Edited by
H.J. Blass
P. Aune
B.S. Choo
R.Gsrlacher
D.R. Grifiths
B.O.Hilson
P. Racher
G . Steck
Contents
Preface
AcknowIedgements
AII~/ZOI'S
National Representative Organisations .
Contract im~zpleinentat~
. .
.
.
.. . ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A17
A18
A19
European standardisation
Limit state design and safety format
Actions on structures
. .
Wood as a building material . . . . . .
Timber in constmction
. . . .
.
.
Strength.grading . ..
Solid timber Strengtl~classes
GIued laminated timber - Production and strength classes
Laminated veneer lumber and other structural sections
Wood-based panels - Plywood
Wood-based panels - Fibreboard, particle board and OSB
Adhesives
Behaviour of timber and wood-based materials in Are
Detailing for durability
Durability - Preservative treatment
Environmental aspects of timber
Serviceability limit states - Deforn~ations
Serviceability limit states - Vibration of wooden floors
Creep
Structural components
A7
A8
A9
A10
A1 l
A12
A13
A14
A15
AXG
.:
Foreword
This publication is the first major output from the Structural Timber Education
Programme (STEP) work initiated by Eurofortech and supported by the
Comission of the European Communities under the Comett programme. It
represents a commendable effort by about 50 people from 14 European countries
to make Eurocode 5 operational and accepted by the users.
Eurocode 5 is a legal document aimed at the qualified engineer wit11 a basic
knowledge of timber and timber structures. It gives the requirements for design,
but not their background. It cannot stand alone. It has to be supported by textbooks
explaining the general philosophy of the Eurocodes, especially Eurocode 5, and
giving the background for its requirements and detailed design rules. The STEP
lectures are such a textbook for direct use by instructors at engineering schools and
a basis for writing national textbooks.
The STEP project is closely linked to Eurocode 5, the European code for the
design of timber structures (ENV 1995-1-1 and 1995-1-2). Work on Eurocode 5
began in 1973 when John Sunley - at that time at the UK Forest Products
Laboratory, later director of TMDA - initiated the drafting of a model code for
the design of timber structures in Working Commission W18 of CIB (The
international council for building research, studies and documentation). The
initiative of John Sunley was very timely; the result the CIB Structural Timber
Design Code - was published in 1983 and was immediately accepted as the basis
for the timber part when the Commission of the European Communities in 1985
initiated drafting a set of European design codes: the Eurocodes.
Hans J~rgenLarsen,
Chairman, Eurocode 5 Drafting Committee
Preface
European harmonisation
The unification process in the European Union (EU)has led, and will continue to
lead, to changes which will impact on n b y aspects of life in the member
countries, including industrial practice. A key objective of the EU is the creation
of a stronger and more competitive industrial base. This is being achieved in a
number of ways including technological innovation, intensification of training, and
the standardisation of key practices and operations within industry. The
l~armonisationof component and product quality standards is an important elenlent
of this process. Such harmonisation facilitates not only for freer movement of
goods and services within the EU but also for enhanced col~esion and
competitiveness in the presentation of the products of EU industry in external
markets.
STEP/Euroforteeh, background
In its role as the transnational EEU network for training and education for the forest
and wood industries, EUROFORTECB has recognised the educational implications
of the changes being experienced by Europe's forest and wood sector industries.
During the past three years it has helped to create STEP, the Structural Timber
Education Programme and assisted a large team of European experts to prepare the
STEPfEUROFORTECN teaching materials relating to the use of timber in
structural applications. The two volumes of this cotnpendium of technical
inforlnation were made possible througl~the financial contributions of the European
Union and 14 participating countries. It will assist teachers, students and practising
professionals in applying and implenlenting new European standards for the
structural use of timber. This pool of information wilI both contribute to the
structural use of timber and increase technical expertise within the industry.
Thiber Engineering - STEP 1 is the first volulne of the STEP cornpendium and
will be complemented by the second volume, Timber Engineering - STEP 2. In
additiol~a supporting slide collection is available.
Acknowledgements
Authors Timber Engineering - STEP 1
T.Alsmarker, Lund University, Division of Stmctural Engineering, P.O. Box 118,
5-221 00 Lund, Sweden
K.H. Solli, The Norwegian Institute of Wood Technology, P.O. Box 113,
Blindern, N-03 14 Oslo 3, Norway
G. Steck, Fachhocl-rschule Miinchen, Kartstrasse 6, D-80333 Miinchen, Germany
P.J. Steer, Consultant Structural Engineer, 28 Aslbourne Road, Derby DE3 3AD,
United Kingdom
L. Whale, Gang-Nail Systems Ltd., Christy Estate, Ivy Road, Aidersfiot, Hants
GU 12 4XG, United Kingdom
Nerherlcznds
NRO: Centrun1 Hout, Almere
Supporting organisations: Delft University of Technology, Delft; Stichting WESP,
Woerden; Stichting Opleidings- en Ontwikkelingsfonds voor de Timmerfabrieken,
Bussum; TNO Building and Construction Research, Rijswijk
Nowcry
NRO: Thte Norwegian Institute of Wood Technology (NTI), Oslo
Supporting organisations: University of Trondheim; The Norwegian Institute of
Wood Tecfinology, Osf o
Porfi4gal
NliO: Laborat6rio Nacional de Engenl~ariaCivil, Lisboa
Sweden
NRO: Triiinf'ormation, Stockl~olnl
Supporting organisations: Cllalmers University of Technology; Lund University;
Swedish National Testing and Research Institute
Switzerland
NRO: Lignum Schweizerische Arbeitsgemeinschaft f i r das Holz, Ziirich
Supporting organisations: ETH, Ziirich; EPF, Lausanne; SIA Schweizerischer
Ingenieur- und Architekten-Verein, Ziirich
United Kirzgdom
NRO : TRADA, High Wyconlbe, Buckinghanlsl~ire
Supporting organisations: Timber Research and Development Association; GangNail Systems Ltd.; Brighton University; University of Nottingham; University of
Surrey; Meyer International; SCOTFI; institute of Wood Science; MiTek Industries
Ltd .; Sin~psonStrongtie International Incorporated; James Donaldson & Son;
Donaldson Timber Engineering
Contract implementation
Centrum Hout, STEP/EuroforiechSecretariat, Westeinde 8, 1334 BK Alrnere, The
Netlterlands
Cornnlission of the European Comlunities
Taskforce, Human Resources, Education, Training and Youth, COMETT
Programme, Contract No 92/ 1/6960
Eurofortech, International Office, Roebuck Castle, Be1field, Dub1in 4, f reland
I.
2.
3.
4.
The first two types of technical specification will be the normal methods used to
obtain the CE marking and further detaiis are given below.
The Members of CEN are the eighteen National Standardisation Bodies of EU and
EFTA Member States. In order to respond to the request included in the CPD, for
the existence of harmonized European standards, more than sixty CEN Technical
Committees are currently dealing with around 2000 work items (corresponding to
EN Standards or Parts of EN Standards to be drafted) in the area of building and
civil engineering. The standardisation work concerning timber and related products
will be summarized later in this lecture.
It is outside the scope of this lecture to give details about the procedures followed
to prepare and approve an EN Standard. It is, however, important to state that when
a CEN Member adopts an EN Standard, this will acquire the status of a national
standard and the i~ationalstandard(s) covering the same subject shall be withdrawn.
The European techrlical approval (ETA) is a favourable technical assessment of the
fitness for use of a construction product, based on the fulfilment of the essential
requirements of the construction work where the products are incorporated. The
ETAS are basically applicable to those products for which there is neither a
harmonized standard, nor a mandate from the CEC for the production of one
covering those products. So, this type of technical specification is reserved for
innovative products and corresponds to an extension, to a European scale, of the
national Agrement Certificates currently issued in different countries.
European technical approvals are issued by approval bodies designated by the EU
Member States which are presently associated to the "European Organization for
Technical Approvals" (EOTA), that coordinates these activities, and will ensure that
STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiativc under tllc EU Cotnett Programme
There are three Service Classes, denoted 1, 2 and 3. The classes 1 and 2 are
characterised by the moisture content of the surrounding air. In Service Class 1
the average equilibrium moisture content in most softwoods will not exceed
12%; in Service Class 2 it will not exceed 20%. There are no limits for Service
Class 3.
There are five Load-duration Classes. They are characterised by the order of
accumulated duration of the characteristic load, see Table 4, where also
examples of loading are given.
It is generally assumed that the relationship between the resistance (R) and the
strength paraineters V), the stiffness parameters (4 and the geornetricai data (a)
is known. If this is the case, design values should be used to determine the
design resistance:
The design value R, can also be determined directly from characteristic values
(R,) determined from tests:
For structures where the resistance depends on Inore than one material - e.g.
timber and steel or wood-based panels - it can be difficult to select tile right
value of k,",,,. It is of course always on the safe side to use the lowest value for
the materials used.
Geoructrical dain
where Act takes account of the possible deviations from the characteristic values.
Values of Aa are given in the appropriate clauses of EC5.
Load-duration
Class
Permanent
Long-term
Medium-term
Short-tcnn
Instantaneous
Duration'
Exarnples
of loading
self weight
storage
irnposcd load
snow" and wind
accidental load
A,,,,, for
Service Classcs
1&2
0,60
0,50
0.55
O,G5
0,70
0,90
0,70
0,80
0,90
I , 10
a Thc Load-duration Classes are charncleriscd by the effect oP a constant load acting
for a ccriain period oC time. For variable action the appropriale class depends on the
erfecl of tlie typical variation of tile load in the life of the structure. The accumulated
duration of' the characteristic load is orten very sliort compwcd with the total loading
time.
b In areas with a heavy snow load for a prolonged period of time, par1 of the load
should be regarded as medium-term.
Table 3
"Greeni~ouses".Further, and with special relevance to this Iccture, is, obviously, tile
work of CENtTC 250 - "Structural Eurocodes", where ECS concerning ille design
of tiinber structures will be finalised, as will be described later.
Apart from the work on the EC5, the major interest for timber structures is focused
on the EN Standards that will be produced by CENJTC 38, CEN/TC 112 and
CEN/TC 124. Tlie programme of work of these three TCs was established taking
into account the need for supporting EN Standards for Eurocode 5. Briefly, the
activity of these Technical Comlnittees is now referred to.
CEN/TC 35 is the oldest, was created prior to the pubtication of the CPD and, in
former times, produced EN Standards concerning test methods for preservative
proclucts. The work was gredtly enlarged and accelerated recently and a coherent
set of new EN Standards concerning this subject is in the final phase of production
(see STEP lecture A 15).
CENITC 112 currently has a worlc programme that includes around 80 items
covering particleboarcis, oriented strand boards, fiblzboards, plywood, cernentbonded particleboards, together with general test rnethods and forl?ialdehyde
eiuissioti.
CENITC 124 was created in 1987 and t11e work programme involves around 40
items dealing with solid timber, glued laminated timber, connectors and test
nlethods, which are obviously closely related to Eurocode 5.
Finally, some words ribotit the work concerning EC5. CENITTC 250 - "Structural
Eurocodes" was created in 1990 and took over the previous work, that had been
started around 1977 under t11c auspices of the CEC, of' drafting a systein of
Eiiropean structural design codes: the Eurocodes. Sub-committee 5 of TC 250
(CENmC 2SOlSCS) is in charge OF EC5 and established a work programme that
anticipated the publication of three documents. Tlie first, for general application,
was published in 1993; it is referenced as ENV 1995-1-1 : 1993 -"Eurocode No.5 Design of timber stnictures. Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings". The
second, ENV 1995-1-2 - "Eurocode No.5 - Design of timber structures. Part 1-2:
Structural fire design" tias been finalized. Drafting of the third document, dealing
with bridges, has beer1 started. In coinrnot~with Eurocodes dealing with other
materials, Eurocode 5 will be published as an ENV, i.e., as a European Prestatidard.
This rneans that - as opposed to the status of an EN Standard - existing conflicting
nationat standards may be kept in force (in parallel with the ENV) until the filial
decision about the conversion of the ENV into a EN is reached. In order to
implement these ENVs, Member States are expected to publish National Application
Documents (NADs), namely to assign certain safety levels that are set out as
iildicative levels in the ENVs.
STEPIEUROFORTECH -
i1n
Action
\lf~
'\'I
0.7- 1 ,O
0,6
096
0,5-0,9
02
0,s
K!
0,3-0,8
0,O
0,o
MrttcriaI plopcrties
The material properties correspond either to the rnean value or to the 5-percentile
determined by standardised tests ~lndel-reference conditions: duration of test 5
tninutes at 20 "C and relative humidity 65%. The lnean values are used for
serviceability limit stnte verifications. The 5-percentiles are used for all
properties (strength, stiffness and density) related to illtiinate limit states.
Gcornetriciil dilta
The characteristic geometrical values, such as spans, dimensions of cr-osssections, deviations from straigl~tness,usually correspond to the values specified
in the design or to nominal values.
Actions
The design actions may be different for the different limit states and are found
as described below. Firstly, the possible load cases are identified, i.e. compatible
load arrangements, sets of deformations and imperfections. A load arrangement
identifies the position, magnitude and direction of an action.
Design values
where y are partial factors (load factors) for Lhe action considered, tc&ing
account of: the possibility of i~nf'avourable deviations of the actions, the
possibility of inaccurate nod el ling of the actions and uncertainties in the
assessnient of effects of actions. Values of the load factors are given in Table 2.
Reduced partial factors may be applied for sit~gle-storeybuildings of inoderate
span that are only occupied occasionally (storage buildings, sheds, greenhouses,
and buildings and small silos for agricultural puq~oses),lighting masts, light
partition walls, and sheeting.
''
Figure 2
The main parameters are the actions, the material properties and the geometrical
data. Normally, these parameters are stochastic variables with distribution
functions as shown in principle in Figure 2 for the action effects (S) and the
corresponding resistance (R): e.g. bending stresses and bending strength or the
axial force in a centrally loaded column and the buckling Ioad. The distributions
have the mean values S,,, and R,,,, and they can be assigned characteristic
values S, and R, defined as fractiles in the distribution. For actions an upper
fractile is nomalty used; in some cases, a lower value may be appropriate, e.g.
for counteracting uplift. For resistance a lower fractile or the mean value is
normally used; in exceptional cases an upper resistance value may be
appropriate.
The purpose of the design is to get a low probability of failure3, i.e. a low
probability of getting action values higher than the resistances. This, in the
partial coefficient method, is achieved by using design values found by
multiplying the characteristic actions and dividing the characteristic strength
parameters respectively, by partial safety coefficients.
TItc prubability of failttre cat1 be esti~natedby statistical ntctlrods, attd in the future srtclt
rt~etlrodsrrtay be rcsed by dcsigrrers. Torlay, tlicy arc only rised for very special stricctrrrcs, c.g.
for bridges with very lorge sparrs or for rlte calibration of tlic safety cletrrerrrs (e.g. partial
coeflcients) of tlte sirrtplc ver#catiurr sysfenls rrscd in practice.
Fig~trc2
The main parameters are the actions, the material properties and the geometrical
data. NormaIly, these parameters are stochastic variables with distribution
functions as shown in principle in Figure 2 for the action effects (S)and the
corresponding resistance (R): e.g. bending stresses and bending strength or the
axial force in a centrally loaded column and the buckling load. The distributions
and R,,,, and they can be assigned characteristic
have the mean values S,
values S, and R, defined as fractiles in the distribution. For actions an upper
fractile is normally used; in some cases, a lower value may be appropriate, e.g.
for counteracting uplift. For resistance a lower fractile or the mean value is
normally used; in exceptional cases an upper resistance value may be
appropriate.
The purpose of the design is to get a low probability of failure3, i.e. a low
probability of getting action values higher than the resistances. This, in the
partial coefficient method, is achieved by using design values found by
multiplying the characteristic actions and dividing the characteristic strength
parameters respectively, by partial safety coefficients.
.' Tffcprubalrility
Action
\I'o
\If,
'lfz
0.7- 1,O
0,6
0,s-0,9
02
06
0,s
0,3-0,8
0,O
0,o
Snow loads
Wind loads
ivlnccriat p~.opcr[ies
The material properties correspond either to the mean value or to the 5-percentile
determined by standardised tests tinder reference conditions: duration of test 5
rninutes at 20 "C and relative humidity 65%. Tile mean values are used for
serviceability limit state verifications. The 5-percentiles are used for all
properties (strength, stiffness and density) related to ultirnate limit states.
Gco~nctricaldata
The ctlaracteristic geo~netrical values, such as spans, ditnellsions of crosssections, deviations from straightness, usually correspond to the values specified
in the design or to no~ninalvalues.
Actions
The design actions may be different for the different limit states and are found
as described below. Firstly, the possible load cases are identified, i.e. compatible
load arrangements, sets of deforrnatiorls and imperfections. A load arrdngement
identifies the position, magr~itudeand direction of an actiot~.
Design values
where y are partial factors (load factors) ibr L11e action considered, taking
account of: the possibility of unhvourable deviations of the actions, tile
possibility of inaccurate modelling of the actions and uncertainties in the
assessnlent of effects of actions. Values of' the load factors are given in Table 2.
Reduced partial factors may be applied for single-storey buildings of inoderate
span that are only occupied occasionally (storage buildings, sheds, greenhouses,
and buildings and small silos for agricultural puq~oses),lighting masts, light
partition walls, and sheeting.
The representative values multip1ied by the y-values - y, G,, yQ Q,, yL, \yo Qt are called design actions. The principle is thus that one variable action with its
characteristic value in turn is combined with the permanent actions and all other
variable actions with their coinbination value ~hQ,.
Finally, the effects (S) of actions - for example internal forces and tuoments,
stresses, strains and displacements - are determined from the design values of the
actions, geometrical data and, where relevant, material properties (X):
''
"Greenhouses". Further, and with special relevance to this lecture, is, obviously, the
work of CEN/TC 250 - "Stnictural Eurocodes", where EC5 concerning the design
of tiinber structures will be kiiialised, as will be described later.
Apart froin the work on the EC5, the major interest for timber structures is focused
on tlie EN Standards that will be produced by CEN/TC 38, CEN/TC 112 and
CEN/TC 124. Tile programme of work of these three TCs was established taltirig
into account the need for supporting EN Standards for Eurocode 5. Briefly, the
activity of these Technical Comlnittees is now referred to.
CEN/TC 38 is the oldest, was created prior to the pubiication of the CPD and, in
for111er times, produced EN Standards concerning test methods for preservative
proclucts. The work was greatly enlarged and accelerated recently and a colierent
set of new EN Standards concerning this subject is in the final phase of production
(see STEP lecture A15).
CENfrC 1 12 currently has a worlc programme that includes around 80 itenis
covering particleboards, oriented strand boards, fibreboards, plywood, cetnentbonded particleboards, together with general test {nethods arid fornialdehyde
e~nission.
CENRC I24 was created in 1987 and the work programme involves around 40
items dealing with solid timber, glued laminated timber, connectors m d test
mettiods, which are obviously closely related to Ei~rocode5.
Finally, some words about the work concerning EC5. CENtTC 250 - "Structural
Eurocodes" was created in 1990 and took over tlie previous work, that had been
started around 1977 under the auspices of the CEC, of drafting a system of
Etiropeilti structural design codes: the Eurocodes. Sub-committee 5 of TC 250
(CENfTC 250/SC5) is in charge of EC5 and established a work programme that
anticipated the publication of three documents. The first, for general application,
was published in 1993; it is referenced as ENV 1995- 1-1: 1993 -"Eurocode No.5 Design of timber stnrctures. Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings". Tlie
second, ENV 1995-1-2 - "Eurocode No.5 - Design of timber structures. Part 1-2:
Structural fire design" has been finalized. Drafting of the third document, dealing
with bridges, has been started. In common with Eurocodes dealing with other
materiais, Eurocode 5 will be published as an ENV, is., as a European Prestandarcl.
This means that - as opposed to the status of an EN Standard - existing conflicting
national standards may be kept in force (in parallel with the ENV) until the final
decision about the conversion of' the ENV into a EN is reached. In order to
i~nplementthese ENVs, Mernber States are expected to publish National Application
Docunients (NADs), namely to itssigrl certain safety levels that are set out as
indicative levels in tlie ENVs.
There are three Service Classes, denoted 1, 2 and 3. The classes I and 2 are
cliaracterised by the moisture content of the surrounding air. In Service Class 1
the average equilibrium moisture content in most softwoods will not exceed
12%; in Service Class 2 it wilI not exceed 20%. There are no firnits for Service
Class 3 .
There are five Load-duration Classes. They are characterised by the order of
accumulated duration of the characteristic load, see Table 4, where also
examples of loading are given.
It is generally assumed that the relationship between the resistance ( R ) and the
strength parameters 0, tlie stiffness parameters (E) and the geolnetrical data (u)
is known. If this is the case, design values should be used to determine the
design resistance:
The design value R , can also be detcnnined directly froin characteristic values
(R,) determined from tests:
For structures where the resistance depends on Inore than one material - e.g.
timber and steel or wood-based panels - it can be difficult to select the right
value of k,,,,,,,. It is of course always on the safe side to use the lowest value for
the materials used.
The geometrical design values correspond generally to the characteristic values,
i.e. to the values specified in the design. In cases where the infIuence of
deviations are critical the geometrical design values are defined by
where Aa takes account of the possible deviations from the characteristic values.
Values of Aa are given in the appropriate clauses of EC5.
Load-duration
Class
Permnncnt
Long-term
Mediurn-term
S hort-tenn
Instantaneous
Duration"
Bxatnples
of loading
self weight
storage
irnposcd load
snow" and wind
accidental load
k,,,,, for
Service Classes
1 &2
0,60
0,50
0,70
0,55
0,80
0,90
1.10
0,65
0,70
0,90
a The Load-duration Classcs are charac~eriscdby tlie effect of a constant load acting
for a ccrtain pcriod of time, For variable action Ltic appropriate class depellds on the
effect of the typical variation of the load in the life of the structure. The accumulated
duration of the characteristic load is onen very sliort comparcd with the total loading
Lime.
b In areas with a heavy snow load for rt prolonged period or time, part of the load
should bc regarded as rncdium-term.
Table 4
The first two types of technical specification will be the normal methods used to
obtain the CE marking and further details are given below.
The Members of CEN are the eighteen National Standardisation Bodies of EU and
EFTA Member States. In order to respond to the request included in the CPD, for
the existence of harmonized European standards, more than sixty CEN Technical
Committees are currently dealing with around 2000 work items (corresponding to
EN Standards or Parts of EN Standards to be drafted) in the area of building and
civil engineering. The standardisation work concerning timber and related products
will be summarized Iater in this lecture.
It is outside the scope of this lecture to give detaiIs about the procedures foIlowed
to prepare and approve an EN Standard. It is, however, important to state that when
a CEN Member adopts an EN Standard, this will acquire the status of a national
standard and the ilatio~lalstandard(s) covering the same subject shall be withdrawn.
The European technical approval (ETA) is a favourable technical assessment of the
fitness for use of a construction product, based on the fulfilment of the essential
requirements of the construction work where the products are incorporated. The
ETAS are basically applicable to those products for which there is neither a
harmonized standard, nor a mandate from the CEC for the production of one
covering those products. So, this type of technical specification is reserved for
innovative products and corresponds to an extension, to a European scale, of the
national Agrement Certificates currently issued in different countries.
European technical approvals are issued by approval bodies designated by the EU
Member States which are presently associated to the "European Organization for
Technical Approvals" (EOTA), that coordinates these activities, and will ensure that
STEPJEUROFORTECH- an initinlivc under the EU Cornctl Programme
Selfweight alone. Periuanent. Due to the Iow value of A,,,,,,,, this load [nay
be decisive in theory, but rarely in practice.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Actions on structures
STEP lcciurc A3
P. Racllcr
CUST Civil Engineering
Blnisc Pascal University
objectives
To give an overview of the classification of the actions applied to structures. To
define the cl~aracteristicvalue for the n~oslcolnrnon actions applied to buildings.
T O present the design situations and the associated values for combined actions.
Summary
In accordance with ECI, tl.iis lecture deals with the evaluation of the actions used
in EC5 design calculations. Regardless of dynalnic effects, the representative values
of the actions on buildings depend on their variation wit11 dme. These values are
established for permanent, imposed, snow and wind actions. Then, the combined
value of actions is calculated for the various design situations. A typical example
of the calculation of the actions for a fralne complen~entsthe lecture.
Introduction
For the intended col~slructionwork, tile designer is first faced wit11 the conceptual
design of the structural system. This stage will consider the type of structure and
on construction material to be used. The structural design then starts with an
analysis of the actions that may be applied to the chosen structure. Account should
be taken of direct actions that are the applied external forces as well as tile indirect
actions that result from imposed deformations (e.g. settlement of supports or
dimensional change induced by moisture variations).
Regardless of the constnlction material, the design requires the evaluation of tile
actions that may act during the life of the structure. These depend on the strucrural
form, on the type of construction work and on the method of construction. At this
stage, it is necessary to consider tlie nature of the actions or action-effects, i.e.
either static or dynamic, to achieve an accurate slnrciural analysis. For example, the
quasi-static assu~nptionmay nor be acceptable in the Sotlowing cases:
In these cases, a dynamic itnalysis model should be used to find the action-effects
of the force-time history, considering the stiffness, Lhe inass and the damping ratio
or structural members. However, the resonant component of tile action-effect is
small for most structures. Therefore the static calculations are made, and an
equivalent dytia~nicamplification factor applied to the static value of action.
This lecture, therefore, deals will1 the assessment of direct actions and their
combination for static analysis only. These calculations will also need to consider
the National Application Documents and current regulations applicable to the
colinlly where the structure is cotistructed.
General concepts
Strifcturcrl c1as.siJcaiio~z.s
The design Eurocodes (EC2 to EC7) are based on a calibration of successf'ul
traditional design methods. Nevertheless, a mention should be made of the criteria
to which the reliability concept of ECI referred. Regarding human hazard and
economic losses, the stmcturai safely and serviceability requirements consider the
working life and the design siliiations of the structures (C.E.B., 1980).
Class
2
3
4
The working life corresponds to tile period for which the structure is to be used for
its intended purpose. Table 1 gives a classification of the construction works. In
addition, the design situations refer to events that may occur during tlte working life
of tlle structure. Therefore, the actions are evaluated for the relevant design
situations that are classified as:
Load clnss~ficcition
Other actions like accidental ( A ) and seismic (S) actions are outside the scope of
this lecture (see STEP lectures A2, B17 and (217).
Figrrre I
LI floor.
The permanent actions have negligible variation in magnitude with time, except
when changes to a construction are made (see Figure I). For the variable actions
(Hendrickson et al, 1987, Rackwitz, 1976), the variations are modelled as a
discontinuous process (i.e. snow or wind) or as a process resulting From a sustained
part, Q,.,and a transient part, Q7.(i.e. imposed load). For timber which is more
*STEP/EUROFORTECH :In initiative undcr thc
EU Comctt Progrnmmc
QN
Qfi
2,5923 COV
(2)
from values related to a return period Iess than 50 years (e.g. snow or wind),
In addition, the designer needs to consider other representative values for variable
actions given as:
the frequenl value (yf,Q&, which is exceeded for 5 percent of the time,
Permanent actions
Tlte permanent actions are due to the self-weight of structural members and the
weights of all components to be supported permanentIy by the members. These
dead loads comprise fixed partitions, insulation, cladding or finishes. The estimation
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme
A313
of the permanent actions requires knowledge of the structural configuration and the
constnlction materials. TIie values of the permanent actions are established using
the nominal dimensions of the components and the rnean weight density of the
constituent materials (in kNh-I). For many building products, the designer should
refer to the weights given by the manufacturer.
In order to si~nplifytlie calculations, the dead loads due lo framing mernbcrs and
lightweight partitions are conveniently defined as unifortnly distributed loacls over
tlie bttilding area. A reasonable estin~atemay be obtained by referring to similar
structures. The self-weight of the flooring (sheet and joist) or roofing (sheet, rafters
and purlins) lnelnbers ranges usually between 0,25 and 0,45 kN/rn2. For coitinlon
framing members, the overall weight could be estimated as g=(15+1)/100 kN/t>12
where 1 is the span of the inembers in metres.
Depending on the weight P of the partition per tti2 of will1 area, the partitions may
be taken into account as a uniform load equal to 0,75 P per r?lZ of floor area. This
estimate is used for partitions up to four rnctres in height if P is less than 1,0 kN/rtt2
and less tlian 40% of the iniposed actions.
Imposed actions
The imposed actions in buildings are due Lo occupancy. They correspond to loads
that niove by themselves (i.e. people, trucks) and to moveable loads ( i s . f~trniture,
light partitions, stored materials). Distinction is niade between the lortded areas
according to the intended use. In common buildings, three classes havc to be
considered: 1 - clwcllings, offices, shops . . ., 2- roofs and 3-produclion areas.
Cutcgory
Type of use
Ex:unpIe
Residential activities
Offices
Congregation areas
Shopping
Areas i n warehouses
Storage
Table 2
For production areas, the design is achieved with imposed actions on floors
depending on the specific use of the buildings. Otherwise, the values of the imposed
actions take into account the density of occupation and the degree of public access
to the area. Thus, the first class is subdivided into five categories (Table 2). Roofs
are categorized as not accessible except for maintenance or repair (Category H) or
as accessible. For accessible roofs, the design is inade wit11 the occupancy
corresponding to the floor classification.
A 314
Referring to this classification, tlie design of a floor or roof takes into account either
a uniformly distributed load q, or a concentrated load Q,as imposed action. The
free load Q, acts on a square area with a 50 mnr side. TIiis load is intended lo
ensure adequate design of secondary members. It may be also critical on small
spans. Table 3 gives tile minimum values of these imposed actions as specified in
ECI. Reduction coefficients can be applied to these values depending on the floor
area and the nunlber of storeys.
Category
Floors, accessil~leroufis:
General
stairs
(IcN)
Balconies
2
2
2
General
Stairs,balconies
3
4
2
3
Department store
E General
Table 3
(2,
3
4
D Shops
13
C General
Norr-accessible roofY:
Apart from tile previous gravity loads, account may also be taken of horizontal
imposed actions on partition walls and barriers. They are short-term actions applied
at the height of t l ~ ehand rails (0,S to 1,2 111). Table 4 defines the characteristic
values of the line action q,.
Category
Tablc 4
C,D
Public events in C or D
Snow loads
The snow loads are based on mensurernents of snow depths on the ground and
snow density. Depending on the surrounding terrain and the local weatlter, the
specilic density of snow varies from 0,l (fresh snow) to 0,4 (old or wet snow).
From a statistical analysis 01' these records, the characteristic snow load on the
ground (s,) is defined for a return period of 50 years. As they depend on the
geognaphical location and the altitude of the site, the characleristic values s, are
given in the national loading codes. In addition, the designer should also consider
local effects tllat may modify the specified value s,. For example, significant
increase in the snow load on a member can result from snow turning into ice or
min falling on the snow. For structurnl calculations, the designer has to consider the
load arrangements on the roofs stich as:
and unbalanced loads due to drifting under windy conditions or snow sliding.
A 3/5
From the analysis of snow falls on the ground, the snow loading is generally treated
as a variable action of short-term duration (less than one week). Referring to the
horizontal pro.jection of the area, the characteristic value of the roof snow load is
calculated as:
The shape coefficient pi takes into account the roof exposure and geometry. Three
coefficients pi are defined in ECI, depending on the roof slope a (Figure 2).
0
Figrire 2
15
30
a ("1
GO
Assuming that the snow could slide off the roof, Figure 3 describes the design
patterns S, and Sz for the snow load on pitched (a, b and c) and curved roofs (d).
Figrire 3
In addition, the designer should pay attention to the possible increase in the snow
load due to the shape and the location of the structure. For example, the design has
to take into account the additional loads due to filling of roof valleys or formation
of drifts against walls.
Wind actions
Wind actions fluctuate with time and these variable actions are related to the shortterm load duratiori class. The structural response could be considered as the
STEP/EUROFORTECl-I - an initiative undcr thc EU Comett Prograinme
Wind \rnrintions
The design calculations are based on the reference wind velocity vrF, and pressure
qref.Referring to a mean return period of 50 years, 1 1 , ~ is defined as the average
wind velocity over a ten minutes period at I0 nt above terrain category II (see Table
5). The geographical location is taken into account using the basic wind velocity
vr,./;, at sea level given in national wind maps. From this value, v , , ~
and q,,, are
defined as:
"rcj
(4)
1111s
where
As the wind pressure varies with height above the ground, the designer has to
consider the reference height z,, of the external building surfaces. Depending on the
shape of the building and the crosswind dimension b,,, Figure 4 specifies the
reference height for walls and roofs.
I.
1.
4,
1.
b,,,A< l
(4
(11)
4,.
1.
Ic/>,,,
//1<2
(4
Figure LC
The effect of height and ground roughness on the wind velocity is first considered
with the roughness coefficient cr(z,). With the classification and the values given
in Table 5, this coefficient is defined by the logarithmic wind profile as:
C,
(~1,)
where
K, In f max(
2,"
zmin)1 zol
(6)
A3/7
constant,
K, is the terrain factor.
Category
I
Terrain
I1
Kr
Z~ (NI)
0,17
0,0 I
0.19
0,05
occasional houses or
[arm structures
Ill
022
0,30
IV
0,24
16
1,o
The resultant adjustli~entfor the environmental effects on the wind is then covered by
the exposure coefficient C,,.Considering the reference height z,,,and the site conditions
of the designed structure, the exposure coefficient is determined frorn:
where c, is the topography coefficient talcing into account local terrain variations such
as hills or escarpments (e.g. c,=l).
Pressuw coqficictzts
The pressure coefricients define the wind pressures acting normally to the surhces or
the buildings. The external (C,,,) and inlernal (C,,,) pressure coeff cients are defined as
positive ifthe wind pressureacts towards the surface. A negative valuedenotes suction
on the walls or uplift of the roofs. The effect of the wind direction 8 is taken into
account by twoseparatesets ofcoefficientsconsideiing the windward sideaseitherthe
gable (8= 90") or the long-side (8= 0 or 180"). The external pressure coefficient also
varies with the shape of the stntcture. In addition, wind runnel tests have sllown that
larger pressures occur at the edges and the corners of structures (Lusch, 1964). These
observations result in pressure distributions as shown in Figures 5 and 6.
According to EC1, tlie specified coeflicien~svary on the structure as specified in the
Following sections For commori shapes of' rectangular buildings. These values
cor~espondto the upper value for all wind directions + 45" from the normai to the side
under consideration. Figure 5 gives the coefficient C,,,for wall areas greater than I0 n z 2
and bnilding dimensions such as: cl/ir(B=O') or UIr(8=9O0)$1. These pressure
distributions relate to the aspect windward dirnensian c,,.,where el,= rnin (h1,,,2/ I ) . For
stnaller wall areas, higher values of the pressure coefficient have to be used. On tile
windward side, the coefficient C,,,.is reduced to +O,G l'or an elongated building area
(UAor cl/ft) 2 4.
a3
t0.X
It'
-6R=c)O'
Figrcrv 5
STEP/EUROFORTECH -
:ti>
In addition to the wall pressures, the wind actions applied to roofs require special
attention as wind uplift may affect the design of the joinls. In the case of flat roofs,
Figure 6 defines tile pressure coefficient for the wind directions 8= 0 or9O".
Figure 6
Pressrtrc coqfficierrt.~
forflar roojk.
For windward sloping roof surfaces, the wind actions are pressures or suctions
depending on the pitch angle a. Both pressure and suction have to be considered when
a varies between 15 i\nd 30" (see Tables 6 and 7).
4 1 1 re 7
~
5
~
-1,7
F
-1,2
-0,G
G
F
-2,3
G H H
-1,3
-0,8
- 1 ,G
-1,8
-0,6
-0,5
A319
Table 7
The presence of openings and the porosity of the external surfaces greatly affects the
internal wind pressure in buildings. Considering the influence ofthe wind direction, the
internal pressure coefficient C,,ivaries with tile opening ratio of the windward side. For
normal closed buildings with opening windows ordoors, the valueof C,,,.is taken either
as 0,8or-0,5 forall the internai surfaces, whicheverresults in the Inoresevere loadcase.
Desigtl \~iirrclnotiolts
For building design, the wind action effects are generally estimated using the wind
pressure distribution on the surfaces. It results from thecombination ofthe external (we.)
and internal (wi) pressures given by:
where ziis equal to the relerence height of the walls for closed buildings or the mean
height of the openings.
According to EC1, structures are designed for all wind directions taking into account
the characteristic value of tlie wind actions (kt!,). They correspond to the net pressure
distribution defined as:
For some structures, the wind forces resulting from pressure and friction effects [nay
need to be considered. The pressure force (F,,,)is the su~nmationof pressures on the
projected structural area normal to the wind. For structures which are sensitive lo
torsion, the resulting force F, is assumed to act with art eccentricity e=b,)lO. The
friction force (l;l,)has to be considered in the case of large surfaces swept by the wind
(e.g. free standing roofs).
Combination of actions
After the estimation of the actions, the design requires the structural analysis of the
actioneffects. This stageinvolves theselectionofreaIistic loadarrangements for which
the structure ar the structural cotnponents are to be designed. Then, the design valrres
result froin tlle following con~binationsof the actions. Firstly, at the ultimate limit
states, the colubiriation for persistent or transient situations is:
where
yG>iis the partial factor for the permanent loads (see STEP lecture A?).
Q,,represents the dominant variable action.
Secondly, the cornbination at the serviceability limit states depends on the action effect
being checked considering both:
STEP/EUROFORTECI-I -
;in
c G~
; +
q,
Q ~ ,
( 1 1)
i ~1
Gk,i
C@?,jQkj
jt I
According to EC1, the '' factors for buildings are given in Table 8 where Y ,-values
refer to accidental load combinations.
Actions
Imposed loads
'IJ,,
Cntegory
A,B
C,D
E
H
0.7
0,7
1,o
0
II*,
0,s
0,7
0,3
0,9
0,a
0.6
Snow loads
0,6
0,2
Wind actions
0,6
0.5
Tobit 8
Y1fac~or3for
var'inblc noions otr brtiidiags.
For timber structures, the designer must pay special attention to finding out the critical
load cases as they depend on the material load-duration factors. At the ultimate limit
states, thecombination (10) is related to the use ofthe k,,, factor. For eachcombination
including variable actions, the appropriate k,,,, factor corresponds to the dominant
action Q,,,. At serviceability lin~itstates, thecombination (I 1 ) applies to thecalculation
of the instantaneous action effects in service. In addition, the combination (12) refers
to the calculation of the long-term action effects using the relevant factors k,,/ior the
materials and the service class of the structure (Racher and Rougcr, 1994). According
to EC 1 calculalions, the k,,,, factors related to ttic perinanent load-duration class have
to be used (see STEP lectures A 17 and C18).
Considering the different limit states, tile combination of the actions is calculated for
each critical load case. The designer's judgement could lead himliier to consider a few
worse-case load arrangements. These are commonly:
Example
In the example, the design values or the combined actions are calculated for the frame
shown in Figure 8. The building is 48 metres long and the frame spacing s, is 4,8 nt.
Referring to national snow and wind maps, the location of the projected building
provides the following cliaracteristics for:
s, = 1,5 kN/rt12
I,,,,= I J , , ~ , ~ = 24 t ~ / s .
According to the national regulations, the snow and wind actions are classified in the
short-term duration class. As the structure is located at an altitude greater than 500 111 a
combination of wind and snow sllall be considered. Tlie Y factors for snow are:
STEP/EUROFORTECH - nn initiative under (he EU Comctl Programme
A3/11
The preliminary choice of the designer results in the values of the characteristic
permanent loads as:
Figtlre 8
Pertnnnent loczcis
The uniformly disti-ibuted load on the horizontal projection of the rafters, due to
permanent actions is:
g, = ( gk,l'. S~
g,,2
1cos a
= (
OJ
4.
4.8 * 055 )
--
3/43 W / I ~
Ilrtposed 1oad.v
Tfle design requires only consideration of the imposed loads corresponding to the
maintenance of the roof. As the slope of the roof a(a= 13,5") is less than 20, tire
uniformly distributed and the concentrated imposed loads are:
q, = 4,8 , 0,75 1 cos(13,5) = 3,7 liN/m
Q, = 1,5 IN
These loads belong to the short-term duration class and they do not act simultaneously
with otlier variable actions.
S~ro\,vloads
Figure 2
For a slope LX less than 1 .So, the shape coefficients p of the snow are defined as:
0,8
The design considers two characteristic snow loads on the horizontal projection of the
structure:
the symmetrical snow load S,:S,,, = ( p s,) sF = 0.8 1,5 4,8 = 5,76 W/nt
- the snow on halrthe frarne S,,:
= ( 0,5 p sk ) sF = 2,88 kN/m
Wind cictiorts
The value of the reference wind pressure is:
qrcf=0.5 p v,>
= 0.5
k ~ / ~ n ~
EU Conict~Programme
Considering the frame geometry, the reference heights for the walls (zlv=4,5 111) and the
roof (z,,.= 7,5 rn) areless than the groundlayer height z,,,,,,=8 rn.Therefore, llle roughness
and exposure coefficients are constant for all the external and internal surfaces.
Equation (6)
Equation (7)
If74
E.~'~enraCpr.e.~.srrtre
coeficieiru for 6 =Oa(n)a~rd8 =90(11).
The distribution of the external pressure coefficients (Figure 9) is defined with the
aspect dimension e,,, that takes the value of t 5 m for all wind directions. For the roof,
these coeficicnts are calculated by iuterpolation between the values of same sign given
for 5" and 15".
Equations (8) and (9)
The wind effects on the frame result fiom aconstanl internal pressure (C,,?+O,8 or-0,5)
combined with the external pressures for each wind direction. The design of the frame
considers three distributions resulting from the wind acling on the gable (lz,,,,) or on the
long side ( w 2 ,and HI^,^). Figure 10 shows lhe wind actions for the Srarnes in the middle
of tile building.
i r eI
Distrihlrfiotrso f ~ h ~~~itidacriotls
e
on rhe.fi.nnle(kN/ttt):
w , , ,~(6) ~ I J atld
~ , ~ (c)
(ct)
SI k or Sll,, 1
fy5lJio,,y
2
where Y, and Y,,,,, are the combination factors associated with snow and wind.
