length. This left one option: cutting them up. If you took my advice and cut
them up earlier on, it would be easier than doing this at this stage. It might even be possible to
blend them, which would be a really good thing. But here I go, cutting up my fibers!

Cutting up fibers

Making the paper. At this stage, after about 6 hours of gathering, processing, cooking, beating, I
have some pulp. Honestly, the pulp isnt that great because its too fibrous and not too pulpy. I
think if I had cooked it down in lye and cut it shorter, I would have had a better fiber. The lye
breaks it down more than the soda ash. But I went with what I had. I pulled four sheets with just
the cattail fiber (which didnt couch well, but dried really interesting) using the methods I

described in my earlier post. The fully cattail fiber paper doesnt hold together well eitherbut
that really has to do with the size of the fibers and the fact that I couldnt get them any smaller.
For half the batch, I decided to add some abaca fiber (commercially prepared) to make it more
pulpy and that paper looks great. Here are some final photos.

Solid cattail fiber paper

Solid cattail paper in the light see how it has patches that are not fully covered?

Cattail paper with abaca fiber

Cattail papers with abaca fiber

Closing thoughts: I think that cattail leaf fibers in the winter, when they are dry, represents a
challenge for papermakers (especially if you arent going to blend the fibers with anything else). I
would instead go with the cattail heads, which are much more straightforward and which you can
get throughout the fall, winter, and spring. At the same time though, all the work was worth it
because the final paper with abaca pulp is nice. The fully cattail leaf paper is a bit flimsy, but I
can see using it in a mixed media project, but likely not on its own. The stuff that has abaca
fibers holding it together is really, really nice and I could use it for all sorts of things.

Tour to the poo poo paper park: https://youtu.be/1j5Z4jT71K8

About Binders:
http://www.engr.utk.edu/mse/Textiles/Chemical%20Bonding.htm

CHEMICAL BONDING

Updated: April, 2004 - M. G. Kamath, Atul Dahiya, Raghavendra R. Hegde

(Monika Kannadaguli & Ramaiah Kotra)

1. INTRODUCTION
For more than four decades, almost all nonwovens required a chemical binder in order
to provide any measure of structural integrity. In addition, the binder was called upon
to contribute and convey numerous properties that were necessary for the effective
performance of the fabric.
During this extended period, binders were essentially the weak element in developing
fully acceptable nonwoven fabrics. The fibers that were available to the nonwoven
industry were the same fibers that were available to the textile and other fiber-based
industries; hence, the fibers were fully acceptable. Generally, the binder limited the
performance of the nonwoven fabric.
The deficiencies cited against nonwovens generally were deficiencies attributable to
an inadequate binder. Common complaints are as follows:
The fabric doesn't have enough strength.

The fabric is too stiff.

The fabric has inadequate absorbency.

The fabric shows poor laundering ability.

The fabric has inadequate dry cleaning ability.

The fabric simply doesn't feel like a textile.

Consequently, a great deal of effort has been put into the development and continuous
improvement of chemical binders. The steady improvements in nonwovens
performance that occurred over a period of many years were, in no small measure, due
to improvements in the performance and utility of the binder.
In the very early stages of nonwovens development, different types of natural resins
and glues were used to bond nonwovens. While they conveyed some integrity and
strength to these webs, they also had many glaring deficiencies. Consequently,

