ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ANATOMY
- is the study of the structure of an organism and the relationship of
its parts (morphology).
- it is derived from two Greek words ana means up and
temos/tomos means cutting.
Types of study in Anatomy
1. Systematic Anatomy- body structure is studied system by
system or it is the study of the system of the body. For
example when studying the cardiovascular system you would
examine the heart and blood vessels of the entire body.
2. Regional Anatomy- deals with the build-up of the human
body by registering the relationships between the adjacent
parts and elements.
- It is the study of anatomy by regions example the study of
the entire arm, the chest cavity and so on.
3. Surface Anatomy- it is the study of anatomic structures that
can be identified on the outside of the body.
- The study of structural relationships of the external
features of the body.
Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy- is used to describe the study of
that body parts visible o naked eye.
Dissection- literal cutting of the human body apart.
Cytology- is the study of cells.
Histology- is the study of tissues.
Developmental Anatomy- is the study of human growth and
development.
Pathological Anatomy - study of diseased body structures.
Embryology- is the study of embryo/developing fetus.
PHYSIOLOGY
- Is the science that studies the functions of the organisms
and its part.
- The term is a combination of two Greek words physis
means nature and logos means science of study.
Types of study
1. Study according to the organism involved (human
physiology).
1

2. Study according to level of organization within a given

organism.

Commonly used abbreviations

Meaning
1. Before
meals
2. After meals
3. As desired
4. At once,
immediately
5. Both ears
6. Left ear
7. Right ear
8. Both eyes
9. Left eye
10.
Right
eye
11.
By
mouth
12.
Nothin
g by mouth
13.
Everyd
ay, once a
day
14.
Every
hour
15.
Every
2 hours
16.
Every
3 hours
17.
Every
4 hours
18.
Every
6 hours
19.
Every
8 hours
20.
Every
12 hours

21.
Twice
a day
22.
Three
times a day
23.
Four
times a day
24.
Every
other day
25.
Hours
of sleep
26.
Once
if necessary
27.
When
necessary,
as needed

q2h
q3h
q4h
q6h
q8h
q12h
BID
TID
QID
QOD
hs
sos
prn

Abbreviations
ac
pc
ad lib
stat
AU
AS
AD
OU
OS
OD
PO
NPO
Qd/od
Qh/q1h
2

Other abbreviations
Meaning
1. Before
2. After
3. With
4. Without
5. Of each
6. Ampule
7. Discontinue
8. Drop per minute
9. Elixir
10.
Fluid
11.
Intradermal
12.
Intramuscular
13.
Intravenous
14.
Subcutaneous
15.
Sublingual
16.
Intravenous
piggyback
17.
Intravenous push
18.
Keep vein open
19.
Too numerous to
count
20.
Diet as tolerated
21.
Home Against
Medical Advise
22.
Banana, rice, apple
sauce and tea
23.
Total Parenteral
Nutrition
24.
Nasogastric Tube
25.
Acute
Gastroenteritis
26.
Chest X Ray
27.
Hypertension

Abbreviations
a
p
c
s
aa
amp
dc
gtt/min
elix
f
ID
IM
IV
SC
SL
IVPB
IVP
KVO
TNTC
DAT
HAMA
BRAT
3

TPN
NGT
AGE
CXR
HTN

ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS
Directional
Terms

-toward the side

1. Anterior
(ventral)
2. Posterior
(dorsal)
3. Superior

-away from the

side, toward the
mid-sagittal plane

4. Inferior

Definition
-Toward the front
of the body.
-Toward the back

5. Proximal
-Toward the top of
the body
-Toward the
bottom of the
body
-Toward the trunk

6. Distal
7. Deep
8. Superficial

9. Lateral
10.

Medial

-Away from the

trunk or point of
attachment.
-Toward the inside
of the part, away
from the surface.
-toward the
surface of a part,
away from the
inside

Example
-the nose is on the
anterior of the
head.
-the heel is
posterior to the
toes.
-the shoulders are
superior to the
hips.
-the stomach is
inferior to the
heart.
-this joints is
proximal to the
toe nail.