C 6 : 1,35 (g,
Gk) + 1,s [
-&
With the prescribed k,,(,,factors, the combination C1 can be critical if the permanent
loads represent more than 70% of the total loads. In this example, the first two
combinationsas well as thecombinations ofsnow and wind do notcausccriticaleffects.
In practice, the design of the frame depends on the design ofthe moment-resisting joint
(2 or 4) which is achieved using load case C3. This case also gives the critical
cornbination forthe members in combined bending andcompression. Thecombination
C4 defines the worst reversal forces due to wind uplift: bending and tension in the
members, and tension in the hinges.
Preliminary design values of forces and moments are given in Table 9.
1
Section
Combination
Wind actions
C3
C4
N (m)
171
1' (kN)
h4 (kN.tt1)
138
0
-22,1
-16,3
Tcrltle 9
C3
2(column)
C4
C4
11~,,~
\tJz,k
C4
134
32,3
0
-41,1
-9,9
0
tthk
) L ~ ~ , ~
138
-26
-25,8
-25,3
-20, t
-622
60,2
82
156
C3
Design vafric.~
of forces arrd ttiorrlents at tlre rclrimnte littrit states.
Cor~tbirrntior~
qf actio17s:seiviceabi1it-y liritit states
As snow is the rnain variable action, the instantaneous effects of {he actions are
calcuIated froin the combinations:
Depending on Lhe shape and the span of the frame, the limitation for tile horizontal
detleclion of the column is checked using either the combination C7 or C8. Tile
combination C7 gives tile maxilnuln value of the vertical deflection in section3.
In addition, the calculalion of the long-ten11 effects such as creep deformations refers
to the quasi-permanent combinations:
= (gk Gk)4. O,l s,,k
c9 : (gk Gk) @?+J sI,k
+
(gk
Gk)
@2,sSll,k
@2,,9
Wi,k
= ( ~ k
'9'
References
C.E.B. (1980). S1ruciuraI sarety. Bulletins d'information N"127 and 128, Brussels, Belgium.
E.C.C.S. (1987). Kecornmendations for calcuiating the cffects of wind on constructions. European
Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Technical commitlee 12,Rcporl N"52,Brusscls, Bclgium.
I-lendrickson, E.M., Ellingwood, B. ilnd Murphy. J. (1987). Limit stntc probabilitics for wood structural
membcrs. ASCE, J, of Slructur~lEngineering, USA, Vol. 1 13 N"1, p. 88-1 06.
Lusch (1964). Wind tunnct invcsligationson buildings withreclangulnrbnsc and with flat and duo-pitchcd
roofs. Rcpon of Bauforschung Ne41,Germany.
Rachcr, P. and Rougcr, F.(1994). Scnticcabilily limit states - A proposal for updating Eurocode 5 with
rcspcct to Eurocodc 1. in: CIB WI 8~-27"'Mecting,Sydney, Australia, July 1994.
Rackwitz, R, (1976). Pr;~cticalprobabilistic approach lo design. C.E.B., Bullelin d'inforrnation
Brusscls. Belgium.
N' 112,
STEP lecture A4
Objectives
P. I-ioffmcycr
Technical University
of Dentnark
Summary
The concept of wood as a cellular composite material is presented. The microstructure of the wood cell wall is discussed with a view to explaining the anisotropic
nature of the physical and mechanical properties of wood. Important features of
macrostructure are included; keywords are growth rings, juvenile and reaction
wood, sapwood/heartwood, grain deviation, knots.
Density is the single most important physical characteristic of wood. The higl~
variability is discussed and the concept of characteristic density presented.
Water is always present in wood. The amount of water has a profound influence on
almost all wood properties. Moisture content and the fibre saturation point are
defined and the sorption isotherm presented. Anisotropic shrinkage and swelling are
introduced and their engineering implications discussed. Different types of
distortio~~s
caused by drying ace presented. An overview of rnoisture strength
relationships and the influence of moisture level on the failure mechanisms of wood
and wood based inaterjlils is discussed.
Wood and wood based inaterials experience a significant loss of strength over a
period of time. For permanent loads, wood and wood based materials are assigned
strength values that are 60% or less of their short term strength. This duration of
load effect is discussed and its moisture dependency is described.
Introduction
Wood is a natural, organic cellular solid. It is a composite made out of a chemical
complex of cellulose, helnicellulose, lignin and extractives. Wood is highly
anisotropic due mainly to the elongated shapes of wood cells and the oriented
structure of the cell walls. In addition, anisotropy results from the differentiation of
cell sizes throughout a growth season and in part froin a preferred direction of
certain cell types (e.g. ray cells).
The minute structure of cell walls, the aggregation of cells to form clear wood and
the anomalies of structural timber represent three structural levels which all have
a profound influence on the properties of wood as an engineering material. For
instance, the ultrastructure level of the cell wall provides the explanation of why
slirinkage and swelling of wood is normally I0 to 20 times larger in the transverse
direction than in the longitudinal direction. The microstructure of clear wood holds
the key to understanding why wood is 20 to 40 rimes stiffer in the longitudinal
direction than in the transverse direction. The macrostructure of knots, fibre angle
etc. provides the explanation of why tensile strength along the grain may drop from
more than 100 N/ltrnz2 for clear wood to less than 10 NAlrrn' for structural timber
of low quality.
STEPlEUROFORTEC11 - an initiative undcr thc EU Comett Progrnmine
A411
Figitre I
Corirrrrerciul finrbe~.i.s
obtnirierffrotn (a)lrard~~~oods
(ongiospertns) orfronl ( b )
sofr~voocls(gymrro.spemw)(Cottrfesyof W.A. C6tC). LeJr: octk (Qltet-clutaoBfir),
right: spruce (Picea abies).
The observation of wood without optical aids shows not only differences between
softwoods and hardwoods and differences between species, but also differences
within one specimen, for example sapwood and heartwood, earlywood and
Iatewood, the arrangement of pores and the appearance of reaction wood. All these
phenomena are the result of the development and growth of wood tisstte. Softwoods
and hardwoods differ in cell type (Figure 2).
Resin
Figure 2
The storage and the transport of assimilates take place within parenchyma cells
which in sofhvoods are predominantly arranged in radially running rays (Figure 2).
Resin canals are longitudinal and form radical cavities within the tissue of most
softwoods.
The tree sap stream from one cell to another is facilitared by small openings or
recesses in the fibre wall known as pits. A predominant type in softwoods is the
bordered pit. These not only let water move freely but they also act as valves to
prevent the spread of air into sap filled cells, in which case the water columns,
extending from the roots to the crown, would rupture and the tree would evenh~ally
die. Uilfortunately, pits perfom] tile same function during drying of timber.
Capillary forces are developed upon water retreat from the cell lumens tltrough the
pits, and the pit membranes ltlove effectively to seal off the pit openings. This not
only impedes the drying of wood; it also may impede greatly the susceptibility to
later i~npregnationtreatment. Such pit aspiration is the nuin reason why spruce, for
example, is nonnally very difficult to impregnate.
Hnrdrvood anatomy is Inore varied and coraplicated than that of softwood, but most
structural concepts are analogous. Hardwoods have a basic tissue for strength
containing librifor~nfibres and fibre tracheids. Within this strengthening tissue,
conducting vessels are distributed, often with large lunlina. These vessels are long
pipes ranging from a few centimctres up to Inany metres in length and consisting
of single elernents with open or perforated ends. Diffuse-porous and ring-porous
hardwoods can be distngoished by the arrangement of the diameter of the vessels
(Figure 3). Hardwood fibres have thicker cell wnlIs and smaller lumina than those
of the softwood twcheids. The differences in wall thickness and lumen diameters
between earlywood and latewood are not as extrelne as in softwoods.
The number of parenchyma cells in hardwoods is higher than in softwood.
Hardwoods often have very large rays and particularly in tropical hardwoods there
are high percentages of longitudinal parenchyma.
Some basic features of the wood cell waH are found to be co~nlnonamong many
different wood species. The basic skeleral substance of the wood cell wall is
cellulose which is aggregated into larger units of structure called elementary fibrils.
These, in turn, are aggregnted to form threadlike entities known as microfibrils. The
number of cellulose chains contained in each rnicrofibril has been estimated to be
STEPtEUROFORTECH -
iui
A413
Light tiricrogrupli of rhc /firre f)jpes of pore pcitrenrs rtfgrowth irtcrerrretrrs it1
har~l\~loods
as scctl in cross section. Key: A, riitg-porotrs (red onk); B, serrti-
The layered structure of the fibre cell wall is illustrated in Figure 4. Between the
individual cells there is a layer, the tltidrile lamella (ML), which glues the cells
together to forin the tissue. The middle lainella is rich in lignin and pectic
substances and virtually free of cellulose. In the pritt~aty\call ( P ) the cellulose
microfibrils are arranged in a rnndorn, irregular network. In normal wood tissue, the
s e c o ~ ~tvall
~ l uconsists
~ ~ ~ of three fairiy distinct layers S,, St and 3,. The outennost
layer, S,, is very thin (0, I to 0,2 pnr) and exhibits an average tt~icrofibrilangle (for
the layer as a whole) of about 50 to 70". The bulk of the secondary wall is ~nnde
up of the S, layer, which is typically several ~nicrometresthick. The microfibrils are
usually oriented to the fibre axis at a relatively small angle (5 to 22'). Within the
S, layer the microfibrils are arranged with a gentle slope but not in a strict order.
,.e 4
Growth rings
For most softwoods and ring-porous hardwoods there is a relationship between the
width of growth rings and density, Softwoods tend to produce high density
Iatewood bands of a relatively constant thickness. Most of the variation in growth
ring width is caused by a variation in the thickness of the low density early wood
bands. For most softwoods, therefore, density decreases with increasing growth ring
width. This explains why ring width is included as a grading parameter in many
visual grading rules currently used in Europe. However, caution sl~ouldbe exercised
when using such refationships. The density level for a given ring width is dependent
on soil type, cli~nateconditions, sifvicultural practice etc. Therefore, for softwood
timber of mixed origin, ring width does not predict density with any real accuracy
(Figure 5).
300
&--+---1---t4___ill_i-~
\vr (nlm)
MJ, (r~rirr).
Resuits froiir
1600 spccirrrens of nvo
. . sorl~plesof Swedislr grorolr nlrcl Dartislz grows sprtlcc.
Ring-porous hardwoods such as oak and ash are characterized by a high concentration of open vessels produced during spring. The width of these rings is relatively
constant and the variation in growth ring width is caused by a variation in the
thickness of the high density latewood bands of fibre tracheids. This is why density
increases with increasing ring width for most ring-porous hardwoods. There is no
such relationship for diffuse-porous hardwoods such as poplar itnd beech.
A415
ity. In some species (e.g. spruce, beech) the heartwood is not coloured, nevertheless
the extractives and physical alterations result in a difference between sapwood and
heartwood.
For the purpose of wood preservation, sapwood is preferred, since the heartwood
rs
is virtually impermeable.
of a species such as pine ( P i ~ ~ i,~j~lvestris)
Figlclz. 6
Grain deviation
Some trees grow with a cell orientation forming a helix around the stem. This spiral
grain is common in certain timber species and rare in others. It is particularly
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pronounced in young trees. Timber sawn from these trees often exhibits grain
deviation which will severely impair its use. Limits to grain deviation are included
in most visual strength grading rules; typically a grain deviation of I in 10 is
accepted for high quality timber while 1 in 5 or more is accepted for low quality
timber.
Knots
IOlots are the parts of branches that are embedded in the main stem of the tree. Tlle
lateral branch is connected to the pith of the main stem (Figure 7). As the girth of
the trunk increases, successive growth rings form continuously over the stem and
branches and a cone of branch wood (the intergrown knots) develops within the
trunk. Such knots are termed tight knots because they are intergrown with
surrounding wood. At some points he limb may die or break off. Then subsequent
growth rings added to the main stem simply surround the dead limb stub and the
dead part of the stub becomes an encased knot. It is not intergrown and often has
bark entrapped and is called a loose knot.
Figure 7
Figrtre 8
A sofnctood board niny skatv k~tots
i~rclrrsters scparcited by t11eofrerr
clear it~oorlof tl~eir~~erjrodes.
Figllre 9
Teltsior~fuilrirc of a sprttce board
cntcseri IJJ' fibre itrcliitntion aro~ntrl
cr brrtt.
Fig~trc10
K~lofs
o1.e terttred accordi,rg to tltcir appearance ut the srttfclce of tlic rittrber;
(a) spike krrot; (6)ticirralv face knot; ( c ) tlirorcgh k~ror;(d) orris ktjot;(c) \vide
Density
Density is the most important physical characteristic of timber. Most mechanical
properties of timber are positively correlated to density as is the load carrying
capacity of joints. Limits to density are therefore incorporatecl directly in the
strength class requirements of prEN 338 "Structural timber - Strength classes".
Density is defined as
where n i is the inass (kg) of timber and V its volume (nl3]. Density is moisture
dependent, because moisture adds to the mass and may cause the volume to swell.
Density p , at a moisture content, w (%), is expressed as
111,
p,=--
v,
rrro(l +oyolo)
1 +O,Olw
= Po
V,(l +oYOlP,~)
1 +0,01p ,o
(2)
where m,, V, and p, are the mass, volume and density at zero moisture content, p,
is termed oven-dry density or simply dry density. P,, is the coefficient of volumetric
swelling and has the units of percentage swelling per percentage increase of
moisture content.
As explained in detail later, swelling only occurs when water is penetrating the cell
wall layers. The moisture content corresponding to saturation of the cell wall is
tenned the fibre saturation point a,, This corresponds to a moisture conrent of about
28%. Above this no swelling occurs. Below fibre saturation, swelling may for
practical purposes be considered Iinear wit11 moisture content.
In wood science and engineering, dry density p, and density p,, at 12% moisture
content are most frequently used. Density values given in EC5 are defined with
mass and volume corresponding to an equilibrium at a temperature of 20 "C and
a relative humidity of 65%.
The values of p,? referred to in EC5 relate to the average density pl,,,,nt,r and the
characteristic density p , , , , defined as the population 5-percentile value. For a given
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In forestry, density is expressed as the ratio of oven-dry rnass to the green volu~ne.
This density (p,,), often terined basic density, is preferred by foresters, because it
gives direct information about how much wood (dry mass production) is present in
a given volume as it appears in the forest. An additionat advantage of using waterswollen, or green volume, is that it can be determined by the simple technique of
water displace~nenteven for irregular shaped sarnptes. A further wood density
reIated term is specific gravity (G). Basic specific gravity is defined as:
Ino
!h= -
Go,;
p ,"
plYV,
dry Inass
mass of displaced water
P12
Po s
1-16.10-~p,
by
(7)
All the various expressions for density are used frequently in literature on timber
properties. Often no specific mention is made of which variant of density is being
used. Caution should therefore be exercised when using such information.
The density p, of the cell wall is about 1500 kg/~n?Tile density of wood, therefore,
is dependent on its porosity, defined as the volume fraction of ceIl lumina.
Structural timber typically shows dry density values in the range from 300 to 550
kgha3,which gives fractional void volu~nesin the dry condition from 0,80 down to
0.63.
The density of timber., even of a particular sample talcen from a single location,
varies within wide limits. prEN 338 "Structural timber - Strength classes" defines
characteristic density values plZ,kfor softwood in the range from 290 kg/~n3for the
low strength class C14 to 420 fig/nz3 for the high quality strength class C40. For
visual grading, growth ring width was earlier shown to be of limited value (Figure
5). Therefore alternative methods for density assessment are needed. This topic is
covered in STEP iecture A6.
For moisture contents in the range 6 to 28%, electric moisture meters are available,
which are easy and quick to use. The accuracy of the best meters is of the order
-c 2% which is quite sufficient for practical engineering applications. The two
principles currently in use are, firstly, a DC based measurement of the moisture
dependent resistivity between two electrodes hammered into the wood and secondly
an AC based assessment of the moisture dependent dielectric properties of wood in
an electric field created by two electrodes resting on the wood surface. Both types
of meter require calibration and the AC meters only measure the moisture content
in the top layer of the wood.
When wood is dried from a green condition, water is first lost from the cell lumens.
This water is not associated at the molecular level with wood and is termed free
water. The water held within the cell wall is termed bound water. as it is held to the
cell wall substance with hydrogen bonds and van der Wads forces. The removal of
water from the cell wall thus requires greater energy than reruoval of free water.
The moisture content, w,, when the cell wali is saturated with moisture, bur no free
water exists in the cell lumen, is termed the fibre saturation point (FSP). The FSP
for most species is in the range of 25 to 35%; for most practical purposes 28% is
a convenient average.
The fibre saturation point is of considerable engineering significance since below
this point there will be dramatic changes in most physical and ~nechanical
properties. Above the FSP most properties are approximately constanl.
Wood is hygroscopic and thus continually exchanges moisture with its surroundings. For any combination of temperature and humidity in the environment there
will be a corresponding moisture content of the wood where the inward diffusion
of moisture equals the outward movement. This moisture content is referred to as
the equilibrium moisture content w,. Wood, however, is rarely in a state of' moisture
equilibrium as the climatic conditions of the environment are constantly changing.
The levet of moisture content and even the magnitude and speed of moisture
fluctuations have a profound influence on almost all engineering properties of wood.
A sorption isotherm represents the relationship between moisture content o ,and
relative humidity yr at constant temperature T. At a specific relative humidity yr the
equilibrium moisture content w,, depends on whether equilibrium is reached as a
result of desorption or as a result of adsorption. The adsorption isotherm (A) is
always lower than the corresponding desorption isotherm (D). The AID ratio at
room temperature generally ranges between 0,8 and 0,9. Sorption hysteresis in
timber is beneficial from an engineering viewpoint. This is because wood exposed
to cyclic humidity conditions shows smaller changes in moisture content for given
humidity changes than would be the case if there were no hysteresis. Sorption
hysteresis reduces the effective slope dwlclyr of the actual sorption isotherm and the
dimensional changes associated with humidity changes.
Figure 1 1 shows sorption isotherms for spruce; these curves may also for practical
purposes be taken as representative of pine and fir. The equilibrium moisture
content of panel products like plywood and particIeboard are also adequately
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y' [%I
Figrrw 11
Sorpliori isothe~.r~u
for sprrtce at 25 'C (Sfurrrnz 1964). Moistrtre corlterrf (a)
I ~ E ~ S Ire/atitre
~S
hunriciit)~ fly). A: n~fsorptioil;D: c~esorpfioit;0: osciffatittg
sorj~tio)~.
A411 1
of the order 45" which results in equally large movements in the longitudinal and
transverse directions (Figure 12).
Anisotropy in timber's water relationships exists even within its transverse direction.
The tangential movelnents may, for practical purposes, be taken as twice the radial
movements. Therefore, although microfibrillar angle is of major importance, it is
quite apparent that other factors are also important. For most engineering purposes,
however, it is unnecessary to differentiate between the two transverse directions,
and transverse movement is often taken as the average value.
Figlrre 12
Lotlgitudirtal (L) orld tarlgctrticll (7') s1lrirzkage.s (%) j'rorrr greet1 ro over~-dty
cotzrli/ion irr rclariotr 10 nrerrrt jiDt.il angle (0). Species is Pirrtts jeffre~e?fi
(Maylotr, 1968).
where h , and It, are the dinlensions (thicknesses) at moisture contents o,and o,
respectively. P is the coefficient of swelling (positive) or shrinkage (negative). Units
are %I%.
If no species-specific value of the coefficient of movernent is known, an approximation may be used. The coefficient of volumetric movelnent P,, can be considered
to be equal to the numeric value of the density rimes 10'" In other words, the
volurne of timber of a density equal to 400 I g / 1 1 1 ~s~vells0,4% for each 1% increase
in moisture content. This is based on the volumetric sweIling equaling the volurne
of water uptake. Tile coefficient of longitudinal movernent, Po, is usually negligible,
in which case the coefficient of transverse movement, P,, is equal to half the
coefficient of voiurnetric rnovemenr.
For most species, including spruce, pine, fir, larch, poplar and oak, engineering
values of Po and J,f can be taken as p, = 0,Ol and p, = 0,3,where flis given as
percentage movement for I % change of moisture content. For dense species like
beech (Fagus syh~atica)and eklii (Lol~hir-aalatn) a P,, = 0,3 should be used.
In plywood, the movements in the pane1 plane are of the same order as the
longitudinal movemcnts of timber. For other composite wood products, such as
particleboards and fibreboards, these movements are very dependent on the
particular panel type and production technique. In the transverse direction of panel
products, the reversible movemcnts are of the same order as those of timber.
However, many panel products, which have been subjected to high compression
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EU Co~ncttProgramme
stresses during production, will show additional, irreversible tllickness swelling or"spring back".
When wood is restrained from expanding (e.g. in bolred joints), the uptake of
moisture induces intetnal stresses. Due to the viscoelastic/plastic nature of wood
such stresses will eventually relax and irreversible di~nensionalchanges occur.
When wood returns to its original moisture content the dimensions have shrunk, and
the bolted joint may then be a loose fir and have lost some of its capacity. It is
therefore ilnportant in engineering design to retain access to sucll construction
details which may need tightening up.
timber should
In order to mini~nize the problems of dimensional ~nove~nents
preferably be used at a moisture content corresponding to the relative humidity of
its envil.ontneni. Within buildings, timber of a moisture content higher than 20 to
22% should only be used as an exception and only in suc1.t cases where adequate
and quick drying of the structure is obtained witt~outrisks of biological degradation
or perlnanent set due to mechonosorptive creep.
In the case of large timber members, it is not always possible to neglecl longitudinal movements. If, ils an example, the ~noisturecontent of the upper and lower part
of a glulam beam varies, it may result in significant vertical movements. A roof
beam laid in insulation may, during winter, experience the warm, dry climate of the
heated room in its lower part and the moist, cold climate of the unheated loft in its
upper part (Figure 13(n)). The deflection ri of the beam is catculated from
E,,
and
E,
is
are t.he strains of the outermost upper and lower parts of the beam.
A411 3
t 1
Distortions
The anisotropy of transverse swelling may cause cross sections to distort upon
drying (Figure 15). The fact that tangential shrinkage is about twice the radial
shrinkage explains the tendency for the growth rings to straighten out.
The internal stresses developed by the anisotropic shrinkage may be released
primarily in the development of radial cracks. The tendency to cracking is more
pronounced the larger the cross section and the faster the drying rate.
The presence of compression wood, juvenile wood or even knots in only part of a
cross section may cause lengthwise distortions known as bow, spring and twist.
Twist may also result from sawing timber from a tree exhibiting spiral grain. Cup
is the result of the different movements in the tangential and radial directions
(Figure 16).
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Figrire 15
The degree of distortion is often given maximum limits in national strength grading
rules. The CEN standards for visual and machine strength grading contains
recommended limits to distortion (Table I). Such limits do not reflect an exact
relationship between distortion and strength but rather define limits beyond which
the handling and assembling of timber in structural co~nponents becomes
unacceptably complicated. There may be occasions when the structural design calls
for tighter limits than given in Table I and such Iimits (hen must be agreed with the
producer.
Type of distortion
Higher classes
Bow
20
10
Spring
12
Twist
2 rrniiJ25 tr~niwidth
CUP
No restrictions
A4115
The effect of moisture change varies for different mechanical properties. For
example, failure in compression parallel to grain is caused by fibre buckling where
moisture sensitive hydrogen bonds play an important role and is inore sensitive to
rnoisture than tension strength which atso includes rupture of covalent bonds when
tearing apart the cell wall microfibrils.
Values for the effect of moisture on the mechanical properties of clear wood
properties are given in Table 2. For practical purposes a linear relationship between
moisture content and properties may be assumed for 8% < w < 20%.
Property
Change (%)
5
5
4
2,s
2
3
0s
13
A ~ [ ~ ~ I J . ~ Ici~arrgc
' I ? I C (%)
~ I E of clear lltood pro[)erfie.s for cr orle percerrmge
cirur~gcof rr~oisttcrz.corlterll. Bc~sisis properties uf 13% uroistcrre coriterrl.
For some mechanical properties the influence of moisture is less significant for
timber rhan for clear wood (Hoffrneyer 1978; Madsen 1975; Madsen et al. 1980);
tensile strength of low quality timber is virtually independent of tnoisture content.
Figures 17 and 18 are based on results from an investigation (Hoffrneyer 1978) of
50 x 150 rlntt spruce (Picell ubie.~),where samples of equal strength distribution
were subjected to coinpression, tension or bending failure at each of three different
moisture content levels. All figures show strength against the percentile values.
Figtire 17
LO be independent of timber quality, since the relative strength difFerences stay almost constant
throughout the whole range of percentile values (Figure 17a). Tensile strength,
however, seems to be very inodestly influenced by moisture and no difFerence is
seen at the 5-percentile level. In fact, dry timber strength (a-12%) drops below
moist timber strength (w-20%) for the lower half of the timber quality ((Figure 17b).
Bending strength represents a mixture of the co~npressionand tension behaviour,
Figure 1S
Slrz.rlg/lr(N/~irrrr')ogaitrsfpe~.ccrlti/eI%) foi-i~1ntcheci.sc~17ip/es
of slmrce (Picea
obits). The resrrlts sholvr~iit Fig1tt-e I7 Irave beeti r.enmitged to ill~rsrrntc[he
i r l t e r . a i o / i i of co~iipressioit-,reiisiorz- uiiri boidirtg .strerigrli nl eqrml
moislrrre cnriterlr I~I>L'/.S.
Timber subjected to the moisture conditions of service class 1 of EC5 shows higher
co~npressionstrength than tensile strengtll for a given percentile (quality) (Figure
I8a). Such timber subjected to bending will always fail in a brittle manner and
Iinear strain distribution may be assuined ail the way to failure. Timber in service
class 3 condition behaves differently; here compression strength is lower tIinn
tensile strength for all quality levels (Figure 18c). Such timber will initiate bending
failure by developi~lgvisible compression creases in tile outermost compressed
zones. As the bending stress increase, the neutral axis moves towards the tension
side allowing the increased compression stresses to be carried over a larger cross
section. The strain distribution is no longer linear. Eventually the tensile stress
reaches the ultimate tensile strength and the bean1 fails. Timber in service class 2
conditions shows brittle failure for low quality beams arid ductile Failure, associated
with co~npressioncreases, for higher quality beams (Figure 18b).
When comparing tnechanicai properties, a standard reference moisture condition
consistent with an environment of 20 "C and 65% relative Ilumidity is to be used
for timber and wood based panels. For structural timber tested at a different
condition, the mechanical properties must be adjusted in accordance with prEN 384
"StructuraI timber - Determination of characteristic values of mechanical properties
and density".
Duration of load
Timber experiences a significant loss of strength over a period of time. The strength
values to be used in design of timber members for long-term permanent loads are
app~.oximatelyonly 60% of the strenglh values found in a short-term iaborato~ytest.
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A4/17
The background to this 0,60 modification factor dates back to the 1940's. when
duration of load experiments were carried out at the Forest Products Laboratory in
Madison, Wisconsin (Wood 1947, 1951). On the basis of rests on small clear
specimens subjected to bending for up to seven years, a stress-lifetime relationship
was established, which predicts the lO-years strength to be slightly less than 60%
of the short term strength. Tile relationship, termed the "Madison curve", is
illustrated in Figure 19 and is a plot of stress ratio against logarithmic time to
failure, where stress ratio (SR) is the actual long term load over estimated short
term failure load. Most countries have since ir~cludedthe resulting modification
factors in their timber design codes. The Madison curve was regarded as being valid
not only for bending, but for all strength properties, grades and species. The basis
for regarding results obtained on srnall clear specimens as also being valid for
stn~cturaltimber is rather tenuous considering that the failure mechanisms are quite
different taking account of, for example knots, inclined grain or fissures.
Figlire 19
The first duration of load tests to include structural timber were initiated twenty
years ago in Canada, and suggested a much less severe modification of load factor
for timber than for clear wood (Madsen and Barrett, 1976). The Findings also
suggested a timber quality dependency for the duration of load effect similar to that
already found for the effect of moisture.
A large number of duration of load tests on structural timber have since been
carried out both in North America and in Europe. From these it may now be
concluded that, except for the eariy Canadian results, there is no general evidence
of a much less severe duration of load modification factor for timber than for clear
wood. In fact, some resufts (Gerhards, 1991, Soltis et al., 1989) suggest the
Madison curve to be non-conservative for timber in bending. Furthermore the
duration of load behaviour of timber in tension and compression is reported to
comply with the Madison curve (Glos, 1987; Lackner, 1990; Soltis et al., 1989).
Moisture content has a marked influence on the duration of load behaviour
(Hoffmeyer, 1987 and 1990; Fridley et al., 1991). For a given stress ratio, beams
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f;iS,rrc 20
400 beams of spruce were subjected to bending at either 10% nloisture content,
20% moisture content or a rnoisture content varying between the two levels in a 2
monthly cycle. Matched samples were used for both short-term tests and long-term
tests. AII specimens of a particular sample for long-term testing were subjected to
the same load and the specimens were ranked in order of ascending time to failure.
The results from short-term tests on a matching sample were ranked in order of
ascending failure load. The stress ratio, SR, of n particular specimen, was then
predicted as the ratio between the actual Ioad and the failure Ioad of the short-term
specimen of the same rank and moisture content. T11e results show the Madison
curve to describe tilnber at 10% moisture content conservatively, while timber at
20% moisture content is adequately modelled. A significant inechanosorptive effect
is displayed under the conditions of varying moisture. Tile latter beams are
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an ioitii~tiveur~dcrthe EU Cornett Progr;~rnlne
AW19
subjected to the same loads as the beams at constant high rnoisture. They are
therefore only at a high stress ratio during the high moisture half-cycle; during the
half-cycle of low moisture they are loaded to a lower stress ratio because the
corresponding short term strength increases as a result of drying. Nevertheless, the
mere change of moisture content results in a significant shortening of the lifetime.
The results indicate a lifetime at the 60% stress ratio level of '/2 year and 4 years
for the beains of varying moisture content and 20% moisture content respectively.
The Madison curve predicts a corresponding lifeti~neof five years. An extrapolation
of the test results for the beams of 10% n~oisturecontent predicts a lifetime of 30
years at SR = 60%.
The duration of load behaviour of panel products varies within a very wide range.
Structural ply wood is considered to behave like solid wood. Particleboard behaviour
is intirtiate1y linked to particle size and particle orientation, and for both particle0 term
board and fibreboard, glue quality is of the uttnost importance for the loneproperties. While the best particleboard products may be assigned a O,4O duration
of load modification factor for pennanent loads, fibreboards may rzlte as low as
0,20.
111 timber design, the influence of moisture and duration of load is taken into
consideration by assigning timber structures to service classes and actions to loadduration classes. EC5 then defines tnoditication Factors, k,,,,, for each combination
of the two classifications.
References
Rngel, D. and Wegener, G.(1984). Wood. Walter clc Oruytcr.
fidlcy, K.J.;Tnng, R.C.; Soltis, L.A. (1991). Moisture cf'fccts on load-durdtion bchaviour of lumber.
Part I. Effect of constant relative humidity. Wood and Fibcr Science 23(1):114-127.
Pridlcy, K.J.; Tdng, R.C.; Soltis, L.A. (1992). Moisture effects on load-duration behaviour of lumber.
Part 11. Effect of cyclic relative humidity. Wood and Fiber Science 24(1):89-98.
Gerlrards, C.C. (1991). Bending crccp and load duration of Douglas-fir 2 by 4s under constant lox~d.
Wood and Fibcr Science, 23(3), 1991, pp. 384409.
Glos, P.; Hcirncs!~off,B.; Kellckshot'cr,W. (1987). Load durdlion effcct in spruce lumber loaded in
tcnsion and comprcssion. ilolz als Roh- und Wcrkstofl', 45(5):243-249.
Hoffmcycr, P. (1978). Moisku-c Content-Strength Relationship for Spmcc Lumber Subjcc[ed to
Bending, Compression and Tension along the Grain. Proceedings of IUFRO Timber Engineering
Conference, Vancouver, B.C.. Canada.
FIoffmeyer, P. (1987). Duration of load cl'fects for spruce timber with spccial rcfercr~ccto moisture
content. Proceedings of CEC Seminar on Wood Technology, Munici~,Germany.
floffmcycr, P. (1990). .Failure of wood as influcnccd by moisture und duration of load. Doctoral
dissertation. College of Environmental Sci. and Forestry. S.U.N.Y., Syracuse, N.Y., U.S.A.
Lackncr, R. (1990). Duration-of-load Effcct on Tensile Strength for Structural Softwood 45 x 145 nrrrt.
Norsk Treteknisk tnstitutt, Mcddelelse (rcpon) no. 76.
Larsen, H.J. and Riberholt, 1-1. (1994). Trrekonsrruktioner, beregning. SBI-Anvisning 135. Stntcns
Byggeforskningsinstilut, Denmark.
Stnmm, A. (1964). Wood and cellulose science. The Ronald Press Comp:lny. N.Y., U.S.A.
Wood. L.W. (1947). Bchaviour of wood unclcrcontint~cd1o:lding. Eng. Ncws-Record 139(24):t 08-1 1 1.
Wood, L.W. (1951). Relation ot' strength of' wood to duration of stress. U.S.Fores~ Products
Laboratory, Report No. 1916.
Timber in construction
STEP Icclure A5
P. J. Steer
Consultani Structural
Objective
To focus attention on the essential properties of tirriber which have to be considered
in the design, detailing and construction of timber stmctures.
En,'olneer
Summary
The production of timber and otlter wood-based structural materials is described.
Two metl~odsto counteract the high variability of timber properties, namely grading
and reconstitutjon are outlined. The essential properties of timber in service are
summarised including the effects of moisture content, long-term loading, creep,
shrinkage and swelling and the bel~aviourin fire. General guidance for the design
of timber structures is given.
Introduction
Wood is a natural resource that is widely available throughout the world. Wit11
proper management, there is a potential for an endless supply of timber and other
wood-based materials. Due to the low energy required and the low pollution during
manufacture timber has a far less detrimental i~npaclon the environmenl than other
building materials. One example is the process of photosynthesis, in which trees
absorb carbon dioxide, store the carbon as wood and release oxygen. Growing trees
tl~ereforereduce the carbon dioxide in tile atmosphere.
Timber is a live material. Its properties are anisotropic, they change wit11 changes
in environmental conditions and load duration has also a significant effect upon
strength and deformation. The properties not only vary from species to species but
even within a particular species. Due to climatic differences and different forestry
practices, spruce from Northern Europe, for example, has different properties than
spruce from Souffzem Europe. To be able to design timber structures successfully,
the practising engineer needs to be aware of the particular properties of the timber
being specified.
Xecor~stitritcrl~t~oocl-Dcisccl
p~oclricts
The natural growth of wood causes a distinct inl~omogeneityof the material. Knots,
pitch pockets and other growth characteristics influence the strength and hence
cause a considerable variability within the members. By dividing large pieces of
wood into smaller units ilnd then rejoining thern, the defects are distributed within
the material and consequently the variability of the material properties decreases.
The larger load-bearing capacity of glued laminated timber compared to sawn
timber is not caused by a higher average capacity of glularn, but by the decreased
variation in strength proper-ties and hence higher characteristic strengths. Generally,
the strength variability of the wood-based materials rioted below decreases with
increasing amount of processing:
Pi.on'llct
-
pole timber
sawn timber
glued laminated timber
laminated veneer lumber
plywood
parallel strand lumber
oriented str'and board
particleboard
fibreboard
Coinponent pltrts
logs
planks
planks
veneers
veneers
veneer strips
flakes
chips
fibres
Poles are the exception since they are hardly processed at all but nevertl~elessare
particularly strong because the wood fibres are not cut leading to the fact that the
continuous fibres guide the stresses smoothly around the knots.
In timber frame construction drying shrinkage can affect other materials. Brickwork,
for example, tends to expand after consrruction so interfaces between timber and
masonry m ~ ~accommodate
sr
the differential movements. Similar effects can occur
with plastic pipework installed in winter and expanding with the heating of the
building. For similar reasons, the installation of lifts in multi-storey timber frarned
buildings requires special consjdention.
Another result of inoisture content changes is the c11a11ge in mechanical properties.
Wit11 decreasing rnoisture content, the strength and ~nodulusof elasticity values
increase. Timber under load shows an increase of deformation with time. In a
constilnt cli~nnte,creep deformations only exceed the elastic deforlnations by about
50% in 20 years. If [he moisture contenr of the wood varies, however, the creep
deformations may exceed severai l~undredpercent of the initial deforn~ations.Creep
deformations are not only important because of possible excessive deformations but
also because they can lead ro a reduction in load-carrying capacity due to creepbuckling effects.
Apart from the rnoisture content, the duration of the load significantly influences
the strength and defonnations of timber and timber structures. With increasing lond
duration, the strength of timber decreases. The designer therefore has to assign each
lond to a load duration class and subsequently rnodify the characteristic strength
properties based on the duration of the co~~lbination
of loads. The influence of load
duration on the deformations is taken into account by an increase in creep
deformations.
The thermal properties of timber are good; tlle low thennal conductivity means that
cold bridging is nor n problem to the building designer and Iow expansion across
and along the grain wilh temperature change is n particularly beneficial attribute in
fire conditions.
A513
Fire doors made of wood are expected to be a barrier between a fire at close to
1000C and an escape corridor that is at n temperature of 30C. The general
perception of timber in a fire is poor, it can be ignited and will sustain and spread
fire due to the volatile gases it gives off when hot. However its combustion is a
predictable process and the spread of flame can be minimised by treating or
finishing the wood. In fire conditions the exposed timber surfaces of sections with
dimensions exceeding about 50 rn~trwill char and deplete at a constant rate. Within
the depleted section the strength and stiffness of the timber remain essentially
unchanged and hence the strength of a timber member after a period of fire can be
assessed from the residual cross-section. Consequently, large glulam cross-sections
show an excellent behaviour in fire whereas smaller sections, for example, trussed
rafter members, have to be protected. Because of the predictable behaviour of
timber in fire, steelwork is sometimes protected by a layer of sacrificial timber.
Steel fasteners in timber connections may also have to be protected to achieve an
adequate fire resistance of the structure.
Timber as a natural material is part of a natural growing-decaying cycle. Once trees
are felled they are prone to biological decay but the onset of decay and the rate of
decay can be controlled by the design and use of the wood. There are three
approaches to this problem:
design the construction and the details to eliminate the high moisture
conditions likely to lead to decay and/or insect attack,
Examples of the good durability of timber can be seen in old buildings throughout
Europe. However the changes in use of timber nowadays means that much greater
care is necessaly in detailing the construction and in treating timber.
Steel
Timber
Similarilics
hollow sections
poles
bars, angles
sawn timber
sheets
panels
welding
gluing
hol~ing
boiri~rg
Differences
isotropic
anisotropic
manufactured
grown, graded
uni fo1-111
varirtble, hetcrogerieous
affected by moisture
affected by telnperature
Toblc 1
Sinliiari~ie~
and c l ~ ~ c ~ - ~bef~vee~z
r ~ c e , ssteel orlcl lintbere as str.rtctrrra1 itloteriuls.
Concluding Summary
Because timber is a natural material the essential properties vary
considerably. In order to use timber efficiently as a reliable structural
material, strength grading is necessary.
The strength and stiffness properties of timber are highly dependant on the
angle between Ioad and grain. Timber is strong and stiff parallel to the grain
whereas it is prone lo cleavage along the grain if tension stresses
perpendicular to the grain occur. It ltas a low shear strength and shear
modulus.
A515
Strength grading
STEP I C C ~ L ~ SAG
C
P. Glos
Ludwig-h4;1simiIi;1nsUt~ivcrsitBtMiincl~cn
Objective
To develop an understanding of the imporiance of strength grading in the process
of converting wood, a natul-a1 raw material, into timber. for structural use.
Prerequisite
A4
Summary
The lecture explains why siructurnI timber ]nust be strength graded, how the grading
process affects tlie characteristic values for strength and stiffness and hence why
strength grading is a prerequisite to making timber a reliable and cotnpetitive
slructural material.
Visual and machine strength grading are outlined and the European grading standards for visual and machine strength grading are explained.
Introduction
Wood is a nat~lral product of trees which exhibits great variations in qualily
according to species, genetics, growth and environmental co~~ditions.
Wood properties valy not only from tree to tree but also within a tree, over the cross section and
along the stern axis (see STEP lecture Ad). The process of converting roundwood
into sawn timber interferes wit11 tile structure of the naturally grown wood. For
exanlple wood fibres rnay be cut due to sloping grain and distortions around knots.
This leads to considerably greater variations in the strength properties of sawn
tiniber than in roundwood. In general, the smaller the cross-section, tile greater the
variability.
Thus, the strength properties of ungraded rirnber of any one species may vary to
such a11 extent that the strongest piece is up to 10 times tile strength of the wealcest
piece (see Figure I ).
Since the use of structural timber is based on its characteristic strength value, i.e.
the lower 5-percentile of the population, the high strength of tlie majority of the
pieces cannot be utilised unless the timber is graded. This shows that for economic
S7'EP/EUROl;ORTECIi - an inilialive llndcr the EU Come11 Progr:tmmc
AG/1
reasons timber has to be divided into classes of different quality on a piece by piece
basis. I-Iowever, strength can only be determined indirectly by parameters which can
be determined visually or by other non-destructive methods. Since, there exists only
a limited correlation between these parameters and the strength, the variability
widiin these classes cannot be reduced as much as would be liked. The lower the
predictive accuracy of the grading method, the greater the overlapping of clilsses
will be, see Figure 2. This demonstrates the impact of the applied grading method
on the economic use of timber.