synthetic binders were developed to meet the structural and performance requirements
of nonwoven fabrics.
Polyvinyl acetate was the first successful synthetic binder used in substantial volume.
This material had distinctly superior adhesive properties, strength, and performance
compared to the early natural adhesives. This binder is flexible and it can be applied
to fiber webs by many ways including print bonding.
The industry was faced with the inevitable compromise in fabric properties of
nonwovens bonded with synthetic materials. In order to build strength in the fabric,
increasing amounts of resin must be applied, which results in more stiffness. If
softness is necessary, it can be achieved, but primarily by sacrificing strength.
A substantial improvement in this trade-off of strength and softness was achieved with
the introduction of acrylic-based latex binders in the 1950s and 1960s. By proper
selection of co-monomers, it is possible to build improved softness properties with
adequate strength. Consequently, these binders became widely used by most of the
nonwovens industry, despite the somewhat higher cost.
As polymer technology for manufacturers of synthetic binder systems improved, a
greater variety of chemical building blocks became available with much greater
flexibility in terms of binder strength, durability, and other properties. The
introduction of cross-linkable and self-crosslinking binder polymers turned out an
entirely new range of fabric properties. This was particularly noteworthy in durable
nonwovens where such durability features as washability and dry cleanability were
important.
2. PROPERTIES DESIRED IN A BINDER
The construction of a nonwoven with suitable binders is to achieve improved
characteristics such as strength, softness, adhesion, firmness, durability, stiffness, fire
retardence, hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity, anti-microbial properties, organic
compatibility, reduced surface tension, improved dimensional stability and solvent,
wash and acid resistance. The following list illustrates some general considerations
required for an ideal binder. The required properties can be varied depending on the
end-uses.

Strength: The strength of a nonwoven fabric is more closely related to the

strength of the applied binder.

Adhesion to Fibers: Even though the mechanism of adhesion is not

completely understood, the adhesion strength of the binder-to-fiber bond has
to be considered.

Flexibility/handle: The some movements of fibers should be allowed,

especially when a soft hand is desired.

Elastic Recovery: To avoid the permanent deformation of fabric, good

elastic recovery is required under strain.

Resistance to washing/ Drying cleaning: Some nonwoven products need

durability in cleaning processes according to their end-uses.

Resistance to aging: The binder should be stable and not be degraded in

the fabric during storage and use.

Good color and color retention: Diverse ranges of colors are required, and
the colorfastness and yellowing problems should be considered.

Economical: Minimizing the cost is an ongoing requirement.

Other special requirements: Such as Flame resistance, resistance to

chemicals, air, oxygen, light, heat, etc.

3. HOW BINDERS WORK

The process involves three steps:
1. Binder application to nonwoven web.
2. Removal moisture or solvent.
3. Formation of strong bond between binder and nonwoven web.

In general binders contain polymer produced by the reaction of

monomers in presence of initiators or catalysts. Surfactants are used
to stabilize these polymer particles in water during emulsification
(Fig. 1)

Fig.1: Emulsion Polymerization Schematic. [1]

After application of the binder to the nonwoven web, during

moisture removal, film formation takes place. This phenomenon is
shown in Fig. 2.

Fig.2: Schematic of film formation [1]

Binder factors influencing nonwoven performance are:

1. Backbone Structure
2. Functional Group
3. Surfactant
4. Process

4. CLASSIFICATION OF BINDERS
Due to their diversity, binders may be classified into several categories based on
polymer (binder) chemical structure, functionality and the type of curing reactions.
4.1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
There are three main kinds of binders: butadiene copolymers, acrylates, and vinyl
copolymers. The chemical compositions influence T g, hardness and softness,
hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity, elasticity, aging, and dry tensile strength of
binders. The higher the Tg, the higher will be the dry tensile strength of binders.

Butadiene Copolymers
The structure of the main butadiene copolymer is shown as follows:

The butadiene polymers are cross-linked by polysulphides, and their properties are
modified by different copolymers. The butadiene monomers provide elasticity while
styrene and acrylonitrile monomers give tensile strength, and oil and solvent
resistance, respectively. Their disadvantages are oxidation and discoloration due to
residual double bonds in their polymer chains.
Acrylic acid derivatives
Acrylic binders are the most widely used and versatile binders available with various
modifications. The properties of acrylic binders differ according to their derivatives
and copolymers. The structures of the common acrylic polymers are as follows:
Acrylic Acid Derivatives

