Types of Evaporators

Different types of evaporators are used in different types of refrigeration applications

and accordingly they have different designs. The evaporators can be classified in
various ways depending on the construction of the evaporator, the method of feeding
the refrigerant, the direction of circulation of the air around the evaporator, etc. Here we
have classified the evaporators based on their construction.

Classification of the Evaporators Based on the Construction

The evaporators used for the refrigeration and the air conditioning applications have
different types of construction depending on the application. Based on their construction
the various types of evaporators are:

1) Bare Tube Evaporators

The bare tube evaporators are made up of copper tubing or steel pipes. The copper
tubing is used for small evaporators where the refrigerant other than ammonia is used,
while the steel pipes are used with the large evaporators where ammonia is used as the
refrigerant. The bare tube evaporator comprises of several turns of the tubing, though
most commonly flat zigzag and oval trombone are the most common shapes. The bare
tube evaporators are usually used for liquid chilling. In the blast cooling and the freezing
operations the atmospheric air flows over the bare tube evaporator and the chilled air
leaving it used for the cooling purposes. The bare tube evaporators are used in very few
applications, however the bare tube evaporators fitted with the fins, called as finned
evaporators are used very commonly.

2) Plate Type of Evaporators

In the plate type of evaporators the coil usually made up of copper or aluminum is
embedded in the plate so as so to form a flat looking surface. Externally the plate type
of evaporator looks like a single plate, but inside it there are several turns of the metal
tubing through which the refrigerant flows. The advantage of the plate type of
evaporators is that they are more rigid as the external plate provides lots of safety. The
external plate also helps increasing the heat transfer from the metal tubing to the
substance to be chilled. Further, the plate type of evaporators are easy to clean and can
be manufactured cheaply.

The plate type heat exchangers can be easily formed into various shapes as per the
requirement. Thus in the household refrigerators and the deep freezers, where they are
used most commonly, they can be converted into the box shape to form the closed
enclosure, where various food can be kept in the frozen state. The plates can also be
welded together forming the bank of the plate type of evaporators that can be used the
larger evaporators of higher capacities.
Plate types of evaporators provide excellent shelves in the freezers and similar
applications. They can be used as the as the partitions in the freezers, frozen food
display cases, ice cream cabinets, soda fountains and others. Due to various
advantages and flexibility offered by the plate type of evaporators, they are used
extensively.

Plate Type of Evaporators

The shell and tube types of evaporators are used in the large refrigeration and
central air conditioning systems. The evaporators in these systems are commonly
known as the chillers. Depending on the direction of the flow of the refrigerant in the
shell and tube type of chillers, they are classified into two types: dry expansion type and
flooded type of chillers. In dry expansion chillers the refrigerant flows along the tube
side and the fluid to be chilled flows along the shell side. The flow of the refrigerant to
these chillers is controlled by the expansion valve.

3) Finned Evaporators
The finned evaporators are the bare tube type of evaporators covered with the fins.
When the fluid (air or water) to be chilled flows over the bare tube evaporator lots of
cooling effect from the refrigerant goes wasted since there is less surface for the
transfer of heat from the fluid to the refrigerant. The fluid tends to move between the
open spaces of the tubing and does not come in contact with the surface of the coil,
thus the bare tube evaporators are less effective. The fins on the external surface of the
bare tube evaporators increases the contact surface of the of the metallic tubing with
the fluid and increase the heat transfer rate, thus the finned evaporators are more
effective than the bare tube evaporators.
The fins are the external protrusions from the surface of the coil and they extend into
the open space. They help removing the heat from the fluid that otherwise would not
have come in contact with the coil.