Figtire 2
The increasing importance of' quality assurance and the rising demand for high
quality timber have led to a growing interest in machine strcngch grading and iniiiated the development of new machines with greater predictive accuracy.
In tin~bergrading a general distinction must be inade between the so called
appearance grading and strength giading. In the former, wood is assessed according
to its appearance, i.e. decorative criteria, which is important wherever timber is
intended to remain visible. Appearance is the main consideration for non-structural
timber, such as boards for cladding, but may also be important for structural timber
where it is exposed in use. In strength grading, limber is mainly assessed according
to criteria which are relevant to its strength and stiffness. Frorn this, it follo\vs that
where stn~cturaltimber is exposed in use and the appearance is important, timber
may have lo be graded for both strength and appearance. However, this lecture will
deal oniy with the strength grading of sawn timber.
S'TEPfEUROFORTEClf
In order to determine these cliaracteristics, all four faces of each piece of timber
rnust be examined. Economic restraints, however, do not allow for a slow,
deliberate examination. For example, in a sawtnill a piece of timber is graded in
two to four seconds. This clearly shows that visilaI grading rules should be as
sitnple as possible and under tliese conditions only a rough estimate can be made
of these characteristics. Since the reliability of the grading process has to be
guaranteed, the grader will tlteref'ore generally introduce a f~rrthersafety margin to
the required grade timits, thus further reducing the efficiency of visual grading.
In summary, the advantages and disadvantages of visual strength grading are as
follows:
it is simple, easily understood and does not require great technical slcill
it is labour intensive and rather inefficient in that wood structure and density
which influence strength (see Figure 3) are not sufficiently taken into con-
sideration.
Figure 3
A615
Grading paratncter
Correlation with
f;,
fro
f;..,,
Slope of grain
02
0,2
0,i
Density
0,s
0,s
0,G
Ring widtii
0,4
0,s
0,s
0,5
0,G
0,5
Knots
+ density
0,7 - 0,8
0,7
0.8
0,7 - 0.8
Modulus of clasticily E
0.7
- 0,8
0,7
0,8
0.7
- 0,8
+ density
E + knots
0,7
- 0,8
0,7
0,8
0,7
Table /
> 0,8
> 0.8
0,8
> 0,s
Fignrc 4
m.
One important difference between visual and machine grading is that with visual
grading, it is possible to check at any time the correctness of the grade assignment
STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under tile EU Comett Programme
even with timber which is in use. In contrast, in machine grading this check is not
possible by visual measures.
For this reason there has to be frequent and regular control of the reliability of
machine grading. In various parts of the world two distinct control methods have
been developed, the so called olrrpi~tconrr-ollerlsysrem and the ninct7irze c*oratr-olied
s)rstenr.
The output controlled system was developed in North America. Control is based on
the frequent destructive strength testing of samples of the machine graded timber.
This system is relatively costly but permits a modificatjon of machine settings in
order to optimize yield. To be economical, this method requires great quantities of
titnber of the same size and grade. These conditions rareIy exist in Europe, where
a great variety of sizes, species and grades in smalier quantities are typical. For
these conditions the machine controlled system was developed. With this system
mills generally do not have to test the graded timber but rather rely on the strict
assessment and control of the tnachines as well as on considerable research efforts
in determining the machine settings which remain consrant for a11 machines of the
same type.
EN 519 outlines the requirements for the machine strength grading operation and
for grading machines. Both output controlIed systems and machine controlled
systems are allowed. The acceptance of grading machines and machine settings
requires a ~horoughexperimental and theoretical examination of the machine's
principle of operation, performance and reliability, involving hundreds of strength
tests to establish the effects of a11 variables that may affect the machine's
performance, such as timber sizes, tolerances, surface finish, moisture content, tetnperature, throughpt~tspeed, timber orientation, etc. Independent test data must be
provided to verify that tlie machine graded timber has characteristic strength and
stiffness properties that meet tlie specifications of the grade.
Machine proof-grading
In some countries, such as Australia, machine proof-gnding has been adopted
instead of machine strength grading. In the former, a piece of timber is loaded on
edge to a level corresponding to the design load of the desired grade liines a
predetermined safety factor. If the titnber sustains this proof load without failure,
excessive deformation or other signs of damage it will be allocated to the desired
grade.
Cornpared to rnachine strength grading this method is straightforward and, in particular, requires little a priori data about the timber source to be graded. However,
it: per~nitsa yes/no decision only, i.e. the grading into one specific grade. It is also
wasteful, as with low proof loads, timber is not efficiently being utilized whereas,
with high proof loads, a certain percentage of the timber will be damaged and
discarded. Therefore, proofgrading is not considered adequate for the European
market.
Concluding summary
Structural timber must be strength graded in order to ensure that its strength
and stiffness properties are reliable and satisfactory for use.
lllc
EU Co~nctlProgrnnlme
A617
Requirements for strength grading are set our in EN 518 (visual strength
grading) and EN 5 19 (machine strength grading). Both standards leave room
for future technical developments.
References
Dicbold, R, and Glos, P. (1994). lrnprovcd tirnbcr trlilization through novel machine strcngth grading.
flolz als Roh- und Wcrkstorf 52: 222.
Fcwell, A.R. (1982). Macl~incstress grading of timber in the United Kingdom. Iiolz als Roh- urtd
Wcrkstoff 40: 455-459.
Glos, P. (1983). Technical and econon~icalpossibilities of titnber strcngth grading in small and
incdium sized compsnics. In: SAH-l3ulletin 198311. Zurich: Schweitcriscl~cArbci~sgemeinsclaftfiur
Holzforschung.
Objective
To describe the system of strength classes standardised in EN 338 wIlic11 simplifies
and improves both supply and use of stix~ct-uraltimber.
Prerequisite
A 6 Strength grading
Summary
The lecture describes the advantages of n strength class system which aims at
reducing the number of species/grade/source choices in order to simplify timber
specification for the designer of timber structures and reduce restrictions on the
supplier of structural timber, for example, reduce his need to stock a large range of
species. It describes the strength classes established in EN 338 "Structural timber Strength classes" and explains how gradelspecies combinations are assigned to these
strength classes and how characterislic design values other than those included in
EN 338 can be determined.
f ntroduction
EC5 in common with the other Eurocodes provides no data on strengtll and stiffness
properties for structural materials. It ~nerelystates he rules appropriate to the
determination of these values to achieve compatibility with the safety format and
the design rules of ECS.
The following requirernenls apply for structural timber:
Visual grading shall be carried out according to standards which fulfil tlle
tninirnum requiren~ents of EN 518 "Structural timber - Grading Reqt~ire~nents
for visual strength grading standards".
Any timber, regardless of origin can therefore be used for timber structures
designed according to EC5 rules provided it has been strength graded according to
the rules of EN 5 I8 or EN 519, t l ~ echaracteristic values for strength, stiffness and
density Raving been determined according to EN 384 and this has been certified in
an "attestation of conformity". However, as yet, there are no directives as to tile
procedure.
In individual cases this procedure of assigning characteristic values to separate
grades will always be possible. However, i t inay be impractical and confusing
STEP/EUROFORTECtl - an illiriativc ~lnciertlic EU Comctt Progrnmlnc
A71 1
where marly timbers of different qualities, different sources and graded to different
rules, are available. This is usually the case with structural timber. In a typical tirnber importing country such as the UK over 100 different species/ source/grade combinations are offered (Fewell, 1991). There will be a growing tendency towards a
more varied timber supply in nil EU and EFTA countries due in particular to the
fact that about half the sawn timber used in these countries is being imported.
Furthermore it is to be expected that timber presently used in single grades onIy
will be assigned to a larger number of grades due to growing market demands and
the use of improved grading methods.
Greater cornpetition in the supply of timber will reduce costs. However the increasing numbers of grades and characteristic values will cause confusion and limited
specifications may lead to problems in supply.
To avoid these problems it was decided to introduce a strength class system as a
result of the success of similar systems in the UK and Australia.
A strength class system comprises a limited number of classes each with its own
set of strengtl~properties, to which species/grade cornbinations of similar strength
ate allocated. This makes the entire process of timber specification ~nuchrnore
simple.
In principle, a strength class sysrern rnay create econotnic losses for grades which
have just failed to meet the specifications of one class and have to be allocated to
the next lower one. This problem, however, only occurs in visual grading, whereas
in machine grading, timber can be directly graded to a strength class by appropriate
n~achinesetting. Economic losses for visual grades may be minimized by adjusting
strength class boundaries to the characteristic values of the most econoinically
important grades.
The introduction of strength classes is advailtageous boll1 to the timber user and the
timber supplier. The designer does not need to acquaint himself with a multitude
of different grades and related characteristic vaIues, no matter in which European
country his project will be built. instead, he can simply choose the strength class
suitable for his project from a concise tabla, similar to those used for other structural materials. The litnber producer has the advantage that he can achieve higher
prices for his timber since the better the grading process applied, the higher the
strength classes to which his tiinber is allocated. Grading tnachines can be used to
grade the tirnber directly into strength classes and also into classes which could not
be achieved by visual grdding. The timber supplier has the advantage that he can
select the most econornic source for a specific grade.
EN 338 gives characteristic strength and stiffness properties and density values for
each strength class and provides rules for the allocation of timber, i.e. combinations
of specieslsourcelstrength grade, to the classes.
14
16
18
22
24
27
30
35
40
-6.e.a
10
11
13
14
16
18
21
24
f;.wl,e
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,4
0,4
0,4
0,4
0,4
f;:cu
16
17
18
20
21
22
23
25
26
f;;wr.~
4,3
4.6
4,B
5,l
5,3
5,G
5,7
6,O
6,3
L.L
1,7
1,8
2,O
2,4
2,5
2,s
3,O
3,4
3,s
f;lLk
in kN/tirnrZ
Table I
Table 2
Strr~igtltC~CISSL's
and charuc~eri,sticvcibes nccorrli~igfo EN 335. Dccidiro~cs.
.specie.s.
STEP/EUROFORTECH -
;in
The estilblishment of slrength classes and related strength and stiffness profiles is
possible because, independently, nearly all softwoods and l~ardwoodscommercially
available exbibit u similar relationsllip between strength und stiffness properties.
Experimerital data sl~owsthat all important characteristic strength and stiffness
properties can be calculated frotn either bending strength, modulus of elasticity (E)
or density (see Figures I to 3). However, further research is required to establish
tlie effect of timber quality on these relationsl~ipsand to decide whether accuracy
could be ilnproved by modifying these relationships for different strength classes.
Deciduous species have a different anatomical structure from coniferous species.
They generally have higher densities but not correspondingly higher strength and
stiffness properties. This is why EN 338 provides separate strength classes for
coniferous and deciduous species. Poplar, increasingly used for structural purposes,
sliows a density/strength relationship closer to that of coniferous species and was
therefore assigned to coniferous strengtl~classes.
i r e 1
Relutio~ulripbett~~eetr
terrsiorr, corrrpression arid sfiectr stretigth artil beiidirrg
srrz'rrgth.
Fire 2
S'I'EPEUROFORTECI-I
Conicit Prograrnmc
i r e3
Due to the relationships between strength, stiffness and density shown in Figures
1 to 3 a species/source/grade combination can be assigned to a specific strength
class based on the characteristic values of bending strength, modul~isof elasticity
and density.
According to EN 338 a timber population can thus be assigned to a strength class
provided
the timber has been visually or machine strength graded according to the
specifications of EN 5 18 or EN 5 19.
the characteristic strength, stiffness and density values have been determined
according to EN 384 "Determination of characteristic values of mechanical
properties and density".
The European Standard CENlTC 124.215 "Structural Limber Strength classes Assignment of visual grades and species" lisls visual strength grades and species
of timber, and specifies the strength classes from EN 338 to which they are
assigned.
The grades and species included are those which have been used for a long time
andfor for which satisfactory test data exist (see Table 3).
Timber graded by machine to EN 519 may be graded directly into tile strength
classes and marked accordingly and is therefore not referenced in this Standard.
Gradc Species
C24
Austria
CNE Europe
Francc
(NFB 52001-4)
CF22
France
Germany
(DIN 4074-1)
SIO
CNE Europe
Nordic Countries
(INSTA 142)
T?,
Redwood, Whitewood
NNE Europe
The Netlterlands
(NEN 5466)
Spruce
UK
(BS 4978)
SS
SS
Redwood, Whitewood
Douglas fir, Larch,
Hem-fir, S-P-F
Southern pine
Parana pine
Pitch pine
ON OR^^ B 4100-2)
Commerciai name
SS
SS
SS
USA -t Canada
(NGRDL+NLGA)
Table 3
Source
+P
Scl
+ fir
NC Europe
CNE Europe
USA -+
Canada
USA
Brazil
Caribbean
S~reng~lr
class C I?, cr.ssigtrment of visrtal grucles nttd s/~eciesnccordit~gto
CEN/l'C 124.2 15.
CNE Ei~rc~pe:
Centrcil, Nor111 d Eastertr Eliropr
NNE Elirwpe: Northe~-n& North eusrent Ertrupe
NC Er~upe:Norti~euru ~ Cetztral
d
Eatr*opc.
For combinations of species and visual grades which meet the requirements of EN
518 but are not listed in this standard, the assignment to strengtli classes can be
made according to EN 338 using characteristic values determined in accordance
with EN 384.
the sampling plan. Due to its limited size no sample represents its population
exactly, and the smaller the sample, the less accurate the model,
Figure 4
EN 384 specifies the methods that must be used when determining characteristic
values in order to ensure comparabiIity when assigning different combinations of
grades and species to strength classes. Important points are:
The characteristic strength values are adjusted for small andlor few samples
and for extreme between-sample variability. Few samples and a small sample
size are taken into account by a reduction factor ks (see Figure 5). To cover
between-sample variability the characteristic value must not be greater than
1,2 times the lower 5-percentile value of the lowest sample (f,, I1,2 min f,,).
A717
liigltrr 5
The reference conditions are as set our in EC5, for example 20C/65% r.h. for
all properties, and 150 ttrtrt depthlwidth for bendingftension properties respectively.
Concluding summary
Characteristic values of individual speciesfgrade cornbinations shall be determined according to specific rules, defined in EN 384.
<
References
Fewell, A.R.. Glas, P. (1988). T i ~ cdetermination of cltaracleristic slrength values lor stress grades of
slruclural timber. Part I , In: Ptoc. of' the C[B WIS Meeting, Parksville, Canada, Paper 11-6-2.
Fewcll, A.R. (1991). CEN Stnndard (or strength classes and the determination or characteristic values.
In: Proc. of' the 1991 Int. Timber Eng. Conf., London, UK, 1.122-1.128.
Objectives
To describe the production of glued laminated timber and to discuss its
advantages in construction. To explain the strength determining factors and the
background of tile European regulations.
Prerequisites
A7 Solid timber - Strength classes
A1 2 Adhesives
Summary
The prodrlction of glued lalnjnated timber is described and the performance and
minimum production requirements are discussed. The resulting advantages
compared to solid timber are demonstrated. The factors influencing the strength
and stiffness properties of glulam beanls and tl-re background to the regulations
in CEN-standards are explained.
A811
Figlire 2
The joint profile is cut into the end-grain and the adhesive is applied (6). The
planks are then pressed together for at least two seconds (7) such that the
resulting friction between the fingers keeps the planks together during handling.
The continuous section is then cut into laminations of the required lengths (8)
and stored (9) for a minimum of eight hours to ensure the curing of the glue
before the further handling of the laminations.
Gluir~g(area CJ
The laminations are planed (10) to remove the remaining rough surface and the
unevenness at the finger joints and the glue is applied (I 1) usually by running it
beneath a glue curtain. For horizontal glulan~,the laminations are placed on edge
one beside the other - giving the final cross-section lying on its side - and
pressed together. The gluefine pressure generally is between 0,4 and 1,2 Nhlrtr?.
Higher values are necessary for curved members or hardwood laminations. The
jigs and pressing devices allow the production of straight (12.1) and curved
(12.2) beams. The gluelines are kept under pressure in a controtled climate at a
temperature of 20Cand a relative humidity of 65% for at least six hours before
the clamps are released and the beams are stacked (13) ready for finishing.
Figure 3 shows the layout of a pitched cambered beam with the correspor~ding
lamination lengths and its final form.
Finislzing {area D)
Tfie beams are planed on their sides (14) in order to remove residual adhesive
squeezed out of the joints and to ensure smooth surfaces. Finally the beams are
finished (15). These operations include various treatments and preparation work
which benefit from being carried out under controlied conditions (e.g. drilling of
holes for connections, the application of coatings). Son~etimesthe glulam is
wrapped to protect it against damage and dirt.
Cenet.nl Requii-ements
prEN 386 specifies the fo'ollowing requirements for the components of glued
laminated members:
The rittlbel- shall be strength graded (see STEP lecture AG) to conform
requirements for visual
with prEN 518 "Structural timber - grading
strength grading standards" or prEN 519 "Strucmral timber grading requirements for machine strength graded timber and grading machines".
The odlzesives (see STEP lecture AI2) s11alI meet the requirements for
adhesive type 1 or 11, as appropriate, listed in prEN 301 "Adhesives,
phenolic and aminoplastic, for load-bearing timber structures: classification
and performance requirements".
fnt.j.k
'Z fmj.k.r
(I)
A813
The requirements for ghlc litfe iiftcgril)~are based on the resting of the
glue line in a full cross-sectional specimen, cut from a manufactured
member. Depending on the service class, delaminatiorl tests (according io
prEN 391 "Glued laminated timber - delamination test of glue lines") or
block shear tests (according to prEN 392 "Glued laminated timber - glue
line shear test") must be performed.
Munrtfcrctrving reqriirentents
Minimum require~nents for the production of glued Iaminated members for
structural use are given in prEN 386, especially those concerning production
conditioris (equipment, climate in production halls), the treatment, sizes and
species of timber, the adhesives, and the manufactur.ing process itself
(positioning of the laminations, tolerance limits, cramping). Examples of
manufacturing requirements are the lengthways grooving of wide laminations to
reduce cupping effects or the layout of wide cross-sections with layers consisting
of two boards arranged parallet to each other.
Qtrality corztrol
Quality control is of particular importance in glulain production due to the nature
of its manufacture and end use. Since the quality of the glue lines cannot be
appraised in the produced members, special attention lias to be give11 to quality
control during production. Generally, quality controi consists of an internal part
carried out by the producer and an external part by an independent third party.
Quality control includes daily bending tests of finger joints and either
delamination tests or block shear tests to check glue line integrity. Furthennore,
records have to be kept giving the details of every production run including the
date and the number of members produced, their species, timber quality,
dimensions, moisture content of the timber, time for start of adhesive
application, lime for s h r t and end of the cramping process, cramping pressure,
type of resin and hardener, amount of adhesive per m h n d calibration of the
moisture meter as well as the temperature and relative humidity of the different
production halls. Quality coi~trolalso relates to the training of the personnel and
the strength grading of the timber.
rtrl
Beall? sizes
Due to the production of continuous laminations, unlimited beam sections and
lengths are theoretically possible. Giula~nbeams with depths of 2,O m or lengths
of 30 to 40 lrt are not exceptional. Limitations however, are imposed by the open
time of the glue, the sizes of planing machines and production halls or for
architectural reasons. During the transportation of glularn beains if the
dimensions exceed IG t i ? in length, 2,5 111 in widti1 or 3,5 rti in height,
supplementary actions such as the application of blinker-signal equipment, police
escorts or exceptional permissions ]nay be necessary. Also the routes have to be
cl~eckedcarefully in order to avoid sharp bends and low bridges.
Beall? shapes
The possibility of curving the single Laminations before gluing allows the
production of exciting beam shapes (see also STEP lecture B8). This also ailows
beams to be precambered to accoinmodate dead load deflection. The production
of curved beams requires the adaption of jigs and pressing devices for every new
beam geometry; thus the production time is higher in comparison with straight
beams. The resulting cost difference depends on the number of similar members
and is often negligible. Tapered ~nemberscan be produced by simply varying the
length of single laminations or by sawing two tapered members from a straight
element.
Cor~rbiitedg1111a172
The use of iaminations makes it possible to match the lamination quality to tile
level of stress. In the case of a bending member for instance, Iaminations of a
higher strength class are positioned in the outer highly stressed regions, whereas
in the inner zones laminations of a lower quality mily be used. This aIlows a
inore economical use of the available wood material.
Dry tr~oocl
The planks are Iciln dried to a rnoislure content of about 12% since the
equilibrium moisture content of wood used indoors amounts to 9 to 12%
approximately and hence the danger of damage caused by deformations (such as
distortion) occurring during the drying process in the consmction is almost
excluded.
Di~~ze~rsionnl
accur-acSy
The drying of the laminations and the production process aIso allow the
production of glulaln beams with accurate dimensions. Since small tolerances are
inlportant for the use, and combination, of prefabricated members of different
materials, the dimensional accuracy can detennine the use of glufam even if
sawn timber would have been sufficient in terms of strength and stiffness. With
regard to the increased use of CAD and computer controlled finishing machines,
dimensional accuracy is getting more important, If glularn is used in outer walls,
wind tightness can be achieved more easily than if using sawn timber with
moisture contents above the equilibrium moisture content,
A8/5
prEN 1194 "Timber structures - Glued laminated timber - Strength cIasses and
determination of characteristic values" (September 1993) provides equations for
the calculation of the mechanical properties of glued Iatninated timber depending
on lamination properties. The equations given in this version of prEN I194 are
shown in Table 1 for some of the more important properties.
equation according to prEN 1 194
Property
Bending strength
Tension strength
pami/cl to graiir
pcrpendiciilar ro gruin
Compression strength
par~illefto grnirl
Density
Table I
(N/rrrrri2)
(N/rtlmz)
.f,tL,..~
12 4- f;o,,,il
f;,utrc.r
9 + 0575 f,,,,.,,~
f,.vc~.~.k
l5 A.!XI,I,~
(N/~II~I?)
f;.~.g.il
(kg/?n3)
Pk.a
=
=
(195 - 0,01fr.o,~.r)fc.arr
0*95P,.alarn
The equations are valid for homogeneous cross-sections. For combined glulam
the equations apply to the properties of the individual parts of the cross-section.
As EC5 takes into account the decrease in strength of a material with increasing
dimensions (see STEP lecture B1) the equations of Table 1 are related to
members having a depth or width of 600 r?lrrt for bending and tension paralieI to
grain, and to a reference volume of 0,01 n13 for tension perpendicular to grain.
STEPJEUROFORTECH
The bending strength of glulaln beans is related to the tensile strength of the
laminations by an empirical relationship, which is based on tests and analytical
investigations. For standard lamination qualities this relationship indicates that
the characteristic glulan~ bending strength is 40 to 90% higher than the
characteristic tensile strength of the laminations. This may be explained by
several effects (Colling and Falk, 1993). The most important are:
Strength classes
In prEN 1194 (September 1993) five strength classes for glularn are defined (see
Table 2). Tl~elamination qualities needed Lo comply with the required properties
may be determined on the basis of the above mentioned equations (see Table 1).
GL 20
GL 24
GL 28
GL 32
GL 36
20
24
28
32
36
( N h t ~ t ? ~ ~ ) 10 000
E ~ , ~ , ~ . , (N/JTIITI') 8 000
1 1 000
12 000
9 600
13 500
10 800
14 500
I I GOO
Strengt1.r cfass
XU.~,~
Table 2
(N/NtnrZ)
8 800
For homogeneous glulain the design calculations may be carried out by the
rnethods described in EC5.
In the case of combined glulam, however, the stress analysis may to be carried
out using the transformed section method and strength checks shalf be made at
a11 relevant points of the cross-section. This means that the different lamination
qualities (characteristic strength and stiffness values) have to be taken into
account.
CL 20
Homageneous glulam
combined glulam
'
'
crll icrtnrincrtioas C IS
outer. la~tiirmiiat~sC
22
itrrrer ictr~tir~a~iorrs
C 16
GL 24
GL 28
GL 32
CL 36
C 22
C 27
C 35
C 40
C 24
C 18
C 30
C 35
C 27
C 40
C 35
C 22
The rctjuirc~nentsfor thc outer laminations apply to the extreme 116 of tllc dcpth
on both sides
Table 3
E.t.att~plesc$
heat^^ lay-rcps.
Concluding summary
-
References
(I990a).TragAhigkcit von Bicgctdgem nus Brettscliiclitholz in Abhiingigkcil von clcn
festigkcitsrelcvanten EinfluBgroBen. Dissertation, Universitfit Karlsnlhc, Germany.
Coiling, F.
Colling, F. (1990b). Bcnding strength of glulam l~cams- n statistical modcl. Ln: Proc, of the
1UFRO S5.02 Mccting, St. fohn, Conada.
Colling, F, rind Falk. R. (1993). An investigation of laminating cfrects in glucd laminated timber.
In: Proc, of' the CIB-W 18 Meeting, Athens, USA.
STEPIEUROFORTECM -
:in
Objectives
To introduce new high strength wood-based materials not lnentioned in EC5, to
describe their use and how they can be designed by following tlte EC5 principles.
Prerequisite
A4
Summary
The leclure begins with a brief description of the fabrication technoiogy of the
reconstituted wood ~naterials.IL presents tlie material properties for one type of
laminated veneer lutnber including characteristic values as given by the rnanufacturer and accepted for European use. Examples are given of itow the material is
used today in load carrying structures.
The advantage of using reconstituted wood products is that larger dimensions are
available and higher cl~aracteristicstrength values can be achieved than the strength
of the raw material used. The dimensions of these products which are, after
fabrication, quite dry are more accurate and moisture related distortion of the shape
(twisting, warping) is not a problem.
Introduction
The strength of timber is determilled more by the weakest cross-sections having
defects than by the clear straight grain wood itself, which normally has two Lo four
times higher strength than commercial sawn timber. Large defects can be avoided
when logs are first cut into thin sections and then glued to a reconstituted product.
Especially the tensile strength is increased. Because the co~npressionstrength
depends strongly on lnoisture content, the bending failure in service class 2 may
take place also on the compression side.
Glued laminated timber has a higher strength than its raw material. Still more
benefit of the redistribution of large defects into several stnall ones is obtained in
tlie fabrication of plywood, in which logs are peeled to veneers with thicknesses of
1 to 5 nlm. PIywood veneers are glued usually in right angles to each other.
Laminated velleer lumber (LVL) is a product close to plywood, except that (most)
veneers are panllel and larger dimensions are available. The idea of LVL came
from the 19GOs and the production has expanded in the 1980s. Today, LVL is
produced comn~ercially in the USA by seven companies, in Finland, Japan,
Australia and New Zealand. The biggest LVL producer in the US markets LVL
under the trade mark Micro=Lam LVL. In Finland the product is called Kei-toLVL. The 1993 production of LVL in 440000 11t3 in America, 51000 m%n Europe
and 40000 !n3 in other parts of the world and sliowed a rising trend.
Parallel strand lumber (Parallam) is a bcarn-like product made of long wood
strands, which was developed in Canada in the 1970's and 1980's. It is now
fabricated also in the USA. Anotlier new American structural wood product is
Intrailam, which is rnade from large parallel cliips.
STEPIEUROFORECI-I - an inilialive under the EU Cornet! Programme
A91 1
Fabrication
LVL is mantlfacLured in America from Southern Yellow Pine (Micr.o=Lam) and in
Europe From Norway spruce (Kerto). Logs are debarked and heated in hot water
for 24 hours. They are rotary peeled into veneers which are clipped into sheets
about 2 N I wide. The veneers, having a typical thickness of 3 to 4 nlnr, are graded
accordirlg to the density. After drying, pllenol formaldehyde adhesive is applied to
veneers which are then laid with the grain running parallel Lo form a continuous
rnat of' the desired thickness. Veneers are scarf-jointed except the tniddie veneers
which are butt-jointed. These joints are staggered vertically in order to lninimise
the effect of joint on the strength of LVL. The ~nsttis hot pressed at a temperature
of about 150 "C. After hot pressing, each finished sheet of LVL is cross-cut and
rip-sawn to desired dirne~lsions.Lengths exceeding 20 /rz can be pr.oduced. During
fabrication the q~~ality
control includes regular testing of' the quality of the glue
bond and the bending streng~h.
ICerZo-LVL is produced as a s~nndardproduct when all veneers are parallel (Kerto-
S) and also as Kerto-Q in which about every fifth veneer is in the perpendicular
direction. Standard di~nensionsof cross-section are given in Table 1.
Figttre I
Widths
in
Thicknesses in ~nrn
ltrtlr
27
200
260
300
360
33
39
45
51
63
75'
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
400
450
SO0
x
x
x
x
GOO
900
sf an do^-d rlin~crlsior~s
of KCJTO-LVL.Tlrickrie.s.~e.sof Micro=Lnnz LVL cor71pr?'sssfi.0111 19 to 89 n~rn.
Parallarn is made from Douglas fir and Southen1 yellow pine. As in the manufacture of LVL, Jogs are peeled into veneers. The sheets of veneer are then clipped
into strands up to 2400 wulr, in length and 2-3 nun in thickness. Tile adhesive is
applied to the oriented strands which are fed into a rotary belt press and cured
under pressure by microwave heating. The process is motiitored by programmable
logic controllers. Parallam emerges f r o ~ nthe process as a continuous billet that can
be factory-cut and trjmined to standard sizes up to 20 171 in length. Maximum depth
of beam is 480 rltriy and width 285 11im.Square cross-sections up to 180 x 1 SO 11zit1
are co~nmonlyproduced for columns.
Intrallam is made froin large chips up to 300 111min length and 30 mm in width.
After drying, a polyurethane adhesive is applied and the chips are organised to a
direction parallel lo tile panel length. Tile fabricated product is a large panel (2,44
x l0,6 nt), whicll is cut to llte required dimensions.
Examples of use
LVL is being used as beams. plates, ~ne~nbers
of tlusses and shells. This is done in
new buildings as well as in renovation for bealms, joists, truss chords, vehicle decking, concrete formwork, scaffold planking and prefabricated housing. The largest
structure made of LVL in Europe is Oulu-don~ewith a diameter of 115 117 (Figure
2). In dome structures, high strength to weiglit ratio, straiglttness and sn~all
Fabrication tolerances are important features.
The uses of Intrallall~are similar to those of LVL.
Parallam is used for beams, headers and columns. In tesidential building construclion in America it is often used in beams when a material wit11 higher slrengtl~is
needed. It is suitable also for hall structures and the appearance of material is
considered warm and suitable for interior architecture. Both LVL and Parallam are
competing with steel in large span structures. The advantages of the wood-based
alternatives are good architectural appearance, longer resistance in case of fire and
the easy tecl~niquesfor fastening of the secondary structure.
Bean and post structures can be built in LVL and in Parallam. An example of a
three-storey scl~oolbuilding is illustrated in Figures 3 and 4. A specific feature of
this building is that it is built in an area where seismic loads are effective. LVL
panels with screwed joints have been used in shear wall stl-uctures in order to
STEPfEUROI=ORTECI-1- :In iniiiati\ic unclcr tlic EU Comctl Programme
A913
Fig1tr.c 3
frame.
i r e4
Material properties
Durability of LVL, Parallam and 11~tmll;imis companble to nilt~iraltimber. Thcsc
products can be impregnated in order to ilnprove durability in moist co~lditions.
Also ihe charring rate in fire is close to glued isminoted timber. For LVL uscd as
panel, the values for plywood call be used.
The moisture content after fabrication is about 10% arid in scrvicc normally 2%
less than the moisture content of solid wood. Moisture expansion coefliciellts o l
LVL as change of dimension (%) per one per cent change of moisture content iWC
given i n Table 2.
Direction
Kerto-S
Kerto-Q
Length
Width
Thickness
0,OI
0.32
0,O 1
0,03
0.24
0,24
The lnodification factors for service ctass and load duration k,,,,, and deforrnation
factors k,,,? given in EC5 for plywood are aIso valid for LVL and Parallarn. The
factor I,, used in glulam design is riot necessaly for LVL because of the smaller
statistical variation in strength. Quality control tests of Kerlo-LVL show thc
coefficient of variation for bending strength to be less than 10%. Thus a depth
factor with an exponent of 0,07would be appropr.iale based on Weibull's theory.
However, by using the same partial safety coefficient as for other wood materials,
y,,, = 1,3, extra safety is already included and further reduction is not necessary.
Strength and stiffness properties in Nht1~1~
Bending edgewise
Bending flirtwise
.LA
51
48
.6,,1.i
42
f,,~.,
0,6
X:JB.~
42
.[!:J,I.~
9
6
Shear edgewise
Shear flatwise
Rolling shear
5 % ~nodulus01' elasticity
5 % shear n~odulus
.4,,a,c6rt, 14000
G,r.,t,,,,~
960
Characteristic Density
P1:
500
Average density
P,,,,,,,,
520
Density in kg/ii$
and LVL is illustrated in Figure 6. The Figure shows that the stiffness of LVL is
somewhat higher but the strength is about twice the strength of average strength
graded sawn limber. The bending capacity of the same materials is illustrated in
Figure 7 where cross-sections with equivalent bending capacity are shown.
Dowel-type fasteners are used with LVL, and the EC5 design equations are as
good for LVL as for sawn timber with tile same density. Dowel joints are used also
in frame structure with rigid joints as illustrated in Figure 5. Punched metal plate
fastener joints are also used and the design principles are the same as for solid
wood. Special types of punched ~netalplates have been developed for LVL (see
also STEP lecture E6).
Pigrtrz. 7
snrtltl
tirrzber (C24f,
Summary
Engineered wood products LVL and Parallam have higher strength and stiffness
than traditional wooden products. They ilre also thoroughly tested because they
have entered the market during modern legislation. "Fl~eseindustrial products are
well suited for use where high strength and diniensional stability is needed.
Reference
Koponcn, S., Kanerva, P.(1992). Summary of European ICcrtn-LVL tests with rnccl~anicalfasteners.
Report 29. Helsinki University of Technology. Laboratory or S~rucluralEngineering and building
Physics. Espoo, Finland.
A917
Objective
To explain the critical properties, particularly the st~ucturalbeliaviour, of plywood
as an exanlple of layered boards.
Prerequisites
A4 Wood as a building ~nalerial
A 12 Adhesives
Summary
The production of plywood is described and the technical terminology is explained.
The essential physical properties of plywood are suminarised. In Inore detail the
structural properties and their dependencies on the lay-up are shown. Some
exainples of characteristic values of mechanical properties for established products
are given.
Introduction
Wood in thin layers, known as plies or veneers, has been used since ancient times
for example by the Egyptians and Rolnans to fillish wooden surfaces. Since the
beginning of the 20th centuty, plywood has been industrially produced. Plywood
as a building material consists of an odd number of layers (at least three) which we
bonded using various types of adhesives (STEP lecture A12). The suitability of
plywood for the aircraft industry initiated intensive research into veneer bonding
and the s11-ucluraIproperties of plywood. Initially only natural adhesives were
available but today plywood as a constructional material is produced using synthetic
adhesives. Plies can be inanuiactured by rotary peeling, slicing or sawing. Plies for
the structural plywoods used in building components are produced by the rotary
peeling of steamed logs (see Figure 1). This procedure resembles the unwinding of
the log to obtain a wooden ribbon of about 2 111111to 4 1rl111 thickness. Tile next step
~
I-ibbon inlo sheets. After kiln drying and gluing, the veneers are laid
is to C L I the
up with an angle of 90" between the grain direction of adjacent layers and bonded
under pressure. Figure 2 sliows the layered con~positionof a plywood cross section.
Adjacent veneers provide stability in the panel by reducing the possibility of
perpendicular to the grain movements due to swelling and shrinkage. The edge of
the panel is protected in all directions since at least one veneer will have the grain
rilnning parallef to the panel edge. Plywood is structurally suited for use as a panel
material in various components, for example as [he web or flange of beams, in
diaphmgtns, as wall panels or as gussets in spaced columns and trusses.
STEP/EUROFORTECI.i - an inilintivc undcr the EU Comett Progrnmmc
AIO/I
Figurr 2
Physical properties
Deruiv
One of the most important physical properties of wood based materials is the
density. Depending on the percentage of adhesive and the compression of the
bonding, the density of plywood is generally higher than the density of the wood
from which it was made. As with solid timber, the elastic properties and strength
of plywood are correlated with density. Density values are given in Table 2.
Muisttrre content
Like solid wood, the veneers are hygroscopic, and therefore the moistirre content
of plywood depends on the climatic condilions of the surrounding air (see Table 1).
The moisture content of plywood is less than of solid timber due to the glue lines.
Sur.~.oundingair with temperature
of 20C and relative t~umidityof
30%
65%
85%
-5%
-10%
-15%
-G%
- 12%
-17%
Table 1
Swelli~lgA~~~ri,lkage
Changes in plywood moisture content below fibre saturation point cause changes
in the geometrical properties of plywood panels. Because of the grain directions of
adjacent layers, the deformations in the plane of the panel are small (about 0,02%
per 1% change in moisture content). Perpendicular to the panel plane, in the case
of rotary peeled veneers, a radial swelIing/shrinlcage similar to that of the solid
wood species call be expected.
CIBep
The increase in deformation of plywood with time, due to rlle combined effect of
creep and moisture, is talcen into account by the factor k,,,/.Plywood panels are
slightly more prone to creep than solid timber due to the glue lines.
Durability
The natural durability of wood based panels depends less on the species of wood
than solid timber. Additional factors which may affect the durability of plywood are
thickness of veneers
composition (use of different materials within the board)
properties and quantity of adhesives.
Ilnproved durability can be obtained by using selected wood species for the veneers,
special lay-ups or by chemical protection. For the choice of specific wood species
of suitable durability see EN 350-2 "Durability of wood and wood products.
Natural durability of wood - Part 2: Guide to the natural durability and treatability
of selected wood species of irnpofiance in Europe". The application of hazard classes
of biological attack to wood based panels is given in EN 335-3 "Durability of wood
and wood-based products. Definition of hazard classes of biological attack - Part
3: Application to wood-based panels".
Structural properties
The structural properties of plywood are affected by the folIowing parameters
El = C $ I,
Figrrre 3
(1)
A 1013
The resuiting equations for the moduli of elasticity of the panel are as follows:
If, however Eq(,,,,,,,,, is taker1 as 1 /30 E,,,,,,, , as wou Id be typical for softwood
veneers, the i~nprovemenisin ~nocluliare:
EfI = 0,80 E,,
EL = 0,24 E,,
In-pla~tebending
As a cainmon case of in-plane bending the load carrying bel~aviourof I- and boxbeam webs is well known. Usually the piywood panel of the web has the grain of:
face veneer running parallel Lo the beam axis.
For the plywood panel in the above example, in-piane bending results in the
following. Firstly, ignoring the contribution of' veneers stressed perpendicular to
heir grain, gives
dl,
Ell = 3-Et,
12
1
= 2
"
dh
El
12
for a,,,
Igrain of face veneer
(8)
Figrim 4
The resulting equations for the moduli of elasticity of the panel are as follows:
d h 3 E,, 13E =
= 0,GO E(,
"
4 5 5 1 h 3
E,
= 0,Gl E(,
E,
= 0,41 E,,,
In the case of in-plane bending, panel shear occurs perpendicular to the plane of the
panel (see Figure 5a). The panel shear strength is much higher khan planar shear
strengtl~.
A1015
Figure 6
Ef
EL =
-(31
5 d
d E,,
1
( 2 d E,
5d
.t
2d
. 0)
3 (d
. 0)
0,60 E,,
0,40 E ,
Characteristic values
EN TC 112.406
E N 1058
EN 789
For plywood panels which have a long history of st[-uctural use in the EC and
EFTA countries, the characteristic values of mechanical properties and density
values are given in EN TC 1 12.406 "Wood-based panels - Characteristic values for
established products". For types of plywood not listed in EN TC 112.406,
characteristic values shall be determined using the sarnpiing techniques set out in
EN 1058 - "Wood-based materials - Determination of cltaracteristic values of
mechanical properties and density" and testing procedures given in EN 789 "Timber
structures - Testing of wood-based panels for tlie determination of mechanical
properties for structural purposes".
Charcrcter-isficdensity
The characteristic densities in EN TC 112.406 range from 350 kg.lrn"or softwood
species up to 550 kgittt3 for beech plywood. Some characteristic density values are
given in Table 2,
STEPIEUROFORTECI3 - an initiative under the
EU Comctt Programrnc
4y7e oJ
chcirncrcristic
srrertgth
Fig.
Table 2
S-
,t:yrvood'
1
fk7
FINply~jood'
f
r~ltrrN/IIIIH-111r11
1
fk
fk
N ~fk.,
I I I I"tlrnr
It- ~hrtltl' trvn
~hiii11~ N / I ~ I , ~ z ~
Clrar~cfer-istic
srrerrgrli 1rn11ie.sill ffharn' nitd clramcterisfic der~,sif)f
r~diresill
kS/rir" nccorciirrg to EN TC 112.30h for- estoblisl~edpr-odrccts.
5.
6.
2 5-1aye~..r
I.
2.
3.
4.
f 19))
Cltnrncteristic n~ecltmticc~l
properties
EN 635
- 2 and 3
Spfy~vood'
FINp(~voorl-
Fig.
Table 3
For plywood of' mixed wood species, EN TC 1 12.406 gives extended composition
factors in order to take into consideration layers consisting of different wood
species in one plywood cross section.
The factors k, and 15 can be used for the calculation of characteristics of in-plane
bending st!-ength f':,,,, on the basis of bending strength perpendicular to plane.f;,,+,:
Concluding summary
Plywood, a classic wood-based panel is produced on the basis of a wellestablished teclinology and used for Inany structural components.
0bjectives
To introduce the manufacture, properties and uses of fibreboards, particleboards
and OSB.To identify how design data is derived for use with EC5.
Summary
The various types of fibreboards, particleboards and OSBs are noted and their
manufacturing processes detailed. An overview is given of board properties and this
is linked to the methods adopted by CEN for the specification of boards and the
derivation of design values. The range of uses in constmction for the board types
described is tabufared.