They are frequently copolymerized with styrene, acrylonitrile, vinyl chloride or vinyl
acetate, depending on the desirable properties. Some of these properties are hardness
from styrene, solvent resistance from acrylonitrile, flame retardancy from vinyl
chloride, and cost benefits from vinyl acetate.
Vinyl copolymers
There are two main binders for vinyl copolymers: vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate.
Since the vinyl binders are stiff, they are plasticized externally or internally. As
internal plasticizers, ethylene and acrylate monomers are used, and external
plasticizers consist of vinyl chloride. Due to its low T g, vinyl acetate is not that stiff,
and its advantage is low cost. The chlorides cause yellowing problems. The chemical
structures are closely related Tg and stiffness of binders.
Vinyl acetate

4.2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTIONALITY

The functionality of binders is in the functional groups attached to polymer chains,
which influences wet and solvent properties. To modify binder properties,
copolymerization with a small amount of monomers with special functionality is
performed. The main functionalities in binders are carboxyl and amide side chains.
Carboxyl functionality
This functionality is related to binders containing acrylic acid or methacrylic acid by
copolymerization. The binders are crosslinkable since the functional group, carboxylic
acid, provides sites for crosslinking reactions.

Amide functionality
This functionality is related to binders containing acrylamide by copolymerization.
The amide functionality provides crosslinking sites, and even the binders are selfcrosslinkable.
N-metylol amide (NMA) functionality

This functionality is obtained after acrylamide is reacted with formaldehyde. The

binders containing the substituted acrylamide groups have self-crosslinking properties
and the possible reaction as follows:
Acrylamide

4.3. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TYPE OF CURING REACTIONS

The classification of reactivity refers to crosslinkability of binders, which is related to
reaction with curing resins, crosslinking agents. The most common curing resin is
melamine formaldehyde condensate resin involving reaction of n-methylol groups.
Non-crosslinkable polymers
The polymers do not contain any of the functional groups. They cannot crosslink,
even with external curing resins.

Crosslinkable polymers
The polymers contain acid or amide functional groups. They can react with added
curing resins, but the degree of crosslinking is limited.
Self-crosslinking polymers
The polymers contain n-methylol functional groups. They can react with themselves,
and a high crosslink density can be obtained by adding curing resins.
Recent trends in chemical bonding: Although nonwoven manufacturers are seeking
alternative technologies such as thermal bonding, chemical bonding still has its
advantages and a promising market. Chemical bonding allows more room for fabric
designs and fiber selections. Both disposable and durable products are supplied to roll
goods producers and fiber manufacturers. On the environmental front, increasingly
strict regulations and guidelines are driving a trend towards alternative products and
technologies. Manufacturers and end-product suppliers alike are seeking ultra-low or
formaldehyde-free binders. The growing consideration of the environmental impact of
chemical binder and additives has become a focus of debate on the national and
international level.
Latex binder chemical types
A latex polymer consists of an aqueous medium with extremely fine liquid or solid
polymer particles dispersed therein. The latex polymer generally is produced via free
radical emulsion polymerization in water, whereby a vinyl monomer is combined with
a small amount of other monomer (co-monomer) to create a high molecular weight
polymer. The latex dispersion also will carry surfactants, stabilizers, and other
additives to convey realistic properties to the latex itself.
When used as a binder, the latex typically is combined with other components to
provide the formulated binder ready for application to the fiber web. The formulated

binder conveys many characteristics that are not possessed by the straight binder.
Consequently, there is a substantial chemistry involved in combining the latex with
the other components in order to prepare the formulated binder.
Binders are quite dependent upon the glass transition temperature (T g) of the monomer
unit selected to form the polymer. Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) is used to
determine Tg as shown below (fig. 3):

Fig. 3: Typical DSC graph

The lower the (Tg) of the monomer units, the softer is the resulting polymer. A
sampling of the most common monomers used in the manufacture of latex polymer
for nonwoven binders include the following materials:
Monomer

Tg(0C)