-the hand is distal

to the elbow.
-the thigh muscles
are deep to the
skin.

-the eyes are

lateral to the nose.
-the eyes are
medial to the ears.

-the skin is
superficial organ.
DESCRIPTIVE TERMS FOR BODY REGIONS
1. ABDOMINAL- anterior
24.
FEMORAL- thigh
torso below diaphragm
25.
GLUTEAL- buttock
2. ANTEBRACHIAL26.
INGUINAL- groin
forearm
27.
LUMBAR- lower
3. ANTECUBITALback between ribs and
depressed area just in
pelvis
front of elbow
28.
MAMMARY4. AXILLARY- armpit
breast
5. BRACHIAL- upper arm
29.
MANUAL- hand
6. CALCANEAL- heel of
30.
NAVEL- area
foot
around navel or
7. CARPAL- wrist
umbilicus
8. CEPHALIC- head
31.
OCCIPITAL- back
9. CERVICAL- neck
of lower skull
10.
COXAL- hip
11.
CRANIAL- skull
12.
CRURAL- leg
13.
CUBITAL- elbow
14.
CUTANEOUS- skin
15.
DIGITAL- fingers
or toes
16.
DORSAL- back or
top
17.
FACIAL- face
32.
OLECRANAL18.
BUCCAL- cheek
back of elbow
(inside)
33.
PALMAR- palm of
19.
FRONTALhand
forehead
34.
PATELLAR- front
20.
NASAL- nose
of knee
21.
ORAL- mouth
35.
PEDAL- foot
22.
ORBITAL/OPTHAL
36.
PELVIC- lower
MIC- eyes
portion of torso
23.
OTIC- ear
5

37.
PERINEAL- area
between anus and
genitals
38.
PLANTAR- sole of
foot
39.
POLLEX- thumb
40.
POPLITEAL- area
behind knee
41.
PUBIC- pubis
42.
SUPRACLAVICUL
AR- area above clavicle
43.
SURAL-calf
44.
TARSAL- ankle
45.
TEMPORAL- side
of skull
46.
THORACIC- chest
47.
ZYGOMATICcheek

ANATOMICAL PLANES
1. SAGITTAL PLANE
- A lengthwise plane running from front to back; divide the
body or any of its parts into right and left sides.
-

If a sagittal section is made in the exact mid line, resulting

in equal and symmetrical right and left halves, the plane is
called a mid-sagittal or median sagittal plane.
2. CORONAL PLANE
- a lengthwise plane running from side to side, divide the
body or any of its parts in to anterior or posterior portions,
also called frontal plane.
3. TRANSVERSE PLANE
- A crosswise plane, divide the body or any of its parts I to
upper and lower part, also called a horizontal plane.
BODY CAVITIES
IVENTRAL CAVITY
1. Thoracic cavity/chest cavity
a. Right pleural cavity- right lung
b. Left pleural cavity- left lung
c. Mediastinum (midprtion)
- Heart (pericardial cavity)
- thymus gland
- Trachea
- aortic arch and thoracic aorta
- Right and left bronchi
- vena cava
- Esophagus
- various lymph nodes and
nerves
- Thoracic duct
2. Abdominal cavity
- Liver
- spleen
- Gallbladder
- kidneys
- Stomach
- ureters
- Pancreas
- Intestines
3. Pelvic cavity
- Urinary bladder
- Female Reproductive Organs ( uterus, uterine
tubes/fallopian tubes, ovaries)
- Male reproductive organs (prostate gland, seminal vesicles,
parts of vas deferens)
Peritoneum- is a large, moist, slippery sheet of serous membranes
that lines the abdominopelvic cavity (parietal layer) and its organ
(visceral).

Parietal layer- refers to the actual wall of a body cavity or the

lining of the membanes that covers its surfaces.
Visceral layer- refers to the thin membrane that covers the organs
or viscera within a cavity.
IIDORSAL CAVITY
1. Cranial Cavity- lies in the skull and houses the brain.
2. Spinal Cavity- lies in the spinal column and houses the
spinal cord.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1.
2.
3.
4.