Introduction
Wood has been designed in nature to ~neet very specific engineering and
environmental needs, but man seeks to adapt it to a very much wider range of uses.
In order to overcome the shortcomings of timber in size and anisotropy, new man
made forms of wood have had to be introduced. Gluiain and plywood developed
with the advent of structural glues and the rotary peeling process. More recently,
developments have concentrated on reconstituted forrns of wood such as
particleboards, OSB, fibreboards and parallel strand lumber. These developments
contribute much to i~nprovingthe efficiency of the forest resource. More energy is
consumed in the conversion process but this is far outweighed by the benefits of
using either waste or fast growing s~nalltimbers and in fabrication costs. The main
use of this reconstituted or conlposjte wood is in wood-based panels. Table 1 shows
the five main groups of wood-based panels and details tile three which fonn the
subject of this lecture.
Production and consunlption data show a marked increase in the use of wood-based
panels in the last decade. 30 rllillion cubic metres were consumed in the 12 EC
countries in 1989 and of this more than two thirds was particleboard. Furthermore,
Europe is self sufficienl in particleboards and fibreboards but imports nearly two
thirds of the plywood used. Wood based panels are very versatiIe and are used in
many different industries including furniture, wall panelling, packaging and do-ityourself; 50% of the product is used structurally, principally in the constniction
industry, and is covered by the Construction Products Directive (CPD) of the EU.
Structural uses include flooring and roofing, wall sheathing, forniwork and specialist
structural uses such as web members in 1 and box beams. The CPD also includes
internal fitments such as doors and stair units which represent a further major
market for wood based panels.
Many types of wood based panels are relatively new materials and not all the
boards suited to structural use have had their chnracteristic strength and moduli
evaluated so that they can be used in conjunction with lfre k,,,, and k,,, factors a ~ ~ d
joint information contained in EC5. Where panel products have a history of
stnlcturai use and this experience has been incorporated in rlarional standards then
this information has been used in the derivation of characteristic values. Otlier
materials are put through extensive test programmes, using tests specially
WOOD-BASED PANELS
I
Plywood
(STEP lecturc A10)
Boards Detailed
in This Lecture
Spccial Bomd
Products
Pnrticleboard
OSB
Fibrcboard
Bot~declivith
Mit~emlBotrcled
Bo~rderl1c1itlt Orgutric
Bitldcr:~
1
Cement-Bonded
Particlcbonrds
I
Hardboards,
Mediunzboards,
Softboards,
I
Chipboards
Mitrernl Botldcd
I
Gypsutn
Fi brcboa~xki
MDF
Pnrticleborrt~cls
A particleboard may be defined as a panel ~naterialmanufactured under pressure
and heat from particles of wood (wood Flakes, chips, shavings) with the addition of
an adhesive. The main types are named in Table 1. In the past, boards made using
larger particles such as wafers and stlxnds have been included under the generic
term particleboards. However, the major differences between OSB and chipboard
and the continued growth in use of OSB has resulted in it being awarded a separate
status in CEN codes.
--
-.
The two processes start in a similar manner. Raw material, normally softwood
forestry thinnings, but varying from sawdust to hardwood wastes and always
exctuding bark, is chipped and rnechanically reduced to basic wood fibre. The chips
are steamed under high pressure to soften the lignin, the natural gluing agent in the
wood, which is thermoplastic and will provide all or part of the bond in the formed
board. Alternatively, for wet process boards only, the Masonite (or explosion)
process is employed where tile sudden ejection of the chips from a steam healed
pressure vessel causes them to disintegrate.
Manufacturing
process
Wet
Board density
Low
< 400 ~ ~ / I I I '
Tublt 2
High
Softboard (SB)
Low Density
Mediumboard (MBL)
Hardboard (HB)
Imprcgnatcd
Softboard (SB.1)
High Density
Mediunlboard (MBH)
Ternpered
Hardboard (HB .I)
Dry
Note:
Medium
2 400 kg/111~,< 900 kS/Ir?
Medium Density
Fibreboard (MDF)
Dty process n r n n ~ ~ o c t ~ u . ~
In this more modem process the fibrous mass is conveyed in an air stream to the
matt forming station. The fibres must be coated with resin, either UF, MUF or MDI
(isocyanate) and up to 10% by weight, to achieve good bonding. The matt may be
up to 500 rilnl thick and is then pre-pressed between steel belts to remove air. Cut
lengths are hot pressed into slteets giving two very finely finished surfaces. Medium
Density Fibreboard (MDF) is available in thicknesses up to 40 mm and in densities
in the range 600 to 1000 kg/tn3. Board edges may readily be profited for specialist
use.
Board properties
Wood-based panels overcome some of the deficiencies of natural timber in that they
have a lower degree of variability, lower anisotropy and higher dimensional stability
in the plane of the board; they are available in very much larger sizes and provide
a wide range of finishes.
The variability is reduced by the random distribution ofthe components into a more
even consistency. The reduction in variability increases as the size of the
components decreases. This improves the characteristic value of a structural
property in comparison with the mean perfonuance determined from tests.
However, in comparing bending strength and stiffness for boards of a similar
density, performance in general will reduce with component size. Unless the boards
are very heaviiy densified, performance will be much lower than for solid timber;
this is in part due to the reduction in anisotropy. A11 particleboards and f i b r e b o d s
except OSB are nominally isotropic in the plane of the board. Timber, in both
strength and movement, has a value of anisotropy of up to 40:l. Plywood can
reduce this value to 5:l in simple 3 ply lay ups and to 1,5:1 in inore expensive
multi lay ups, whereas OSB is normally about 2 to 2,5:1. Figure 1 compares
strength ranges for typical timber and wood based materials.
Key:
(a) So(twood
(c) Tcmlxred l-iardbonrd
(e)
(g)
if
Figrirc I
MDF
Chipboard
Parallel to grain or
strong direction
Isotropy considerations also affect the dimensional stability of wood based panels
as shown in Table 3. Dimensional stability in the plane of the board is relatively
constant for single board types and even between board types. It is much better than
for timber across the grain. As a consequence sheet materials are ideal where large
widths are required such as in flooring and wall sheathing but even so must be laid
with 2 to 3 rl71ll gaps to allow for the small moisture movements.
A1 115
Stability across the thickness of the board is less good but depends very much on
board type and can be reduced by additives or by conditioning the board prior to
use. This process brings the moisture content of the board much closer to its end
use condition col~~pared
with the as-manufactured state and effectively reduces the
problem of thickness changes and differential movements which could lead to
bowing of the boards once they are fixed in position.
Timher or
wood-based pancl type
Perpendicular to
board length
Through Ihickness
c0,10
c0,10
030 (R)
1,20 (R)
2,00 (T)
020
0,20
10,OO
0,15
0,15
0,15
0,20
3,50
3,50
Solid Timber
Douglas Fir
Beccl~
I ,oo (T)
Plytt~ood
Douglas Fir
Clripbonrd
Loadbearing dry
Loadhearing humid
OSB
Filn-cbunrds
I-Iardhoard
Tenlpered Hardboard
MDF
Notes:
0,15
0,20
3,50
R is radial direction.
T is tangentit11direction.
--
Table 3
One of the most important factors affecting the end use of a panelboard is moisture.
Ilumid conditions encountered in kitchens, bati~roomsand roof spaces reduce the
perfonnance of boards, as is the case with all tirnber materials. Lower quality
boards show very little recovery on subsequent drying. However, higher quality
boards, usually denoted by the use of moisture resistant glues such as MUF, PF and
MDI or by specialist processing such as oil tempering, are capable of very
considerable recovery and are therefore able to be used in service class 2
conditions. Cement bonded particleboard is very stable under humid conditions and
is the only wood based panel that can be fully recommended for exposed external
cladding use (service class 3).
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under tllc EU Come11 Programme
Material
Solid lirnbcr
Glulnm
Plywood
Particleboards
(heavy duly)
OSB
grades 3 and 4
Load duration
class
k,l,adI
kt,,'
k,l,,,,f
b,;
Pcrnmanent
0,60
0,803
0,40
Medium tcrm
0,80
025
Short term
0,90
0,OO
Instantaneous
I , 10
Fibreboards
knwri;
k,1,;
k,lu,~
k,jrl
1,50
0,30
2,25
0,20
3,00
0,70
0,50
065
0,75
0,GO
1,OO
0,90
0,OO
0,85
0,OO
0,80
0,35
1,fO
Notes:
Pnrticlcbortrds
(loadbearing)
(loadbearing dry)
OSB grade 2
Hardboitrds (load
bearing humid)
r,lO
1,lO
Tnble 4
Co~aparisonof kJJU,,,
ancl k,,,,ficlor:r. for service clcrss I (dt-y cortditiotts) otrly
for cI$trent titltbcr atid ~cloodbmed ~ ~ u n11mteria1.s.
el
Moisture content also affects the durability of the board with respect to fungal
attack. In general, this will ]lot be a. problem as the board should not be used in
conditions which will support fungal growth. However, most particIeboards arid
standard fibreboards (i.e. those without specially improved properties) will be less
durable than the wood species from which they are made. The incorporation of
fungicides will increase the resistance of the board and give more confidence when
boards have been exposed lo accidental wetting. Wood based panels will not
normally be attacked by the rodents and wood boring insects common to most of
Europe; specialist treatments would be necessary where abnornlal conditions prevail.
Certain types of board offer specialist properties, for instance the thermal insulation
of softboards, but in general where the board density is in the normal range for
timber, then tl~ermal,acoustic and fire properties will not be significantly different
from those of solid timber,
A11/7
transverse tensile strength which measures the internal bond for a small
50 irtrpt square specimen,
CEN Code
Tor
specification
Notation
of boards in
CEN code
Chipboard
- General purpose, dry
- Interior filrnenls, dry
- Loadbearing, d ~ y
- Loadbearing, humid
- Heavy duty, loadbearing, dry
- Heavy duty, foadbearing, humid
EN312-1
EN312-2
EN312-3
EN3 12-4
EN3 12-5
EN312-6
EN312-7
P2
P3
P4
P5
PG
P7
Cement bondcd
- Single grade only
EN634- I
EN634-2
CB
Board type
and description
by use
Characteristic
values for design
available
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
EN300
OSR
- Loadbearing, dry
- Loadbearing, humid
EN622-2
Hardbowds
HB
HB.H
HB.E
HB.LA
HB .HLA I
HB .HLA2
EN622-3
EN622-4
MBL, MBH
MBL,H, MBH.H
MBL.E, MBH.E
MBL.LS, MBH.LA1
MBH.HLS 1
MBH.LA2
MBH.HLS2
MDF
MDF.H
MDF.LA
MDF.HLS
- Loadbearing, humid
S oftboards
- General purpose, dry
- Genernl purpose, humid
- General purpose, exterior
- Loadbearing, dry
- Loadbearing, humid
Table 5
EN622-5
SB
SB.H
SB.E
SB.LS
SB.HLS
Yes
Yes
The assessment of existing structurally used boards tias been restricted to chipboard
and types HB.HLA2, and MBH.LA2 fibreboards (see Table 5). Their characteristic
values are included in CEN document EN1 12.406 "Wood-based panels:
Characteristic values for established products", and design factors are given in EC5.
OSB has been the first material to go through the CEN test procedures and is also
included in EC5. Other boards, sucl~as cement bonded particteboard, have the
durability qualities to be used st~ucturallyand may well be included in revisions to
EN I 12.406 and EC5 when characteristic values become available, but at present
their structural use is restricted to the perfonnance specification route.
Table 6 compares cliaracteristic values for typical wood based panels for a datum
thickness as close to an 18mm datum as possible, and notes the appropriate
thickness class.
Propcrties
Board type
Particlchoards
P4
landbearing, dry
Particleboards
P7
l~cavyduty,
loudbcuring,
l~umid
Fibreboards
MBH.LA2
loadbcaring, dry
Fihrehoards
HB.HLA2
heavy duty,
loadbcaring,
hun~icl
13 - 20
13 - 20
> 10
>5,5
Density kC:/~rt3
GOO
600
600
800
Bending f,,
12,5
16,7
15
32
Tension f;
7,9
10,6
23
11,l
14,7
24
61
8,1
4s
IG
Planar shearf,
1,6
2,2
0,25
2.5
Thickness range
lltltl
Cornpression f,
Bending E,,,
2900
4230
3900
4600
Tension E,
I700
2485
2900
4600
Compression E,
1700
2385
2900
4600
Pancl shear G,
830
1195
1200
--
Tnble 6
f 900
-
Joitlts
For nailed, screwed and bolted panel to timber joints, the rules for timber to timber
joints apply. However there are very few characteristic values available for
embedment strength and head pull through strength for fibreboards, particleboards
and OSB. Hence, it may often be necessary to undertake CEN perfonnance tests on
fasteners and panels to determine the resistance of joints in panels to lateral and
axial loads.
In many end uses of wood-based panels, such as timber frame walls, the fixing
performance is not individually assessed but is covered by tests on a typical full
scde structural member which may incorporate many fixings.
STEP/EUROFORTECH - an inilialive undcr thc EU Comctt Progr:ln~mc
Use
The use of wood-based panels is wide ranging and dependent on the nature and
properties of the different board types. Being a composite material, it is often
possible to build a specification for a board based on a projected end use; an
example of this would be the development of MDF for the furniture and semistructural fittings industries. For structural use, many types of board will be
eliminated based on tlteir quality and durability. Boards may then be limited to a
narrow range of uses due to their special properties and to negative influences such
as cost; for instance, the density of tempered hardboard makes it difficult to nail as
a sheathing but ideal as a web material in I beams. However, the majority of boards
which are of a similar density to timber will compete with one another and with
plywood in a rmge of markets. The grading of the board in terms of strength and
moisture resistance will then deternine its specific use in the various domestic,
commercial and industrial construction situations.
Table 7 delails typical end uses and the types of wood-based panel that might be
most appropriate.
Use
Board type
Particleboards
OSB
CBPB'
Fibreboards
Sarking
P5
OSBl3
CB
P5
OSBl3
CB
Cladding
Fascias
Soffits
OSB13, OSBl4
CB
HB.E
CB
HBH.HLA1, HB.E
Ceilings and
partilions
Domestic
P4, P5
OSBl2, OSBl3
Commercial
P5
OSBl3, OSB/4
Industrial
P7
OSB13, OSBl4
Webs or stressed
skins
P7
OSB/4
Notes:
T ~ b l e7
CB
HB .HLA 1/2
' Single grade ol board, notation dcfincd in Table 5 no1 used by CEN.
Use of ~c~ood-bnscd
porrels.
Concluding summary
Fibreboards, particleboards and OSB are refatively new structural materials. They
are efficient in their use of waste or low quality timber and small diameter logs. As
composites their properties may be developed to suit their end use and they are now
able to replace solid timber and pIywood, in many situations. Board development
is on going and not all boards have had their characteristic structural properties
defined. Thus alternative methods of specification are sometimes necessary to
enable thern to be used in structural situations, typically in Rooring, roofing and
waf 1 sheatliing.
Adhesives
STEP Iect~rreA I2
E. Rnknes
The Nonvegian lnstiiutc of
Wood Technology
Ob,jectives
To give an overview of the different structural wood adhesives and to show how
they are used in timber products and timber structures.
Prerequisite
A4
Summary
The theory of adhesive bonding is briefly described, and reference is made to the
present situation concerning EC5 and adhesive approval. A brief description of
current and potential structural wood adhesives is given relating to composition,
durability, application, classification. Types of joints (parallel, end-to-end,
crosswise) and the process of bonding are described in principle, and bonding of
pressure-treated wood is briefly mentioned.
Introduction
Structural wood adhesives are used to bind two or more wooden parts together in
such a way that the product behaves as a static unit. The task of the adhesive is to
fill the voids between the wooden members, and to produce adhesive bonds to each
member which are equally strong and durable as the cohesive forces within the
members. In addition, the adhesive layer itself must have sufficient strength and
durability to retain its integrity in the assigned service class throughout the expected
life of the structure.
The attraction forces between adhesive and wood are of the same type as the
cohesion forces in the wood, i.e. electric attraction forces between molecules. The
resulting bonds are mostly of the secondary bond type, i.e. hydrogen and van der
Waals bonds. Some primary bonds, for instance covalent, are also likely to be
produced with some adhesives. In order to provide the intimate contact necessary
LO produce bonds of this type, the adhesive must, at some stage in the bonding
process, be in the liquid fonn. T l ~ ebonding process consists of two steps:
transformation of the liquid adhesive, which fills the voids between the
members, into a solid of sufficient strength and durability to retain its
integrity throughout the service life of the construction.
The latter process is called hardening. It may be brought about in three ways:
A1211
type I-adhesives, which will stand full outdoor exposure, and temperatures
above 50 "C,
type 11-adhesives, which may be used in heated and ventilated buildings, and
exterior protected from the weather. They will stand short exposure to the
weather, but not prolonged exposure to weather or to temperatures above
SO "C.
According to ECS only adhesives complying with EN 301 may be approved at the
moment.
Plywood and particle board are used as elements in some timber stnrctures. TI~ere
is, at present, no EN-standard for the classification of the adhesives used in these
products, and hence they have to be evaluated using national standards. (e.g. BS
1203, "Specification for synthetic resin adhesives for plywood", BS 1455,
"Specification for plywood manufactured from tropical hardwoods", DM 53255,
"Bestirnmung der Bindefestigheit von Spemholzleimun,oen im Zugversuch und im
Aufstechverfahren" and DIN 68705, "Sperrhoiz, Begriffe, aligemeine Anforderungen, Priifung".
The pure resorcinols are made by reacting resorcinol (a phenolic compound) with
fo~lnaldehyde.The process is carried out with a deficit of formaldehyde, and the
reaction stops when this is consunled. The adhesive, which is a liquid, is used with
a "I~ardener"containing formaldehyde. This co~npletesthe cure of the resin to an
infusible state. In addition, the hardener usually contains inert fiIlers of various
kinds, in order to make the glue "gapfitling". As resorcinol is an expensive
ctlemical, some of it is now usirally replaced with other, cheaper phenols. For both
types, curing may take place at room-temperature (15-20 "C) or at elevated
temperature. These adhesives are suitable for radio-frequency curing. The bonds
formed in the reaction between resorcinol and other phenols with formaldehyde are
of the -C-C- (Carbon to Carbon) type. These bonds are very strong and durable, and
not susceptible to hydrolysis. The RF's and PRF's therefore give very durable
bonds: they are fully water-, boil- and weather-resistant, and will also withstand
salt-water exposure (Selbo 1965).
Members glued with these adhesives will not delaminate in a fire. Permissible
glueline thicknesses are up to approximately 1 rrrrn with ordinary adhesives and up
to 2 I I ~ ~ with
II
special, gnp-filling types. The gluelines are neutral, i.e. neither acid
nor alkaline, and hence they will not damage the wood or corrode metals. They are
very dark in colour. Tlie cured adhesive will not emit formaldet~ydeor other
hannful chemicals. RF's and PRF's are type I adhesives according to EN 301, They
are used in laminated beams and arches, Rngerjointing of structural members, Ibeams, box beams, gusset joints, nail-gluing etc., both indoors and outdoors.
PIteiioi-for7r1n1rlel~j~c~e
adl~esises(PF), hor-settirtg
These are made by reacting phenol with formaldehyde under alkaline condition, at
elevated temperature. The reaction is stopped by cooling. The adhesive may be
supplied as liquid, powder or film and is alkaline. I1 is cured by the appljcation of
heat (1 10-140 "C), and, for some types containing more reactive phenols, by a
combination of lieat and the addition of a formaldehyde-containing hardener. Tlie
gluelines are very dark. They have the same durability properlies as the RF- and
PRF-adhesives.
Hot-setting PF's are typically hot-press adhesives, and they are used in structural
and mwine plywood, in fibreboard, etc. Radio frequency-curing is not possible
because of "burning", but microwave curing is used for some products, like
laminated veneer lumber (LVL) beams. Hobsetting PF's cannot be classified
according to EN 301. When tested to BS 1203 or BS 1455, they will meet the most
severe requirements (WBP, "Weather and boil proof').
Pl~enol~fbrr~tsil~Ze/~~~rIe
ocl/~esives(PF), cold-settir~g
In order to make a PF cure at room-temperature it must be made acidic. This is not
possible in an aqueous solution, as the acid would precipitate the resin. The
adhesive is, therefore, dissolved in alcohol, and made to cure by the addition of a
strong acid. The gfueline itself has the same strength and durability properties as
the other phenolic-type adhesives, i.e. fully water-, boil- and weather-resistant. The
hardener, however, is so strongly acidic that it is liable to damage the wood
surfaces.
Cold-setting PF's are classified according to EN 301, but the current types are
likely to be eliminated by the "acid damage test" given in EN 302-3. These
adhesives were used lo some extent in the fifties and sixties in glulrun production.
Some of these buildings actually collapsed many years later, and there is reason to
believe that acid damage from the adhesive is the cause. Cold-setting (acid-curing)
PF's of current type, therefore, should not be used for structural purposes.
Urenlfor7nnlcfel~jtrle
orl/~esiijes(UF)
UF's are made by I-eactingurea with formaldehyde. The reaction is speeded up by
acid and heat. At a suitable stage the reaction is stopped by cooling and
neutralising. It is started again by adding an acid-releasing hardener and, for some
types, by heating in addition. UF's are a very versatile adhesive family. They may
be supplied as liquids or powders (sonletimes with hardener added), and they may
be cured at illly telnperature from 10 "C upwards. Speed of curing may be adapted
to the process. They are also suitable for radio frequency-curing. The gluelines are
light in colour.
Tile hot-press types are used for non-structural plywood and chipboard etc. They
are classified by for instance BS 1203 tuld BS 1455 where they meet the two lowest
r*equirementsonly (INT, "Interior", or MR, "Moisture resistant"). Only special cold-
setting UF's are suitable for structural purposes. They must not be too acidic, and
they must have filler added to make them gap-filling (up to 1 nrm), otherwise the
gluelines will crack on their own if thicker than 0,1 t r l t ~ Even
.
these adhesives have
limited heat- and water-resistance, and they are broken down fairly quiclcly by
combined heat and high relative humidity. In a fire they will tend to delaminate.
UF's for structural purposes are classified according to EN 301 as type 11-adhesives.
They are used in glularn production and fingerjointing for interiot construction.
Melnrrrirre-iirea .forr~~alcieliyde
nclitesives ( M U F )
These adhesives are closely related to UF adhesives, but some of the urea is
replaced with melamine in order to increase the water- and weather-resistasice.
Some of thein even contain resorcinol for the same purpose. MUF-adhesives are
supplied as hot-press adhesives, for pIywood etc., with intermediate waterresistance, and as cold set where together with hot set adhesives they are used for
glularn and fingerjointing.
Tlze cold set ones are classified according to EN 301. Some of them will be type
11-adhesives, with properties comparable with UF's. The best will meet the type Irequirements, and thus be classified as "weather-resista~lt".They are, however, less
resistant than the resorcinols, and not suitable for marine purposes (Selbo 1965).
However, MUF's are often preferred for economic reasons, and because of their
lighter colour.
Casein adItesi\~es
The main constituent of these adhesives is the milk protein, casein. The adl~esive
is delivered as a powder, consisting of casein and various inorganic salts. When the
powder is mixed with water a series of clle~nical reactions occur. Aftcr
approxin~ately 15 minutes these have resulted in the casein being dissolved as
Sodium Caseinate. After 4-8 hours this has been transformed to Calcium Caseinate,
which is fairly insoluble in water ("Curing-reaction"). The gluelines are fairly light
in colour. They are less water resistant than UF gluelines, but more resistant to
combined heat and high relative humidity.
Caseins are probably the oldest type of structural adhesive and have been used for
industrial glularn production since before 1920. They have proved suitable for
indoor and protected outdoorsconstntction, but have to be protected against mould
attack with a suitable fungicide. Caseins do not meet the requirements of EN 301.
Environment
RF/PRF PF(hot)
MUF
UF
Casein
+
+
-b
GIueIirre colour
Dark
Dark
Light
Light
Light
EN-class
301-1
301 - 1/11
301 - 11
Marine
-< 50 "C,;85 5%
r.11.
establish with adequate confidence that the long-tenn durability of the new
type is satisfactory,
devise shorl-term tests which are able lo distinguish between the good and
the bad brands of the new type.
pat-t I is an epoxy resin whose lnolecules are terminated with epoxy groups,
part 11usually consists of bifunctional amine(s).
None of them contain solvents. When mixed together epoxy and amine react to
make up an infusible resin.
Epoxy adhesives may be "tailored" to the area of application, and some of them are
definitely suitable for wood gluing, They have very good gapfilling properties.
I-lowever, due to their high price and their application properties they have only
been used in special cases for wood bonding, for instance:
glued-in bolts.
Epoxies have very good strength and durability properties, and the weather
resistance for the best ones ties between MUF's and PRF's.
Two-par-tpoZylrr-et/~nnw
Part I consists OF bi- or trifunctional isocyanate and part I1 of bi- or trifunctional
alcohols. Both are solvent-free. When mixed together they react to form a
polyuretlime resin, These adhesives have good strength and durability, but
experience seems ro indicate tliat they are not weather-resistant, at least not all of
them (Hedlund 1987). As for wood bonding they have mostly been used for special
purposes, for instance:
SEPIEUROFORTECH
A 1 2/5
Orre-pcrr.!pol?llrrethcnlc.s
The reactive component is an isocyanate. When applied to wood, part of it will
react with ~noistureand be converted to amine. This reacts with the remaining
isocyanate to form il poly-urea resin. Carbon dioxide is formed duiing the curing,
and this will make the adhesive foam if the glueline is thick. Strength and durability
properties are muct~the same as for two-part PU's, or slightly inferior. They are not
gap-filling.
In Gertnany two brands of one-part PU's have been approved for use as a structural
wood adhesive, both indoors and outdoors. They are limited to G 117 spans and 0,3
tltrrr
glueline thickness.
El~ruisioitpo1~~1tzc.r
isocj~nrtcrtes(EPI)
These are also two-pall: adhesives:
Working properties and initial curing is much the same as for PVAc-adhesives, but
when the glueline dries, the isocyanate is released and acts as a crosslinker. Strength
and durability are reported to be very good for these adhesives, and soilie brands
are approved by the American Institute of Timber Construction as exterior grade
adhesives for sln~cturalwood bonding. Others have been found to be less durable
(Yoshida 1986).
Within each of these four adhesive types there are brands of very difFerent
properties, Some of [hem may be suitable its structural wood adhesives, and some
are definitely not. The problem is that at present there are no short-term approval
tests to identify the suitnble brimds.
Property
Epoxy
Two-part PU
One-part PU
EPI
Weather rcsistnncc
'I
'I
Heal rcsistilncc
);
I?
'I
Water rcsistancc
'?
'1
'?
Creep
'I
'I
,4
Toughness
i-
Gapfilling
i-
i-
-+
+
Adhesion
Easy to
usc
Curing time
iW
Prr~-~lllel
(sirkw~ys)
joiitts
Here the glue must match the shear strength parallel and the tensile strength
perpe~ldicularto the grain direction of the timber. Approved adhesives will nialcli
these requirements without problems. Swelling and shrinking stresses wilI be small,
since all the members are in line with each other.
End-to-ertc?joiitts
111this casc the adhesive should match the tensile strength of the tirnber in the grain
direction. Structural butt end jointing of timber, which irnplies that the adhesive
must lnatcfl the tensile strength of the timber, is not possible wit11 current
techniques. Instead, the jointing is carried out in such a way that tensile stresses in
the litember are transformed to sliear stresses in tile gluelines. This may be done in
various ways, but the method used irtdustrially is fingerjointing. In this joint the
combined shear strength of' all the finger areas should ideally match the tensile
s~rengthof the cross-section of' the member. Since the shear strength is only 1/10
of the tensile strength, the glueline area should be approxi~nately10 tirnes the crosssectiori area. Again members are in line with each other, minimising swelling and
shrinking problems.
CI-ossv-i~ise
joirltiilg
In this case the adhesive must match the shear strength parallel and the transverse
tensile strength of the wood, which is not a problem. The jointed members will,
however, be at (more or less) right angles to each other, and this can cause great
stresses in the gluelines due to rnoisture movement of the wood. Such gluing is,
therefore, lnostly limited to two cases:
the ~nembersto be jointed are so thin that they will restrain tlie movement
of each other (fairly) effectively e.g. in plywood, OSB, particle board,
fibreboard,
restrained members like plywood and particle board are glued to solid wood
~nemberswhich are fairly narrow e.g. in I-beilrrrs, box beams, gusset joints.
In such products the sniail lengthwise movement of the solid wood members will
match approximately with the restrained movement of the woodbased panel.
Stresses along the glueline are therefore rattler small, but they [nay be high across
the glueline if the ruernbers are wide, or the moisture fluctuations great. This may
produce fatigue failure in the joint with time.
A 12/7
speed up curing,
BoncIi~tgo j chet~ticcrflj~
treated wood
Clle~nicaltreatment may be used to protect wood against decay, or to make it fireresistant or water-repellarlt. If the members are used in glulam production
afterwards, they will have to be planed before gluing. This requires a certain
penetration of the chemical, or n~ostof it will be removed by the planing.
Such treatment of tiiaber may affect the gluing properties, dependant on the type
of treatment. As a nlle the treat~nent/adliesive-combination should be tried out
beforehand. The following guidelines may be applied:
creosote and other oilbased treatments. Gluing is difficult but possible with
PRF and polyurethane-adhesives. Gluing firs1 and impregnating afterwards
is recornmended.
References
CIB WSOIRILEM 71-PSL (1987). Prcdiction of service life of building matcrinls and components.
CIB-publication 96.
Ilcdlund, B. (1987). Weelhcr-cxposure of glued laminated blanks for windows (in Swedish). SPrapport 1987:40. Stateris Provninpsnnstall, Borb, Sweden.
Selbo, M.L.(1965). Pcrfor~nanccof melamine adhesives in various exposures. Forest Prod. J. 15 (12).
1965, p.475.
Yoshidn, H. (1986). Bond durability of water-based polymer-isocyanate adhesives (API-resins) for
wood. (Japanese with English summary), J. Jap. Wood Res. Soc. 37-(6) 1986, p.432.
Objective
14. Hart1
ZiviIingenieur riir
Bauwesen
Prerequisite
A4
Summary
Information is provided based on the lmowledge of the essential colnponents and
natural properties of timber affecting its behaviour when exposed to fire, that is the
cl~elnicaland physical changes under the influence of fire, are explained.
Introduction
There is no simple way of expressing the behaviour of a matet-ial with respect to
fire. There are two distinct phases to a fire, the developing phase and the fully
developed phase and a materials performance has to be categorised in respect of
those two conditions. The developing phase incorporates a number of separate
phenomena, the combustibility of the material, the ease of ignition, the speed of the
spread of firefflame across its surface and the rate at which heat is released.
The fully developed phase represents the post ilasll over conditions where all
combustible materials become involved in the fire. The desirable properties are the
ability to continue to carry load to contain the fire within the zone of' origin without
the escape of flames or hot gases and without conducting excessive heat to the
unexposed face that ]nay lead indirectly to fire being transmitted to adjacent areas.
The ability to resist the fully developed fire is known universally as the fire
resistance but in general terms this can only relate to an element of construction
rather than to a material. The performance of even a simple eiernent such as a
column or a beam is dependent upon such Faclors as the end conditions and the
magnitude and distribution of any loading.
Considering the behaviour of wood-based materials and solid timber when subjected
to the developing fire, wood-based malerials will burn and are rherefore rated as
combustible. Whilst the coznbustible nat~iremay be rnodified by the use of coatings
or impregnation with flamelfire retarding salts, none of these can render timber, or
its related products, non-combus~ible,albeit higher levels of energy may be needed
to cause it to bum. Solid timber is not readily ignited and there are very few
recorded cases where timber will have been the first material to be ignited. Solid
limber will require surface temperatures well in excess of 400 "C if the material is
to ignile in the medium to short term without the pressure of a pilot flame. Even
when a pilot flame is present the surface temperature will have to be in excess of
300 T for significant time before ignition occurs. Timber tends to be used as the
basis against which other materials are adjudged as timber is not considered Lo
represent an unacceptable ignition risk in most environments. The actual values are
related to the density, species, moisture content and shapefsection factor.
Timber, being combustible will spread fire across its surface, the phenomena being
a number of ignitions each triggering an adjacent ignition. As timber is not readily
STEP/BUROFORTECI~I- an initiative under tile EU Comctk Progrumtne
A1311
ignitable the speed at which fame will spread across its suri'ilce is also reasonable
for a combustible material. Nearly all countries will permit the use of untreated
timber for low risk applications. The raie at which timber releases heat is obviotisly
very dependent upon the nature of the initial heating regime, the availabililiy of
oxygen and the density, shape and size the timber member being located. As wit11
all of the above properties, European countries each developed their own bencti
scale tests for establishing the fundalnenlal performance of materials against these
categories and as such there is no pan-European way of expressing the performance
of timber against tliesc developing fire conditions. All coi~ntriesallow the use of
timber in inany applications, indicating that its bchaviour is not considered to be
particularly hazardous.
When timber or wood-based materials are exposed to a fi~llydeveloped Sire they
exhibit tiiany desirable characterislics. Whilst the exposed surfaces will ignite when
the heat flux becomes great enough, and initially bum fairly vigorously it soon
builds up a layer of insulating charcoal, see Figure 1. As wood is a poor conductor
of Ileal there is very little transmission of heat into ren~ainingunburnt material. This
has rnany benefits.
i r e I
in tile case of solid timber the core section remains cool only a short distance
behind the burning zone. As a consequence the temperature or the residual section
is cool and the construction does not have to accommodate darnnging thermal
expansions. Also, because the core retilains cool, all of the cold slate physical
properties of the timber are retained and any loss of loadbearing capacity is as a
result of reduced cross-section, rather than a change in thc physicaI poperties. When
wood-based slieet tilaterials are used in the construction of seperating elemnetits, both
as structural riie~ubersand linings, the low thennal conductivity prevents the heat
from being easily transmitted from the hot lo the cold face of the construction.
The fully developed fire is chari~cterisedin tests by tile standard temperature-time
curve given in IS0 834 (see Figure 2 ) or the equiilalent nalional standard. The
relevant criteria are given as:
Critical deflection and rates of deflection are norrnally given as criteria for
loadbearing capacity. The integrity is generally evaluated by means OF the
development of gaps of excessive size (set nationaily) or the ignition of a cotton
fibre pad. Insulation is deemed to be compromised if a mean temperature rise of
I40 "C is experienced or a rnaxirnum rise of I80 "C is exceeded.
STEPIELJROFORTECII - an initiative under tllc EU Cornell Progrdmmc
ROD
Timber. will only lose loadbearing capacity when the cross-section of the non-fire
damaged/residual section is reduced to the size wllere the stress in the section as a
result of' the applied load is in excess of the strength of the limber.
Timber-based materials will not fissure or shrink such that gaps Inay develop until
the timber is so thin that burn-through is close and the rise in temperature will only
exceed the criteria when tile thin, heat affected zone reacl~esthe outer face and
again burn-through will soon follow. Timber is highly predictable when exposed to
the rully developed fire conditions.
Fundamentals
Timber and wood-based materials consist ~nainlyof cellulose and lignin, which
the~nselvesare formed from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are therefore
combustible and it is alnlost inipossibie to make the112 incombustible. But complete
incombustibility is only necessary in very rare specific cases.
Ii!j7ueitccs on the fire be1tnviou1The form, surface, dlape and the size of the cross-section of timber and wood-bused
elen7ents are of great influence upon tl~eirfire behaviour.
Combus~ibilityis dependent on the surface/volume-ratio. The grealer this is the
inore easily ignition starts and the raster the flames spread. Many sharp corners and
coarse surfaces enlarge this ratio and result in a less favourable fire bchaviour.
Cracks and shdies also increase the effects of fire. Tllus thc charring rate of glued
laminated timber, which is rnostly free of shltkes and cracks, is lower than for solid
timbcr.
The iiine taken for wood to ignite and for con~bustionto spread is dependent on the
(oven dry) density. Thus different lcinds of wood behave differently under the
influence of fire. The relationship between density and the rate of combt~stionis
shown in Figure 3.
i r e3
The relationship between density and ignition is similar: the higher the density the
longer it will talcc for the wood to ignite.
The moisture content ol' timber is another i~iiporlantfactor inri~~ericing
the bchaviour
of timber wlien exposed to llre, 111 timber structures the rtloisture content is mostly
between 8% and 15%. This inearis that for each tonne of wood about 50 to 150 kg
of water have to evaporate before the wood will burn. The innucnce of the moisture
content upon the charring rate need not be taken into account because of the low
variation in tlie equilibturn moisture content.
loo -
e4
The thermal conductivity of charcoal is only about one sixth that of pure solid
timber. The layer of charcoal tlterefore acts as an insulant and tile decomposition
of the deeper internal zones of tile remaining cross-section is tlius greatly retarded.
Due to this effect and because of the low hear conductivity of tinlber tlle
temperature in the iniddle of the cross-section is much lower tllnn on the surface.
For this reason the fire resistance of timber is mucl~higher than genenliy supposed.
The following Figure 5 shows beams and columns exposed to fire from 3 and 4
sides.
Figure 5
Benms a11d colruntir btifore mid crfier tile exposure lo,fire. ( a ) rerrrflinirrg crosssecfio~l,
(12) clmrrecl titnbe,; fc) jire barriers.
P,
A 1 315
Material
Solid softwood
Glired laa~inatedsof'twood
Wood panels
Solid hardwood
Glued laminated hardwoctd
Oak
Solid hardwood
Gli~ecllatninated hardwoocl
Plywood
Wood-based panels
EC5: Part 1-7,: 3.1
Tc/l?lc I
with
with
with
with
with
with p,
with pI
with p,
wit11 p,
2 290
F;~~II'
2 290 k.g/tr$
= 450 kg/rrr\~~ld ti, = 20 rrrrrr
= 450 kSht13i d ti, = 20 U I I I I
For other densities and thicknesses of wood aticl wood-based panels the charring
rate sliot~ldbe calculated as
Po.p,r
= Po,ds,.o
kp
(1)
where
For closely packed inultiple layers the charring rate may be calculaled hased on tlic
total thickness.
in trtttdttrhr
Material
SolirI softwood
Glued latninated softwood
Solicl harclwood
Glued laminated hardwood
0.67
0.63
0,54
0,54
Tile shape of' the char-line at nrrises should be assumed as circular with a timcdependant radius according to Figure 6. For more coinplicated neth hods of structural
lire design applicable for parametric fire exposure should be used the charring rate
PI,,,, according Annex D in EC4: Part 1-7,.
STEPIEUROFORTECI-I
Example
Calculation ol' residual section rind second moment of area after 60 minute fire for
a glulant beam (softwood, p, 2 290 k,S/rl13, b x h = 200 x 600 I I I I I I ) .
C I V S S - S C Cqf
~ ~SIUICIIII
O I I bcanr.
Cnse I
'
5583
12
= 1,68
. 10'
rm4
cnse 2
p = 0,64 /anr/rrlirr
[I,.,,,,, = 60 . 0,64 = 38,4 nrnr
Charring depth
radius at arrises r = 30,O nmt (see Figure 6)
Residual cross-section area
A, = (200 - 76.8) (600 - 38.4) - 0,5 . 30' (4 - n) = 68803 nrtrl'
Second moment of area
Reference
ICollmann. F.F.Pand Calk. W.A. (1968), Principles of wood science and ~cchnoiogy.Volume 1, Solid
Wood. Springer Bcrlin, I-lcidclbcrg, Gcrmnny, 502 pp. ISBN 0387042070.
STEPIEUROFORTECN
A 1317
Objectives
To set out guidelines relating to the use of timber slructural members in a range
of climatic conditions and limiting the need for preservative treatment withoul
compromising the load-bearing integrity and durability of the timber or wood-based
product.
Prerequisite
A 15 Durability - Preservative treatment
Summary
This lecture begins with an examination of the various conditions which Rvour
biological attack by fungi or wood-boring insects (including termites). Particular
attention is given to the influence of the geographical zone and its corresponding
climate. Practical examples are provided which identify building details to avoid,
and forms of construction which are recommended.
Introduction
Timber is susceptible to biological attaclc whereas metal components may corrode.
Biological attack is of two main types:
F~cngalntrnck
This occurs in timber which has a high moisture content, generally between 20%
and 30%. Fungi need the presence of water and oxygen to develop and the
optimum moisture content varies according to the particular fungal species. The
presence of fungal attack can seriously reduce the load-bearing capacity of timber
structures. The loss of strength may be variable, depending on type of fungus and
the extent of attack. Significant strength loss may be present, even in cases where
the appearance of the timber remains largely unchanged.
Where possible, the design of the building should minimise the situations in which
structurnl timbers are sub-jected to 11jg11 rnojslure levels which allow fungal decay,
Some fungi, such as Lenzites sepiaria, can survive through dry periods and continue
their attack in timbers which are subject to intermittent wetting. Therefore, design
should provide conditions which:
Irlsect nffrrck
This is encouraged by warm conditions which favour their development and
reproduction. Termites are particularly aggressive to timber, and are only active in
the warmer parts of Europe. Their presence and activity decreases towards the
STEP/EUROFORTECH - an ini~iativcundcr Ihc EU Comcll Propramnic
A1411
Northern parts of Europe. The presence of central heating within buildings may
encourage the activity and development of insects by maintaining moderate
teniperatnres during the coldcr parts of the year. Insect larvae may die if subjected
to low temperatures. The development of cracks or splits in preservative treated
timber which penetrate through the outer treated layer may provide sites for egg
laying or the initiation of attack, significantly reducing the value of the treatment.
The natural durability of different limber species in relation Lo insect attack is
variable. In most timbers, the heartwood is normally durable, but the heartwood OF
different timber species shows various levels of resistance to termite attack. The
sapwood region may or may not be durable depending upon the timber species and
the insect type. The sapwood of all timbers is considered susceptible to termite
attack. EN 350-2 "Natilral durability of solid wood - Part 2: Guide to natural
durability and treatability of selected wood species of importance in Europe" gives
an indication of the durability to insect attack for comrnon timber species (Table I).