Ethylene

-125

Butadiene

-78

Butyl Acrylate

-52

Ethyl Acrylate

-22

Vinyl Acetate

+30

Vinyl Chloride

+80

Methyl Methacrylate +105

Styrene

+105

Acrylonitrile

+130

The monomers selected for forming the polymeric latex also have considerable
influence on the hydrophilic or hydrophobic nature of the binder. This can affect the
wet strength of the nonwoven fabric as well as a host of absorbency characteristics.
With the current capabilities of polymerization chemistry, there is considerable
versatility for each chemical type. Despite this range of properties, the commonly
employed nonwovens binders generally are characterized by a fairly well defined set
of properties. These properties can be modified to some degree by incorporation of
other agents, but they provide a useful guide in classifying the kind of performance to
be expected from each type of binder.
5. TYPES OF BINDERS
The following comparison of latex binder chemical types provides an indication of the
relative performance, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
binder. As indicated, the binder properties can be modified considerably by the
presence of co-monomers.
i) Acrylic: These binders offer the greatest durability, color stability, and dry/wet
performance. Acrylic binders have the widest range of fabric hand properties. They
can be formulated to vary from very soft (T g = - 40C) to extremely hard (Tg =
105C). These binders can be used in virtually all nonwovens applications, although
they tend to be more costly. These polymers can be made to cross-link, with
substantial improvement in durability.

ii) Styrenated Acrylics: These are tough, hydrophobic binders. The resulting textile
hand ranges from soft-to-firm (T g varies from 20C to +105C ).These binders can
be used in applications where there is a need for some wet strength without
crosslinking. The use of this type of latex binder does involve some sacrifice in UV
and solvent resistance.
iii) Vinyl Acetate (VAC): The vinyl acetate binders are firm (T g = +30C to +40C);
however, they are relatively low cost and find extensive use. They offer good dry
strength and toughness, but are somewhat hydrophilic and have a tendency to yellow
when subjected to heat.
iv) Vinyl Acrylics: These binders are more hydrophobic than the straight VAC
binders. They provide excellent toughness, flexibility, and better color stability. They
are the compromise between VAC and acrylic, and can compete on a
cost/performance basis. The hand range is limited to intermediate softness (T g =
-10C) to a firm hand (Tg = +30C).
v) Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA): These latex binders have a (Tg range of 20C to
+115C, which is equivalent to soft ranging to an intermediate textile hand. They
exhibit high wet strength, coupled with excellent absorbency. In general, they are less
costly than acrylics. They do have a tendency to have more of an odor compared to
other binders. They are used primarily in wipes, air-laid pulp fabrics and similar
applications.
vi) Styrene-Butadiene (S/B, SB, or styrene butadiene rubber): These binders have
an excellent combination of flexibility and toughness. They range in hardness from
very soft (Tg = -30C) to very firm (Tg = +80C). However, the (Tg of an SB binder is
not strictly comparable to other classes of nonwoven binders. The styrene-tobutadiene ratio (S/B ratio) is the most common method for describing the relative
hand resulting from the use of these binders. When cross-linked, this class of binder is
very hydrophobic and durable. They are affected somewhat by heat and light because
of their tendency to oxidize.
vii) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): The homopolymer of polyvinyl chloride is a very
hard, rigid polymer (Tg = +80C). This polymer must be plasticized to provide
flexibility and film-forming properties. Normally, the (PVC) binders used in
nonwovens are softened internally by co-polymerizing the vinyl chloride or with