For the fins to be effective it is very important that there is very good contact between
the coil and the fins. In some cases the fins are soldered directly to the surface of the
coil and in other cases the fins are just slipped over the surface of the fins and then they
are expanded thus ensuring a close thermal contact between the two. Tough the fins
help increase the heat transfer, rate, adding them beyond certain numbers wont
produce any additional benefits, hence only certain number of fins should be applied on
the external surface of the tube.
The finned evaporators are most commonly used in the air conditioners of almost all
types like window, split, packaged and the central air conditioning systems. In these
systems the finned evaporator is popularly known as the cooling coil. The hot room air
flows over the finned evaporator or the cooling coil, gets chilled and enters the room to
produce the cooling effect. In window a/c the finned evaporators is located behind the
beautifully looking grill. In the wall mounted split unit it located behind the front grill of
the indoor unit.
To further increase the effectiveness of heat transfer from the evaporators, the tubing
are also given internal fins. These fins are made by forming different internal cross
section shapes at the time of the manufacture of the tubing. Some methods of internal
and external fins are shown in the figure below.

Finned Evaporators

4) Shell and Tube types of Evaporators

The shell and tube types of evaporators are used in the large refrigeration and central
air conditioning systems. The evaporators in these systems are commonly known as the
chillers. The chillers comprise of large number of the tubes that are inserted inside the
drum or the shell. Depending on the direction of the flow of the refrigerant in the shell
and tube type of chillers, they are classified into two types: dry expansion type and
flooded type of chillers. In dry expansion chillers the refrigerant flows along the tube
side and the fluid to be chilled flows along the shell side. The flow of the refrigerant to
these chillers is controlled by the expansion valve. In case of the flooded type of
evaporators the refrigerant flows along the shell side and fluid to be chilled flows along
the tube. In these chillers the level of the refrigerant is kept constant by the float valve
that acts as the expansion valve also.

Various types of Evaporators and their

working principle
1) Vertical Falling Film Evaporator
The process fluid to be vaporized is feed to the evaporator at the top of the tube sheet.
A suitable distribution unit is nessecary in order to achieve an even liquid distribution. It
is paramount the for this process minimal wetting rate is achieved.In general the
process liquid flows at the tue inside. But there are also applications where the liquid
is applied on the tube outside.
Due to gravity the liquid forms a continious liquid film with hydrodynamic characteristics
which are determined by the Fil Reynods and Kapitza number.In general steam is used
as a heating source. The steam condenses on the tube outside of the tube and flows
also gravity controlled to the bottom of the unit
Inside the tubes the two phase flow is separated by means of a separator at the bottom
of the unit.
In multieffect falling film evaporators the vapour produced is used in order to heat a so
called second effect on a lower temperature and pressure level. This is possible due to
the very low required meant temperature difference between heating medium and
process liquid. In seawater desalination up to 12 effects are possible in order to
evapoate most efficently.

In the picture on the left side it is shown how the heat e.g. by means of condensation, is
transfered through the wall to the process liquid to be evapoarated.

2) Horizontal film evaporator

In case of horizontal film evaporation the liquid to be vaporised is distributed evenly on
the top of a horizontal tube bundle. For this purpose perforated plates and special
designed jet nozzles are applied. A minimum recirculation rate is required in order
to maintain a minimum wetting rate. The liquid chraracteristics between the tubes are
determined by the Film reynods number and Kapitza number. The fluid can be
encounter between the tubes as droplets, jet or continious sheet. Due to the liquid
imingment the heat transfer in horizontal units is in general higher compared to vertical
evaporators

3) Atmospheric Forced Draft Evaporator

Where the quantity of wastewater is small and difficult to treat, atmospheric forced draft
evaporator is the ideal choice. Various models from 100 to 5000 Liters per day
capacities are standard.

Advantages and Features

Low capital cost

Ease of operation and maintenance

No addition of chemicals

Very small quantity of sludge

Can handle difficult to treat wastewaters

Working Principle

Atmospheric evaporator consists of Feed Pump, Evaporator Tank with Electrical or

Diesel Heater, Circulation Pump, Blower, Mixing tube, Mist Eliminator and Humid air
Outlet. The wastewater from the wastewater tank is pumped by the feed Pump to the
evaporator tank. Electric or Diesel heater heats the effluent in the evaporator tank. The
hot effluent is pumped into the Mixing Tube, through which air is blown from atmosphere

by the blower. The air and wastewater are thoroughly mixed in the mixing tube and
passes to the evaporator tank, before getting out through the Mist eliminator and humid
air outlet. Electrical controls limits the operation of feed pump, circulation pump and
blower depends on the levels in the evaporator tank and wastewater tank. Control
system with automatic ON/OFF, safety shut off and switch gears with control panel are
provided with the system.
Applications