In plywood construction, the natural durability may be enl-ranced by the presence
of chemicals associated with modein synthetic resin aclhesives.
Cornmerci:~l name
Fir, Norway Spruce
Larch. Douglas Fir, Maritirno Pine
Scots Pine, Redwood
Oalc, Sweet Chestnut
European Beech, Popl:ir
Tcrble I
Hvlotrunes
SH
S
S
nla
n/a
Anobiurn
SH
S
S
S
S
Termite
S
S
S
M
S
in service class 2.
In EN 335-1, five hazard classes are defined with respect lo the risk of biological
attacks:
STEP/EUROFORTECI.I - an initiative under [lie EU Cornet1 Programme
Hcrznrd c1rrs.s 3, situation in which tiniber or wood-based product is not covered and
not iu contact witli the ground. It is either continually exposed to the weather or is
protected from (lie weather but subject to Srequent wetting;
Ncrznrd clc1.u 4, situation in which timber or wood-based procluc~is in contact witli
the groutid or- fresh water ai~dlhus is pennanentfy exposed to wetring;
Nuznrfi cl~iss5, situation in which timber or wood-based product is permanently
exposed to salt water.
to
The examination of these classes shows that service and hazard classes I ~~clate
siniilar conditions as service and hazard classes 2. The service class 3, however,
ellibraces hazard classes 3, 4 and 5, It is in these hazard classes that tlie risk of
biological attack is tnost severe and requires greatest attenriorl to detail in the
building design in order to reduce the conditions of timber exposure to those of the
lowest hazard class. Timber in classes I and 2 may only require tnoderate or low
levels of natural durability, or reli~ti~ely
light preservative treatments to ensure
satisfactory long-term performance.
The risk of attack in hazard classes 4 or 5 excludes the use of glulam where this
relies on preservative treatment to tile laminations before gluing and assembly, as
tile subsequent planing necessary to produce a fiat surracc would remove part of the
most effectively treated outer zones. 111 heartwood regions, where penetration is
Iirnited, this may expose portions of untreated core. Suitable supplementary
treatnient is necessary.
In the liquid stale, water progression in timber is primarily parallel to the grain.
This rnust be taken I I I ~ Oaccount by protecting the ends, either by keeping the timber
out of situations wliere water can rise by capillary action or by treating the end
grain in such a way as to limit further rnoistirre intake, for exan~pleby applying
rcsins or epoxides.
STEPIEUROFORTECI-1- nn
initi:~tiveu~lclcrthc
EU
Comctl Programme
Examples of some situations which may result in high moisture contents in timber
include:
Moisture will easily penetrate timber placed in warm, damp air, for example
in poorly ventilated attics where ventilation shafts emerge.
Direct wetting will occur in titnber in ground contact, in door and window
fiarties and in areas, where wind driven snow may collect. Consideration
should be given to the risk of direct wetting in rooms where water is laid on,
such as showers, bathroom, kitcl~ensetc. where there may be an overflow or
splashing.
Water may become trapped bettind waterproof barriers in walls, in the ground
or in mechanical joints, preventing its natural elimination by evaporation.
Arrangements sliould be made to avoid the accumulation of water close to
metal plates.
Wetting risks are increased during storage on site and building erection prior
to rooting. Timber stocks should be covered arid only be left on the site for
the 111inirnum tiit~e necessary for erection, and one weelc at the most,
especially in bad weather.
Qnra
liigrrre 2
:in
A 1 415
For stirfaces which can develop significant cracks or splits, and exposed untreated
core surfaces, pcriodic maintenance treatment is required. Consideration [nust be
given to the provision of free access to the timber surfaces. If this is not possible,
a more intense preservative treatment should be specified, which penetrates to a
depth greatcr than that to which subsequent cracks are likely to develop. This
reduces the risk of the exposure of an unprotected timber core to insect atlack.
Where a specific risk of attack by subterranean termiles is present, in addition to
noimal protection by natural durability of wood or preservative treatment, the use
of mechanical barriers between thc ground and thc timber may provide useful
protection. This type OF termite produces a mud-covered gallery between the termite
colony in the ground and the lirnber conlponents which it attacks. This protection
may consists of a preservative treatment of the ground or a mecllanicat barrier. Thc
use of iueclianical barrier- or caps enhances the visibility of the gallery if it is
developed to a sufficient size to bridge tile barrier, Routine maintenance inspections
to detect and remove the presence of the galleries is necessary and corisideration
should be given to the access ability and visibility of surfaces linking the timber
component to ground level,
None
None
Fe/Zn 25c"
Dolts
Norle
FefZn 12c
FclZn 25c"
Staples
Fe/Zn IZc
FeEn12c
Stainlesssteel
FelZ11 12c
Fe/Zn l2c
Stainless steel
None
Fe/Zn 12c
FelZn 25c"
None
None
Fe/Zn 25c"
tjittt
~nrtt
up to 5
'I For especially corrosive conditions consideration sliould bc given to Fe/Zn 40, hot dip
coating or stainIess steel.
EC5: Pan 1
Figtur 3
Exfer-tml colll~nits
These columns are considered to be in either hazard class 2 or in hazard class 3
according to the measures required. The moisture risk is, in fact, very limited if the
column is far from the ground. If no precautions are taken, the columns must be
considered in liazard class 4,
The base of columns of sheltered but. unenclosed structures must be set in place in
such a inanner as to ensure efficient ventilation and to avoid any entry of water by
capillary. The height of the timber above the ground varies with the climate and the
risk of accumulated debris at that spot (see Figure 4). The post can be placed on a
low wall but, in this case, the boitom end of the post must be treated to avoid the
entry of water by capillarity; for example using epoxidc resin, r-ubber paint or
asphalt.
Figtrre 4
E.~orl1pleof bnse
fflexterior colrcntrrs.
Edge beauts
These lnelnbers are usually considered to be in hazard class 4. They are exposed
outdoors to rain and sun and indoors to an atmosphere whicl~is often hot and
damp. The classification can be improved by providing a ventilated surface
covering, e.g. by a protruding roof, and by ensuring that the external coating is
more permeable to water vapour tl~nnthe inner coating (see Figure 5).
STEI:I)/EUROFORTECH
- an initiative undcr the EU Comcll Programme
A 1417
e5
Edge beans detailing for limiter1 pcnetmtiorr of ulater; left: eaves, right: ( a )
itapour pernleai~lrand water-figltffi1t11, (b) vapoltr-tight filnl.
Figure 6
Concluding summary
If it is not possible to use durable naturally heartwood , the most important
point for preservation against insect attack is to assure a continuous barrier
with a preservative treatment.
-
Objectives
To explain the need for preservative treatment and to introduce the different types
of treatment. To outline the specification of a preservative treatment for timber and
wood-based panels.
Prerequisite
A4
Summary
Fungi and insects are tlie two main biological agents responsible for till~ber
degradation it1 service. Tllerefore, their life cycles and types of action are
summarized. The concept of natural durability is explained and tile factors
influencing this timber properly are outlined. Different wood species have different
natural durability, thus the concept o i durability classes emerges and is explained.
Preservative treatments can be used to avoid timber degradation and the types of
preservatives and methods of treatment are described. The specification of a
preservative treatment for timber and wood-based panels is outlined. Future
perspectives in timber preservation are also discussed.
Introduction
Under ideal conditions timber can be in use for centuries without significant
biological deterioration. However, if conditions are not ideal, many widely used
species need a preservative treatment to be protected froin the biological agencies
responsible for timber degradation, mainly fungi and insects.
Prese~vativetreatments are cllernical treatments where specially formulated products
containing biocides (fungicides andtor insecticides) are incorporated into Lhe timber
in order to upgrade its durability against the biological attacks. These preservative
treatments are normally applied to the timber before use; however they can also be
applied to timber in service.
Timber preservation is indeed a major issue. For example, this was demonstrated
by the results of a survey carried out in 1980 involving Inore than two hundred
Swiss architects (Sell et al., 1982), where, in opposition to the high rating of timber
when compared with other building materials in terms of aesthetics, durability was
clearly the major shortcoming of this material. I1 is obvious that it is very difficult
to increase the use of structural timber witllout taking care that the durability of lhe
material is assured during its intended life.
When a designer proposes a timber structure, a doubt occurs frequently on whether
11e should specify for a preservative treatment for the timber and, iF so, what type
of treatment and preservative should he reqirest. The answers to these questions are
not always simple, as a certain number of inter-related factors should be taken into
itccount. EC5 states these factors in a general way and also states that "the
environmental conditions slzall be esti~natedat the design stage to assess their
significance in relation lo durability and to enable adequate provisions lo be made
Tor protection of the products". Moreover, with respect to tlie resistance to
STEP/EUROFORTECI-I- on inilialive under the EU Comclt Progrnm~rle
A1511
biological organisms, it requests that "timber and wood-based materials shall either
have adequate natural durability in accordance with EN 350-2 for the particular
hazard class (defined in EN 335-1 to 3), or be given a preservative treatment
selected in accordance with EN 351-1 and EN 460".
111 this lecture a background summary of durability and preservation of timber is
given. The information will be linked to the package of European Sti~ndards(EN
Standards) about this subject, already published by the European Committee for
Starldardization (CEN) or in final phase of elaboration by the Tectinicai Co~nmiftee
CENtTC 38 - "Durability of wood and wood-based products". These documents will
apply in Europe in the near future and will help designers to answer tlie questions
formulated above.
Flr~zgi
Taking into account the effect of their action, two types of fungi can be
distinguished: wood-destroying fungi and wood-disfiguring fungi. The attack of the
latter have nor~naHyno significant effect on the mec11anic;il resistance of timber as
they only depreciate the aestlietic appearance of the material, without destruction
of the cell wall. I-Iowever, este~isivedegradation of decorative coatings can occur
due to the action of these fungi that include mould and blue stain fungi.
--.
On the other hand, wood-destroying fungi affect tlie mechanical resistance of timber
and are of greater interest within the scope of this lecture. These fungi auaclr timber
by rtieans of an enzymatic action that results in rot and they include the
Basidiomycete wood-rotting fungi responsible for brown or white rot - so called due
to the coiouration given to the timber attacked - and the soft rot fungi, which are
grouped together on the basis of their ability to f o ~ mcavities in the wood cell wall,
that leads to a surface softening of the timber and eventually to rot in depth. For
the growth of wood-rotting fungi a moisture content higher than 20% is needed.
I~lsects
Insects attack timber by opening tunnels which sometimes arc packed with bore
dust. The two main types of insects causing tlie deterioration of timber are beetles
(Coleoptem) and termites (1.soptem).
Beetles are insects with a larvae cycle. The flying insects lay their eggs in cracks,
splits, rough surfaces of timber or wood pores and, the resulting larvae penetrate the
tiinber by boring tunnels as they develop. This is the dest~uctivestage of the life
cycle; the adult insect will complete it after metamorphosis and the opening of tfle
exit I~ole,which will probably be the only visible sign of the attack on the tirnber
surface. There are several species of wood-boring beetles throughout Europe; the
most colninon are the House Longhorn beetle (Hylotrupes I~ujirlrrs),the Common
Furniture beetle (Alrobiiurl pl~ncintiwi), the Death Watch beetle (Xestobirrttt
nfofovillosu~~)
and the Powder Post beetle (Lycins brr/~~tieus).
Although only
attacking softwood, the House Longhorn beetle is by far the most damaging and it
can cause Failure in structural timber, particularly when the sapwood content is
high. Normally, beetles attack dry timber but they can tolerate higher values or
moisture content.
STEPIEUROFORTECI.1-
at1
--
T e r ~ n i ~ eare
s social insects tl~atbuild their nests in contact with the ground and
forage over a distance for their food, building tunnels between their nests and the
source of: timber, which should have moisture content conditions similar to those
referred to for wood-destroying fungi (greater than 20%). This description applies
only to the most important species found in Europe, the subterranean termites,
namely Reticulitennes lucifugus and Reticulitermes santonensis.
Mnrine borcra
In European rnarine waters the most common borers are the shjpworn~(Teredo spp.)
and the gribble (Limnoria spp.). The stlipworm is a bivalve mollusc with larvae that
settle on tilnber where they lodge by boring an extensive network of holes. The
gribble is a small shrimp-like crustacean that bores into the timber surface, where
it lives, making numerous side burrows and causing erosion on marine tirnber
structures.
1IL
Common Furnilurc
bcctlc
I R 1 1 0 O
Tcrmitcs
R Risk; I
TnDIe I
R
O
O
O
R
R
A 15/3
However, natural durabiIity tests have been performed for a long tirne on different
tiri~berspecies all over the world. The infonnation resulting from those Lests was
gathered in EN 350-2 "Durability of wood and wood-based products. Natural
durability of solid wood - Part 2: Guide to natural durability and treatability of
selected wood species of importance in Europe", where, whenever possible, the
durability classes defined in EN 350-1 are assigned to around 100 rilnber species,
including softwoods and hardwoods. The use of this infortnation should be made,
however with care, taking into account the criteria set in EN 350-2. For instance,
the natural durability class assigned for resistance to Lirr~galattack, refers only to the
heartwood, as sapwood is considered not durable for all tiniiber species (note that
~ t hardwoods is lower than in softwoods).
sapwood c o n t e ~ in
Trentcibili~
The effectiveness of a preservalive treatment depends mainly on the amount of
preservative that is absorbed by the timber and the depth to which it penetrates,
although factors like distribution of preservative iiiay also pIay an impostant role in
tllc effectiveness. The ease of titnber impregnation is naturally related to the type
of product used and to the tiiethod of treatment adopted but it depends luainly on
the degree of permeability and the moisture corltent of the timber. EN 350-2 also
includes, for the tirnber species listed, an indicatior~ of the corresponding
treatability, based on a four classes system (treatability classes). From this
infonnation, it becornes clear that sapwood is much easier to impregnate than
heartwood; in the end, it is quite possible that the durability of the sapwood of a
certain tilnber species sub.jected to a proper preservative treatlilent becomes higher
than the natural durability of the heartwood OF that same species.
Timber preservatives
Timber preservatives are chemical products intended to increase tiriiber's resistance
to the attack of biological agencies. They have usually been classified into three
major types: tar oil preservatives, organic solvent preservatives and water borne
preservatives. However, aqueous emulsion systerns are also now well established
in timber preservation.
Tar oil preservatives were the first to be used to treat timber industrially and include
a set of different products obtained by distillation of coal tar; the most important
products of this group are creosote and the anthracene oils. Due to its odour,
difficulty to over-painting and general eco-toxicological ch~?racteristics,rnost
countries have now restricted the use of this type of preservative to exterior works
(e.g. transmission poles, railway sleepers) and immersed timbers.
Orgarlic solvent preservatives are solutions of biocides (fungicides and/or
insecticides) on a non-polar organic solvent that can be volatile or non-volatile.
Products using a volatile solvent (e.g. white spirit) are the i~lostcornmon and can
be described generally as light organic solvent preservatives (LOSP) or paintable
preservatives; additives like water repellents and colouring agents rnay also be
included. The lcey features of these products are the ready penetration on timber
even when applied by superficial methods (edgebrushing, dipping) and the absence
of dimensional changes of the timber. These products are widely used in joinery
and cladding.
Water borne preservatives are basically constituted by miner111 salts dissolved in
water. The most common products belong to the group of preservatives known
generally as "chromated copper". Amongst this group are chromated copper arsenate
(CCA), chroitlated copper borate (CCB) and chrornated copper silicafluoride (CFK).
STEPIEUROFORTECI-I- on inilioiivc undcr thc EU Comcit Programrile
These products are nonnafly forced deep into timber, using pressure and the
treatment requires tIie drying of the timber after treatment. Other water borne
products like disodium octaborate tetrahydrate and sodiu~nfluoride are also used but
their application is mainly by diffusion in green timber. Water borne preservative
products are probably the most widely used in timber structures. Timber adequately
treated with CCA is suitable for internal or external use and in situations where the
risk of attack is high. Corrosion of inetal devices in contact with CCA treated
timber car1 occur - especially if the moisture content of timber is high - and
adequate protection should be provided.
Lastly, it is important to point out that there are several European Standards (EN
Standards) already published concerning the test methods for the evaluation of the
effectiveness of preservative products. Actually, two EN Standards about
preservative products with special interest for this lecture are in preparation: EN
351-1 "Durability of wood and wood-based products, Preservative-treated solid
wood - Part I : Classification of preservative penetration and retention", prEN 599
"Durability of wood and wood-based products. Performance of preventive wood
preservatives as determined by biological tests - Part 1 : Specification according lo
hazard classes" and prEN 599-2 "Id. - Part 2: Classification and labelling".
A 1515
In orcier to deal with this problem, some basic data is still missing. They concern
the assessment of the risk of attack by biological agencies of il certain timber piece
in a specific situation and From this emerges the concept of hazard classes. EN 3351 "Durability of wood and wood-based products. Definition of hazard classes of
biological attack - Part 1: General" establishes five hazard classes for timber and
wood-based products and indicates the biological agencies relevant to each situation.
EN 335-2 "Id. Part 2: Application to solid wood" defines those classes for timber
and includes, in an informative Annex, a decision-making sequence to help
designers to select a suitable titnber species for a specific use.
not he ;~cliicvcd
by prcscrvi~tivc
tr~atment
I I
be nchievcd
by prescrvnlivc
~rentntvnc
prcsewalivc (5)i~nd
/
trcatmcnt
2) Scc EN 350-2
I ) Scc EN 335-1 tmd figure A.2 of EN 335-2
5) Scc prEN 599.1
3) Scc EN 460
4) See EN 35 1-1
Figure I
Gertelal cleci.sion-r~~nkilzirtg
seqrtertcc for selectio~to f tit~thcrnppt.opriate to the
Irazard cluss of use Urotri EN 335-2).
Figure 1 shows this decision sequence adapted from EN 335-1; it should be noted
that all standards listed in this figure have already been referred to previously in
STEPIEUROFORTECI-I- an initintivc t~nderthc EU Comctt Progrnrnme
It is important to emphasize that the majority of the infonliotion given so far also
applies to wood-based panels. The main difference is related to the natural
durability of these products, wliich depends less on the species than in the case of
timber; in fact some additional factors Iilce thickness of particles and plies, fibre
preparation, binder characteristics and quantity can also contribute to durability.
Additionally, the equilibrium moisture content of a wood-based panel in a given
environment, usually differs from that attained by timber of the same species from
tvhicli they are ~nade.
Taking this into account, prEN 335-3 "Durability of wood and wood-based
products. Definition of hazard classes of biological attaclc - Part 3: Application to
wood-based pal-rels" defines, siil~ilarlyto Part 2 for timber, different hazard classes
for plywood, particleboards, fibreboards, and cement-bonded particleboards, the
latter being considered to have an insignificant risk of attack in all hazard classes.
Furtliern~ore,prEN 335-3 includes art informative Annex giving guidance on the
suitability of different types of wood-based panels (characterized by appropriate EN
Standards relating to tlie products) for use in tlie hazard classes. It is important to
note that prEN 335-3 applies to non-coated panels, though, in timber structures, this
will be the common situation.
The natural durability of woad-based panels can also be increased by a preservative
treat~nent.In this case, the preservative products used are normally organic solvents
and the treatment is usually rnaclc, or by brushing, or incorporating a preservative
product in the binder or in the plies during the fabrication. This latter method
assures a greater protection than tlie first. Some innovative metllods of treatment
like vapour boron treatment have, in recent years, shown promising features for the
treatment of wood-based panels.
A1517
Most countries now have regulations regarding timber preservatives and Enany of
tbern do not allow the use of certain active ingredients such as dieldrin. TraditionaI
organic biocides, like creosote, pentachlorophenol or lindane are partially rest icted
as well as the inost comrnonly used water-borne copper-chrome-arsenic
forrnulntions.
Nowadays, several products, either new or rediscovered, are already being
introduced into the market and these include: borates and copper naphthenates or
organic and organometailic systems like isothiazoles, chlorotalonil, thiazoles and
r
triazoles.
Environmental health and safety requirements point lo the use OF preservatives that
cornpty with the following characteristics: the preservative should be non-toxic lo
hurnans and to the environment or at least be rendered non-toxic rviten fixed in the
limber; the treatment should be carried out when the timber is in its Final shape in
order to minimize treated timber waste; plant operations should exclude e~tlission
of toxicants and there should be no soil, air or waterway contamination; and
redundant preservative treated timber should be recycled or disposed of with
minimal environr~lentaldisruption.
Reference
Sell J. et al. (1982). I-folz in1 Bauwescn. Report No. 210, Swiss Federal h h o r a ~ o r yfor Maierials
'Testing and Research (EMPA), Dllhendorf, Switzerland.
S'l'EP/EUROFORTECM
Programme
Objectives
To give a global overview of the major potential environmental i~npactsof timber,
in all stages of the life cycle (from "cradle to grave"). To discuss the method for
assessment of environmental impact.
Summary
The environmental aspects of building materials, and thus of timber, are gaining
more weight ns selection criteria for application in constructions. As this is a
relatively new research area, methods for assessment of the environmental impact
of wood are under develop~nenr(e.g. Life cycle assessment). The environmental
aspects of timber in general are regarded as positive, as conipared to otlter buildirlg
materials, the main reasons being that
the positive effect on the Global Warming or Greenliouse Effect of the earth,
by reducing the CO, level during production in forests and by replacement
of fossil fuel by wood in the waste stage,
The areas that need more environmentally friendly alternatives are gluing, wood
preservation and coating. Emission of organic voIatile compounds (e.g.
forinaldehyde, hydrocarbons) froni glues and paints and emission of components
fi-orn preservatively treated tirnber are the major potential environmental risk
factors.
Introduction
Environmenlal aspects have become, along with tecflnical and econornic aspects,
increasingly important in the evaluation of products. Environmenlal aspects have
gained inore and more attention in legislation, product approvals, standardization,
and in the consumers' choices and preferences. Environmental labelling systems are
increasing and different steering measures are being introduced in order to reduce
the overexploitation of nntural resources and to avoid pollution and environtnental
risks.
A1611
In this paper, environmental aspects of timber and wood products are discussed
excluding pulp and paper. Wood products are mainly used for building and
construction, for packaging and for furniture. Previously few LCA studies have
been made for wood products. The environmenial assessment of wood products
should include harvesting and transport of wood raw inaterial, industrial
m a ~ ~ u h c l u rofe the product, transport to the site of use, building process or
installation, period of use including maintenance, demoiirion and management of
wastes. For each stage, an input-output calculation shall be made and the total
environmental effect evaluated on the basis of the calculations.
In order to evaluate the environmental impacts of the use of timber one should also
be able to compare those itnpacts with the use of other, alternative ~naterials.The
most important alternatives for timber and wood products are concrete and other
ininerai materials, steel, aluminium and other metallic materials as well as plastic
materials and different co~npositematerials.
It is generally accepted, that wood has environmentally fiivourable properties in
comparison with many substitutes. Tlle most important Fact is that wood is a
renewable raw material. Wood products require relatively little energy and cause
little pollution to the environn~ent.It is 110 longer, however, adequate to refer to
these qualitative statements; the environmer~tal itnpacts IIILIS~ be corlfirined
quantitatively. In the future all producers will have to demonstrate the consumption
of energy and resources as well as the emissions to the environment caused by
their products.
Iir~paclslo be :tsscssed
Industrial
processing
Use of wood
producks
to soil
10 watcr
Demolikion,
waste tnanagernelli
- -
and cold areas. Historically, lnan has destroyed and reduced forests on enormous
areas by clearing land for agriculture and other uses and by forest felling. It has
been estimated that only about one third of the world's original forests still exist.
The rate of deforestation during the last decade has been about 17 million hectares
per year. Deforestation is mainly taking place in tropical forests which disappear by
1,8% per year (Dudley 1992).
Also Europe has seen large scale forest losses in the past, particularly in tlie south
and in the Mediterranean area. Currently, the forest cover is estimated to be around
160 nill lion t~ectares(the European part of the former USSR is not included).
Contrary to the historical generalisation above, the last 100 years have been a
period of net gain due to positive afforestation and conservation legislation. Also
the annual growth of forests per unit area has been increasing thanks to effective
silviculture and forest improvement. The estimated ainount of timber in the
European forests in 1990 was 18,s billion n13. The annual net increment in 1990
was estimated at 584 n13, which is 20% bigger thim the estiniate in 1980. The
annual production of roundwood in Europe in 1990 was nearly 400 rnillion 111"
which is about 1 1 % of the total world production. The annual harvesting in Europe
is 25-30% s~nallerthan tlie annual net increment (FA0 1992).
Deforestation and forestry practices have become items of serious concern in the
international environmental debate. The disappearance of forests is a most serious
ecological threat to the earth and most countries have now bound themselves to
sustainable forestry. Also, the member countries of the International Tropical
Timber Organization (I'lTO) have decided that the international tropical timber
trade should be brought to a basis of sustainable production by tlie year 2000.
Earlier, tlie maintenance of the productive capacity of forests has been emphasized
as the main measure of sustainability. In the future it will be necessary to pay
attention to more complex enviroillnentaI goals such as protection of the forest
ecosystem as a whole, conservation of biodiversity (abundance of species) and
protection of' culrural, recreational and aesthetic values. The United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio in 1992 produced
a number of decisions for the protection of forests. Also, the users of timber have
started to dern;uld guarantees for that the Limber originates from ct sustainable
forest.
Logging changes the ecology and e~ivironnienlalconditions of the forest in many
ways. Nulnerous forest plant and animal species require specific habitats in order
to flourish. In today's Europe there is very little native or old growth forest left.
Native forest areas and special biotopes are, as a rule, excfuded from commercial
exploitation or placed under regulated timber production. The issue of the sufficiency of conservation areas and natural parks has, however, been a subject of
constmt debate.
In Europe, commercial forests are normaily well tended. Confrontations ]lave
ellierged, however, between the forestry practices used, clear cutting in particular,
forest values. The forestry sector has taken heed of the
and noncor~~~mercial
criticism and management practices have been modified Lo be Inore compatible
with natural phenomena. It continues to be a challenge to European forestry to
develop and improve utilization methods that are both efficient and based on tlie
principles of sustained yield accompanied by a keen awareness of environmental
issues. To ensure this, European countries have increased international efforts in
research (e.g. European Forestry Institute establisl~ed in 1992) and created
n~onitoringmechanisms (e.g. Minislerial Conference on the Protection of Forests
in Europe in 1992).
An existing threat to the European forests is the decline in tree health caused by
the inlpact of atmospheric pollution and acid deposition. In particular, northern
conifer forests are sensitive to air pollution. International cooperation is absolutely
necessary in order to reduce pollution.
Solar energy
Fonniltion
of wood
l++<z>-l
Wood prwducls
kWlAtr3
0,7
350
1200
2210
2,4
3,4
3,4
5,4
1,4
0,3
03
2,4
5,9
1 S,O
40,O
52,O
3400
3240
1750
700
1360
1820
46000
24700
1800
141500
Among the different industrial branches, forest product industries itre considered
fairly harmless to the environment. In the sawmifling industry, environmental
impacts are caused by water storage of logs because of dissolving bark and wood
substances. Environn~entalproblems are also caused by noise, smell and handling
of wastes. The most serious environnlental problems have been connected with the
use of toxic blue-stain preservatives (chIorinated phenols in particular), which may
have polluted soil and watercourses. These have nowadays been replaced in most
STEPIEUROFORTECH - nn initiative undcr thc EU Cornctl Progrnillme
A 1615
countries in Europe by less harmful chemicals and the need for their use has
diminished due to efficient kiln drying practices.
Even if the qualitative environmental problems are fairly well known in the
sawmilling industry, much more research is needed in order to find out quantitative
emissions into soil, water and air. Research needs regarding the effects of floating,
water storage of logs and barking, impacts of blue-stain preservatives, emissions
From drying kilns and from energy production, dust, mould spores and volatile
organic emissions from wood should be considered.
In the joinery and furniture industries, problems to the environment are caused by
different additive materials, by hydrocarbon emissions to the air, noise, dust and
waste treatment. The most acute problem is surface finishing. Ciirrenlly used
finishes and lacquers are mainly based on organic solvents. The new European
directives will presume sigriificant reduction of organic solvent emissions, which
will require installation of cleaning eqi~iplnentor change of finishing systems.
Today the general trend is towards water-based and bio-based finishing systems.
In the panel products industry, problems are caused by adhesives that may create
harmful emissions and problem wastes. Problems may also emerge from coatings
and various additive materials.
From the environmental point of' view, one of the problem areas of the forest
industry is tirnber impregnation plants. The most used chemicals have been CCAsalts and creosote oil. These give good durability to timber but are more and more
considered questionable from the environmental point of view. In rnany old plants
soil and sometimes even ground waters havc been contaminated by toxic
preservatives. Due to more advanced technology, better environmental protection
and waste management, the conditions are usually satisfactorily controlled in
modern plants.
A new European standard for treated timber is under preparation. It will include a
whole range of impregnation classes so that the level of protection is better
adjusted to the need of protection for the particular end-use. Development work is
under way in order to find new, environmentaIly more friendly concepts for
preservation.
Transport
Logging and transport of logs require sorne energy (oil, diesel fuel) and cause
disturbance and destruction to the forest nature. Nowadays, vegetable oils may be
used instead of diesel oil in harvesters. The transport of logs and of finished
products accounts for only a s~liallshare, usually only a few percent, of the total
energy consumption and emissions over the life cycle of forest products. For
environmentat calculation, data on the means of transportation, the average
distances and types of Fuels used are needed.
Wood in use
Timber and wood products are generally safe in use and cause very little effect on
the environment during utilization.
In recent years there has been growing interest in the health and safety aspects of
the indoor climate and building materials. Many building materials emit different
volatile organic compounds (VOC) that may cause health problems. The knowledge
of the emissions from different materials is still very poor. Regarding wood-based
STEPIEUROFORTECII - an initiative i~ndcrl l l e EU Comcu Programme
A 1 617
There is a need to pay more attention to the aspects of reuse and waste managernenr already in product development, planning and design phases.
Concluding summary
The use of: renewable wood inaterial will help to reduce reliance on the
remaining resources of nonrenewable materials.
Forest industries cause r.elatively little pollution to the environment and the
irnpact is further diminishing with the n~odemizatioi~
of d ~ eproduction
processes. The industry should, however, monitor the a~nounlsof effluents
and other impacts more closely and colltinue to minimize these impacts.
References
Dudley. N.(1942). Forests in uoublc. A rcview ofthe sraius of [emperate forests worldwidc. WWF.
London, England. 260 p.
F A 0 yearbook 1490 (1992). Forest Products. F A 0 krcstry Series NO. 25. Rome, Italy. 332 p
Objectives
To explain the motives for the control of deformations and to describe liow
deformations in timber structures can be estimated during the building lifetime
within the context of EC5.
Prerequisites
A2 Limit state design and safety format
A19 Creep
Summary
Short- and long-term deformation behaviour of timber as influenced by climatic
conditions and load variations is briefly described. Various reasons for the control
of deformations in timber structures ilre discussed and criteria for serviceability
design are suggested. The formal calculation method proposed in EC5 is presented
and a design example for the serviceability limit slate concludes the lecture.
Introduction
The overall performance of structures sl~ouldsatisfy two basic requirements. The
first is safety, usually expressed in terms of load bearing capacity, and the second
is serviceability, which refers to the ability of the st~ucturalsystem and its elements
to perform satisfactorily in normal use.
It is generally understood that violation of the safety criteria may cause risk to
human life and substantial damage, whereas violation of serviceability requirements
rarely leads to risks for humans and usually involves lower economical losses. On
the other hand, the overwhelming majority of structural defects actually observed
in practice are related to serviceability. For this reason, the question of serviceability
is very important in stn~ctrrraldesign.
A1711
1, occur both for snow loads and imposed loads in most common types of
buildings.
IMk,
'2, irrsr
Figlire 1
6.
Hence, for design purposes, the following deflection components lnay be defined
with reference to Figure 2':
6;
6,
&2
is the deflection of the beam due to variable loads plus any time dependent
deflection due to permanent loads (state 2).
6,,,
is the sagging of the beam relative to the straight line joining the supports.
'
The llotation 6 for deflection is used hcrc in n conceptual sense. In EC5, wllere lt~enotation
u is used. the definitions of deflection components arc siigtiily different from those in
Figure 2.
Figlrr-c 2
Normally both 6, and 6, are fixed wher~the construction work is completed and
do not change during rite lifetime of the structure (unless the permanent load is
changed). The components 6, and ti,,,,however, will vary during the lifetime of the
structure.
The basis of design common to all Eurocodes, specifies different types of load
combinations which may be used for verification in the serviceability limit state.
Two of these, the characteristic (rare) combination and the frequent combination are
of interest in connection with timber structures.
The cltaracrerisric coi~ibir?atiorlis intended for use mainly in those cases where
exceeding the limit state causes significant damage or unacceptable irreversible
deformation. The symbolic definition of this combination is:
~ h e p e ~ u e tcont~irmtion
lt
is intended For use mainly in those cases when exceeding
the limit state is associated with minor damage or ~xversibledeformations. The
symbolic definition of tlie frequent combination is:
Limitation of deformations
The most common reasons for the limitation of defor~nationsin structures are:
-
general utility and appearance (e.g. to limit annoying visual effects and to
avoid sloping floors),
Modern codes like EC5 onIy give functional requirements in general terms stating
that structures sl~ouldbe designed in such a wny that serviceability aspects such as
those listed above are considered. Specific numerical limits of deflection or slope
should in principle be decided by the structural engineer from case to case,
depending on the actual situation and the demands of the client.
STEP/EUROFORTECH- iln initintivc under ihc EU Comclt Programn~e
A 1713
where ti1 is defined in Figure 2 and 6,,,,, is the critical value of the deflection
generally depends on the nature and detailing of
causing damage. The limit 6,.
the elements which could suffer damage. In the absence of more precise information
6,,<,, could be taken as a fixed value, say 30 111111, or a certain fraction of the span
Q, say U300 for a simply supported beam and U150 for a cantilevered beam.
These values are often recommended for beams in floors arid roofs which are in
contact with partitions and non-structural elements.
where 6 , , , is defined in Figure 2 and S,,,, is the acceptable deflection limit with
respect to appearance and general utility. The value of 6,,,., depends on a number
of factors such as type of building, type of structure, whether the beam is visible
or not, tile attitudes of the building users, etc. For instance, the requirements are
normally ii~uchhigher in residential buildings than in industrial buildings. As a
general recommendation the value 6,,j,,.,
= U250 may be given.
The ratio E/G is approxirnateIy 15 for timber and glulam. Tllus ~ r , / l c , , , is roughly
0,15 for Plh = 10 and less than 0.05 for elh = 20. For a concentrated load at the
mid span the correspondi~~g
ratio is about 20% higher.
The long term deflection or creep under sustained loads in timber depends to a
great extent on the climatic conditions, even if the rate of creep in wood at a
constant high moisture content is only siightly I~igherthan jn wood at constant low
moisture content. The most important factor is the intensity of variation of moisture
content in the material. This means that the long term deflection is higher for timber
in outdoor conditions, with rapid and frequent flucluations in relative humidity, than
for timber indoors, where the climate is controlled. For the same reason, timber
with large cross sections exhibits lower creep than timber in small sizes, since the
material in a heavy timber beam has a much slower response to fluctuations in the
surrounding relative humidity. Su~facetreatment leading to increased moisture
resistance at the surfaces has the same effect (Martensson, 1992, Taylor et al 1991).
In addition to Ioad induced deformations, the serviceability of structural systems in
timber is very much influenced by shrinkage and swelling in the material. The
deformations imposed by moisture variations arid moisture gradients can often be
of the same order of magnitude or larger than tl~oseinduced by mechanical loads.
Suc1-1effects have to be controlled by appropriate structural design and detailing and
by adequate moisture control of the timber before it is built into the structural
system. Pure moisture induced deformations will not be considered further in this
lecture.
EC5: Part 1-1: 4.1
Principles for the calculation of deformations are given in the form of application
~ , an ~
rules in EC5. According to these rules, the instantaneous defom~ation~ t under
action should be calculated on the basis of mean values of the appropriate stiffness
moduli, which are specified in standards associated with EC5 for timber and glulam
as well as for those wood based materials which are classified for structural use.
The final deformation ulin including long term deformation is calculated as:
il/in
= f ~ i , ~ rI( +
(6)
where $,/is a creep factor which describes the increase in deformation with time
depending on climatic conditions and the duration of the load considered. Values
of k,,,, are given in EC5 (Table 4.1) for different materials and for different service
classes and load-duration classes.
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initinlive under the EU Comclt Progri~nim~
A 1715
Design example
Figure 3 shows a flat roof supported by straight glulam beams with cross section
165 x 990 iitrti, spacing 6 111 and a span of 20 H I . Strength class GL36 with E,,,,n,,,,
= 14500 N/ltlnz2. Service class 1. The dimensions of the beam have been determined
on the basis of design in the ultimate limit state. The second moment of area is I
= bh3/12 = 1 3,3 1 0' m~nr".
Figure 3
q, (N/~!vtr)
41,
Permanent
3,O
0,6
Snow
48
0,25
it,
The shear component of the deflection can be estimated from Equation (5). With
HG15 and Pllr 20 the additional deflection due to shear is about 33% of the
bending deflection. Thus, the total deflection due to q,, becomes rf,,,, = 1 1 2 i,mt.
Deflectiorz control for the case wlzen sign$cnrzt dartrage can be expected
In this case the additional deflection occurring after the building has been erected
is assumed to be of interest (8: in Figure 2). The criterion given by Equation (3)
is used with the characteristic load combination, Equation (1).
[3,0 . 0,6
+ 4,8 (1+0,25)]u,
+ final deflection
= 7,8
it,,
This value is higher than the recommended limit in EC5, which is U200 = 100 rtlrtr.
Again, different criteria intended to check the same functional requirement give
different results. In this particular case, quite large deflections may occur on very
rare occasions with extreme snow loads. These large detlections are only temporary
and reversible and might be accepted in many cases. A way to avoid them without
increasing the beam diinensions is to apply a precamber 1 1 , lo the beam. The
precamber could be chosen equal to the deflection due to permanent load + half the
deflection due to the frequent value of the variable load. This gives a precamber of
4 ll,,, = 43 mrw.
ConcIuding summary
Serviceability criteria related to deflections often govern the dimensions of
horizontal timber elements.
tile
EU Comell Programme
A 1717
References
Mirtcnsson, A. (1992). Mcchrtnical bchaviour of wood exposed to humidity variations. Dep. of Str.
Eng., Lund Univ. Report TVBK-1006, Lund 1992.
Mlrtensson, A.. Tiiclandcrsson, S . (1992). Control of deflections in timbcr s~ructurcswith reference
to Eurocode 5. In: Proc. of thc CIB W18 Mccting, Ahus, Sweden, Papcr 7-5-102-2.
Ti~ylor,G.D., West, D.J., Hilson. B.O. (1991). Crccp of glued leminntcd timbcr undcr conditions of
varying Itumidity. In: Proc, of the 1991 Int. Timber Eng. Conf:, London, UK.
Objectives
S. Ohlsson
~ h a ~ r n e rUniversity
s
of Technology
Prerequisite
B3
Bending
Summary
Servjce requirements based on tluman tolerance of vibration are described.
Service loads from human footfall and from rotating machinery are surveyed.
The design loads according lo EC5 (unit impulse and static concentrated force)
are described and the way in which they are believed to represent real dynamic
loads is explained.
Static stiff~~ess
properties of timber floors related to concentrated vel-tical forces
are described. Models and calculation methods are introduced.
Dynamic properties of plate-like stmctures are introduced. Dynamic properties of
timber floors are explained in some detail, especially for one-span simply
supported floors. In particular, eigel~frequencies,mode shapes, modal masses and
modal damping itre essential concepts.
The design method based on iimitation of the impuIse velocity response is
explained. The background assu~nptionsare surveyed, effects of various possible
re-designs are illustrated, and limitations of the method are outlined. Effects
from the general strucrural properties of the whole building and its mechanical
system on the transfer of vibration are briefly explained.
Serviceability requirements
A buiIding is generally rated as serviceable as long as it fblfils all its intended
functions in an appropriate fasl~ion.A11 serviceability aspects which are strongly
dependent on the slruclural system or on the structural co~nponentsof a buiIding
are included in the terrn "structulmalserviceability". These aspects should be
considered by the struclural engineer during the design process.
Structural serviceability requirements are usually formulated in relation to a
building or in relation to a fairly large portion of a building. Most serviceability
criteria originate from the following objectives:
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A18/1
Vibrational serviceability
In general there are many load-response cases where structural vibrations rnay
constitute a state of reduced serviceability. The main concern, however, is with
regard to human discomfort. People are in most cases the critical sensor of
vibration. Among different dynamic actions, htrinian activity and installed
machinery are regarded as the two most important internal sources of vibration
in timber-framed buildings. Human activity not only includes footfall from
normal walking, but also childrens' jumping, etc. Two critical load response
cases are finally identified:
In the light of these conclusions, two different design aims emerge. Firstly, the
vibration levels in the vicinity of the dynamic action should be limited and
secondly, the transfer of structural vibrations to adjacent building units (e.g.
another apartment) should be avoided.
The first aim may be achieved
as described in the following
suitabte structural system must
incorporating both vertical and
transfer to adjacent storeys and may not be the best choice in this context.
Continuous floor construction between different apartments should be avoided.
Partitions should preferably be located above each other and be vertically
supported by the foundation. Location of a partition at floor inidspan in just a
single storey may stlucturally couple the two adjoining floors and they will
experience almost the same vibration. This vibration may be acceptable on the
floor where the dynalnic load acts, but it may be intolerable on an adjacent floor
where the neighbour is unaware of the source.