1.

ABDOMINAL REGIONS
RIGHT HYPOCHONDRIAC REGION
EPIGASTRIC REGION
LEFT HYPOCHONDRIAC REGION
RIGHT LUMBAR REGION
UMBILICAL REGION
LEFT LUMBAR REGION
RIGHT ILIAC (INGUINAL) REGION
HYPOGASTRIC REGION
LEFT ILIAC (INGUINAL) REGION
ABDOMINAL QUADRANTS
RIGHT UPPER QUADRANT
LEFT UPPER QUADRANT
RIGHT LOWER QUADRANT
LEFT LOWER QUADRANT
ANATOMICAL POSITION
- The body is in erect or standing posture with the arms at
the sides and palms turned forward. The head and feet are
also pointing forward.
- The anatomical position is a reference position that gives
meaning to the directional terms used to describe the body
parts and regions.
SEVEN STRUCTURAL LEVEL
Chemical Level- is the basis of life
- Human body composed of atoms, the building blocks of
nature. Combination of atoms form larger aggregates
called molecule. Molecules in turns often combine with
other atoms and molecules to form larger and more
complex chemicals called macromolecules. The unique
and complex relationship that exists between atoms,
molecules and macromolecules in living material form a
semi-fuid matrix type material called cytoplasm-the
essential of human life.

2. Organelle level- collection of molecules organized in such a

way that they can perform individual function.
- It is the sum property of these structures that allows each
cell to live. Organelles cannot survive outside the cell, but
without organelles cells could not survive either. Example:
mitochondria, the power house of cells which provide
the energy needed by the cell to carry on day to day
functioning, growth and repair. Golgi apparatus, which
provides the packaging service to the cell by storing
material for future internal use or for export from the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum, the transport channels within
the cell, which acts as a highways for the movement of
chemicals.
3. Cellular level- cells are the smallest and the most numerous
structural units that possess and exhibit the basic
characteristics of living matter.
- Each cell is surrounded by a membrane (cell membrane)
and is characterized by a single nucleus surrounded by
cytoplasm that contains the numerous organelles required
for specialized activity. Example: fat cells are structurally
modified to permit the storage of lipid material.
Specialized cells in the respiratory tract, secretes mucus
and are covered by hair like projections called cilia. These
cells help to protect the respiratory tract from inhaled dust
and other contaminants.
4. Tissue level- a tissue is an organization of a great many
similar cells that are specialized to perform a certain
functions. Tissue cells are surrounded by varying amounts and
kinds of non-living intercellular substances or the matrix.
- Four major types of tissue: epithelial tissue, connective
tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Example:
specialized type of epithelium that lines the tube of
respiratory tract. Some epithelial tissues form sheets that
cover the body surface, whereas other types line body
cavities or protect the passageways of the respiratory or
digestive tracts.
5. Organ level- an organ is an organization of several different
kinds of tissue so arranged that together they can perform a
special function.
- Example: muscle tissue and specialized connective tissues
form the many tubes that convey air, epithelial tissues line
the microscopic air sacs and nervous tissue permit control
of air fow and muscular contraction.

6.

7.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Each organ has unique shape, size, appearance and

placement in the body and each can be identified by the
pattern of tissue that forms it, example the lungs, heart
brain, kidneys, liver and spleen are all examples of
organs.
System level- systems are the most complex of the
component organizational units of the body. The system level
of organization involves varying numbers and kinds of organs
so arranged that together they can perform complex functions
for the body functions designed to meet specialized needs.
- Eleven major systems compose the human body:
integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous,
endocrine, circulatory, lymphatic/immune,
respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive.
Organism level- the living human organism is certainly more
than the sum of its parts. The human body cannot only
reproduce itself and effect ongoing repair and replacement of
many damages parts, it can maintain a constant and
predictable way an incredible number of variables required for
us to lead healthy productive lives.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
ORGANIZATION
- Complex organization patterns are found all living
organisms. They arrange themselves on very small levels,
grouping like things together. On larger levels, they
become visible.
RESPONSIVENESS
- Responsiveness or irritability is that characteristic of life
that permits an organism to sense, monitor, and respond to
changes in its external environment. Withdrawing from a
painful stimulus such as pin prick, is an example of
responsiveness.
CONDUCTIVITY
- Conductivity refers to the capacity of living cells and
tissues to selectively transmit or propagate a wave of
excitation from one point to another within the body.
Responsiveness and conductivity are highly developed in
both nerve and muscle cells I living organisms.
DIGESTION
- Digestion is the process by which complex food products
are broken down in to simpler substances that can be
absorbed and used by individual body cells.
ABSORPTION