Concentration of Drag Outs in electroplating

Machine Coolants

Rinse waters

Tumbling and vibratory solutions

Die cast solutions

Photographic solutions

RO / UF Concentrates

Phosphatizing compounds

Steam cleaner water

Pressure washer effluents

Auto Garage effluents

Ink and chemicals wash up

4) Low Temperature Vacuum Evaporator
The low temperature vacuum evaporator vaporizes water at lower temperature around
40 Deg. C than normal 100 Deg. C due to vacuum. Hence vacuum evaporators are
useful for
- recovery of heat sensitive chemicals such as cyanide plating baths,
- recovery of chemicals sensitive to air oxidation such as
cyanide plating bath and Stannous tin bath
- recovery of solutions containing volatile components

Working Principle

The low temperature vacuum evaporator mainly consists of an evaporator tank 2,

evaporator heat exchanger 4, process water circulation pump 3, refrigerant compressor
8, condenser heat exchanger 7, distillate tank 11, vacuum producing venture 13, and
distillate circulating pump 12. The feed water enters the evaporator tank 2, and the feed
water is circulated by the pump 3 to evaporator heat exchanger 4, where the feed water
is heated by high pressure refrigerant from the refrigerant compressor 8. The hot water
flashes as water vapor into the evaporator tank at the top. This water vapor passes
through the mist eliminator 16 and the condenser heat exchanger 7. The refrigerant
from the evaporator heat exchanger passes through air cooler and expansion valve and
becomes cool liquid. The cool refrigerant cools the hot water vapor to distillate. The
distillate is collected in the distillate tank. The distillate is circulated by the distillate
circulation pump through a venture, which produces vacuum in the evaporator tank. The
vacuum produced by the venturi in the evaporation tank causes process water boils
between 40 to 50 Deg. C. The concentrated process water from the evaporator tank
and the distillate from the distillate tank are automatically drained by the electrical
controls. All necessary controls and switch gears are part of the system.

Advantages and features

independent of solution heating requirements

less or no air pollution

can handle heat sensitive compounds

carbonates do not build up scales as with other evaporators

Application

concentration of liquids from finishing processes

concentration of oily emulsions

concentration of wash baths

recovery of metals from rinse waters (chromium, nickel, copper)

concentration of contaminated baths from degreasing and pickling

recovery of tempering salts

purification of wash waters

recovery of gold from the residue of the treatment process

concentration of working liquids in die casting units a (detaching product, glycol,

lubricants)

recovery of food additives from different industrialprocess liquids

recovery of proteins from whey

recovery of solvents utilized for extraction process

concentration of phosphoric degreasing baths

recovery of vulcanizing salts

5) Mechanical Vapor Recompression
MVR (Mechanical Vapor Recompression) and Multiple Effect Evaporators for large
volumes and energy economy.
MVR is very energy efficient, since the latent heat of vaporization is fully utilized through
vapor recompression and condensation. Typical layout of a MVR Evaporator is shown in
figure.

Advantages and application

The major advantage of MVR is the energy economy. Typical MVR energy requirement
is 0.05 to 0.15 kwh per kg of water evaporated. Water evaporation for a Triple Effect
Evaporator to 120 kcal for a six effect evaporator. As the operating cost of MVR is low,
large flow system favors its application in all sectors of industry and also desalination of
sea and brackish water.