softer acrylic monomers. The hand range of most of these polymers is still relatively
firm (Tg is greater than the +30C). Because this type of polymer is a thermoplastic, it
performs well in heat and dielectric sealing applications. This can be an advantage in
some uses. The chlorine content of the polymer promotes flame retardency. This
feature is one of the primary benefits of utilizing this type of binder. However, the
chlorine also conveys the tendency to yellow upon heat aging, due to elimination of
hydrogen chloride from the polymer.
viii) Ethylene/Vinyl Chloride: Binders in this class have a slightly broader hand
range (Tg = 0C to +30C) without the external plasticization required of (PVC)
binders. The presence of the chlorine again conveys some flame retardancy. These
binders exhibit good acid resistance, fair water resistance, and excellent adhesion to
synthetic fibers. There is some tendency to yellow upon aging. In essence, this is an
internally plasticized (PVC) binder, considering the ethylene monomer to be the
softener.
6. FORMULATION
i) Ingredients
The formulation of binding solution is an art since many ingredients are involved and
many different possibilities exist for different end-uses. Some of the characteristics,
and the types of formulation agents utilized to obtain them include the following.

Surfactants : offer improvement in binder adhesion, stability, and ability to be

converted into a foam

External cross-linkers: provide cross-links with binder polymer to provide

improved performance

Defoamers: utilized to minimize foam in processing

Repellent agents : convey water or oil repellency

Salts: added to impart low flame response properties and to convey antistatic
properties

Thickeners: added to control the rheology of the binder liquid

Catalysts: added to facilitate curing and to promote cross-linking

Acids and bases: added to control pH of the latex

Dyes and pigments: provide color to the binder and fabric

Fillers: added to reduce binder tack and to lower cost

Optical brighteners: added to increase whiteness

Sewing aids: added to provide lubrication during fabrication

The purposes of wetting agents, mainly nonionic or anionic surfactants, are to enhance
binder penetration through webs, improve the affinity between binder and fibers. The
crosslinker, which has multi-functional groups, is generally added to increase
crosslink density and to improve durability and resistance to deformation.
ii) Order of Formulation
In terms of adding ingredients into a binding bath, the compatibility of ingredients
should be confirmed because the orders are extremely important. The milky white
color of most binders impedes a check on the white-color indication of noncompatible ingredients, so most ingredients are first added to the dilution water. After
the compatibility is assured, binders are added and then thickeners added to adjust
viscosity. For the stability of the binding solution, catalysts are added just before
application. Some water may be added to reach a desirable solid level. The
summarized order is as follows:

Most ingredients

Latex binder

Thickener

Catalyst

Some water, and the others, such as dyes and pigments, fillers, clays, optical
brighteners, sewing aids, etc.

7. BONDING TECHNOLOGY

Web consolidation or nonwoven bonding processes interlock preferentially arranged

fiber or film assemblies by mechanical, chemical, solvent, and/or thermal means. The
degree of bonding is a primary factor in determining fabric integrity (strength),
porosity flexibility, softness, and density (loft, thickness).
Bonding may be carried out as a separate and distinct operation, but generally is
carried out as a sequential operation in tandem with web formation. In some fabric
constructions, more than one bonding process may be used to enhance physical or
chemical properties.
Mechanical consolidation methods include needlefelting, stitchbonding, and
hydroentangling. Chemical consolidation methods involve applying adhesive binders
to webs by saturating, spraying, printing, or foaming techniques. Solvent bonding
involves softening or partially dissolving fibers with a solvent to provide self-bonding
surfaces. Thermal bonding involves the use of heat and often pressure to fuse or weld
fibers together at points of intersection or in patterned bond sites.
Important issues to consider when choosing the web consolidation methods are
economy; versatility; and product properties, primarily absorbency, strength, softness,
loft, and purity. A recurring issue involves environmental requirements of both the
process and the product. Many techniques are done for specific properties of unique
fabrics; therefore, it is difficult to measure differences in cost. In some instances, two
or more bonding techniques compete. The system that is most energy-efficient;
environmentally sound or provides the preferred fabric properties generally
dominates.
7.1 CHEMICAL BONDING PROCESSES
Chemical or resin bonding is a generic term for interlocking fibers by the application
of a chemical binder. The chemical binder most frequently used to consolidate fiber
webs today is a water-borne latex. Most latex binders are made from vinyl materials,
such as polyvinylacetate, polyvinylchloride, styrene/butadiene resin, butadiene, and
polyacrylic, or their combinations.
Latexes are extensively used as nonwoven binders, because they are economical,
versatile, easily applied, and effective adhesives. The versatility of a chemical binder