Absorption refers to the movement of digested nutrients

through the wall of digestive tube and in to the body fuids
for transport to cells for use.
6. METABOLISM
- Is the breakdown of nutrient materials to produce energy
and the transformation of one material to another.Example
if we eat and absorb more sugar than needed for the
bodys immediate energy requirements, it is converted in
to an alternative form such as fat that can be stored in the
body.
7. GROWTH- an increase in size, measurable (quantitative).
- Growth occurs as a result of normal increase in size or
number of cells. In most instances, it produces an increase
in size of the individual, or of a particular organ or part but
little change in the shape of the organism as a whole or of
the part affected.
- All organisms grow and change. Cells divide to form new,
identical cells. Differentiation happens as well, when cells
mutate in to other types of cell, making a more complex
organism.
8. DEVELOPMENT
- Is an increase in skills and capacity to function
(qualitative).
9. SECRETION
- Secretion is the production and delivery of specialized
substances such as digestive juices and hormones for
diverse body functions.
10.
EXCRETION
- Excretion refers to removal of waste products produced
during many body functions, including the breakdown and
use of nutrients in the cell. Carbon dioxide is a gaseous
waste that is excreted during respiration.
11.
CIRCULATION
- Circulation refers to the movement of body fuids and
many other substances such as nutrients, hormones, and
waste products from one body area to another.
12.
REPRODUCTION
- Involves the formation of a new individual and also the
formation of new cells (via cell division) in the body to
permit growth of cells in a regular basis.
BODY TYPE

SOMATOTYPE- is a term used to describe a particular category of

body build or physique.
3 Somatotype
1. Endomorphy
- Endomorphic persons tend to be fat. Typically they have a
heavy torso with a protruding abdomen and slightly
smaller chest.
2. Mesomorphy
- Are heavily muscled and have large, prominent bones. In
most individuals with this body type the distal segments of
the arms and legs are prominent and massive. The
shoulders of a mesonephric person are usually well-defined
and tend to project outward from the torso. In addition, the
chest segment of the trunk predominates over the
abdominal segment and the waist is low.
3. Ectomorphy
- In ectomorphs there is a relative predominance of height
over fat or muscle. These persons tend to be tall and thin.
Typically, they have a relatively short trunk, long limbs and
poorly developed musculature. A shoulder drop is common
in ectomorphs. The distal segments of the arms and legs
tend to be relatively long and thin. In addition, the neck
tends to be long and slender and the face is small, with
sharp, fragile features.
HOMEOSTASIS
- Is the tendency of the body to maintain state of changing.
- It comes from Greek words homoios mean the same
and stasis means standing.
- According to Claude Bernard, a great French physiologist,
the body cells survive in a healthy condition only when the
temperature, pressure and chemical composition of their
fuid environment remain relatively constant.
Basic components of Homeostatic control mechanisms
1. Sensor mechanism
- Specialized nerve cells or hormone producing gland
frequently acts as a homeostatic sensor.
- If deviations from the normal set point range occur the
sensor generates a signal to transmit that information to
the integration or control center.
2. Integrating or control center
- If the brain (hypothalamus) receives input from the senor,
that information is analyzed and integrated with input from