Types of Evaporators

This is intended to provide a brief synopsis of the primary types of evaporators which
are implemented in various industries today. Every evaporator design will have a means
of transferring heat energy through a heat transfer surface as well as a means to
effectively separate the vapors from the residual liquid or solid. Differences in how these
are achieved distinguishes one type of evaporator from another.
Natural Circulation Evaporators (Calendria type)
As their name depicts, these evaporators depend on natural physical forces in lieu of
pumps for their operation. There must be a balance between the two-phase friction and
acceleration losses in the flow loop, and the static head developed by the liquid in the
main body of the evaporator. The heating surface can be horizontal or vertical, and can
be totally immersed or partially submerged, or outside of the evaporator body. Natural
circulation systems offer a moderate range of operation (2:1 turn down) and are not
recommended for services where wide load fluctuations are expected.
Single Pass service passes the feed liquor through the tubes only once, and the twophase mixture is released into the main evaporator body where vapor and liquor are
separated. Since all evaporation is accomplished in a single pass, these units are
especially useful in handling heat-sensitive materials, due to their short residence times.
Recirculating units maintain a pool of liquid within the evaporator. The feed liquor
mixes with the liquid in the pool and passes over the heat-transfer surface. The twophase mixture returning to the evaporator is separated into vapor and liquid. This liquid
mixes with the liquid in the pool. The product is withdrawn from this pool so that all
liquor in it is at maximum concentration.
Since the liquid in the evaporator is recirculated and, thus, repeatedly contacts the heattransfer surface, natural-circulation evaporators are unsuitable for heat-sensitive
materials. Moreover, since the liquor entering the heat-transfer surface is at a higher
concentration than the feed, its density, viscosity and boiling point are high. Accordingly,
heat-transfer coefficients tend to be low. The advantages are that these evaporators can
operate over a wide range of concentrations and loads and are well suited for singleeffect evaporation.
Several types of natural-circulation evaporators:
1. Short-tube vertical evaporators These are often referred to as calandria or
standard evaporators, the latter because of earlier popularity with users. Units
consist of short tubes, 4-6 ft long, and 2-4 in. dia., set between two horizontal
tubesheets that span the evaporator-body diameter. The tube bundle contains a
large circular downcomer that returns concentrated liquor above the top
tubesheet to below the bottom tubesheet for product withdrawal. The driving
force for flow of liquid through the tubes is the difference in density between the
liquid in the downcomer and two-phase mixture in the tubes.
Advantages: these evaporators can be used with scaling liquids, since evaporation
takes place inside the tubes, which are accessible for cleaning. Fairly high heat-transfer
coefficients are obtained with thin liquors (i.e., water or dilute solutions of 1-5 cP). Units
are relatively inexpensive, provided that they are made of carbon steel or cast iron.

Disadvantages: a large area is required since the units are squat. Heat-transfer
coefficients are sensitive to the temperature difference and liquor viscosity, and, due to
large liquid holdup, these evaporators cannot be used with heat-sensitive materials.
Turndown and flexibility are low turndown being <2:1.
Also, such evaporators are unsuitable for crystalline products, unless a propeller is used
to produce forced circulation.
Industrial applications: these short-tube vertical evaporators are suitable for
noncorrosive (e.g., cane sugar), clear and noncrystallizing liquors.
2. Basket-type evaporators These are similar to calandria-type units except
that the tube bundle is removable and the liquor downtake occurs between the
bundle and the shell, instead of in a central downcomer.
Advantages: The heating surface is removable, allowing easy cleaning and
maintenance. Also, due to the construction, differential thermal expansion is not a
problem.
Disadvantages: These are the same as for short-tube evaporators.
Industrial applications: These are the same as for short-tube evaporators. Basket
types can also be used when the liquor may result in scale.
3. Long-tube vertical evaporators The three types of long-tube vertical
evaporators are the most popular evaporators used today. More evaporation is
accomplished in these units than in all other types combined. While they are
natural-circulation evaporators, they are also categorized individually as risingfilm, falling-film, and rising/falling-film types.
Basically, these units consist of a single-pass vertical shell-and-tube heat exchanger
discharging into a relatively small vapor head. Units may be once-through or
recirculating, depending upon the application; the heating surface may be internal or
external to the main body of the evaporator.
Advantages: This is the most economical design, since a large heat-transfer surface
can be packed into a given body; these evaporators occupy little floor space. Heattransfer coefficients are high, and the units are ideal for substantial evaporation duties.
Highly versatile, they are used in various industries. they are especially suited for
foaming or frothing liquors, as the foam is broken due to the liquid/vapor mixture striking
an impingement baffle.
Disadvantages: these vertical units require high headroom. Generally, they are
unsuitable for scaling or salting liquors, and are sensitive to changes in operating
conditions.
Industrial applications: the once-through type is used in pulp-and-paper plants for
concentrating black liquor. Other versions of this evaporator are discussed later.
4. Forced-circulation evaporators
These are made in a variety of arrangements for services where the feed and/or product
liquor has a tendency to salt or scale, and where the viscosities of the solutions are so
high that natural circulation is not feasible. Thermal and flow characteristics of the
process liquor are so poor that use of forced circulation is necessary.