Human-induced vibration
EC5 is concerned with the design of residential wood-based floors with respect
to vibrational serviceability. Dynamic influence from ordinary human activity,
i.e. footstep forces, is considered. More severe dynamic loads, which can be
anticipated from dancing and rhythmic exercises call for other design methods,
Allen (1 99O),
T11e design criteria presented here apply to floors with a fundamental frequency
f, higher than 8 Hz. Floors having a lower fundainental frequency will
experience more severe dynamic resonanl response from people in motion. Such
floors must be designed due to principles not covered by this lecture. Eriksson
(1994) discusses design principles for such floors, which usually have larger
spans than are common for wooden floors.
The different eigenfrequeticies of a rectangular floor simply supported along all
four edges may be calculated according to the approximate Equation (1).
1r1
I
El
is the mode number (only first order inodes are considered, that is only
modes with a mode shape corresponding to a half sine wave in the
direction parallel to the span direction are incorpornted).
is the rnass per unit area (kg/nt2).
is the floor span (In), O is tf~efloor width (111).
is the equivalent plate bending rigidity per unit width (N~w'lnt), index I and
b refer to perpendicular directio~~s
and I represents bending in the stiffer
direction.
Ai8l3
Low-frequency components (0
frequency and its harmonics.
Figrou 2
It may be recalled thal if the floor had been a free rigid body with a
concentrated mass 121, a unit impulse would have resulted in a velocity of the
mass equal to 11h4. For a practical floor with distributed stiffness and inass, the
initial maximum velocity may be calculated using Equation (3):
where the summation is taken over all different modes of vibration 11. @,, is the
lnode shape function for mode r t , which is normalized for unit maximum modal
displacement and ,?I,, is the nlodal mass (sometimes referred to as the gerleralized
mass) for mode 11. Two modifications of Equation (3) are now undertaken. The
first one concerns the sunlmation of contributions from different modes of
vibration it. Experimental work has shown (Ohlsson, 1982) that the frequency
content of imp~llsiveforces induced by footfall is essentially confined to the
frequency range below 40 H i . Consequenlly, the summation may be restricted to
all modes with eigenfrequencies lower than 40 Hz. The second modification
concerns the mass wl~iclishould be included in the calculations. It is difficult to
state assumprio~lsRere, wl~ichare on the safe side. With regard to many timber
floors, however, it will be co~~sentative
to assume a Iow value for the distributed
mass. It is thus stated that calculations sIlal1 be carried out based on the
distributed Inass of the floor only. The second modification is that the modal
for
properties (eigenfrequencies, mode shapes, m d modal masses) are calc~~lated
this "bare" floor, but a standard addilion of 50 lcg to each modal mass rn, is
allowed when calculating the velocity response. This addition represents a
notional vibrating portion of the body of the person which is supposed to be
disturbed by the vibration.
It has been found that Equation (3) can be significantly simplified for the
ordinary case of a rectangular floor which is simply supported along all four
edges, Ohlsson (198s). Assuming floor dimensions b x I n12 and a mass of a unit
are:i floor nt k,g/~tr" Equation (3) may be approxilnated by Equation (4), which
STENEUROFORTECH - an initiative under
lfle
EU Cometl Programme
A1 815
Example
A floor in a private dwellinghouse with the following properties is to be
checked.
The dimensions in plan I x b are equal to 3,9 x 4,8
supported. The floor is constructed with:
t11"
rrzrlz
plasterboard.
m equals 35 kg/rr12.
Equivalent bending rigidities are calculated:
Machine-induced vibration
Slructural vibrations caused by installed machinery should be limited. The
human sensitivity to steady vibration from such sources is estimated according to
Griffin (1990). Accepti~blelevels of vibration may be taken from Table 2 and
Figure Sa in annex A to IS0 2631-2 (1989). Calculation of steady vibration
should be based on expected unfavourable co~nbinationsof pennanent load and
variable load as stated in clause 4.4.2 of EC5. The variation of ihe corresponding
effective mass will consequently be rather high. Since many wood-based
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Cornet1 Programme
A1817
Concluding summary
References
Allen, D.E. (1990). Floor vibration from ilcrobics. Canadian Journ of Civil Eng, Vol 17, No. 5, pp.
77 1-779.
Blag (1991). Manual for PC progtatn fbr skalic and dynamic noor calculations, Aby-konsult,
Gothenburg.
Clu~i,Y.H. (1988). E\uluation of vibritional pcrfortnance of' liglit-weight wooden floors. Proc. ol'
the 1988 Int. Conl: on Timber Eng., Vol. I, pp. 707-715, Forcst Prod. Rcscarch Soc., Madison,
Wi.
Eriksson, P-E. (1994). Vibration of' low-frequency floors - Dynamic forces i~nd response
precliction, Doclorat thcsis, Ctialn~crsUniversity 01' Tect~nology,Gotlicnburp.
Griffin, fv1.J. (1990). I-landbouk of Iiurnan vibration. Ac;rdcmic Prcss, London.
IS0 1631-2 (1989), Evaliiation of human cxposurc to wl~olc-body vibralion, Pall 2: Cuntinuous
and shock-induced vibration in buildings (1- 80 Hz). [SO, first edition, k b .
Ohlssun, S. (1983). Floor v i h r ~ t i o ~ond
~ s humiln discomfort. Doctoral thesis, Clialn~essUniversily
of Technology, Gotl~enhurg.
Ohlsson, S. (1988). Springiness and human-indttccd floor vibrations. Documer~t012: 1988, Swedish
Council Ibr Building Research. Slocktlolrn.
Phi~m.L,& Gianankis, C.M. (1980). toad distribution i r ~tirnbcr beam grid systcnrs. Techn. papcr,
2nd scricsl Div. of Building Rcscarcll; No. 36, Cornmonwceltlr Scientific and lndusttial Rcscarch
Org., Australin.
Creep
STEP I
~ C I A
U 19
~ ~
I,.D, Andriomitantsoo
CEBTP
Objective
To describe the basic concepts for understanding the phenomenon of creep in wood
and timber.
Prerequisite
A4
Summary
The lecture explairls the basic phenomenon of creep, before emphasising the effects
of the main parameters and their relative importance. Typical experimental curves
are presented as illustrat'ion.
Fundamental aspects
Creep represents the increase of the defo~~nation
with time, under a constant applied
action. It is a particular aspect of ~nechmicalbehnviour of a material. Wood is
generally considered to be a viscoelastic material. As sliown in Figure 1, the creep
pad of the deformation begins after. the insrantaneous deforlnatio~l u,,,.
Experimentally, r r , , , is obtained by progressively applying the load within n well
defined time and under defined conditions, up lo a fixed value.
Fiig~oaI
A schcriratic rcpr~.seitratio~~
of ~~iscucii~sric
/.eltatjiotrrof (1 rrrcrtcric~l.14 i s flte
rlcfo,atnrio~i,F tire locrrl c11d r rlic rit~ie.Creep a; tirne tji,, is ilji,,- llbtSr R is [Ire
I%Col~el-y.
a r.elatively rapid increase part at the beginning, as shown by the steep rtnd
variable slope of the curve. The slope of the creep part of the curve u(r) is
the creep rate.
In the design ~nethods,all conditions, and particularly the load (or stress) are such
that this assumption of linearity is always appropriate.
load duration,
i~ioisturecontent,
temperature, and
stress level.
Generally, interactions occur between all of them but only the combined effects of
load duration and moisture content are taken into account in the design rules.
Some brief comments on the temperature and the stress level effects are presented
for information.
Irz~z~errce
of load ciziruriolr
Under steady-state environmental conditions, creep deformation increases with load
duration. Its amplitude strongly depends on load level, which must be maintained
lower when the duration of load is extended in order to ensure an acceptable
deformation limit of the structure with time.
For instance, under a given load, creep of solid timber may increase from two to
four times for load duration ranging from six months to twenty years.
EC5: Par1 1 - 1 : 3.1.6
In the calculation rules, five load duration classes are defined. Tile value of creep,
for a given class, is talien as constant.
The design rules clearly distinguish three service classes, corresponding to three
different ~noisturecontents of the wood.
An additional situation must be underlined for solid timber, whose moisture content,
near to the fibre saturation point at t11e time of' erection on site (25 to 30%), will
greatly decrease to reach the equilibriuln state in service. Where there is variable
moislure content under stress, there is an acceleration of creep and the final
deformation is even greater.
Experimental rcsults on solid timber and glulam, under protected external
conditions, show creep values ranging from once to twice the instantaneous
deformation, after more than one year under stresses of 2 N / I , T ~ I5T ~ ,h n r n h n d15
Nhlmt' (Andriamitantsoa, 1992).
Different curves, illustrating four moisture content effects on creep are preserzted in
Figure 2.
Figror 2
I~flirertceqf terertlpei~crtr~l-e
The polymeric nature of' wood cornponerlts makes it also sensitive to temperature.
For practical purposes, the higher the temperature, the greater the anlpiitude of rile
creep. Further, variable telnperarures result in an acceleration of the creep
(Dinwoodie et al., 1991).
In fact, in normal use, when the telnperature does not exceed about 50 "C, its
influence on creep is negligible and masked by the effects of moisture content
variations, even when these variations are low.
Nevertheless, it must be kept in mind that the notions of temperature and nloisture
content movelnents, in situ, have to be related to two parameters:
STEP/EUROFORTECl4 -
:in
EU Comctt Programme
A 1 9/3
Unsteady gradients occur ncross the section and one consequence is a reduced creep
amplitude co~nparedwith a coinplete humidification or drying, where a steady state
!vould be reached.
i~tjlilrrenceqf Stl'ESS
Provided that the rpplicd stress and the duration of the measurement are sufficient,
the creep curves for wood (deforn~ationversus tin~e),generally terminate, just as
with nlost collstn~ctionn~arerials,in an acceler;tted stage preceding ruphlre, which
can be explained by progressive damage of the wood. The higher the stress, the
higher the rate of creep and the shorter is the time before fracture (see Figure 3).
Figlrr-c 3
(3,
In the design metliods, the stress levels are calculated so that creep remains within
the stable phase, where the rate of deFormation is low and stable during the lifetime
of the cor~sttuction.Experi~nentalresults, show11 in Figure 4, present this applzrent
stability, for stress levels less than 35% of the instantatleous resistance.
Writing,
Mechanical joints
Similar behaviour. exists in mechnnical limber joints, because of the local
deformation of wood, in colnpression under the fastener. The magnitude of tlliis
creep may also be at least as important as that in wood. Maximum creep is obtained
when one of the jointed pieces of wood is loaded perpendicular to the grain.
Concluding summary
References
Andriamilantson 'L.D. (1992). klcchnnosorptivc bcl~aviourof struclural sizcd solid timber and glula~n
(in French). Proc. IUFRO, Vol 1 : 317-8, Nnncy, France.
Ar~nsirong,L.D. and Kingston. R.S.T. 11962). T l ~ ccffccl of riroisttlrc contcnt changes on lhc
dcfi)rnmtion of wood undcr strcss. Aus~rali:in Inrrn~:~l
of Applied Scicncc, 13(4):257-7-76.
Dinwooclie J.M., Iiiggins J.A., Pnxton i3.i-I. ilnd Robsori D.S. (1991). Qt~;lntifying,prcdic~ingand
understanding 111c rncchnnism of crccp in ba;~rdmnterinls. Proc. COST 508. Fnndamcnlnl sspccts on
crccp in wood, 99-118. Lund, Sweden.
hluct, Ch.. Guitard. D. nnd Morlicr, P. (1988). Lc bois cn slructurc. Son cornportemcnt diff6rC.
Annalcs dc I'ITBTP, N" 469 dbccmbre 1988. 33-83. Frnncc.
Rougcr F., 1-c Govic C., Crubilf P.,Sot~hrclR. and l'aquei J. (1990). Crccp lxlchitviour of lrencil
jvood. Proc. Inter. Timbcr Eng.. Vol 2 : 330-36, Tokyo. Japan.
STEPlEUROFOR'l'EC1.1
;111 initiative
Ob,jectives
To explain volume and stress distribution effects as a consequence of the weakest
finlc theory for brittle materials. To describe the options of Eurocode 5 and CEN
supporting standards for deriving characteristic values and evaluating design
stresses.
Prerequisites
A7
A8
B2
33
B4
Summary
The lecture begins with a presentation of the weakest link theory, for tension in
brittle materials, and explains volume effects. This theory is expanded to other
stress fields, with attention to bending, tension, shear and tension perpendicular to
grain. Research results are summarised. The options of EC5 for bending and tension
perpendicular to grain are explained. Some examples of calcularions are given.
Theory
The weakest link theory has been developed by Pierce (1926), T~lcker(1927) and
Weibull (1939) who studied brittle materials, including concrete. This theory says
that "when subjected to tension, a chain is as strong as its weakest Ijnk". To explain
this theory, consider a reference volume subjected to tension. The probability of
failure P, of this volume is defined by:
PJ
(1)
Figilrc I
Bffl
where P, is the probability of survival of the system and P,s(i)is the probability of
survival of an individual element i. Roin Equation (2) and assirrrzirzg llrnt r<fel*ertce
iwlirrttes hcive the same probability of failiac nrtd tlrur tlic events of jiti1lo.e crw
irrcle~terlciertrin (ill refer-ence volintie.~,the probability of failure of' the system can
be evaluated:
Pf = 1- P , = 1 -[I -F(~)]N = 1- e N k ( ' - F ( " ) ) , 1 -e -N F ( o f
(3)
Now, assume that the lower tail of F has been fitted by a power model, i.e.
F(a)
a ( a -a,)"
(4)
This inode1 is known as the 3 parameters Weibull rnodel. It is also well known as
the 2 parameters Weibull rnodel when a,,= 0. The paraarneters111 and k can be
estitnaled from the mean of 0 (E('(o))and the coefficient of variation of a (CV(a}}
by solving the following equations:
The theory can be used to explain the size effect in tension. Consider a volume V,
which has a given probability of failure P,(a,)
at level 0,and a volulne V? which
tias a given probability of failure P,(o,) at level 02.
IF the characteristic strengths
of these two volumes are compared, the following is obtained:
This equation is the basic expial~ationof size effect. In the case of stress fields
otller than lension, these equations are modifiecl to take into account the stress
variations:
o(~,YJ)=
ww(x,y,z)
(9)
P, (a)
1-e
-v.$P
where I/:':
is defined by:
This method of calculating the stress distribution effect has been used by Larsen
( 1 986) and Colling (1986) to evaluate the volume and stress distribution effects on
the shear strength nr~dtension perpendicular to grain for- curved, tapered and
calnbered beams. In Larsen's paper, the term "distribution factor" (ktIiJ is used,
where:
Tile kt, factor is used to cillculate the design tension pe~pendicularto grain strength
for different load configurations:
Research results
A vast amount of dnra has been published to explain size effect for srructural size
timber. These results are sornetirnes conflicting (Barrett and Lam, 1992; Madsen,
1992), and might be due to the following reasons:
For visunlly graded lumber, defect sizes increase with the sizc of the
member. This means that the material changes with the size, which can mask
a pure size effect. In particular, when size effect is investigated in a mixture
of grades, the effect of grading will have an influence on the size effect.
When tests are conduc~edfor constant span to depth ratios in bending, the
size effect is a combination of n depth effect and a length effect (Barrett and
Fewell, 1990). These effects cannot be identified separately.
B 113
a "size factor" S, (for beams tested at constant span to depth ratio, i.e. Li =
k Iti), which, according to the combination of equations (16) and (17), is
calculated from:
Author
3,-
8,
s,t
0,17
0,23
0,40
Madsen, 1992
0,20
0,o
0,20
0,15
0,15
0,30
Table I
Additional results are reported for glulam (Ehlbeck and Colling, 1990), but are
based on a sample size which was much s~lialler.The size effects for glulam are
Iower than for solid timber, probably due to a lamination effect which increases the
strength.
In Table 3, load configuration factors for different bending cases are reported
according to Johnson (1953). These load configuration factors are derived according
to Equations (9), (10) and (1 I ) , and normalized to the reference four points bending
case.
Tension results are slightly different from those for bending. This might be due to
a pure brittle failure mechanism (see Table 2).
s,,
SL
0,17
023
0,40
Madsen, 1992
0,20
0,lO
0,30
Author
Table 2
sz,
ToDle 3
Load cor~figrtmtiorr.fnctor-~o.
For compression,
For tension perpendicular to grain and for shear, a volume factor (S,,)llas been
derived by Colling (1986), who also derived fond configuration factors for tension
perpendicular to grain
These I-esults are subject to different opinions but show m evidence of size effects
for imny stresses, together with a stress distribution effect which can be as
significant as the size effect itself. For code purposes, the approach has been
siinplified, especially in the case of stress distribution effects.
TIE first application of' size e f t c t s concerns the modification ol' characteristic
strengllts given in prEN338 "Structural Timber - Strength classes". Tile
chariicteristic strengths in bending and in tension are. given for a reference depth of
150 111rrr for solid limber nnci GO0 n!m for glulaln. For depths less tllan these
reference vnlues, Il~esestrengths are multiplied by a size factor, which has a fixed
upper limit. This means tllat size effect is only applied in one direction, as shown
in Figure 2.
For girtlrrltt :
k,,
lisr
min.
Figrcr-e 2
For tension perpendicular to grain and for shear, characteristic strengths are also
given for a reference volume. But, for simplicity, a size factor is only proposed for
tension perpendicular in glulam. The designer is then required to verify the
following equation:
where
EC5: Part 1 - 1 : 5.2.4
111rrr.
\I,,
For dorrble tapered, curved and pitched cambered beams, an additional requirement
is included to account of the stress distribution effects. The designer must verify the
following equation in the apex zone:
kc,,, is a stress distribution factor which has been fixed for special cases:
/Q, = i,4 for double tapered and curved beams
kJfi,= 1.7 for pitched cambered beams.
For simplicity, other aspects of size and stress distribution effects like compression
size elfect and load configuration factors Iiave not been taken into account.
Calculation examples
Exarnple 1: Bending Strength of a solid timber beam of cross-section 40x100 n7m,
strength class C24.
C24 strength class provides .A,,,, = 24 1V11nm'
k,, = (150 1 100)"82= 1,08 < 1,3
j;,,,,(modified) = 26 Nlrl?~n~
b = 150 mrt~
h,,, = 1,20 1r1
Span: L = 20 111 It = 1 nt
Glulatn Strength Class: GL 36
GL 36 strength class provides A,%,,= 0,45 Nlrnnl'
To calculate n design strength, take k,,,,, = 0,sancl y,, = I ,3
This implies
= 0,277 ~ l ~ i m t '
The volu~neof the apex zone is equal to: I/ = 0,2097 1 1 1 ~
Tlius (V,,l\I)"" = 0,544
For a double tapered beam, k,,,= 1,4
Concluding sunmary
References
Bnrrclt, J.D.. and Fcwcll, A.R. (1090). Size Ctctors Tor the bending 2nd tcnsion s(rcng(h of structural
lumber. Proc, ol' the C1B W18 Mccling, Lisbon, Portug;il, Paper 23-10-3.
Barrctt. J.D.,and L:im. F. (1992). Size crfcc~sin visually grarlcd soltwoad structural lunibcr. Proc. of
(tie CIB WIS Mecling, Ahus. Swcdcn. Papcr 25-6-5.
R;~rrett,J.D. (1974). Efrect of size on tension pcrpendiculnr lo gririn strcngtfr 04' Douglas Fir. Wood
and Fibcr G(2): 126-143.
Colling, F. (1986). lnflucnce of' vofumc ilnd stress dis~ributionon thc sllcar strcngtll i~ndtcnsilc
strcnglh perpendiculiir 10 groin. Proc, ol'thc CIB W18 Mccting, Florence, Italy, Pi~pcr19-12-3.
STENEUROFORTECH - an initiative under Ihc EU Comctt Progmmnic
B 117
Ehlbcck, J., and Colling. 1;. (1090). Rending strcngth of glula~nbeams, n dcsign proposal. Proc. ol'
the CIB W18 Meeting, Lisbon. Portugal, Paper 3-3-12-1.
Foschi, R.O.(1385). Longit~~dirinl
sllcar dcsign of glued Inminclted hcarns. Proc. of tl~cCIB WI8
Meeting. Beit Orcn, israel, Paper i8-10-2.
Fosclti, R.O., and Barrett, J.D. (1975). Longitudinal shcar strcngtll o l Douglas Fir. Canadian Journal
or Civil Engincering, 3(2): 198-208.
Johnson, A.I. (1953). Strcngtlt, safety iirid cconolnical dimensions of structures. Swcdisii State
Committee for Building Rescarcll, Bulletin n. 22, p. 159.
Larsen, H.J. (1986). Eiirocode 5 and C1B structurnl Limbcr design code. PFOC.of the CIB W18
Meciing, Florence, Italy. Pnpcr 10- 102-2.
Madsen, B. (1902). Slruclurnl Bellnviour oCTimber. Timbcr Engineering Ltd., Nortl~Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada.
Pierce, F.T. (1926). Tension tests for cotton yarn. Journal of the TcxLilc Institute, pp, T155-T368.
Tucker, 1. (1927). A study of conlprcssive strenglll dispersion of material with applicirtions. Journal
of the Franklin Iostitute, 304: 751-781.
Weibull, W. (1939). A statistical theory of the strength of rnatcrisls. Roy:il Swcdish lnsiitutc for
Engineering Research, Proceedings, N. 141, p:45.
Weibull, W, (1939). 'rhc phenomenon or rupture in solids. In: Royal Swedish Instiultc for Engineering
Research, Proceeding, N. 153, p:55.
Objective
To describe the strength and stiffness of timber loaded in tension and compression a1 different angles to the grain.
Prerequisites
A4
Summary
This lectrire deals with tension and compression actions when parallel to the
grain, perpendicular to the grain and at an angle to the grain and considers both
clear wood and structural timber. Each of the four basic cases: tension parallel
and perpendicular to the grain and compression parallel and perpendicular to the
grain are first discussed for clear wood. The influence of different parameters on
the strength and stiffness properties on it small-scale and at macroscopic level is
presented together with examples of failure modes.
The more general case of loading at an angle to the grain is described, noting
wood as an orthotropic material, with the application of different failure theories
such as I-Iankinson's formula. The final section considers tension and
compression actions in structural timber.
Introduction
Wood is an anisotropic material, i.e. it has different properties when loaded in
different directions, e.g, parallel or perpendicular to the grain. A tree trunk may
as an idealisation be regarded as being cylindrically orthotropic ( i s , orthogonally
anisotropic), Figure la. In Figure Ib the directions L, R and T denote the
longitudinal, radial and tangential directions, respectively. The properties in the
R- and T-directions are often treated together as one group, i.e. regarded as
properties perpenciicular to the grain.
Figicre I
The following sections deal primarily with both the strength and the stiffness
i
loading. Unless otherwise stated the values
properties of wood under s h o ~ term
STEPIEUROFORTECI-1 - nn i~litiativcunclcr the EU Comctt Prograrnmc
BY1
Figure 2
Str.c.ss-sf~'rritt
rtrrves for clear wooil lactded parnuel to the S I ~ ~ I(.rolid
I
iirlc)
attd perpenrlir~rlc~rro the grcrin (cla.sAc~llirte) crt a cairs~ctttrstritin mtc.
m i c a [ \allresfor sofi,tmooci:J,, = SO to /OO N / V I I.[,,,
~ I=
~ ,10 to 50 N / I ~ I I ~ ,
E,, = 11000 to 15000 ~ h ~ r t t t ? .
;in
Also the niodulus of elasticity is tnucli lower perpendicular to tile grain, E9,, =
400 to 500 Nh~rttr" than parallel to the grain.
In the design of timber slructures tensiIe stresses perpendicular to the grain
should be avoided or kept as low as possible. It is iniportant to identify areas of
a structure, where tensile stresses perpendicular to the grain occur and to male
design improvements to reduce their magnitude. Exa~nplesare ~iiemberslike
curved beams and fraine corners in glula~astructures, notched beams at the
support or beams with holes, certain connections, see STEP lectures B5 and C2.
(0)
Figrrt-e 3
fb)
Cot?~prz..ssio~i
fnilrire nt A,, Br~cklitrg of jiblzts. (Hoflt?teycr, 1990). LW
Ia~eiclood,EU' earlj~~r~ood,
il R at11trial rings, CC cot~iprrs~siott
crc~u.ses.
The modulus of elasticity is E,.,, = 11000 to 15000 Nhrn~' as in tension, but the
stress-strain-curve levels off earlier, so the limit of proportionality is also of
interest.
B2/3
atso depend on the orientation of the annual rings in the cross sections of the
loaded bar, see Figure 5.
--.
4 0,8 T+,,
--
p&
--
-1-
-2.E:
\
',
2
-3
.....
Figrrre 5
a be the angle between the load direction and the grain direction.
Hankinson (1921) proposed the following equation for the failure stress .f;.<,
in
compression.
which gives good agreetnent with test results. For the strength under te~lsiIeload
at an angle to ltle grain an analogous expression can be used, i.e. with .A. being
replaced by .f;, coinpnrc Figure 6a and Gb.
STBP1EUROFORTECI.I - an initiative uridcr ~ h cEU Cornctt Progr;lmnie
--.
It is seen in Figu~e6, that for small angles a the strength is very sensitive to
changes in a, i.e. srnall deviations in slope of grain will cause a significant
strength ~.eduction,especially for tensile load. On the other hand, for a = 90".
i.e. near j;,,, and f;:,,, there is praciically no cllange in tensile and co~npressive
strength when the angle is changed by 10 to 12 degrees. It may be sl~own
(Edlund, 1982) that, for the case of a symmetric orlhotropic material, Equation
( I ) is (1 real linear approxinlaiion Lo the more general Tsai-Wu failure criterion
for orthotropic materials.
Figtrrr 6
hilitre drtr to load nr otr arlgie to tire grniri. (CL) t,ctl.sio~z;(bj corrtpres+siorz.
Tlrc jid!). drnlrltr crtt-ves are nccorciing ro Hatlkirrson, Eqiialiotr ( I ) ; rile
daslzd atn1e.s fire ~vlrefr rlre .fo'nil~ita
c~ot~dirion
of otie ptrre srrc?ssA:,, ./;,,,or
f,,is nrmiticd.
o2
f,z
--
CT,COS'~
0;, s i n k
CT,,
sina cosa
For coinparison, the limit curves for the 1111-eeseparate failure conditions o, 5
-<j;.I..m
and zlZ<.I;, are also plotted in Figure 6b (dashed curves).
.frsl, CT.
Progrilmmc
B2/5
with Figure 6, partly to the brittle type of failure and the size effect (see STEP
Tensioil
The inhornogeneities and other deviations from an ideal orfhot~~opicmaterial,
which arc typical for structural timber, are often called defects. As just
mentioned, these defects will cause a fairly large strength reduction in tension
parallel to the grain. For nordic softwood (spruce, fir) typical average values are
in the range of J;,, = 10 to 35 N/tnn12. In several investigations the luean off;,,
was fbund to decrease proportionally with the increase in size of the largest knot
diameter. However, the scatter is large and the correlation poor. The values
obtained also depend on t!ie test method, since failure [nay be induced by the
stress concentrations at the end grip devices.
EC5: Part 1-1: 3 2 . 2
For long boards under uniaxial lension due consideration should be laken both of
the size effect (Iengtlt effect) and of the lengthwise variation of the tensile
strength, see, for example Barrett (1974) and Larn and Varoglu (1991).
For tension perpendicular to the grain the size effect is especially iinportant, see
Table I .
Conipl-c.ssio12
T l ~ estrength in compression par-nllcl to the grain will be somewhat reduced by
the growth defects to f;.,, = 25 to 40 iV/rrnlr2. Vie reduction in strength depends
on the testing method. If the specimen is cotnpressed between two stiFf end
plates, which are restrained from rotation, a local failure of some fibres will lead
to stress redistribution over the rest of the cross section. This will result in a
higl~eraverage stress than if the specinien had been loaded via n hinged endplate.
The influence of growth defects on the strength perpendicular to t l ~ cgrain is
s~nal
I.
0 15
Figwe 7
100
2tH) I I I I I I
Conipressive "yield" stirsses for pcrtclr loadirirlg wiflr ietgtlr I or1 n ttxwdx?rnippo~ierlalnrrg its .vi~lioleler~gth(botiorrr Ike) cotlrpared 1vit11str-engtlr
llafites fizr cI$et-er~t strctzgrh cirrsses occortlirig to EC5 (cz 2 100 nz~ir).
k"lrrcs fro111Barttrrnnrt attd Larrg f 1927) arrd Bnckscll (1966).
In stri~cturaicodes tlris effect is usually taken into account by tlie coefficient k,.jm
in a condition of the type
EC5: Part 1 - 1 : 5.1.5
GV!II~,~,5 kt.!~o
.L>>oJ,
(5)
In EC5 there will be no increase it1 bearing strength for I 2 150 ntnl, see Figure
7 . If n 2 I00 tam a linear increase may be assunxed for the coefficient kc,,,,,
in the
.
smaller
interval 15 5 I I150 r l i r t ~ up to a value A,:,,, = 1,S for i I 15 n ~ a t For
edge distances, i.e. a c I00 mni, the increase will be smaller, see Table 2.
Tcrble 2
\f(rlnes of kt:,, irr Eqircifinn (5) gil~c~trIJJ EC5 ,for rlte case si~oir~rri l l
Figure 7.
References
Backsell, G. (1966). Expcrirncnt;~l investigations into deformations resulting from strcsscs
pcrpcndiculnr to grain in Swcdish whitewood arld rcdwood in rcspcct of thc dimensioning of
concrctc forn~work.Stetcns rid fijr hyggnndsforskning. Rapport 12: 1966, Stockholm. Swcdcri.
Barrctt, J.D. (1974). El'l'cct of size on tcnsion pcrpcndicular-to-grain strength ol' Douglas-fir. Wood
and fibcr G(2): 126-143.
Baumann, R. and Lang, (1927). Das tlolz als UaustoSf. Munchcn, Ccrmany.
13odig. I. and Jaync, B. (1981). Mcch:inics of Wood nnd Wood Compositcs. Van Nostr;md, Ncw
York, N.Y.. USA.
Edlund, B. (1982). Bruchhypothcscn fiir orthotropcs Mntcrial. In: Ingcnieurholzbau in Forschung
~indPraxis. (Bundcsvcring K. MBl~icr).Karisruhc, Gcrmay. p. 17-21.
ather, E. (1940). Druckvcrsuchc qucr zur Fascr an Nadcl- ur~dLaubh6I'rcrn, Holz als Roh- und
Wcrkstoff 3: 222-226.
Glos, P. (1982). Fcstigkcitsvcrhaltcn \!on Urcttscliicl~tliolz hci Zughca~rspruchurrg unri scinc
Abhlngigkcit von Wcrkstoff- und Einwirkungskcnngrijsscn. Bcrichtc zur Zuvcrl~ssigkcitstl~corie
dcr Bouwcrkc, 1163, Tcchn. Univ. Miinchen, Gcrmany.
varying anglcs of grain.
of crtislling strcngth of sprucc
Hankinson, R.L. (1921). lnvcstig~~tion
Air Scrvicc Inform. Circular III, No. 259. US Air Scrvicc. Washington DC, USA.
I-lofincyer, P. (1990). Failure of wood as influcnccd by rnoisturc and duration of load. Ph.D.
Thesis, S\r\\c Univ. of Ncw York. Syracuse. N.Y., USA. Scction 4.2.1.
Johonsson, C-J, (1976). Dmgl~AllSastl~cthos lirntriilamcllcr. (Tcnsilc strcngth of laminations for
glu1;im. In Swcdisl~), Chalmcrs Tckniskn I-logskola. St& och triibyggl~nd, Int.slir. S76:18.
GBtchorg, Swcdcn.
Kollmnnn, F, and CBtf, A. (1968). Principles of Wood Scicncc ;~ndTechnology. f)arl 1. Solid
Wood. Springcr-Vcrlag, Bcrlin, Gcrmany.
Lam. F. and Varoglu, E. (1991). V;iriatian of tcnsilc strcngth along the length of lumhcr. Part 1.
Expcrimcntnl. Wood Sci. Tcchnol. 25(5): 35 1-359.
Larscn. 14. and Ribcrhalt. H. (1981). Strength of glued lamit~atcdbcams. Part 4. Tensilc strcngth
perpcndiculnr to grain. Aiilhorg Univcrsitctsccntcr. Inst. for Bygningstcknik. Rcport 81 10, Aalborg,
Dcnmark.
Siimcs, F. and Liiri, 0.(1952). lnvcstigatioris of tlic strcngtti properties ol' wood I. Tcsts on small
clcar spccimcns ol' Finnish Pinc (Pit~~csSy1~~c.sfr'i.s).(In Finnish). Valtion Tcknillincn
Tutkimuslailos, Ticdotus 103, I-lclsinki, Finland.
Sucnson, E. (1938). Zuliissigcr Druck auf Querholz. Hoiz als Roh- und Wcrksrolf l(6): 213-216.
STEP/EUROFOR'TECi-1-
Bending
STEP lecture B3
B.S. Choo
University of Nottinghnm
Objectives
To develop an understanding of the behaviour of tiinber beams, including lateral
torsional buckling and to illustrate the procedures for the design of simple beams
to EC5 by way of examples.
Summary
This lecture begins with an introduction to the bel~aviourand design of simple,
solid timber or glularn beams in accordance with the requirements of EC5. It goes
on to describe the factors whicl~influence the lateral torsional bucklinglinstability
behaviour of beams. The principles described are illustrated by a design example.
Introduction
Beams, in general, are horizontal structural elements whicli span at least two
supports and transmit loads principally by bending action. The bending moments
on the beam are due to loads which act in the plane of bending of the beam. The
standard design procedure for timber beams, where the direction of grain in the
wood is parallel lo the span, is to ensure tllal:
the design bending strength is not reached or exceeded and that the bending
stresses do not cause lateral torsional bucl<ling of' the beam leading to a
premature instability lailure
the design shear strength, (see STEP lecture B4), is not reached or exceeded
the design compression strength perpendicular to Lhe grain (bearing strength)
is not reached or exceeded at supports and at concentrated load points
the beam's deflection ineets the serviceability deflection criteria (see STEP
lecture A I 7)
This lecture is concerned primarily with sirnple beams, i.e, beains without notches,
tapers or curves. The effects of notches in beams and strength reduction in curved
and tapered glularn beams are covered in STEP lectures B5 and B8, respectively.
In so far as bending stresses are concerned, it is necessary to check tirat there is
adequate capacity at the critical cross section (whicli may e.g. be rectangular, T or
L shaped) which for a simple beam will be at the point of rnaximum bending
moment in the beam. EC5 also requires that the influence of initial curvature,
eccentricities and induced deflections are taken into account.
Simple beams
If t;lte dimensions and support conditions of the beam are adequate to prevent
instability i.e. deflections occur only in the loading plane, then it can be shown
according to the theory of eiasticity that the bending stresses in the beam are given
by
where
n/l
STEP/EUROliORTEClf
I3311
EC5: Part
1 - 1 : 3.1.4
ECS:Pnrt 1 1: 2.2.3.7
when bent about its major principal axis, where closely spaced, discrete
bracing is provided so that the slenderness is low.
Since EC5 allows the design of timber structures to be carried out on the assumption
that they behave elastically, the above expression [nay be used lor
design purposes. The design bending strength ,
of a beam is defined as
x,,,,,,
wliele
In addition to the k,,, factor, it is necessary to consider other factors which affect
beam strength. For example, the influence ot'bearu size on ihe bending strength is
taken account of by the size factor k,(see STEP lecture B I ) and, if the beam is part
of's load sharing system, its bending strength may be increased by the Factor k,, (see
STEP lecture B 16).
Combined stresses
The most common use of a beam is to resist loads by bending about its major
principal axis. I-Towever, tlie introduction of forces, which are not in the plane of
bending, on the bean1 results in bi-axial bending ( i t . bending about both the rnajor
and rninor principal axes). Additionally, tile introduction of axial loads in tension
or cotnpression results in a further combined stress effect. For beams which are
subjected to bi-axial bending, the following conditions bot11 need to be satisfied:
JnrJ,d
Jm,z,d
om,.ZI
.L8.,.1
(3,r,.L11
fnl,;,,
km
Similar equalions are given in EC5 for combined bending with axial tension or
compression. For a more detailed description of the design of columns i.e. structural
elements subjected to both bending and axial compression see STEP lecture BG.
Beam instability
When designing bearns, tlic prime concern is to provide adequate load carrying
capacity and stiffness against bending about its major principal axis, usually in the
verlical plane. This leads to a cross-sectional shape in which the stiffness in the
vertical plane is often much greater than that in the horizontal plane. IL is shown in
STEP lecture B6 on columns that whenever a slender structural element is loaded
in its stiff plane (axially in the case of the column) there is a tendency for it to fail
by buckling in a more flexible plane (by deflecting sideways in the case of the
cotumn). Figure I illustrates the response of a slender simply supported beam,
is terrned
subjected to bending moments in the vertical plane; the pl~eno~nenon
lateral-torsional buckling as it involves both lateral deflection and twisting. This
type of instability is sir~iilarto the si~nplerflexural buckling of axially loaded
colurnns in that loading the bean1 in its stiffer vertical plane has induced a failure
by buckling in a less stiff direction.
The bending lnornent 31 which such instability takes place is tenned the critical
moment. The fornlulae for critical moments for beams are given in standard text
boolcs such as that by Ti~nosiienkoand &re (1961). It is usually assumed that the
beam inaterial has ideal elastic isotropic properties. Nevertlteless, it was shown by
Hooley and Madsen (1964) that tiie theory is also applicable to timber beams where
tile material is not isotropic.
The critical lnornent For the bent11 shown in Figure I which is sinipty srrpported at
both ends in both the )I and z axes, and is torsionally restmined about the x axis at
the supports is given by
where
I,, and 1, are thc second moments of area about the respective axes,
E is [lie ~nodulusof elasticity of the material,
G is tiie shear modulus of the material,
I,,,, is the torsional second rnoment of arca for the beam cross-section,
and
I, is the unrestrained length.
simplified CI-iticd
For a beam OF rectangular cross-section b s / I , the correspo~~ding
bending stress is given by
It should be noted that the right hand square root tenn varies from 0,94 to 1.05 for
l~/'ll ratios of O,I and 0,7, respectively, which represent the realistic range of
rAectanguIartimber beams. It is therefore conservative to replace the square root with
0,94.
Figure I
Latoal-fur.sior~uiI~ccklirigo f a sitt111iy.sup~~otled
becrni sllnlvitrg cIi.\-~~lncettteti~
at cerrtre of beam ~rrlc/crr t t ~ i f o l mrnorticnr. ([I) sinlply s~rpparfedbeatrr, (I))
btrcklecl bemr~.
For a liomogeneo~~s
material there is only one value for E and G. In wood, the
values of E and G depend on the angle between the direction of stress and the
grain. In general, tlie E value (parallel to the grain) should be used and G is
conservatively taken as EIl6. This results in a critical stress of
Similar expressions for the critical stress niay be obtained for a variety of load
cases, load positions and support conditions. The expression Sor Ad,,, given in
Equation (5) is for the basic case wlierc a simply supported beam is subjected to
constant in-planc moments. If the beam is subjected to a central load acting at the
level of the centroidal axis of the beam, a similar expression is obtained in which
thc terrn n is replaced by a constant 424. The ratio of 7d4,24 is often referred to
as the "equivalent uniform moment or m factor" and is a measure of the severity
of a particular pattern of moments relative to the basic case. The values of' the In
factor for a number of load cases are given in Table I . In general, lateral stability
improves as the molnent pattern becomes less uniform.
The location of the load is important loads localed at the top of a slender bea13-r
have a destabilising effect on its behaviour whilsr loads located at the bottom of a
beam have il stabilising effect. Clearly, support conditions are also i~nportant,in that
lateral support conditions which inhibit tlie developn~entOF buckling deformations,
i.e. against twisting of tlle bean? at the supports in both the s and y axes, will
improve a beam's lateral slability. The irnprovernent in stability due to si~pport
conditions is generally reflected i n smaller values of effective lengths. Lateral
torsional buckling of beams is a cotnplex subject outside the scope of this lecture
and reference should be made to standard textbooks such as Timoshenko and Gere
(1961).
Summarising the above details the main factoras which influence lateral stability
include:
-
the ~tnbracedspan of' tile compressive portion of the beam (i.e. the distance
between points at which lateral deflection is prevented,
STBP/EUROFORTECI-I- an
EU Colnctt Progrannie
Tobit I
Eqrrivc~lct~t
rttiifon~it~~oliletlt
factors (rake11f i t 1 1 Kirl~yc~tidNethercot, 1979)
EC5 requires thar a chcck is cat-ried out for the instability condition and timi t11e
bending capacity is rnodif?ed by the factor K,.,, sucli that
'
Lr,z,d
(8)
' ~ I I J . ~kcri~
k,,,,
= 1
(for. A
0,751
and ~vl~el-e
the relative slenderness ratio h , . , , , for- bending is given by:
The critical bending stress q,,,,for Equation (12) is obtained using the 5-percentile
stiffness value E,+,. Variation of k,,,, with A,,,,,,, is shown in Figure 2. The similarity
to the buckling strength-slendec~iessratio curves for columns as described in STEP
lecture BG should be noted.
5
-
hr,l. ,I,
Figitre 2
A,,.,.
Design example
A simply supported rectangular solid timber floor beam of cross section 50 x 200
r l t t ~ t ,with a clear unsuppol-led span of 3500 rrrtll is required Lo support a design
medium-term load of 2 k N / r ~uniformly distributed, in service class I conditions.
Check that the bending strength of the beam satisfies the requirements of EC5.
prEN 338: 199 1
Assume the following characteristic values for bending strength and rnodtil~~s
of
elasticity taken from prEN 338 "Structural tin~ber- Strength classest'.