other sensors, and then some specific actions is initiated, if

necessary to maintain homeostasis. If significant deviation
from the determined level exists the integration/control
center will send its own specialized signal to the effector
mechanism.
3. Effector mechanism
- Effectors are organs such as muscles or glands that directly
infuence controlled physiological variables. For example, it
is effect or action that decreases variables such as body
temperature, heart rate, blood pressure and blood sugar
concentration to keep the within normal range.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
- The counter to negative feedback, a process in which the
body senses a change and activates mechanism that
accelerates or increase that change. This can also aid in
homeostasis but in many cases it produces the opposite
effect and can be life threatening.
- Example of beneficial positive feedback is seen in
childbirth, where stretching the uterus triggers the
secretion of hormone called oxytocin, which stimulates
uterine contractions and speeds up labor.
- Example of on-beneficial positive feedback, if the death of
small area of heart (myocardial infarction), the heart
pumps an inadequate amount of blood. Thus, the heart
muscle itself is deprived of blood fow and still more begins
to die. This can lead to rapid worsening of cardiac function
until person dies.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
- The usual means of maintaining homeostasis is a general
mechanism called negative feedback loop. The body
senses an internal change and activates mechanism that
reverses or negates that change.
Homeostasis of blood pressure
- Blood pressure remains within normal limits through the
utilization of both rapid and slow mechanisms. Working
together, the mechanisms strive to maintain an
approximate blood pressure of 120/80mHg.
Rapid mechanisms1. The baroreceptor reflex is one of the most important fast
acting homeostatic mechanisms involved in regulating blood
pressure. This consists of receptors, sensory nerves, and the
medulla oblongata and motor nerves all working together.

The baroreceptors are found in certain place in the walls of

the heart where they are able to sense any change in blood
pressure. Sensory nerves are activated after the
baroreceptors notice a change. They send information to
the medulla oblongata of the brain, where it is interpreted.
The medulla then decides whether to increase or decrease
blood pressure depending on what signals it received. The
motor nerves of the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions of autonomic nervous system are activated to
carry out the adjustments needed to maintain blood
pressure.
a. If blood pressure is decrease, the sympathetic nervous
system will go to work. These nerves supply the electrical
system of the heart and will increase the heart rate and cause
the heat to contract more forcefully. The sympathetic nervous
system also causes some blood vessels to constrict, which
increases the blood pressure.
b. If blood pressure is increase, the medulla oblongata
signals the parasympathetic nervous system to cause a
decrease in heart rate, which will decrease the blood pressure
as well. The parasympathetic nerves also cause the blood to
dilate or open which decreases resistance, again leading to
lower blood pressure.
2. Epinephrine and norepinephrine
- Another rapid acting mechanism in the regulation of blood
pressure is the secretion of epinephrine and
norepinephrine by the adrenal gland. Both these
hormones act to increase the amount of blood pumped by
the heart each minute. They also cause the blood vessels
to constrict. These actions will assist with increasing blood
pressure.
SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT SYSTEMS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
1. INTEGUMENTARY SYTEM
- Major organ is the skin, and its appendages are hair, nails
and specialized glands (sweat glands and sebaceous
glands).
- Its primary function is protection. It protects underlying
tissue against invasion by harmful microorganisms, bars
entry of most chemicals and minimizes mechanical injury
of underlying structures. In addition, the skin serves to
regulate body temperature, synthesizes important

chemicals and hormones and functions as a

sophisticated sense organ.
2. SKELETAL SYSTEM
- Consists of bones and related tissues such as cartilage
and ligaments that together provide the body with a rigid
framework for support and protection.
- Functions for support and movement of the body. The
skeletal system, through joints or articulations, makes
movement possible. Bones also serves as reservoirs for
mineral storage and function in hematopoiesis or blood
cell formation.
3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
- The organs are the muscles
- Function for support and movement of the body.
- Muscles not only produce movement (or maintain
body posture) but are also responsible for generating
heat required for maintenance of a constant core
temperature.
4. NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The brain, spinal cord and nerves are the organs of the
nervous system.
- The primary functions of this complex system include
communication, integration and control of body functions.
These functions are accomplished by the generation,
transmission, integration and recognition of specialized
nerve impulses. It is the nerve impulse that permits the
rapid and precise control of diverse body functions.
- Elements of the nervous system serve to recognize certain
stimuli-such as light, pressure, or temperature-which affect
the body. Nervous impulses may then be generated to
convey this information to the brain where it can be
analyzed and where appropriate action can be initiated.
NEUROLOGY/NEUROBIOLOGY- is the branch of the science that
deals with the nervous system and its disorders.
5. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- Is composed of specialized glands that secrete chemicals
known as hormones directly into the blood.
(hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland,
thymus gland, thyroid gland ,parathyroid gland,
adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes)
- Sometimes called the ductless glands, the organs of the
endocrine system perform the same general functions as
the nervous system namely communication, integration