Forced circulation is achieved by various means, such as locating pumps outside of the
evaporator. Forced circulation leads to high tubeside velocities (6-18 ft/s), and hence
higher heat-transfer coefficients and smaller heating surfaces. Positive circulation
renders this unit relatively insensitive to variations in physical properties or lards,
making it suitable for crystallizing solutions or slurries.
Forced-circulation evaporators enjoy the widest variety of applications. The heating
surface may be inside or outside of the evaporator; this is also true for the device that
creates the forced circulation. The tubes can be horizontal or vertical. Boiling can take
place, or be suppressed due to the hydrostatic head maintained above the top
tubesheet. In the latter case, the liquor is superheated and flashes into a liquid-vapor
mixture. The type of vapor head used, ranging from a simple centrifugal separator to a
crystallizing chamber, is selected on the basis of product characteristics.
Advantages: Forced-circulation evaporators are the most versatile of all evaporators.
This is because they do not depend on a natural thermosyphon effect that limits the
heat-transfer coefficient. High heat-transfer coefficients can be achieved for problem
liquors, and hence required surface area is kept to a minimum. The economics are
especially favorable for applications that require the more expensive alloys such as
stainless steels, high-nickel alloys, etc. Also since material is pumped around the unit,
fouling can be controlled well. Operation is not limited by the liquid/vapor ratio, and
turndown can be as low as 5% of capacity.
Forced-circulation evaporators offer the highest operational flexibility, since heat
transfer, vapor-liquid separation and crystallization can take place in separate
components by locating pumps outside of the evaporator or by using propellers as in
propeller calandria units. Forced circulation leads to high tubeside velocities (6-18 ft/ s),
and hence higher heat-transfer coefficients and smaller heating surfaces. Positive
circulation renders this unit relatively insensitive to variations in physical properties or
loads, making it suitable for crystallizing solutions or slurries.
These devices are ideal for crystallizing, and for concentrating thermally degradable
materials and viscous solutions.
Disadvantages: These evaporators are usually less economical than other types, due
to operating and maintenance costs for the pumps. Corrosion-erosion can occur, due to
high circulation velocities. Also, plugging of tubes where liquor enters can be a problem
in salting services where the salt deposits detach and accumulate at the bottom.
Industrial applications: These units are used in producing common salt, caustic soda
and other crystalline products.
5. Rising-film evaporators
The rising-film evaporator is the original version of the long-tube vertical evaporator.
Steam condenses on the outside surfaces of vertical tubes. The liquid inside the tubes
is brought to a boil, with the vapor generated occupying the core of the tube. As the fluid
moves up the tube, more vapor is formed, resulting in a higher central-core velocity that
forces the remaining liquid to the tube wall. This leads to a thinner and more rapidly
moving liquid film. As the film moves more rapidly, heat-transfer coefficients increase
and residence times drop.
Since the vapor and liquid both flow in the same direction, the thinning of the liquid film
is not as pronounced as in a falling-film type of evaporator, and the possibility of tube