Mociijicarion jbctors
For service class I (medium-term), k,,,,,,=0,8. If the floor beam may be assumed
to be laterally restrained throughout the length of its compression edge (e.g. by
floor boards) with torsional restraints at its supports (e.g. by suitable hangers) then
k,,, = 1,O. Since the floor beams do not span inore than 6m, and assuming the
attached declcirig is continuous over at least two spans and the joints are staggered,
they may be treated as a load-sharing system, hence k,., nmay be taken as 1,1
Finally, since the beam depth is greater than 150 mm, the size factor, k,, is 1.0.
EC5: Pnrt 1 - 1 : 2.2.3.2
STENEUROFOR'I'ECtl
It should be noted that EC5 liniits the deviation from straightness measured midway between supports to 11300 and 11500 of the length of structural tinlber and
glued laminated beams and columns, respectively. Deviations of cross-sections from
target sizes we limited by tolerance class I in prEN 336 for struclural timber and
by prEN 390 for glued Iaininaled timber.
If tlle floor boards cannot be relied upon to provide tlte necessary lateral restraints
to the colnpression region of the beam, the bending design strength would have to
be cliecked for possible reduction due to lateral instability.
A I I ~from Table I , the unifoim ttloment factor for a unifor~nly loaded silnply
supported beam is 0,88. Thus using Equation ( 1 2), the relative slenderness ratio is
And frorn Figure 2, or using Equation (10) the instability factor kc,, is 0,52. Thus
fn,,'!
= kcrir 10,s
= 0,82
Since the actual bending stress is 9,2 ~/l,rnr', the beam would have to be enlarged
or lateral restraints would Ilave to be provided.
Concluding summary
The "siinpIe" beam, i.e. that which deflects only in the plane of bending,
represents die great majority of bealns which the engineer has to design.
-
Tile rnain design requirement for simple beams is to ensure that the values
of the design strengths exceed the applied stress levels as obtained using the
elastic theory and that the actual deflections are wilhin EC5 limits.
Tlte design strength values are obtained by applying various modification nnd
partial safety factors on tlie appropriate characteristic strengths.
References
Tinloshcnko, S. and Gere, J.M. (1961). Theory or' Elas~icStnhility, McGr;~w-MillBook Co. Inc. New
York, NY., 2nd Edition.
Noolcy, R.P., ;ind Madscn, 8. (1964). kltcral Stability or' Clue Ltminntcd Bmms. Journal of' thc
Slrucluri~lDivision. ASCE, ST3: 201 - 218.
Kirby, P.A. and Netllercot, D.A. (1979). Design for Structural Stnhility, Constrado Monogr;ipi~s.
Crosby Lockwood Stoplcs. Gran:idn Pubtisi~ing.
Objectives
P. Aunc
Uaiversity ol'T~.ondtlcim
Summary
The presence of vertical and horizontal shear in a horizontal beam subjected to
verticaI loading is stated. The shear stress distribution over the cross-section is
presented and also the governing shear strength (shear paralIeI to the grain).
An introduction to torsional stresses caused by torsional loading is given. Tile
governing criteria and the EC5 design method are presented. Shear stresses and
torsional stresses may well occur si~nultaneously.The combined action which is
nor covered in the EC5 is, nevertheless, briefly commented upon.
Design methods are illustrated by examples.
Introduction
When bending is produced by transverse loading, shear stresses will be present
according to the theory of elasticity. Shear stresses transverse to the beam axis
will always be accompanied by equal shear stresses parallel to the beatn axis.
In glued thin-webbed I-beams and box beams there will be shear stresses in the
web (panel shear) and in the contact surface between the web and the flanges
(planar shear). The planar shear strength is normally less than the panel shear
strength, but either one may be critical and have to be considered. Similar
considerations have to be made in the case of glued thin-flanged beams. Shear
also has an effect on the bucicling of the web or panel (see STEP lecture B9).
For timber (and glulam) the shear strength parallel to the grain is considerabiy
lower than the shear strength across the grain (cutting off the fibres), thus the
fornler is critical and has to be considered in the design of solid timber and
glularn beams.
Research has indicated that the shear strength depends on the stressed volu~ne
(Barrett and Foscl.~i,1980), but so far a possible volume effect concerning sliear
has not been introduced in EC5 (see aIso STEP lecture BI).
This lecture only deals with solid timber and glulam beams with regard to shear.
Torsional stresses are introduced when the applied loild tends to lwist a member.
This will occur when a beam supports a load which is applied eccentric to the
principal cross sectional axis. A transmission mast may be subjected to an
eccentric horizontal Ioad, resulting in il combination of shear and torsion.
Shear
From elastic beam theory it might be recalled that the shear stress at any point in
STEPlEUROFORTECI4 - a11initiative undcr thc EU Cotnctt Progrnm~ne
B4/ 1
vs
TI.=-
I b
where 2, is the shear stress, V is the shear force, 1 is the second tno!nerit of the
area about the neutral axis, 6 is the width of the shear plane at tile level of
consideration and S is tile first moment of the area above the sllear plane taken
about the neutral axis.
It has been found by several researchers (e.g. Keenan, 1978) that the shear
stresses due to point loads near the supports are less than those calcuiated
according to elastic beain theory. This has led to the introduction of the so called
reduced shear force.
The contribution to the total shear force of a point Ioad F within a distance 211 of'
the support car1 be reduced according to the influence line given in Figure 2.
Figr~~.e
2
STEPJEUROF0RTECI.I- an initiative
'1:d
'
85d
Design example
Glulam beam will1 span 1 = 16 n r and cross-section b x 11 = 190 x 655 rz111t with
solid timber decking nailed to top suface of the beam. Strength class GL32
according to prEN 1194 "Timber stnlctures - Glued laminated timber - Strength
classes and determination of charncteristic values", with loading as shown in
Figure 3.
Design values for the governing toad case:
g, = 3 kN/ijt (permanent)
Dead load:
1;,= 20 kN (short term)
Variable lond:
EC5: Part 1-1: 3.1.7
Figlire 3
C~.iticallond ~rrangenre~zw.
Left support:
STEPlEUROFORTECI4 -
tin
itr
Section modulus:
W =13,6 10%r1rrt3
2 k,T,I
./;,,,,I
k,.,,, = 1 .O since the beatn is psevenled from bucltling laterally by the decking.
17,l c 17,2 N/ltwi2
'i:,,
.Ls.r/
Torsion
According to commonly accepted elastic theory ttie maximum torsional slress for
solid members can be written:
Circular cross-section:
- 2T
',or - TT r 3
where T,,, is tlle maximum torsional stress, T is the torsional monienl and r is
the radius of the section.
The iorsional stress distribution alo~lgthe principal axis for a rectangular section
is shown in Figure 4. The maximum stress value occurs at mid point of each
longer side.
Design example
GIulam colun~n(pole) with cross-section b s h = 140 x 300 n r t ~ r .Strength class
GL32 according to prEN 1 194.
Design values for the governing load case:
\I,, = 18 kN (shoit term)
Shear force:
T,, = 2,4 kNt11 (short: tertn)
Torsional moment:
ECS: Ptlri 1 - 1: 3.1.7
Service class 3:
Area:
A =42.10~mar'
E C ~ h: r t 1-1: 5.1 .S
According to Mohler and Hemmer (1977) the governing condition for the
combined action is:
There is no design (or characteristic) value, A,,, given, and so the.f,,-value is used,
which is on the safe side (Mohler and Hen~mer,1977).
Concluding summary
-
It is permissible to reduce the shear force due to point loads which are
For poles or masts embedded in the ground (and thus cantilevered) the
shear force may be high and therefore critical.
References
Barreit, S.D. and Foschi, R.O. (1980). Consider:lrion or size cfrccts in iongi!udinel shear strength.
In: Proc. of thc Cll3 W18 Meeting Otanicmi, Rnlnrtd Pnper 13-6-7.
Kecnan, F.J. (1978). 'Il~cdis~ributionol' shear stresses in timber benms. In: Proc, of the C1B WIX
Meelins Perth, Scotland Paper 9-10-1.
MBhler, I(, and Hemmer, K. (1977). Vcrrormungs- und FestigkeitsvcrhnIten von Nadclvoll- und
Rre~tschichtholzbci Torsionsbeanspructiung. Holz 81s Roh- und Wcrkstoff (35): 473-478.
Tirnoslrcnko, S. (1955). Srrength of materials - Par1 I, D,Ven Nostrand Company, Inc. Princeton,
Ncw Jersey, Third Edition.
Objectives
To develop an understanding of strength and fracture of' notched beams, and beams
wit11 a hole, and to review concepts of fracture mechanics, forming the theoretical
basis for the notched beam strength equation in EC 5.
Prerequisite
A4
Summary
The lecture begins with a general introduction to the performance of beams with a
notch or a hole. Then, a brief review of the concepts of frachlre mechanics is given.
For end-notched beams a strength equation from EC 5 is included and for glularn
beams with a hole an equation from literature is included. Some typical test results
are indicated. Methods for reillforcement are mentioned.
Introduction
In Figure 1 beatns with various types of notches or holes are shown. A notch or a
hole may very significantly reduce the load bearing capacity of a beam and should
preferably be avoided in design. Thougll not to be desired, a notch may be needed
in order to bring floors to desired levels, to give clearance or to enable fit between
structural members. In particular in very old timber construction, various types of
notches can be observed to have been e~uployedin the detailing of sti-ucturai joints.
Large holes in glulam beams can be required, for instance, for accommodating of
ventilation pipes.
Fignrc I
Fracture may develop from a notch or a hole as indicated by the broken lines in
Figure 1. The fracture is often of a very sudden and brittle nature, taking place
without being preceded by any large deformation or after visible warning.
Depending on the geometry of the beam, the rapid crack propagation along the
beam may or may not lead to a complete collapse of the beam.
The initiation of crack growth is due to perpendicular to grain tensiIe stress or shear
stress or a combination of the two. At the tip of a notch these stresses may become
v e ~ yhigh. According to linear elastic stress analysis the stress at the tip of a sharp
STEPIEUROFORTECCI- an initiative undcr tlie EU
Cor~lcttProgrnrnrnc
Figtrre 2
Stress ar rlrc lip cfcr ~rotchcrccordir~gro litleur elcisric rlicory citrcl CIS cstir~tcited
it! prc'ctice, ~u.specrii~ely.
Drying of the wood can give a very significant addition to the local high stress and
also itself cause the development of a crack at a notch or a hole. The effect of
drying is twofold. As end-grain is exposed bare at a notch or hole, the rate of
drying may locally become high. Moreover, the non-uniform cfiaracter of' the
geometry at a hole or a notch adds to the magnitude of the moisture gradients and
to tile prevention of free shrinkage of the material. To reduce the risk of fracture
caused by drying it is stated in design recorn~nendationsthat end-grain surfaces at
a notch or hole must be painted, or finished in some other way, so that moisture
transfer is prevented. The general recommendation to avoid notches and holes is of
particular relevance if the climate and relative humidity may vary.
Frcictc~~-e
rlzecha~rics- geneml
Fracture mechanics is a part of the science of the strength of materials. A solid
body responds to extreme loading by undergoing large deformation or fracture. The
phenomenon of fracture, i.e. separation, loss of contact, between parts of the body,
is the topic of primary interest in fracture mechanics. From an engineering point of
view, the calculation of the magnitude of load that causes fracture is of the lnost
interest.
In cases when there is no or only minor stress concentration, e.g. in the case of a
structural member in homogeneous tension or bending, the calculation of the
fracture load can be carried out by a conventional stress criterion. On the other hand
in the case of a very high stress concentration, e.g. at the tip OF a sharp notch or
crack, some other approach is needed. Then, within the framework of linear elastic
STEP/EUROFORTECM - an initiative undcr the EU Cornctt Programme
theory, a rational calculatior~of fracture load can be based on either analysis of the
.stress i~ite~tsit),
at the tip of the notch or else on analysis of the energy relense rate
when a crack is propagating. Although these two alternatives are fonnally different,
they are basically quite analogous. Here only the latter approach will be furtl~er
discussed.
Analysis of cracks within the framework of linear elastic theory is often called
lirreor elcrstic .fincrrrre rneclianics. B y other lnodels attelnpts are inade to consider
explicitly the non-linear performance of the material in the vicinity of the tip of the
crack. This refers in particular to the fracture softening and damage that talces place
in the .fr.rrcirire process regi011 in front of the open crack. In linear elastic fracture
mechanics this energy dissipating fracture process region is assulned to be very
small when colnpared with the size of the actual structural detail and is
lnathe~~iatica~ly
regarded as a point, i.e. a region of zero size.
The change of the potential energy, dW, during a srnail propagation, dci, of the
crack is then obtained by dcriv~t'
lon:
This decrease of the potential energy corresponds to a positive energy release, - (IIV,
and to a simullnneous increase of the fractured area by b cl a. The energy release,
-dW, pel- frncture area, b d o, is usually denoted C (after A.A. Griffith, who in the
1920s presented pioneering works on fracture mechanics)
STEP/EUROFORTECH
B 513
G = =-dW - F"~
bda bEl
When the load F is so large that the crack starts to propagate, G has reached its
critical value, G,. This value corresponds to the energy dissipating ability of the
material and is regarded as a matcrial property. For European softwoods, depending
on the de~isityof d ~ ewood, G,. is roughly in the order of 150 - 600 .1/Itr2 for
perpendicular to grain tensile fracture (Larsen and Gustafsson, 1990). Thus, the
fracture criterion is
G = Gc
(6)
wl~iclltogether with the expression for G, Equation (S),gives the fracture load PC:
The material properties that are decisive for resistance to crack propagation
are stiffness, here denoted by E, and fracture energy, here denoted by C,..The
perpendicular to grain terlsile strength of the material is not predicted to
i~ifluencePC,at least not directly.
b)
The load bearing capacity, is strorlgly size-dependent in the sense that the
magnitude of some forn~alstress at failure, e.g. I;;. /(bh), decreases if the
absolute size of the specimen is increased.
the above exarliple it has tacitly bcen assumed, by using Equation (2), that the
speciruen is sle~ider,i.e. that nicio I~/ciis small. The above method of calculntion can
be applied to other cracked geometries. Then Equation (2) lnust of course be
replaced by an equation relevant to the co~nplianceof the actual geometry.
I11
By the above method of tlleoretical analysis, for a beam loaded and with an endcrack according to Figure 4a) (Guslafsson, 1988) the load at crack propagation is
a and p are geometric ratios as defined in the figure. G,, and E,, are the n~odulus
of shear stiffness and the ~nodulusof elasticity parallel to grain, respectively. The
STEPtEUROFORTECI-I- nn initintivc under tile EU Cornett Progrnrn~rlc
same equation is valid for a square shaped end-notch, Figure 4b), and also for the
various types of notch indicated in Figures I g), 11) and i). For small notch depth,
i.e. for a close to 1,0,the resistance to notch failure is high. In that case also the
risks for ordinary shear failure and bending failure of the net cross-section, altb,
must be considered.
In Table 1 a few examples of various experimental results regarding short term load
bearing capacity are given. (From compilation of literature and tests: (Guslafsson,
1988) and (Riberholt et al., 1991).) The values indicated are mean values and they
were obtained for dried timber with a homogeneous moisture content. The
coefficient of variation for a test series is typically in the order of 20 %. Table 1
aims to illustrate the achral and low strength of notched beams even at the current
favourable conditions and how various parnmeters infiuence. It is interesting that
the mean value as well as the 5-percentile value of V, has been found to be higher
for specimens with a knot in the vicinity of the notch than for those without any
ltnot (Larsen and Riber-holt, 1972) and (Mtjhler and Mistler, 1978).
Pine
50
200
44
0,75
0.5
4,04
1,9L
Clulam
300
567
90
160
0,50
0,1S
2,16
120
32
0,83
0,75
0,50
0,33
0,25
0,92
0,42
380
I ,32
[,I3
Spruce
Gldnm
600
100
1.41
2,90
2,52
2,39
122
0,75
0,50
Spruce
95
45
0,75
0.33
O,G6
3,33
2,94
GIuinm
305
79
0,70
2,5
5,5
0,69
0,36
Spruce
95
45
0,75
0,33
0
I
3
3,44
4,7 1
2,16
GIulnnl
Tablc I
300
90
0,50
0,15
3,33
2,76
4.16
B5/5
ECj: part
1.7.2
From the above the risk of crack propagation from a notch is taken into account in
EC5 through a formal reduction by a factor k,,of the design shear strength,j;.,,,, of
the net cross-section ball:
For solid Limber k,, is set equal to 5,O and for glulam k,,is set equal to 6 5 . Note that
of another
the beam depth, h, 111ustbe in urn?.To avoid the risk of the deveiop~~~ent
mode of failure, shear failure in the net cross-section, a value of k,,greater rhan I ,O
may not be used in Equation (9). If the notch is located on the compression side of
the beam, Figure lc), k,. Inay be set equal to 1,O. Figure 5 illustrates how li,, is
affected by a, P, i and 11.
The EC5 equation refers to beams of stnlctural size. For very s~nnllrnembcrs the
non-zero size of thc fracture process region can be of importance, To consider this
ill an iipproxi~nateInanner the distance P h may in the calculations be assigned i1
somewhat increased value, e.g. increased by 10 I ~ I ~ Such
I .
a consideration is of
particular significance if parameters a, P iuld It are all small.
Figrrre 5
artd
i.
Various proposals for the calculation of the reduction factor lih,,J,can be found.
Based on test results, according to a Swedish glulam design manual (Carling and
Johannesson, 1958):
( I 2a)
For Dllr 5 0,1 : k,*,,= 1 - 5 5 5 ( ~ / k ) ~
For
(12b)
For circular holes D represents the diameter of the hole and for square and
rectangular holes D is the length of the diagonal. The hole is assumed to be placed
symmetricaily wit11 respect to the depth of the beam. Comers of the hole must be
rounded with a radius of curvature 2 25 ~ m l i ,the side lengtit ratio of rectangular
holes rnay not be greater than 3,O and a, see Figure 6, rnay not be less than 0,5.
Moreover, measures to reduce moisture variations in the timber are required.
Figlire 6
Equation (12) is based on several sets of lests,of glulaln beams of one size: Iz = 90
Intti and h = 500 1 2 1 ~ 1 (Johannesson, 1983). According to the actual design
recommendation, if 6 > 90 nrmt k,,,,,shall be multiplied by the furlher reduction
factor (90/b)"' before inserted in Equation (1 1).
In Equntion (12) there is no explicit consideration of bending. In the case of pure
bending, cracks have been found to develop as shown in Figure I I'). According to
the actual reconimendation, if less than 8 lamination boards remain in the net crosssection, the design bending strength shall be reduced by 25 %.
In Figure G a set of the shear loading test. results is sltown. The centre of each mark
represents the mean value of 4 tests. Maximum and minimum of the individual
values are indicated by the vertical bars. The quality of glulam tested was for D/lr
= 0 estimated to have mean shear srrength.f;, = 5,2 N/rnm2. The corners of square
and rectangular holes were rounded to r = 25 mnt, the beam size was 88 x 495
mm', the distance from supporl to centre of the hole was 1250 nrrrr and the side
length ratio of the rectangular holes was 3,0.To be perfect the curve in Figure 6,
representing Equation (12), should coincide with tlte mean value marks. Current
deviations are on tlte safe side,
STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr thc EU Comet( Programme
B517
Methods of reinforcement
Using a bolt as indicated in Figure 7a) it is normally required that the screw nut
must be re-tightened to avoid loss of stress due to creep and shrinkage. The method
according to Figure 7a) should in general be avoided. With a rod, bolt or screw
glued into a drilled hofe, Figure 7b), a reinforcement with high stiffness is achieved.
It must be noted that this arrangement prevents shrinkage of the wood and may
therefore cause cracking if the wood is dried. A steel plate nailed to the wood,
Figure 7c), may not be expected to have any very significant effect until tile wood
has cracked. Gluing and nailing plywood to the sides of the beam, Figure 7d) and
e), is from the technical point of view probably one of the best ways to reinforce
glulam at a hole or a notch. The giue is normally designed to be the active part, the
main purpose of the nails is to give pressure during hardening of the glue. Glassfibre reinforcement, Figure 7e) and f), acts in a similar way (Larsen et a]., 1994).
An advantage of glass-fibre reinforcement is its appearance: it is transparent and
looks like a thick lacquer. A disadvantage is that practical experience is as yet very
limited.
---.
Other strength and safety improving measures are by tapering, Figure 4c), and
rounding off. To achieve a proper effect by rounding off a notch, the radius of
curvature must be large, say at least 25 tntn.
Concluding summary
Notches and holes should preferably be avoided. They often give locally very
high perpendicular to grain tensile and shear stress that may cause crack
propagation. The fracture can be very sudcien and rapid. Moisture change
increases the risk of fracture.
--
.-
References
Carling, 0. and Johanncsson, B. (1988). Limtfihandboken (Glulnm manual). Svenskt limtrY,
Siockholm.
Gustaf'sson, P.J. (1988). A study of slrcngtti of notched beams. In: Proc. of CIB-W18A Meeting 21,
Parksville, Canada, Paper 2 1- 10-1.
Johanncsson, R. (1983). Design problems for glulam beams with holes, Thesis, Clialmers University
oTTecRnology, Swcden, 73 pp.. ISBN 91-7032-2.
Larsen, H.1, and Riberl~olt,H. (1972). Tests with not classified stmc(ttral timbcr. Rapport nr R 31 (in
Danish), Technical University of Denmark.
Larscn. N.1. and Gustnfsson. P.J. (1990). The fracture energy o l wood in lension perpenlficulnr to thc
grain - results from a joint tating project. In: Proc. of CIB-WISA Meeling 23. Lisbon, Portugal, Paper
23- 19-7.
Larsen, 1-1.3. (1 992). Latest development of Eurocode 5. In: Proc. or CIB W l8A Meeting 2.5, AIIUS,
Sweden, Paper 25-102-1.
Guslafsson, P.J. and Traberg, S.(1994). Glass fibre rciniorcernenl pcrpcndicular to grain.
Larscn, H.J.,
In: Proc. of t l ~ cPacific Timber Eng. ConT. 1994, Surfers Paradisc, Austnlia.
MBhtcr, K. and Mistlcr, ILL. (1978). Untersuchungcn uber den Einilui3 von Ausklinkungen im
Auflagcrbereich von Hofzbiegctdgern auf' die Tragi'estigkeit. Report, Lehrstuhl for Ingcnieurholzbau
und Baukonstruktionen, Univcrsitiit Karlsruhe, Germany.
Ribcrholt, I-I., Enquist, 9.. Guslnfsson. P.J. and fcnsen, R.B. (1991). Timber beams notched at the
supporl. Rcpoti TVSM-707 I , Lund University, Sweden.
Columns
STEP ~ccturcBG
Objectives
I-I.J. Blass
Delli University
o l Technology
Prerequisites
A7
A8
Summary
The lecture begins with a non-mathematical introduction of flexural buckling. It
presents the principal factors influencing the stability of colunins and shows how
the buckling curves in ECS Ilave been derived. A practical example of the design
of an eccentrically loaded column cornplclne~ttsthe lecture.
Introduction
When a slender colun~nis loaded axially, there exists a tendency for it to clef-lect
sideways. This type of instability is called flexurai buckling. The strength of slender
mernbcrs depends not onIy 011 the strength of the material but also on the stiffness,
in the case of timber colurnns rnainly on the bending stiffness. Therefore, apart
from the colnpression and bending strength, the modulus of elasticity is an
important inaterial property influencing the load-bearing capacity of slender
columns. The additional bending stresses caused by lateral deflections are taken into
account in a stability desigrt.
There are two principal ways to design a con~pressioninember: tile first involves
n second order analysis whereby the equilibrium of' monxnts and forces is
calculitted by considering tile deformed sl~apeof the respective member or stixcture.
The secorld approacl~uses buckling clrrves to account for the decrease in strength
of n real column compared to a compression member which is inlinitely stiff in
bending. Here, the stability design is ci~rriedout as a compression design with
~nodifiedco~npressionstrength. The decrease in load-bearing capacity depends on
the slenderness ratio of [he Inember in question and is based on the behnviour of
a two-hinged colu~nn(see Figure 1). For single metnbers or compression rnembers
STEP/BUROFORTECl-I- an initintivc u~ldcrthe EU Conlctt Programme
13611
A second group of factors also influencing column strength involves geometric and
material imperfections and variations. Since real structures are never perfect, these
factors have to be considered during the design of columns. However, because the
design engineer in general has no information regarding these factors, their
influence has to be taken into account implicitly. The influence of these factors on
the Ioad-bearing capacity of timber columr~sis included in the design rules in EC5.
Figrire 2
Stress-s~rrrit~
clrwc. of tittlber accorclittg to Glos (1978). A,, is t11ea.sy~t~ptotic
value of contpressiorl s~rettgtltcind E , , , i~ the con~prcsssivestrair~at fiiil~crc.
these properties and the shape of the stress-strain curve for both sawn timber and
laminations for glued laminated timber. From a knowledge of the density, the knot
size, the content of compressio~lwood and the moisture content it is possible to
calculate the stress-strain curve for a piece of timber.
40
80
120
I GO
h
Figitre 3
200
Si~nulatillga Iarge number of columns of the same slenderness ratio and strength
class, and subsequently calculating their ultimate loads, results in a distribution of
ultimate load values. The variation in the resulting column strength values is
determined by the variation in strength and stiffness properties as well as the
geometric imperfections. Frorn the distribution of ultimate load values, the 5percentile as the characteristic value is determined. This characteristic value then
represents one point on the buckling curve (see Figure 3).
Such simulations and ultirnate load calculations may be performed for a range of
slenderness ratios, resulting in a series of characteristic load-carrying capacities, or
buckling strengths. Characteristic buckling strengths for a range of slenderness
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an inili:~tive~inder11tc EU Comctl Programme
R6/3
figure 4
40
80
120
160
200
The calculation of the ultinlatc loads of the sitrtulated columns is based on a second
order plastic analysis, using the plastic defonuation potential of timber subjected to
compressive stresses. This method - although requiring a comprualiveiy long
calculation time, caused by the necessary iteration procedures - leads to higher
i~ltimateloads coltlpared with results based on an elastic solution, where the
ultimate load is defined as reaching the material strength in the most stressed fibre
in the critical cross-section. The plastic approach results in an increase in the
perforn~anceunder combined axial compression forces and bending moments.
Figurn 6
E C ~Part
:
1-1: 5.1.10
Buckling curves
ECS: port 1-1: 5.2.1
and
where
A, and h,,,, correspond lo bending about the y-axis (deflection in the z-direction),
hZand A,.,,, correspond to bending about the z-axis (deflection in the y-direction).
where oc,osd
is the design compressive stress and Lf;,,is the design coinpressive
strength. on,,:,,and or are the respective design bending stresses andf,+?, , and-f,,,,,,
the design bending strengths. k,,, is 0,7 for rectangular sections (see STEP lecture
B3) and 1,O for other cross-sections.
In all other cases the stresses should satisfy the following conditions:
P,
= O,:!
= 0,l
PC
The difference between solid timber and glued laminated timber is mainly caused
by the smaller initial curvature of glued laminated timber members and their smaller
deviations from target sizes. Moreover, the mean value, as well as the variation of
the moisture content, is lower in glued laminated timber columns compared with
solid timber columns. A higher moisture content causes a decrease in compression
strength of the timber and consequently a decrease in coIumn strength for low and
medium slenderness ratios whereas the modulus of elasticity, which mainly
determines the load-bearing capacity of slender columns, is hardly affected by a
change in moisture content.
Design example
Timber column with square cross-section 200 x 200 ~ ~ I Nbuclcling
Z,
length I s 4,O m.
Strength class C24 according to prEN 338 "Structural timber. Strength classes".
Design values of permanent and variable load for the governing load case:
permanent load: Gd = 162 kN (axial ioad, permanent)
variable load:
Q,, = 5 2 5 kNhr (line load, short-term)
Service class I :
k ,,, = 0,9
8, = 0.2
The design value of the member buckling resistance is calculated using the buckling
curves for solid timber:
(soIid limber)
Concluding summary
Timber columns that are not adequately restrained along their length are
subject to flexural buckling.
The buckling curves of ECS are based on a second order analysis where tile
plastic behaviour of timber under co~npressionstress was tilken into account.
The design of columns with A > 30 and subjected to bending stresses due to
lateral loads and eccentric axial load is based on a linear interaction of
buckling strengtll and bending strength.
References
Blass, I.I.J. (1986). Strcngtl~modcl for giularn colunms. In: Proc. ol' thc Joint Meeting CIB
W18IIUFRO S 5.02, Florence, [taly, Papcr 19-12-2.
Blass, 1I.J. (1987). Dcsign of timbcr colurnns. In: Proc, of [tic CIB W18 Mcaing, Dublin. Ireland,
Paper 20-2-2.
Blass, N.J. (1988). Tlic influence of creep and duration of load on thc design of timber colunms. In;
Proc, of tl~c1988 In[. ConC on Tirnbcr Eng. Scnttlc, U.S.A.
Glos. P. (1978). Zur Bcs[irnmung dcs Festigkcitsucrhaltcns von Rrcttschichtholz hi
Druckbcanspr~~chung
aus Wcrkstoff- und Eit~wirkunyslrcnngriiucn.
Dissertation, Tcchniscllc UnivcrsitYt
Mlinchcn, Germany.
Buclding lengths
STEP lecture R7
11.1. Blnss
Dclft Universily
of Technology
Objective
To describe the concept: of buckling (effective) length and its application in design
to practical colun?ns and frames.
Prerequisite
B6
Columns
Summary
The concept of the effective or buckling length is described. The principal factors
influencing the buckling lengtl~sof columns and frames as well as simple
approximations for practical cases are given. An example of n three-hinged frame
with semi-rigid comer connections complen~enfsthe lecture.
Introduction
Buckling curves for the design of timber colulnns are generally based on the load
bearing capacity of columns where both ends are simply supported (see Figure 1).
The support conditions of cornpression members in actual timber struchxres often
differ from those shown in Figure 1 . In order to be able to employ the buckling
curves in EC5 for these more practical cases, tile concept of an effective length is
used.
One example of the difference between real length and buckling length can be
found in the internal member of a truss. In practice, t l ~ eexternal members (chords)
are often braced at the outer edges of the top and bottom chord, respectively. In this
case, the buckling lengths of the internal members car1 be assumed to correspond
to tile distance between the braces and hence are larger than the distance between
the ~nembernodes.
The effective or buckling length of a con~pressionmember is defined as the length
of a hypothetical two-hinged column with the same elastic critical buckling load as
the member in question. Thc effective length can be visualised as the distance
STEPIEUROFORECH
B7/1
&tire
In this lecture, approximate solutions for the buckling lengths of different systems
are given. Where the approximate solutions do not apply, a second order analysis
shouid be carried out, calculating the equilibrium of moments and forces and
considering the deformed shape of the respective member or structure.
Figure 3
I-]:
6.1
--
133:
Part
Since completely rigid connections are almost impossible in timber structures, the
rotations in semi-rigid joints should be taken into account when determining
buckling lengths. The rotational stiffness K, of a semi-rigid connection is defined
as the moment necessary to cause an angle of rotation of one radian. With tile slip
modulus K,,of the fastener, the rotational stiffness of a setni-rigid connection is
calculated as:
--
where I ; denotes the distance between the single fastener and [he centre of the
conr~ection.As an example, the buckling length of the column in Figure 2 is
derived considering the influence of the rotation in the semi-rigid joint at tbe base
of the colurnn.
The approximate solutions for buckling lengths, ldcing into account the influence
of the rotation in semi-rigid joints, are valid in those cases wltere this influence
decreases the critical elastic buckling load by not more than about 20%.
M(x)
N yCy)
(2)
M(x=l)
N y(x=I)
K, yl(x=l)
yields
Compared to the critical elastic buckling load of a two-hinged coiulnn (Euler case
11)
lCJ
is giveti by
Interconnected colrrrnns
IF LWO-hingedcolumns are braced by a coIulnn clamped at its base (see Figure 5),
the critical buckling load of the cla~npedcolurnn decreases due to the additional
forces Ni which cause r\ horizontal force in the deformed system. Considering the
effect of the rotation in the serni-rigid joint at the columli base, the effective length
factor for the systein shown in Figure 5 (buckling in tlie systein plane) i s
approximately:
Arches
For three- and two-hinged arches (see Figure 6) with a ratio IT/[ between 0,15 and
0,5and essentially uniform cross-section the effective length for buckling in the
arch plane may be assumed to be
Lg = 1,25 s
(15)
where s equals half the arch length. The normal h r c e at the quarter point should
be used in the buckling design.
Figat-e 7
The-lrirrgeclf1'ff111~.
where N and No denote the axial forces in the column and the rafter, respectively.
For tapered rafters or columns equations (16) and (17) may be used provided the
second ~nomentsof area of the nfter and the colulnn are taken at 0,65sand 0,6511,
respectively (see Figure 7). These second moments of area are also used to
determine the slenderness ratios.
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under thc EU Comelt Progmmlnc
B 7/5
Figwe 8
N I I fltrec-hingedficltt~c
~
bclitll
V-slrriped colitn~trs(right).
For axi-symmetrical structures two types of buckling may occur: the first is the
buckling within the plane of the half-frame, the second is the rotational buckling
of the spatial structure (see Figure 9). The latter is characterised by rotation OF the
compression ring about the verticaI axis of symmetry. For 1 < P < 2 and ~ l / s< 0,2
the following approximate solution for the effective length factor for tile rdfter
of the half-frame exists:
Here, El is the bending stiffness of the rafter for bending about the vertical axis and
K, is the rotational stiffness of the connection between the rafter and the compression ring, also for bending about the vertical axis. For tapered rafters, the
bending stiffrtess is taken at a distance of 0,65 s from the semi-rigid rafter-compression-ring cor~nectionsimilar to the procedure for two- and three-hinged fratnes.
-7
Example
In the following example, the buckling lengths of the column and rafter of the
tbree-hinged frame shown iri Figure 10 are calculated. The influence of the semirigid conrlections in the frame corners is taken into account.
STEPIEUROFORTECN - an initiative under ;lie EU Comelt Programnle
Fig1tr.e 10
E,,
p,
K,,, =
K,, =
K, =
Equation ( 1 6 )
Column:
9600 N/IIII~'
410 kghi3
pkl" d / 20 = 410'" ' 24 1 20
2 KT,,/ 3
2 - 6640 . (20 . 550% 16 . 330')
STEPlEUROFORTECI-1:-
tin
= 9960 N/n~nz
= 6640 N/mut
= 76,9 . 10' Nntnr
initiative under ~ h EU
c Cornctt Progmmmc
Equation (17)
Rafter:
Concluding summary
References
Briininghofl, H. ct 81. (1989). I-lolzbauwcrke - cine ousfilhrlicl~cErliutcrung zu DIN 1052 Tcil 1 bis
Teil 3. Beutii. Berlin Kiiln, Germany, 238 pp.
tleimesf~ori',R. (1979). Be~ncssungvon l-iolzstiir~cnmit nachgicbigcm FuOanschluU. Holzbau Statik
Aktuell No. 3, Arbeitsgerneinsci~aitFlolz, Diisscidori, Germany.
Additional Notation
K, Rotational stiffness of a semi-rigid connection
r,
STEPIEUROFOR'TECH
Objectives
To describe tile special aspects of tapered, curved and pitched calnbered beams a i d
to present tlte design methods of EC5.
Prerequisites
A8
B1
Summary
Tile lecture starts with basic information relatecl lo stress calculations for tapered,
curved and pitched cambered beams and explains the parameters influencing the
bending strength. EC5 equations for cnlc~~lalion
and design are given. Two practical
examples, one for a curved beam and the other for a pilched cambered beam,
complete the lecture.
Introduction
Glued laminated beams are often tapered andlor curved in order to m e t
architectural requirements, to provide pitched roofs, lo obtain niaxi~tiurninterior
cleara~ice,and to reduce wall height require~nentsat the end supports. Tile most
commonly used types are the single tapered beem, the curved beam with constant
cross-section, the double tapered beam and the pitched cambered beam (see
Figure I).
Fig~~1
re
In tlie apex zone of' curved and tapered beams the distribution of the bending
stresses is also non-linear. In the apex zone of curved and tapered beams the
distribution of the bending stresses is also nonlinear. Additionally, radial stresses
perpendicular to the grain are caused by bending moments. Figure 2 shows an
incremental section of a curved beam to illustrate the distribution of the bending
stresses. The fibres on the inner side of the beam are shorter than those on the outer
side. Based on Navier's theory and assun?illg the neutral axis at mid-depth the
strains at the edges are as follows:
E
'
Adl.
= I
dl,
i r e2
>
Ad1
O
dl,
E0
Thus, in accordance with Hooke's law, the nlaximum bending stress 1 cr, I is greaterthan 1 o,,. Equilibri~~~n
of the internal rorces over the cross-section is only possible
if the neutral axis is closer towards the inner edge. The distribution of the bending
stresses is therefore non-lincar and hyperbolic with the maximum stress at the inner
Fibre. For design purposes the maximum bending stresses can be calculated
approximately (Blumer, 1975, 1979) by 111odifyingkf/lV with a shape factor k, (k,
> 1, see Figure 7) which depends on the ratio of the cross-section depth a1 tlie apex,
Iz,,,,, to the radius of curvature of the centerline of the member, 1; as well as for
tapered beams on the slope of the top face, a. For cur-ved beams of constant depth,
a = 0.
These stresses are reduced due to plastic deformations and relaxation, but they have
STENEUROFORTECH - an initi;~tivcundcr the EU Comeu Progrumn~e
to be taken into account in cases of large curvature. Thei-efore, the design bending
strength of the beam has to be modified by a curvature factor li,.
Figure 3
Figlrre 4
At the edges of' tapered beams with sawn tapered cuts, stresses perpendicular-tograin arid shear stresses coexist with bending stresses (see Figure 4). The
perpendicuiar-to-grain stresses are in co~npressionor in tension, depending on
coinpressive 01- tensile bending stresses, respectively.
This stress cornbination can be lalten into account in the design procedt~resby using
3 reduced design bending strength, J;;,.,,,as de~nonstratedin Equation (7).
Design Procedures
Sir~gletopel-ed ben~~ts
WItere the grain is parallel to one of tlte surfaces, and the slope a < lo", the design
bending stress in the outernlost fibre, where llte grain is parallel lo the surface,
sllould be calculated as (see Figure 5):
;in irlitii~livcilndcr
B 8/3
o,,,,,,d
(1
4 tan'ol)
6Md
-
bk'
The rnaxil~lunlstress condition occurs at the paint s,where 30/3,~= 0. In the case
of uniformly distributed load s ~'esultsin:
x = 1 1 (1 -1. /lop 1 /is)
In the oulertnost fibre at the tapered edge the stresses should satisfy the following
condition:
u,,a,d
'
(6)
L,a,d
where
P
in tile case of con~pressivestresses parallel to the tapered edge (in the case of
tensile stresses, f,,,,,,, in Equation (7) is replaced by A,,).
The slope angle a is defined in Figure 6. For curved beams wit11 constant crosssections, the slope angle a sliould be assumed as a: = 0".
Fiigrtre 6
The design tensile stress perpendicular to the grain due to the bending ~noment
should be calculated as follows:
where
with
1c5= 0,2 tana
k,
= 0,25
1,s tana
2,6 t d c t
(17)
Mi,,,,,, is the design bending snoment at the apex. In the apex zone, the design
bending stresses sllall satisfy the following condition:
'm,d
'
(1 9)
krf;n,d
where
k r =
for
r , , It
for
2 240
In tile apex zone the design tensile stress perpendicular to llie grain should satisfy
tile following condition:
'r,eo,d
'
k d ~(0'
lv)O'z-6.9o.d
(21)
where k,,is a Pictor which takes into account the stress distribution. The ratio of
the reference volume I/,,= 0,OI 1 1 1 ~to the stressed volume V considers the influence
of the volume on the perpendicular-to-grain tensile strength (see STEP lecture B1).
I/ should as a rnaxirnum be taken as 2/3 of tile whole beam volume Y,, (see
Table 1).
1.0
0,oo
0,l
0,3
0.4
l'cl,P
Figtire 7
= 1,4
= 1,4
k,,
Pitched cambered
Table I
I,7
V=
crrt-rlatlim, r;
P b ( /to,,2
180
0,5
b sinacosa ( r ,
/r
2
Zri,,hOp)s ?V6
tana
V = bltop ( 1 - -)
0.4
0,3
I1'IP
k,
0,2
0,l
fr
constant
beam
0,s
/r,,J2
- V6
3
- ria 180
Design examples
Curved i~enuzptritl~ constci~~t
CI.OSS-S~C~~~~Z
Material:
Figure 8
Elc~~atiorr
c111dS~I.E.SSdtstribtttior~ut ~ e - ~ jcrrrved
u r fienrtl of cotlstarlt crosssecriorl trr~cler~itlifOrt?t
load qtP
v=1,40m3
kd,=1,4
k,=1,0
k,,
0,2 tanlo'
c
2,6 tan210' )
, = 0,36
. 0,065
0,041
~ / ~ i t l l t ~
The failure condition of the perpendicular-to-grain tensile stress is not satisfied. This
compared to the curved beam. One reason is the fact that in Equations
is s~~sprising
I3817
(14)-(18) a constant Inornent is assumed to act in the curved part of' the beam. A
more accurate calculation shows that the stresses in a pitched cambered beam under
uniformly distributed loads are 20 % less, whereas the stresses in the curved beam
remain aln~ostunchanged (Ehlbeck, ICutth, 1990). Nevertheless, differences exist
between the results from tile design methods of' EC5 and test results showi~igthat
both beam types have similar failure loads.
Concluding summary
[n single tapered, curved, double tapered and pitched cambered beams the
tensile bending stresses at the inner edge are greater than in straight beams.
Tapered edges reduce the bending strength because of' the combined effects
of bending, compression, tension and shear parallel and perpendicular to the
grain.
Bending of the laminates in curved beains reduces the bending strength when
the radius of curvature is small.