and control. The nervous system provides rapid, brief

control by fast travelling nerve impulses whereas the
endocrine system provides slower but longer-lasting control
by secretion of hormones. The organs that are acted on
and respond in some way to a particular hormone are
referred to as descriptively as target organs.
- Hormones are the main regulators of metabolism, growth
and development, reproduction and many other body
activities. They play roles of the utmost importance in such
areas as fuid and electrolyte balance, acid-base balance
and energy metabolism.
ENDOCRINOLOGY- study of endocrine glands and their
hormones
6. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
- Consists of the heart and closed system of vessels called
arteries, veins and capillaries. As the name implies,
blood contained in the circulatory system is pumped by the
heart around a close circle or circuit of vessels as it passes
through the body.
- The primary function of this system is transportation.
The need for an efficient transportation system in the body
is obvious. Critical transportations needs include
movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients,
hormones, waste products and other important substances
on a continuing basis.
7. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- Is composed of lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes
and specialized lymphatic organs such as the thymus and
spleen.
- The functions of this system include movement of fluids
and certain large molecules, such as proteins from the
tissue spaces surrounding the cells to the blood and
movement of fat-related nutrients from the digestive tract
where they are absorbed back to the general circulation.
IMMUNOLOGY- the study of the immune response functions.
8. RESPIRATORY SYTEM
- Organs include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs. Together these organs permit the
movement of air into the tiny thin-walled sacs of the lungs
called alveoli. It is in the alveoli that oxygen from the air is
exchanged for the waste product carbon dioxide, which is
carried to the lungs by the blood so it can be eliminated
from the body.

9. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- The main organs are the mouth, pharynx (throat),
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum and anal canal. hese organs form a
tube, open at both ends, called gastrointestinal or GI
tract. Accessory organs include teeth, tongue,
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas.
- Food that enters the tract is digested, nutrients are
absorbed and the undigested residue is eliminated from
the body as waste material called feces.
GASTROENTEROLOGY- the scientific study of the GI tract
and its diseases.
10.
URINARY SYSTEM
- Include the two kidneys, the ureters, and the bladder
and the urethra.
- The kidneys function to clear or clean the blood of the
many waste products that are continually produced by
metabolism of foodstuffs in the body cells. The kidneys
also play an important role in maintaining the
electrolyte, water, and acid-base balance in the body.
- The waste product that is produced by the kidneys is called
urine. One produced it fows out of the kidneys through
the two ureters into the urinary bladder where it is stored.
Urine passes from the bladder to the outside of the body
through the urethra.
11.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
a. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- Include the gonads (testes) which produce sex cells or
sperm. A number of genital ducts including the
epididymis,vas deferens and urethra: accessory
glands such as seminal vesicles, prostate gland and
Cowpersgland which contribute secretions important to
reproductive function; supporting structures, including the
penis and scrotum. Functioning together, these
structures produce, transfer and ultimately introduce
sperm into female reproductive tract, where fertilization
can occur.
b. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- The female gonads are the ovaries. The accessory organs
include the uterus, uterine tubes (fallopian tubes),
and vagina. The breasts or mammary glands are also
classified as external accessory organs.

The reproductive organs in the female are intended to

produce sex cells or ova, receive the male sex cells, permit
fertilization and transfer of the sex cells to the uterus, and
allow for development, birth and nourishment of the
offspring
GYNECOLOGY- study of the female reproductive system.