dryout is less. This makes the rising-film evaporator particularly suited to services
having mild scaling tendencies.
Advantages: Since feed enters at the bottom, the feed liquor is distributed evenly to all
tubes. Other advantages are those of the long-tube vertical unit, described before.
Disadvantages: Heat transfer is difficult to predict; pressure drop is higher than for
falling-film types. Performance is extremely sensitive to the temperature driving force.
Heat transfer falls off at low temperature differences (less than 25F) or at low
temperatures (about 250F).
The hydrostatic head may create a problem with heat-sensitive products. There is a
tendency to scale. Also, the units are sensitive to changes in loads and feed conditions,
and turndown is limited to 2:1.
Industrial applications: Major uses of rising-film evaporators include concentrating
black liquors in pulp-and-paper mills, and concentrating nitrates, spin-bath liquors,
electrolytic tinning liquors, etc.
6. Falling-film evaporators
Falling-film evaporators evolved as a means to solve the problems associated with the
rising-film types. Specifically, the hydrostatic head necessary for the operation of risingfilm units leads to problems with some heat-sensitive products.
In falling-film evaporators, the feed liquor is introduced at the top tubesheet, and flows
down the tubewall as a thin film. Since the film is moving in the direction of gravity rather
than against it, a thinner and faster-moving film results, yielding higher heat-transfer
coefficients and reduced contact times. There is no static head to affect the temperature
driving force. This allows use of a lower tem-perature difference for units to operate in
the film regime, and hence yields superior performance in handling heat-sensitive
materials.
Flow of vapor and liquid may be either co-current, in which case vapor-liquid separation
takes place at the bottom, or countercurrent (the liquid is withdrawn from the bottom and
the vapor from the top). For co-current flow, the vapor shear-forces thin the liquid film,
and yield higher heat-transfer coefficients. Moreover, since the vapor is in contact with
the hottest liquid at the point of withdrawal, stripping is more efficient.
In countercurrent flow, shear forces increase the liquid-film thickness, and reduce the
heat-transfer coefficient. If the vapor flow rate is high enough, it may lead to flooding of
the tubes, with liquid carried upward beyond the point of injection, resulting in
decreased performance and unstable operation. Countercurrent operation is used
where it is necessary to evaporate a liquid at a low temperature under vacuum
conditions, or where an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen or air) is injected into the tubes at the
bottom of the unit to reduce the partial vapor pressure, and hence boiling point, of the
liquid.
Another phenomenon common to falling-film evaporators is dry-patch formation, which
reduces thermal performance. The dry patches may be caused by a liquid flowrate
insufficient to maintain a continuous liquid film or by the evaporator's not being exactly
vertical.
The major problem with falling-film evaporators is non-uniform distribution of the feed
liquor as a film inside the tubes. The importance of uniform feed distribution cannot be
overemphasized. To maintain a continuous liquid film, the feed liquor must be uniformly

distributed around the periphery of each tube, and the flow to each tube must be
uniform. A variety of devices such as perforated plates, spider distributors with radial
arms, spray nozzles, and weir-type distributors have been developed for feed
distribution. For selecting a distributor, information on merits and limitations of the
various types is scanty.
Advantages: Falling-film evaporators offer all advantages of rising-film units, plus
higher heat-transfer coefficients satisfactory operation at low temperature driving forces
(10-1 25F), and concentration of heat-sensitive and viscous chemical products.
Disadvantages: These are the same as for rising-film types, except that, in addition,
feed distribution is a major problem. However, temperature driving force is not limiting
and a broader range of applications is possible.
Industrial applications: In the fertilizer industry, these evaporators are used to
concentrate urea, phosphoric acid ammonium nitrate, etc. Falling-film evaporators are
also employed for processing food and dairy products, and for desalting seawater.
7. Rising/falling-film evaporators
These evaporators combine the advantage of the ease of feed distribution of the risingfilm with the usual advantages of a falling-film unit. Vapor-liquid separation takes place
at the bottom of the unit; the flow of liquid and vapor is always co-current.
8. Agitated thin-film evaporators
These are essentially large-diameter jacketed tubes, in which the product is vigorously
agitated and continuously removed from the tube wall by scraper blades (or wipers)
mounted on a shaft inside the tube. Thus, the material to be processed is continuously
spread as a thin film on the tubewall by a mechanical agitator. This permits processing
of extremely viscous and heat-sensitive materials, as well as of crystallizing and fouling
products.
Units may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. The heat-transfer tube ranges from 3 to 48
in., with lengths from 2 to 75 ft. The heating medium may be steam, suitable hot oil,
molten salt, or tempered water on the jacket side. The geometry of the unit limits heattransfer surface area available to about 300 ft2 per effect, and process and economic
considerations limit operation to a single effect. However, due to short contact times,
very high temperature driving forces can be used effectively without product
degradation.
Advantages: These devices can process extremely viscous (to 100,000 or even 1
million cP), heat-sensitive or crystallizing liquids, as well as slurries. In some
applications, agitated thin-film evaporators are, in fact, the only evaporators that will
work. Continuous scraping of the tube wall allows processing of severely scaling or
fouling liquids. Applications include services in which liquid loads are so small as to
cause dry-patch formation in falling-film units.
Disadvantages: Agitated thin-film evaporators are the most expensive of all
evaporators. Also, due to the moving parts, operating and maintenance costs can be
higher than for some of the other types. The heat-transfer surface area is limiting, which
may require use of a high-temperature heating medium to achieve higher capacities.
Heat-transfer coefficients are usually low, due to the inherent characteristics of the