system can be indicated by enumerating a few factors that are considered when such a
system is formulated.
The chemical composition of the monomer or backbone material determines
stiffness/softness properties, strength, water affinity (hydrophilic/hydrophobic
balance), elasticity, durability, and aging. The type and nature of functional side
groups determines solvent resistance, adhesive characteristics, and cross-linking
nature. The type and quantity of surfactant used influences the polymerization
process, polymer stability, and the application method.
Chemical binders are applied to webs in amounts ranging from about 5% to as much
as 60% by weight. In some instances, when clays or other weighty additives are
included, add-on levels can approach or even exceed the weight of the web.
Waterborne binders are applied by spray, saturation, print, and foam methods. A
general objective of each method is to apply the binder material in a manner sufficient
to interlock the fibers and provide fabric properties required of the intended fabric
usage.
The common methods of bonding include saturation, foam, spray, print and powder
bonding. They are briefly introduced in the following paragraphs:
i) Saturation
Saturation bonding is used in conjunction with processes which require rapid binder
addition, such as card-bond systems, and for fabric applications which require
strength, stiffness, and maximum fiber encapsulation, such as carrier fabrics. Fiber
encapsulation is achieved by totally immersing the web in a binder bath or by flooding
the web as it enters the nip point of a set of pressure rolls. Excess binder is removed
by vacuum or roll pressure.
Three variations of saturation bonding exist: screen, dip/squeeze, and size-press.
Screen saturation is used for medium-weight nonwovens, such as interlinings.
Dip/squeeze saturation is used for web structures with strength sufficient to withstand
immersion without support, such as spunbonds. Size-press saturation is used in high
speed processes, such as wet-laid nonwovens. Drying and curing may be carried out
on steam-heated drying cans or in thru-air ovens or perforated-drum dryers. Binder
addition levels range from 20% to 60%. Two techniques, single screen saturator and

applicator roll technique, are illustrated in fig. 4 & 5. Advantages of this method are
simplicity, controllable tensile strength and softness by choice and amount of binders.
The disadvantages are the great influence of binders on softness, and the limitation in
loftiness.

Fig. 4: Saturation bonding

Fig. 5: Applicator roll method

ii) Foam bonding

Foam bonding is a means to apply binder at low water and high binder-solids
concentration levels. The basic concept employed involves using air as well as water
as the binder diluent and carrier medium. Foam-bonded nonwovens require less
energy in drying, since less water is used. The foam is generated by introducing air
into the formulated latex while mechanically agitating the binder solution.
Air/latex dilutions or blow ratios in the order of 5:25 are practiced for various
products. With the addition of a stabilizing agent to the binder solution, the foam can
resist collapsing during application and curing, and the bonded fabric will exhibit
enhanced loft, hand, and resilience. Non-stabilized foams are referred to as froths;
froth-bonded fabrics are similar in properties to some saturation-bonded nonwovens.
One example of this bonding is illustrated in fig. 6. The advantages include less
energy required to dry the web, less binder migration and controllable softness by
choices and amount of binders. The disadvantages are difficulties in controlling
process and adequate foaming.

Fig 6: Foam bonding process

iii) Spray bonding

In spray bonding, binders are sprayed onto moving webs. Spray bonding is used for
fabric applications that which require the maintenance of highloft or bulk, such as
fiberfill and air-laid pulp wipes. The binder is atomized by air pressure, hydraulic
pressure, or centrifugal force and is applied to the upper surfaces of the web in fine
droplet form through a system of nozzles.
Lower-web-surface binder addition is accomplished by reversing web direction on a
second conveyor and passing the web under a second spray station. After each
spraying, the web is passed through a heating zone to remove water, and the binder is
cured (set/cross-linked) in a third heating zone. For uniform binder distribution, spray
nozzles are carefully engineered. Typical spray bonding is illustrated in fig. 7 & 8