materials being processed, and the thicker tube walls (1A-Vz in.) necessary to meet
structural and mechanical requirements.
Industrial applications: Agitated thin-film evaporators are used for concentrating,
fractionating, deodorizing and stripping in a broad variety of industrial applications,
including processing of food and meat, dairy products, pharmaceuticals, polymers (such
as various types of latex resins), and organic and inorganic chemicals.

9. Plate-type evaporators
Employed with foods. Examples: concentration of fruit juices, milk, soup stocks, tea and
coffee extracts, corn syrup, dextrose, etc.
Advantages: Plate-type evaporators have low installation costs. Thus, they are
economical for the more costly materials (e.g., stainless steels, high-nickel alloys,
titanium, etc.). Large Heat-transfer areas can be packed into a smaller volume, and
heat-transfer coefficients are usually higher than for tubular evaporators. Capacity can
be changed by simple addition or removal of plates. Fouling and scaling are less, since
the fluid motion imparts a scouring action on the corrugated plate surface. Headroom is
low.
These evaporators are especially suited to the dairy, brewery and food-processing
industries since there are no dead zones in which undesired bacterial growth could
occur, and frequent and efficient cleaning can be done to meet stringent hygiene
requirements. Maximum protection is provided for product flavor and quality since liquid
holding-volume is low, and exposure to high temperature is short.
Disadvantages: Maximum design conditions are only about 150 psig and 400F, due to
limitations of gasketing materials, which are usually elastomers such as styrenebutadiene rubber, etc. Multiple gaskets make maintenance time-con-suming. The
probability of fluid leakage is higher than for tubular types. However, in food, dairy and
brewery plants, this may not be a factor since spills are usually not hazardous. Gaps
between the plates limit particulates to 0.25-3 mm.
10. Vapor-compression evaporators
Also known as mechanical vapor recompression, thermal recompression or vapor
recompression evaporators, these units have gained widespread acceptance in a
variety of applications including foods, drugs, dairy products, and pulp and paper as well
as for desalting brackish water or seawater. The high cost of energy spurred
development initially and with the continuing increase in the cost of energy, the
economics of using vapor recompression evaporators has become increasingly
favorable, compared with multiple-effect devices.
Such evaporators differ from tubular evaporators mainly in the shape and form of the
heating surface, which consists of an assembly or assemblies of corrugated plates.
These evaporators are available in four configurations: rising/falling-film, falling-film,

forced-circulation with suppressed boiling, and agitated thin-film. For the last type, film
thinning is achieved by a combination of fluid hydrodynamics and plate geometry, rather
than by a mechanical device. The heating surface consists of similar or different types of
plates. The corrugations on the plates and the gaps between them are based on the
particular application. Special proprietary designs such as spiral plates have been
developed for handling slurries and very large evaporative capacities.
In their most elementary and popular form, these units consist of a single-effect
evaporator in which process vapors are compressed to a higher pressure (to increase
the saturation temperature) and are used as a heating medium in the same effect. In
more elaborate arrangements, the unit may consist of multiple effects, with vapor
recompression applied to the first one. The evaporator condensate and intereffect
vapors are used for feed preheating to conserve energy. Typically, a single-effect
evaporator with vapor recompression provides a steam economy of 1.7 (1.7 Ib of vapor
produced/lb of steam used), or approximately that of a double-effect unit.
Vapor recompression is accomplished by mechanical compressors or steam-jet
ejectors, depending on the volume and quality of vapors to be handled, and the
pressure level required in the steam chest. Inherently, water vapor has a high specific
volume of 26.8 ft/lb at 14.7 psia. Thus, the main difficulty in selecting a compressor is
the large volume of vapor to be handled. Compressors generally are quite large and
expensive, and the choice is limited to centrifugal or axial flow machines. This further
sets the requirements for process vapors to be: (a) free of entrained solids as solids
carryover may build up on the rotor blades, leading to compressor malfunction or failure;
and (b) free of impurities that may cause corrosion or otherwise adversely affect the
materials of construction.
Moreover, the inherent limitations of the centrifugal or axial flow machines have to be
reckoned with. The compression ratio must be small. Most large capacity single state
machines handle up to 300,000 actual ft3/min of vapors, with a compression ratio
ranging from 1.2 to 1.5.
Higher discharge pressures can be achieved by resorting to multistage centrifugal or
axial machines. However, multistage compressors in this capacity range tend to be
quite complex and expensive, since special consideration must be given to machine
design, and sealing and lubricating between stages. Maintenance requirements are
more demanding, and total installed costs, as well as operating/ maintenance costs,
may make installation uneconomical.
Compared with centrifugal or axial compressors, thermal recompression using steam-jet
ejectors offers many advantages. These ejectors are simple in construction and have no
moving parts. This allows fabrication from any corrosion-resistant material, and, since
there are no moving parts, units give long service life, without maintenance
requirements. Steam-jet ejectors can handle large volumes of vapor load at low
operating pressures.
The major disadvantage of such ejectors is that they generally operate at maximum
efficiency under only one condition; they do not function well at off-design conditions.
Application is limited to where wide fluctuations in plant loads and/or operating variables
(e.g., temperature, pres. sure and fouling) are not expected. Another drawback is that
steam is needed for operation; it may not be readily available.

Industrial applications: vapor recompression evaporators are characterized by low

temperature driving forces across heat-transfer surfaces, due to low compression ratios
used for mechanical or thermal compressors. This leads to larger heat-transfer areas
and, hence, higher capital costs. The low available mean temperature difference (MTD)
limits application to single-effect evaporators, in which vapor from the same effect is
used as the heating medium after compres-sion. Obviously, vapor recompression
evaporators are unsuitable where there is a high boiling-point rise or fouling tendency,
conditions that necessitate a high MTD for satisfactory operation.
Vapor recompression is therefore widely used not only when a small MTD is essential,
but also when it offers distinct advantages over multiple-effect evaporators, such as the
ability to:
Process heat-sensitive materials, e.g., fruit juices and similar applications
in dairy and pharmaceutical plants.
Crystallize solids having inverse solubility curves (solubility decreases with
increasing temperature), such as sodium sulfate and sodium carbonate.
Produce potable water from brackish or salt water in remote locations
where either electric power is unavailable (engine-driven compressors
must be used) or where considerations other than cost have a higher
priority (for example, scarcity of freshwater resources).
Also, vapor recompression is favored in locations where electric power is
cheap (hydroelectric power), and steam costs are high due to high fuel
costs.
Advantages: These units are economical for processes handling heat-sensitive
materials. There is a distinct economic advantage in applications that require both
multiple-effect operation and use of more expensive alloys. These evaporators can be
used in remote locations where utility steam is unavailable. In existing facilities
undergoing expansion, vapor-compression evaporators may be the only choice, due
either to plot-plan limitations or to shortages of utility steam.
Disadvantages: Vapor-compression evaporators are difficult to justify where lowpressure steam is readily available. These evaporators cannot be used when process
liquors are fouling or show a high boiling-point rise, situations that demand a high MTD
for sustained operation. Maintenance is significant with mechanical compressors.