Fig. 7: Schematic of spray bonding process

Fig. 8: Industrial spray bonding process

iv) Print bonding

Print bonding applies binder only in predetermined areas. It is used for fabric
applications that require a part of the area of the fabric to be binder-free, such as wipes
and coverstocks. Many lightweight nonwovens are print bonded. Printing patterns are
designed to enhance strength, fluid transport, softness, hand, absorbency, and drape.
Print bonding is most often carded out with gravure rolls. Binder addition levels are
dependent on engraved area and depth as well as binder-solids level. Increased pattern
versatility can be achieved with the use of rotary screen rolls. Drying and curing are
carried out on heated drums or steam-heated cans.
In print bonding, high viscose binders are applied to limited, patterned areas. A
prewet/prebond step is required for enough strength of webs, and typical steps in this
bonding are in fig. 9.

Fig. 9: Latex printing process

There are two types of printers: rotary screen and rotogravure printers. Binders are
applied through a hollow applicator roll in rotary screen printer, while in rotogravure
printer they are applied by an engraved applicator roll as shown in fig. 10 a & b. The
main advantage is that outstanding softness of nonwoven fabrics with adequate
strength can be achieved.

Fig. 10a: Print bonding

Fig. 10b: Printing equipment

v) Powder bonding
In powder bonding, the adhesive powder of thermoplastic polymers is applied onto
webs by heat and pressure. Polyesters and polyolefins with low Tg's and molecular
weight can be used as powder binders. A typical bonding line is illustrated in fig. 11 a,

b & c. The advantages are the bulky structure of dense nonwovens and the
applicability of polyester or polypropylene webs. The disadvantage lies in difficulties
of suitable particle sizes and ranges, and their distribution.

Fig. 11a: Powder bonding line

Fig. 11b: Powder adhesive sprinkling

Fig. 11c: Powder bonding with electrostatic assistance

8. APPLICATIONS
Nonwoven products in which binders are utilized:

Wipes and towels

Medical nonwovens

Roofing products

Apparel interlinings

Filter media

Coating substrates

Automotive trim

Carrier fabrics

Bedding products (high loft)

Furniture applications (high loft)

Apparel

Pillows (high loft)

9. SUMMARY
In the latter part of the 1970s and 1980s, thermal bonding technology grew rapidly,
providing the industry with a realistic method to produce strong and soft nonwoven
fabrics without the use of a chemical binder. This development provided substantial
advances in performance and properties of many types of nonwovens. One quality of
this new bonding technique was that these nonwovens contained no formaldehyde and
no chemical additives to cause consumer concern. Naturally, this has depressed the
interest of chemical binders within the industry and has resulted in a decline in binder
usage.
Despite this setback, significant improvements and advances have continued to be
made by the synthetic polymer industry, to the benefit of the range of nonwoven
products that continue to utilize chemical bonding methods. These improvements have
involved such developments as formaldehyde-free binders, low-cure temperature
binders, complex copolymers with unique characteristics, moldable binders, and
others. In the future, new types of binders may be combined with the present choices,
for example, by co polymerization. In addition, new ideas such as reactive binders
which can be covalently bonded with fibers will be continually investigated.
REFERENCES
1. Michele Mlynar, Rohm & Haas Co, Chemical Binders, INTC 2003, Sept 1518.
2. W.E. Devry, "Latex bonding Chemistry and Processes."
3. Derelich, "Nonwoven Textile Fabrics", Kirk-Othmer: Encyclopedia of
Chemical Technology, Vol. 16, 3rd Ed, p104-124, 1981.
4. B.M. Lichstein, The Nonwovens Handbook, INDA Association of the
Nonwoven Fabric Industry, New York, 1988.

5. J. Lunenschloss and W. Albrecht, Non-woven Bonded Fabrics, John Wiley &

Sons Inc., New York, 1985.
6. A.E. Meazey, " Binders used in Bonded Fiber Fabric Production", Nonwovens
'71, The textile Trade Press, England, 1971.
7. M.F. Meyer and W. A.; Haili, " Nonwovens and Laminates Made with
Polyester Adhesive Powders, "Eastman Kodak Company.
8. J.M. Oelkers and E.J. Sweeney," Latex Binders and Bonding Techniques of
Disposables", 1988.
9. Ellen Lees Wuagneux, " And how would you like your nonwovens?"
Nonwoven Industry Oct. 64-72 (1997).
10. INDA, Book of Paper, 1997
11. www.nonwovens.com/facts/technology/binders/binders.htm

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How to make cork board: http://www.instructables.com/id/CorkBoard--Bulliten-BoardHow-to-make/

Soda ash
http://www.ansac.com/products/about-soda-ash/

About Soda Ash

Soda ash, the trade name for sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), is a white, anhydrous,
powdered or granular material. It is an essential raw material used in the
manufacturing of glass, detergents chemicals and other industrial products.
As such, soda ash is one of the most widely used and important commodities in the United
States, contributing substantially to the gross domestic product. For this reason, the Federal
Reserve Board incorporates monthly soda ash production data into monthly economic
indicators used to monitor the condition of the U.S. economy.

Sodium carbonate has been used in manufacturing for over 5,000 years. Ancient Egyptians
used it to make glass ornaments and vessels. They recovered the product from dry lake-bed
deposits or by burning seaweed and other marine plants. The Romans also used soda ash for
baking bread, making glass and for medicinal purposes. Its extraction from the ashes of
various plants continued until the middle of the 19th century and gave it the present-day
name of "soda ash".
Today, "natural soda ash" refined from the mineral trona is regarded as the standard for
quality and purity and is also processed from sodium-carbonate-bearing brines. The Green
River Basin of Wyoming is the world's largest area for naturally-occurring trona. There is also
"synthetic soda ash", which is manufactured using a number of different chemical processes.
Soda ash is made in three main grades - light, medium and dense. These have the same
chemical properties and only differ in physical characteristics, such as bulk density and
particle size and shape (which affect flow characteristics and angle of repose).
When companies process and produce soda ash, a number of other sodium compounds are
made as co-products, including sodium bicarbonate (also known as baking soda), sodium
sulfite, sodium tripolyphosphate, and chemical caustic soda.

Product usage
Soda ash is an essential raw material used in many applications such as the manufacture
of glass, detergents and soaps, chemicals and many other industrial processes.

General chemical properties of soda ash

Chemical Name

Sodium Carbonate

Molecular Weight

105.989

Melting Point

851oC
1564oF

Specific Gravity

20o/4oC

2.533

Specific Heat

25oC

0.249 cal/gm/oC

77oF

0.249 Btu/lb/oC

45oC

0.256 cal/gm/oC

Heat of Fusion

854oC

75.5 cal/gm
135.9 Btu/lb

Heat of Formation

25oC

-2550 cal/gm
-4590 Btu/lb

Heat of Hydration

Monohydrate, Na2CO3 H2O

30.0 cal/gm Na2CO3

54.0 Btu/lb Na2CO3

Heptahydrate, Na2CO3 7H2O

156.4 cal/gm Na2CO3

281.5 Btu/lb Na2CO3

Decahydrate, Na2CO3 10H2O

208.8 cal/gm Na2CO3

375.8 Btu/lb Na2CO3

0 oC

7 gms Na2CO3 in 100 gms H2O

Solubility

100oC

44.7 gms Na2CO3 in 100 gms H2O

35.37oC (max.)

49.5 gms Na2CO3 in 100 gms H2O

Alkali equivalent

100 % Na2CO3 = 58.48 % Na2O

Acid equivalent

1 lb Na2CO3 = 0.6881 lb HCl

Sources: Tata Chemicals North America Inc., Mineral Information Institute, Ciner Resource
Corporation, U.S. Geological Survey