References
Norwegian lnsliiutc
of Wood Tcchnoiogy
Ohjectives
To introduce glued thin-webbed I-beams and box beains and to explain the
background to the design method given in EC5.
Prerequisites
Wood as a building material
A10 Wood-based panels - Plywood
A1 1 Wood-based panels - Fibre board, particle board and OSB
A17 Serviceability limit states - Deformations
A4
Summary
The lecture starts with a general description of a thin-webbed beam. It then
covers the necessary design controls based on E C ~and provides n brief
lieo ore tical background. A design example is given.
Introduction
A glued thin-webbed bean1 conlprises three main parts as follows:
flanges,
web,
The flanges are often tnade of finger jointed structur~nltilt~ber,but they can also
be made of otller materials such as glued laminated timber or laminated veneer
lurnber (LVL). The main purpose of the flanges is to carry the stresses caused by
bending moments and axial forces. Since tlre flanges normally have slnait
dimensions it is important that the material has few and smalf defects.
Tile web (or webs) are made of different wood-based panel materials such as
plywood, particleboard, fibreboard etc. Tile main purpose is to carry the stresses
from shear forces. For long beams it may be necessary to have joints in the web.
If the web joints are put in regions with low shear force they can be made as
butt joints. If not it will be necessary to reinforce tile web joint. It may also be
necessary to reinforce the web at the supports. The reinforcement can be made
with gusset plates of wood-based panels which are nailed or glued to the web.
The reinforced web at joints and supports must be designed to accom~nodatethe
actual shear forces.
Production
Glued thin-webbed beams are normally produced in an industrial process. To
achieve an adequate glued connection between the web and the flanges it is
important that the temperature is correct (see STEP lecture Al2). It is illso
important that the faces of tile Ranges have been planed and cleared just before
gluing and that the moisture content in both the flange and web materials is
under control.
When the glued thin-webbed beams are used as ~uernbersin lloor, roof and wall
constructions the depth of the beam ~niglitbecome quite big (300 - 500 17zr11).
This makes it easy to accommodate different types of technical equipment. The
depth will also give roonl for enough insulation material where this is required.
In countries with cold wintcrs the di~nertsionof' the studs are defined by the
demand of insulation thickness. By using a glued thin-webbed profile it is
possible to optimize the material consun~ed.
The use in seiavice class 3 might be Iiniited because of the web material's
restrictions for use in this class.
Lateral stability
Flanges which carry compression stresses rnust be supported to prevent lateral
deflection and buckling. When the beams are used in floor cotistn~ctionas
sirnply supported beal~lsthe connection between the compression flange and the
floor oficn will be sufficient to avoid lateral instability. Care must be taken
where the cottipression stress changes from one flange to the other, as for
example at the il.ltermediate support of' a continuous beam.
--
--
Figrrra I
Effective area:
Flirirgw
The n~aximun~
stress in the extreme fibres of the compression flange is given by
the following equation:
The axial stress at the centre of: gravity of the compression flange is given by the
following equation:
where
STEPIEUROPORTECI-I- an initiative undcr the EU Cometi Progrnrnmc
0913
kid
yo
is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam and the ultilnate fibres
of tile flange. For sy~nmetricalcross-sections y,, = hl2 when h is the depth
of the beam,
is the axial load (in addition to the bending moment), can be compressive
or tensile, and
y,
is the distance between the neutral axis of the bearm and the centre of
gravity in the compression flange.
When the actual stresses are calcu1aled they must be compared with the design
strength values of the Flange:
'~c.rrmr,d'fm,d
(5)
Where k,, is a factor which takes into account lateral instability. The factor 14.
may be determined (conservatively, especially for box beams) according to EC5,
5.2.1 with
EC5:Part 1 - I : 5.3.i(3)
rnb
= ----...-1,
(7)
I, is the distance between the sections where lateral deflection of tlie compression
flange is prevented, and O is the thickness of the flange.
The stresses in the tensile flanges are calculated accordingly.
When the equation is corrected in accordance to the actual load duration and
service class, it can be expressed as:
where y , is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam and the point
where he stress value is calculated.
Co~~rpression
side of tlie web
Thc maximum stress in the compression zone of the web can be calculated ns:
where g,,,,,, is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam and the
compression edge of the web.
This stress shall satisfy the following condition:
EC5: Part 1-1; 5 . 3 . 1 ~
(12)
CI,~:c,max,dsfc,tcgd
where )I,,,., is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam and the tensile
edge of the web.
This stress shall satisfy the following condition:
EC5: part 1-1: 5.3.lf
'tv,f,mn,d
(14)
'fi,,v,d
and .f;,,,,., are the compressive and tensile bending strengths of the web.
Unless other values are given, tile design compressive and tensile strength of the
web should be taken as the in-plane design compressive and tensile strengths.
J;.,,l,,rr
h,,, 70 b,,
Vds 5
(15)
,n 1
where
V,,
ti
Shear stresses irz tlie gIlted joiizt befiveen the flnizges mtd the web
As previously mentioned it is advantageous that the capacity of the glue-line is
higher than the corresponding capacities of the flange and web material.
Normally the weakest link in this joint will be the rolling shear strength of the
web, f;,,,,,. It is assumed that the *design shear stress (T,,,,,,,,,)at the actual section
is uniformly distributed.
T,,,,,, can be expressed by the following equation:
where
5'' is
the first moment of plane area for a flange, calculated from the
B 915
neutral axis of the beam cross-section and I, is the total length of the glue-line in
the same flange.
ECS: Pert 1-1: 5.3.1
ir
4 b,,l
r,,lm,d
.,
!
,I.
,I.
(19)
for. l y 4 b,,,
Example
F ,
= 18kN
V,
= 4,8 kN
The actions are assumed to consist of 25% permanent load and 75% mediumterm load.
Flanges:
0,95
Web:
particleboard according to EN 312-6, r = 10 ~rini.
.f;
= 5.97 ~/nlrrl'
,
= 4,44 ~/,rlin' ,
= 3,30 N ~ I z ~ '
.f;,,q,l,il= 0,804 N/nttn2
E ",,.,, = 2475 N/iilm3
#.,+
,.
Medium-term:
Permanent:
k ,
k,,
= 0,75
= 2,25
kt,,,,, = 0.55
Since the particleboard web shows larger creep deflections than the solid timber
flanges, the norrnal stresses in the flanges will increase and in the web decrease
in time. Consequently, the normal stresses in rlte web are calculaled at
inshnlaneous and in the flanges at final deformalion.
(50iF)]
Corzrrol of the shear stress in the glued joint befivee~rj7cirzges and Web nt
filzal defom~atiorr
Since the normal stresses in the flanges will increase in time, the shear stresses
in the glueline between web and flanges will also increase. ConseqtientIy, the
shear stresses in the glueline are calculated at find deformation.
Calculation of deflections
Deflections of glued thin-webbed beams are calculated according to the same
principles as given for solid timber. NevertheIess it is important to remember
that the shear deflection in this case also has to be considered.
The deflection from a given load is then expressed by:
where A and B denote factors given by the type of load and the structural
system. Unless a more detailed analysis is made, the shear deflection can be
based on the real area of the web (A,,,),
Objectives
J.G.M.Raadschcldcrs,
M.J. Blnss
Delft University
or Technology
Prerequisites
B4 Shear and torsion
B I I Mecllanically jointed beams and colu~nns
Summary
The lecture begins with a general description of the layout of stressed skill panels.
Tlte concept of the effective flange width is introduced and the composite action
between webs and panels, depending on the type of connection, is explained.
Finally the calculation method is demonstrated.
Another fonn of stressed skin pnnel is the sandwich panel where wood-based panel
flanges are separated by an intermediate core such as foam or honeycomb. The
principles of the design method of this panel are outlined at the end of the lecrure.
Introduction
Stressed skin panels consist of webs in the direction of the span connected with
wood-based sheets forming tlle skins on one or both sides. In most cases the webs
are made frotn solid timber whereas the sheets may consist of plywood, OSB,
particleboard or fibreboard. The connection can either be glued or made with
mechanicaf fasteners such as nails, staples or screws. Stressed skin panels are
mostly used in prefabricated timber frame construction as bending members for
floors and roofs or as walls loaded in compression, bending and racking. Due to the
connection between webs and flanges the stressed skin panel acts as a composite
rnelnber and consequently the bending stiffness and bending capacity will exceed
the values of the webs alone.
Figtrc I
Co~~,s~rrrcriott
of a slrcs.~cdskirt punel. (a) ~wb.r,(f3) Blocks nnrIf7angc splices,
( c ) jlu~lges,(cl) .srres.sed skiri pariel.
B 10/1
Flanges
The thickness of wood-based panels used as flanges is usually between 10 nzm and
19 tttrrt. If plywood is used the grain-direction of the ,face veneer can either be
oriented perpendicular or parallel to the webs. The choice of the direction is
influenced by the web spacing (bending of flooring) and the method of production.
If the orientation is perpendicular to the webs, the bending capacity of the flanges
between the webs is higher allowing larger web spacings. In this case, however, the
strength and stiffness of the wood-based panel acting as part of the composite
member is smaller compared with an orientation parallel to the webs. If large panels
are prefabricated, tile wood-based panel sheets have to be connected by splice
joints. These joints can be made as glued scarf or finger joints or as lap joints using
blocks on the inside of the panel. Fewer joints will be necessary if the longer
direction is parallel to the webs. In designing stressed skin panels care needs to be
taken to check the direction of the face grain in ~*eiationto the longest side of the
panel.
Figure 2
Webs
Apart from sawn timber, glued laminated timber, wood-based panels or
prefabricated I-beams can be used for the webs. The thickness of sawn timber webs
for wall panels is usually between 38 ~ n r t tand 80 ~rrazand the depth between 80 I ~ I
and 200 tttm. For floor or roof panels the corresponding dimensions are between 38
rnttt and 63 nzm for the thickness and 150 ~nnrto 300 mnz for the depth. The depth
of the webs is not only influenced by the necessary stiffness and load-carrying
capacity of the stressed skin panel but also by the thickness of insulation layers. If
mechanical fasteners are used in the joints, the minimurn edge distances of the
fasteners have to be considered when detennining the web thickness. In glued
stressed skin panels the narrow edges of sawn timber webs have to be planed
(regularised) before gluing. The web spacing usually lies between 300 ~nnrand 625
rurrt and for efficiency should be related to the sheeting size.
~ I
Co~~?zections
In the case of glued panels, the connection between flange and web is assumed to
be infinitely stiff. Consequently, a linear strain distribution over the depth of the
composite cross-section may be assumed. In the case of mechanically jointed
panels, however, the slip between flange and web has to be taken into account (see
STEP lecture B 1 1).
modulus. The effective flange width decreases with increasing ratios E/G and b,/I.
A mathematical derivation of the effective flange width, taking into account the
shear defomation in the flange can be found in Mohler et a!. (1963). The resulting
ratio between the effective and actual flange width brJlhJ for uniforn~lyloaded
beams on two supports is:
where
a1 =
A, * bf
2 2
EC5 gives the following approximation for the effective flange width b,,. for Ibeams (or internal beams), respectively:
b, =
4 , + 4, for b
(8)
~ +,b , 1 3
B 1013
The values of b,, and bLefshould not be greater thail the maxirnutn value calculated
for the shear lag. In addition the value of b,,, should not be greater than the
maximum value caiculated for plate buckling. The values according lo EC5 are
given in Table 1.
Flange material
Platc buckling
Shear lag
0,15 1
25 11,
0,2 1
30 11,
Tuble I
kIc~~irtucrn
effcctille flrl~lgert~idthsrl~reto shenr Irlg atrcl p1c1te biickli~~g.
Figure 4 shows the effective flange width according ro equation (1) and the
corresponding approximation of EC5 for shear lag. Most stressed sicin panels in
practice show ratios b,/l slnaller that1 0,3.
0,o
-1
II
0,O
0,3
o,4
o,G
II
0,8
b,./l
l,0
EC5.
b,f
4,- 4%
,I.
25 11,
20 lrf
Figrtre 6
The shear stress at the joint between the web m d the flange is:
For stressed skin panels with flanges at both top and bottom and for mechanically
jointed stressed skin panels reference is made to EC5 Appendix B and STEP lecture
B11.
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under rhc EU Comctt Progrnmmc
B 1015
Design example
A stressed skin panel used as a flat roof bending member on two supports, span
I = 4.7 nr, web spacing bf + b,, = 625 nun, nailed connection between flanges and
web. The design example only covers the stresses at the instantaneous deformation.
A tnethod for determining the stresses at the final deformation, using the
appropriate values of k,,,, is s11ow1.1in STEP lecture B9.
Characteristic and design values of permanent and variable load per web for the
governing load case:
permanent load: g, = 0,31 kN/t,i
g , = 0,42 kN/r)z (permanent)
q, = 1,25 kNha q, = 1,88 kN/t~r (medium-term)
variable load:
Top flange:
Webs:
Bottorn flange:
Service class I :
.fnt.vo.k
Ec,.~.nrmtt
GK,,~,.,
h,9u,k
E
, , , , ,o,c
p,
= 22,O N/III~H'
E O ~ , ~ ~ , ~= 10000 N / I ~ I ~ I $p,
Webs:
fn1.k
Bottom flange:
f,,,,,
Er.o.tr*ean
Glj.nlrl,n
Nails:
= 12,l N/tt1ni2
= 5600 Nhnm'
= 500 Nhat~t'
d
&'Yak
= 8,4 N/tnin2
= 4400 N / n ? t ; ~ ~
= 41 0 kg/ni3
= 2,4 N . t t ? ~ n ~
= 340 kg/,,i3
= 12,9 N/tnrn2
&,,,o,k
= 7000 N h ~ l i l i ~
,,,,
= 500 N/I~ZIII' p,
= 7,2 Nhnni2
= 4700 N/t?tm2
= 4 10 kg/ni3
= 4,O rnrn
= 6620 Ntnnt
= 40 tntlt
The design load-carrying capacity per shear plane per fastener of the nailed panelto-timber joints is:
Top flange - web:
R,t
= 903 N
Bottom flange - web:
R,,
= 842 N
The instantaneous slip modulus per shear plane per fastener of the nailed panel-totimber joints results as:
K,, = 583 Nhtznt
B 1016
II1177
According to Mohler er al. (1963), an effective flange width for the top and the
bottom flange of b,/ = 567 ~ m nand b,, = 564 I I I I ~ I ,respectively, results.
11,
(tl1111)
Table 2
EC5
16
16
180
180
Md =
(gd
4d)
l 2 - (0242
For the calculation of the design stresses, the effective bending stiffness based on
the effective flange width according to EC5 is used.
EC5: Part 1-1: B3a
-t-
a? = 89 ~ ? l r ~the
z design sliear stress results in:
A detailed buckling analysis is not necessary since the clear flange width h, = 585
is smaller than twice the effective width due to plate buckling:
I ~ I I ~
Instantaneous deflection:
"imr
kk
qx-1 "1
384 ( E l ) ,
Sandwich panels
Sandwich panels with faces consisting of wood-based panels and a core of
expanded foam are increasingly used as walls or roofs in timber frame buildings
and as roof eIemenis for industrial buildings. The faces often consist of
particleboard, the core of polyuretl~aneor polystyrene foams.
Using the following assumptions, three layer sandwich panels can be calculated
as mechanically jointed components:
the norinal stresses in the foam core in the direction of the member axis are
disregarded,
the shear deformations in the foam core are taken into account by replacing
the joint stiffness K/sin a mechanicaIly jointed component by G,,,,,llt for the
sandwich panel. Here, K is the slip modulus and s the fastener spacing, G,,,,,
is the shear modulus and A the thickness of the foam.
Concluding summary
Stressed skin panels are primarily used as bending members in floors and
roofs and as compression members in walls.
For maximum economy, the size of stressed skin panels as well as the web
spacing should col-respond to the di~nensionsof the wood-based panels.
References
Aicher, S. and von Roll), W. (1987). Ein modjfizierles 7-Vcrf~hrcnfur das mechnnische Analogon:
dreiscl~icl~tiger
Sandwictlvcrbund - zwciteiiiger verschieblicher Vcrbund. Bautechnik 64 (1): 21-29.
S%PEUROFORTECII
13 10/9
Y-
Mechanically jointed
beams and columns
STEP lecture I3 1 1
Objectives
14. Krcuzingcr
To explain the computation and design of mechanically jointed beams and columns,
to provide analytical solutions, and to illustrate the use of computer programs.
Tcchnische Univcrsit8i
Miincheri
Prerequisites
B2 Tension and colnpression
B3
B6
C1
Bending
Colunu~s
Joints
Summary
An exn~npleof a beam made of two parts is illustrated, for wl~ichnnalytical
solutions for computing stresses and deformations are derived, The possibjlity of
using a computer program for the design of such beams is indicated. A design
example is provided.
Introduction
Cross-sections of beams or columns may be composed of several components,
connected by mecllanical joints. Longitudinally h e cross-sections are not jointed.
In the junction between the individual composites, the mechanical joints mairlly
carry shear forces.
Thus a wide variety of cross-sections (see Figures 1 and 2) ]nay be built. The
dowelled beam is known from ancient timber constructiorrs. Adding additional
cross-section parts is a suitable way of strengthening an existing profile. These parts
may be of solid timber, glued laminated timber or wood-based materials.
For coiumns, cross-sectional parts are often separated by gussets at a given distance.
Especially for beams the cross-section with two flanges connected by a web, which
carries tile shear, is very common. The flanges may be of solid timber or glued
lalninated timber, the web may be of planks, wood-based panels or lately steel. It
is also possible to build a co~npositestructure from a concrete piate and a timber
tension flange.
Figtire 2
BII/I
Semi-rigid joint
The connection of a number of cross-sections is made by mechanical fasteners such
as nails, boIts, dowels or nail plates (glued joints are regarded as rigid connections).
Each joint is stressed by shear forces causing a displacement. The relation between
the displacement of the cross-section parts 11 and the force is specified by the slip
modulus K. Figure 3 shows some corninon patterns of joints, the dispfacernent u
and the shear force v .
Figrrre 3
If the distance between the fasteners is considerable or if the joints are concentrated
at very few points, the computational model of a continuous joint: is no Ionger valid,
and a different mechanical model is required, for instance a frame model.
Computation methods
Beants
For beam design the following parameters are required: stresses a and t in all
parts, forces in the joints and deflections. For mechanically jointed beams, the
bending-theory for beams is no longer applicable because of the slip in the joints.
However, the theory is applicable to individual components.
Analytical solutions are developed by use of differential equations of equilibrium
(Mohler, 1956; Heimeshoff, 1987) or energy considerations and specially developed
design programs are available, see for example Icneidi (1991). The development of
the differentia1 equations is conveniently shown in a T-cross-section rnade of two
parts (Figtlre 4).
The solutions require that for every part simple bending-theory is valid and shear
displacelnent is omitted. The connection is regarded as continuous and the profile
and the joint stiffness are constant in the direction of the beam's axis.
---
..
;)
15 - I',+ w ,(I;- + 2
= u2 - ul + w ' a
ir is independent of the position of the joints. The critical di~nensionis the distance
a of the axes of the cross-sectional parts. The derived equations are not only valid
for cross-sectional parts located one upon another, as shown in the T-profile, they
also apply to cross-sectional parts located side by side. This is only true if shear
deformation is neglected.
N,' + \'
=0
(7)
M~' = v l - v -"11
2
(gal
The sum of ( 9 4 and (9b) is differentiated once with respect to s and V' is replaced
by the tenn -I>:
hii'' t M,"
+ s' a + p = 0
(1 0)
If the internal forces and moments are repiaced using elasticity principles, the
following system or differential equations results:
(11)
(13)
(1 3)
In this way three equations of equilibriuin (7), (8) and (10) are formulated for the
three defontii\tions i f , , it, and III.
The variation of the elastic energy is also determined from these equations:
~ = 2~ ~ [ E , A ~ ~ ' ~ ' ~ E ~ A , ~ ~ ~ ' + ( E ~ I , + E , I ~ )(14)
W " ~
+k($ - u l + w i n ) ' - ~ ~ w ] d x
-
Elastic foundation effect k,,,, and the influence of second order- theory effects could
be taken into account by adding the term li,,.\I> - No n ~ "to Equation (13).
For single span beams with a sinusoidal load distribution, a simple, analytical
solution can be given because the shape of the deformations in the direction of the
axes corresponds to cos- or sin-functions. Altl~oughthe derivation is based on the
synusoidal load distribution, the solution is also applicable to most other load
distributions.
p = p o "(;x)
(15)
These terms, when placed in Equations (111, (12) and (13), give a system of
equations for the constants rr,,, I f ? , and IV,:
x
k- a
1
n"
n
k- a
I
- ( E l Il + E2 I,)
iJ
kn
-a2 =
1
-1
1
k I =--n2 EiAt and y 1 = "1
i l +k,)
With these deformations and applying elastic principles, the stresses can be
computed. The stress in the axis of part 1 of the cross-section is (Figure 6):
o1= El lt { (.v
= 112) =
-El
l t I O ~
( 1 9)
Y I E I A I ~.
Y tElA, 44-42 '
the stress is
a2 =
This type of the equation is equivalent to the equation For the stress in a simple
beam. In EC5, Annex B, further equations are given.
EC5: Part 1-1: 5.1.9, 5.1.10
The bending stresses and [he stresses in the axes of the ~nembersmust verify the
condition of combined bending with axial tension or axial compression. If necessary
the stability condition must also be satisfied such that:
STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative under tile EU CorneH Prograrnlne
B1 I15
'
or,tt~i k
(22)
i t xtt.t,
kc, takes account of the bending stress according to the lateral deformation resulting
from 2nd order tlleory effects. For this purpose the critical bending stress is
necessary. The bending stiffness of tlie beam about the wealc axis and the torsion
stiffness are required.
Co/in~zn.s
The computation of mecllanically jointed columns has to allow for buckling, and
the influence of 2nd order theory. It is clear that the effective bending stiffness
(El),. is the dominant factor for buckling. If the expression N,, . 1v" is included in
tlie Equation of equilibrium (13) and if the determinant of the equilibrium equations
is set to zero, the buclcling load is also obtained.
Each member of a coiiiposile colurnu coi-responds to the simple column, and for
each unernber of the cross-section the relative slenderness arid the buckling factor
can be computed.
If, at tlie same time the column is stressed by bending, the bending stress nii~stbe
superimposed. Normally the design will be governed by colnpression in a single
member such that
PO l4
( E l ) =ef
MIO
n4
Design example
Figure 7 shows a beam made up of a single plywood flange and a timber web
jointed by nails. The desigii stresses and moduli are also given.
Design values
1
2
'0,rrtner
fc.,~,k
x.+o,d
.f;.o.d
./;II,~/
4500
11000
19,5
21,O
I2,O
8,0
8,6
12,O
12,9
(N/1121112
14,7
Computation
EC5:Part 1- 1: A~lncxI3
Values of cross-section:
Stresses in LIE middle of the span caused by a bending moment h/l, = 6,4S kNr~r
= 0,5 1 N/1711ti2
= 1,25 N ~ J I I ~ I '
B 1 117
Maximum force li, in the joints for a shear force V,, = 4 . 3,613- = 7,2 k N .
F,
10' = 741 N
Concluding summary
References
MBhler, K. (1956). fjber das Trngvcrhaltcn von Dicgctdgcrn und Druckstiiben mit zusnmmengestezten
Qucrschnitten und nacllgiebigcn Vcrbindungsn~ittcl~~.
I-iabilitation, Technischc Universitlit Karlsruhe.
Gcrmany.
I-Icirncshoff; B. (1987): Zttr Bcrccllriurig von BicgctriBgcrn nus nocligicbig mitcinandcr vcrbundenen
Quersclinittstci[cnin1 Ingcnicuri~olzbau.ln: Holz Roh-WcrkstofF45:237-247.
Kneidl, R. (1991). Bin Bcitrag zur linearcn und nicbtlincaren Rerechnung von Schichtbnlkensystemen.
Dissertation, Tectlnischc Univctsitlt Miinchen, Germany, Bcrichtc aus deli1 Konstruktivcn
Ingenieurbau, 619 1.
Trusses
STEP tccture 13 1 2
Objectives
Prerequisites
A17 Serviceability limit states - Deformations
BZ Tension and compression
B3 Bending
3 6 Columns
B7 Buckling lengths
Summary
Proceeding from three dimensional trussed structures the shape and the
appropriate load-bearing bel~aviourof plane trusses is discussed. Tile lay-out of
various types of trusses is shown and indications of the selection of the web
system are given. T11e principles and rules of EC5 for a general and simplified
analysis are described. Strength verification rules and limits of deflection
complete the lecture. Exrtmples are included at various stages.
General
Trusses are built to cover spaces (living rooms, In general, the members are
statically represented by three diinensional straight rods which have six degrees
of freedom (three displacements and three rotations) at each end. For static and
fabrication reasons, very often, the three dimensional truss struct~treis built up of
two dimensional vertical trusses (truss A) which are erected parallel or
concentrically and joined together by two dimensionally inclined trusses (trusses
B1 -B4) between them (see Figure I).
F i r 1
Truss A is intended to cany only the loads which act in the plane of the rmss
and hence it follows that statically truss A is a plane problem and consists of
lnernbers (plane rod elements) which have three degrees of freedoln only (two
displacements and one rotation) at each end, In EC5 these elements are called
beam elements.
B 1211
E C ~ P,W
:
1- 1: 5.4.1.1
Unless a more general inodel is used, trusses shall be represented for the
purpose of analysis by bean1 elements set out along system lines and
connected together at nodes (e.g. as sfiown in Figure 2).
The system lines for all members shall lie within the member profile, and
for external members shall coincide with the member centre line.
Figutz -3
thc EU Colr~cltProgriimrnc
Figrite 3
However, this is valid only for system (a) in Figure 3, where truss A carries the
vertical Ioads independently and tnlsses B1 and B2 the ialeral loads (external
loads, i.e. wind, seismic loads, internal loads due to buckling of compression and
bending members), B2 supporting BI. In the case of systems (b) and (c) in
Figure 3 truss A agnin carries tl~evertical loads independently but trusses B IiB2
and B need the cooperation of lnlsses A lo fonll a three dinlensional
loi~d-bearingsysteni lo providc sufficient lateral resislnnce (Kessel 1986). Due lo
STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr t t ~ cEU Co~ncttPrograinnic
B 1213
that fact i t becomes evident that bracing leads to stresses in trusses A resulting
from loads F which do not even have a component in the plane of truss A.
Truss Types
The type of timber ti-uss most commonly built is triangular, i s . double pitched
(see Figure 4). The web system should be selected For convenience of connection
and resulting member stresses. For instance, in some cases space for ventilation
tubes is required. Web locations and node sp-acings 111ay be dedicated by
selection of secondary purlin framing so as to minimize cllord bending stresses
and buckling lengths of chord inembers in compression. Web directions may be
chosen in a way that short internal members are in compression and long
members in tension to avoid additional web bracing.
Figurn 4
F i r5
Kirtp
II.IISSCS (a,
tllc
EU Comctt Programme
A further important variant of the triangular truss is the attic truss of domestic
roofs (see Figure 5c) whicli however, is no longer a truss in the original sense.
Due to the lack of webs [he external loads cause, in addition to the axial forces,
important bending nloments in tile chords. Particular attention must be paid to
the joints in the lower chord, These joints are stressed axially with respect to
roof loads, transversaliy with respect to ceiling and floor loads and rotationally
with respect to unavoidable eccentricities of connection members.
The use of lower strength classes may appear uneconomical, since the necessary
cross-sectional dimensions increase. However, since the fastener spacings and
distances often determine the size of the cross-sections, the choice of a high
strength class frequently does not lead to material savings. Because the ioadcarrying capacity of connections using mechanical fasteners depends on the
density of the timber, and the ratio of density over strength increases with lower
strength classes, it is usually more economic to use timber of lower strength
classes when the necessary lnechanical cor~nectionsdetermine the cross-sectional
dimensions.
Preliminary design
Generally arcliitectural considerations determine the shape and pitch of roofs.
But for econo~nicreasons the following rules concerning the depth-span ratio of
trusses should be fo'oilowed:
triangular or pitched
bowstring
flat or parallel chord
116 or deeper,
118 to 116,
1/10 ro 1/8.
Once the truss geometry has been fixed, the centrelines of the members are
dependent on their size. Therefore, it is usually necessary to conduct a
preliminary design to determine approximate member sizes and connection types.
For this purpose a simplified analysis is used with all loads placed at nodes and
all joints assumed pinned. Member forces can then be determined graphically or
analytically. Based on these axial forces, preliminary web and chord sizes can be
selected taking into account approximate moments due to any distributed loads
or concentrated loads that will not in practice be applied at nodes.
General analysis
EC5: Part I- I: 5.4 I 2
coincide with the centre lines, the influence of the eccentricity sliall be taken into
account in the strength verification of these members.
The analysis should be carried out using the appropriate values of menlber
stiffness and joint slip. Fictitious beam elelnents should be assumed to be as stiff
as the adjacent element.
Care should be taken if the fictitious beams have to be very short, i.e, shorter
than about 100 nrm. This could lead to a nearly singular stiffness rzlatrix and to
unreasonable liumerical results which could be missed. Sometimes, it is
advisable to use an adapted analysis, e.g. finite element analysis which makes
available rod elements with built in end eccentrici~ies.
E,~an~ple:
it can be assumed that a colnputer program is available for analysing trusses. For
the input the merrtber4stiffness of the bottom chord and joint slip of the dowel
connection is given here: Bottom chord with a rectangular cross-section O x 11 =
50 x 180 rtrm'. Strength class C24 according to prEN338.
Meruber stiffness: E<:,,
= E(,,,,, = I 1000 N/I~WI'
Timber-to-tirnber connection with dowels cl = 8 trim
K,,t,,,,= 380"" 8/20 = 3000 N/,tlttr is the instantaneous slip modulus per shear
plane under service load I;,,.,.
If ri geometric tion-linear analysis is carried out, the Inember stiffness should be
divided by the partial factor yln(given in EC5 table 2.3.3.2).
Verifying serviceabiiity
EC5: Pari 1-1: 4.1 (4)
kt,tf)
Simplified analysis
EC5: Piat 1-1: 5.4.1.3
The axial forces in the members should be determined assunling that every node
is pin-jointed. The bending moments in single-bay members should also be
determined on the basis that the end nodes are pin-jointed. Bending moments in
a member which is continuous over several bays should be determined as if the
member was a beam with a simple support at each node. Tile effect of defection
at the nodes and partial fixity at the joints should be taken into account by a
reduction of 10% in the node bending moment. The reduced node moments
sllould be used to calculate the span bending moments.
For elernerits in compression, the effective column length for in-plane strength
verification should generally be taken ils the distance between two adjacent
points of contraflexure.
For fully triar~gulatedtnlsses, the effeclive colunln length for members which are
only one bay long without especially rigid end connections, and for continuous
members withour lateral load, sfiould be taken as the bay length.
When a simplified analysis has been carried out, the following effective colu~nn
lengths may be assumed (see Figure 6 ) .
for continuous members -svith a lareral load but without significant end
moments
in an outer bay:
in an inner bay:
at a node:
for continuous members wit11 a lateral load and with significant end
molnents
0 ( i s . no column effect),
A check shall also be made that tile lateral (out-of-plane) stability of the
inembers is adequate.
STEPIEUROFORTECH -
itn
For trusses the limiting values of deflection for beams apply both to the
colnplete span, and to the individual deflection of members between nodes.
Referring to the tmss span I , the limits are
These limits are recommended unless special conditions call for other
requirements, e.g. for the deflection of bracing systems (see trusses B of Figure
1). Furthermore it should be noticed that the horizontal bracing load of trusses
increases with their vertical deflection.
The final deforrnatioli of a truss fabricated from members which ltave different
creep properties should be ciifculated using modified stiffness moduli, which are
determined by dividing the instantaneous values of the modulus for each member
by the appropriate value of ( I + IG,,~).
The deflection 11 of a truss may be determined by computer program, e.g, based
on finite elements, or analytically by the rnethod of virtual work, using the
relationship
lr
= C FiF,, li / A i Ei
where
Fi
F,i
/ti
i2 7, Fi
F,, I ni Ki
Additio~~al
~rtlesfor trusses with punched metal plate fasteners are given in
Annex D and for joints in STEP lectures CI I and D3.
Concluding summary
References
Kcssel, M.H. (1986). The Bracing of Trussed Beams. In: Prac. of tltc Joint Mecting CIB
Wf SIiUFRO S 5.02, Florcncc, Italy, Paper 19-15-2.
I<esscl, M.I.1. (1988). Zur sciclichen Stabilisicrung dcs unlcrspanntcn Tr3gcrs. In: Bauingenieur
63(1988) 281-287.
Ozclton, E.C and Bnird, J.A. (1976). Tinnbcr dcsigncr's manual,
London, United I<ingdom, 5 I8 pp.
1st
Objectives
T.Atsmarker
Lund University
Summary
Walls, floors and roofs in timber framed buildings are often sheathed using
different types of sheathing materials and may be used as structural diaphragms
in order to transfer laterai forces to the foundation. This lecture describes the
structural behaviour of horizontal floor diaphragms as well as the behaviour of
shear walls. Simplified design methods to be used in ultimate limit state are
suggested.
Introduction
A building is subjected not only to vertical loadings, such as self weights and
i~nposedloads, but also to horizontal loadings caused by wind or earthquakes.
This lecture relates to structural behaviour under wind action. Wind has a
number of effects on a building. Its direct action is to cause pressure on one or
more of the faces and suction on the others. Figure 1 shows the principal
distribution of wind loads on a building for wind direction perpendicular to the
long side wall, see STEP lecture A3.
e1
The wind direction sl~ownin Figure 1 results in pressure on the windward wall
and the windward side of tile roof and suction on the corresponding faces of the
leeward side. A low pilch may result in suction on the windward side of the roof
as well. Note, that the side walls are subjected to suction perpendicular to tlie
wind direction. In addition to these principal wind Ioads, the wind may also
cause suctiorl or pressure on the inner faces of the building,
In order- to transfer wind loads to the foundation, some form of wind resistant
system is needed. Quite often the use of diaphragms and shear walls can provide
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J
Figlire 2
Horizontal diaphragms
Floors, ceilings and roofs may be used to transfer horizontal forces to the
supporting walls. In timber framed buildings these structures are basically built
up from timber joists sheathed with different types of wood based sheathing
materials for floors and most commonly fastened to the joists by screws. The
ceilings typically consist nf one or two layers of gypsum plasterboard, either
nailed directly to the roof trusses or joists or screwed to secondary spaced
timbers, which in turn are nailed to the joists. These types of ceiling may also be
used as structural diaphragms, see Aismarker (1992). However, in this lecture
only floor diaphragms will be discussed, see Figure 3.
This type of floor diaphragm may be assumed to behave in a similar way to a
deep I-beam, supported through the struts by the walls running parallel to the
wind direction. According to EC5 this [nay be assumed so long as the span is
less than six times the width of the diaphragm. The sheathing acts as the web,
resisting sllear forces, while the chord members act as the flanges, resisting the
applied bending motnent. Figure 4 illustrates the principal behaviour.
For timber framed buildings, the double top plate of the walls is used as the
chord member of the diaphragm. The plate members are lapped with staggered
end joints and connected together by nailing or bolting. Alternatively, a
continuous header or trimmer joist may be used as the chord, It is assumed that
all of the bending moment is resisted through the chords. Hence, the chord
members must be designed for tension or compression forces of
F,,J = Fr.d = Mnl,lx,J17
(1
where M,,,,,is the maximum moment and O is the width of the diaphragm.
The shear flow qJc,between the sheathing and the chord may be calculated as
q ~ =d P t f , , f ' ~ ~ C
(2)
where F,,.,,
is tile total shear force and b,. is the centre-to-centre distance between
chords.
The sheathing must be designed to resist a shear flow of
v,, = FI5Jb
where F,,,, is the total shear force and b is the width of the diaphrrtgn~.
(3)
Finally the spacing of the Fasteners connecting the sheathing to the joists is
calculated as
11,~
the calculated
Shear walls
In general the walls in a timber Framed building consist of vertical studs, spaced
at a regular interval, forming a ladder type frame together with the top and
bottorn plates. The framework is usually sheathed on one or both sides with
different types of sheathing material, nailed or screwed to the frame. Slructurally
the wall can be regarded as a cantilevered diaphragm loaded by a concentrated
force applied at the top plate. Using the sheathing as a bracing this force may be
transferred to the foundation in a vety effective manner. Figure 5 illustrates the
stn~cturalbehaviour.
The studs are fastened lo the bottom and top plate by nails or other types of
metal fasteners, From a structural point of view the frame joints can be regarded
as being pinned. Hence, the displaccrnent of the timber frame must be resisted
by the sheathing a11d the fasteners connecting it Lo the frame. The most henvily
loaded fasteners are located where the largest displacements occur between the
frame and the sheathing, that is in the corners. In the upper corner lo the left and
the lower comer to the right fasteners will have force directions towards the free
edge. The other two corners will have opposite Force directions. In Figure 5 the
studs are assumed to be fixed to the foundation. Whether the studs can be
prevented from lifting from the foundation or not is often the nlost i~npotlant
factor influencing the shear capacity of wall diaphragms in timber framed
buildings. 111addition to appropriate Fastening, vertical loads can be used to resist
uplift and stiffen the panel. Apart from uplift, the studs must be designed for a
concentrated compression force. The strength of tlie fasteners as well as the
shear strength of the sheathing are other important factors that influence LIie
ioad-bearing capacity of wall diaphragms. These factors would have further
significance if it is necessary to consider the stiffness of the diaphragm and ils
horizontal in-plane deflection under load.
The total maximu~nload for a wall that is built up of several wall units, can be
calculated in a simplified rnanner as the sum of the rnaxitnutn loads for each
unit, even where the wall units are built up from different co~nbinationsof
sheathing materials and fasteners. Noweser, where there are different
combinations of sheathing materials and fasteners on the two sides of the
framework, according to EC5, only half the load carrying capacity of the weaker
side should be used. When there are window or door sections in a wall, these
sections should be disregarded in calculating the load-bearing capacity of the
entire wall.
A rather simple madel may be used to calculate the internal force distribution
between Fasteners connecting the sheathing to the framework. This model
assumes linear elastic behaviour of the fasteners, hinged connections between
individual beam elements and that uplift is prevented. Furthermore, the beam
elements as well as the sheathing are considered to be completely stiff against
bending and elongation in the loading plane. Taking these assulaplio~lsinto
consideration, the internal force distribution [nay be calculated as
B 1315
Hky,
cri and
c Y,!
=
H It xi
Fsi= -
c4
where FJiand F,, are the force components in x- arid y-directions respectively for
a fastener in position (.ri,jli).
The total force is simply given by
where
xi,yi
H
11
Cs',Cy'i
According lo EC5 the racking load carrying capacity of the panel is calculated as
I;r..d = hd I!?/$
(7)
where FJ, is the design capacity per fastener and s is the spacing of the
fasteners. In this model :be applied force is uniformly distributed over the
fasteners connecting tlie sheathing to the top plate and does not account for
concentrated forces at the corners of tile panel.
EC5: Park I -I: 5.4.3d
The tensile studs and the anchorage should be designed for a force F,,,,, where
F,,,,= FBSsd
11/b
(8)
Fc,', =
F,.,,
The end studs of the shear wall as well as the bottom plate must be adequately
anchored to the foundation in order to resist uplift forces and shear forces
respectively. In multi-storey buildings the shear walls 111ust be connected to each
other in a manner that allows tliese forces to be transmitted through the different
levels of the building.
Design example
Calculate the horizontal design capacity H,, for the wall unit in Figure 5, where
b = I200 nun and It = 2400 i t r m ~ . The spacir~g of' the fasteners are as
follows: s = 150 ttzm, t = 150 rnnl and r = 150 mm. The design capacity, T%,,,
for
a single fastener is 0,2 kN.
The force in x- and y-direction for fasteners located in the cot-ners are
. lo6 = 0,107
H,,
F, = 0,125 . H,,
and
Hd= 1 ,b IiN
For the actual wail unit, the same result is obtained if using the EC5 melhod.
Internal walls
The distribution of horizontal loading to the internal waIls is governed by the
of the walls. Assuming a rigid
stiffness of the diaphragm relative to the stiff~~ess
diaphragm supported by flexible walls is one extreme of the solution, and a
flexible diaphragm supported by stiN' walls another.
In tile first case the horizontal loading is distributed to the shear walls according
to the relative stiffness of the walls. For a diaphragm supported by three walls of
equal stiffness, each wall wit1 resist one third of the total load. Note, that if tile
internal wall is not placed in the centre of t l ~ e diaphragm, the torsional
component must be accounted for as well.
Assuming a flexible diaphragm supported by stiff walls the question is whether
the diaphragm may be regarded as a horizontal beam spanning continuously over
intermediate supports or as separate beams being simply supported. The
conservative approach is to design the end walls assuming the simply supported
condition and the interior wall based on continuity.
The case of timber diaphragms on timber shenr walls is in between the two
extremes and the assumption of a rigid floor diaphragm should be used with
caution. The assumption of a rigid diapl~ragnishould only be used for a plan
aspect ratio near unity, related to the diaphragm depth, h, divided by the span
between internal walls, I.
Concluding summary
-
All of the colnponents of the shenr wall and diaphragm system niust be
adequately fastened together so that the struclure acts as a n effective unit.
Reference
Alsmarkcr, T. (1991). Gypsum Plnstcrboards ilS Wind Bracing Elcmcnts in T i n ~ l x r Priimed
Buildings. Lund Inslifutc of TcchnoIogy, Dcpl. of S~ructurillEngineering.
STEP/EUROI;ORTECI.I
I3 1317
Prerequisites
A4
A1 7
B2
B3
Bb
B7
Summary
After introducing different types of portal frames and arches, the ultimate limit
state design is demonstrated in two ways. First, a simplified analysis is shown
considering in plane and lateral buckling. Secondly the application of a second
order linear analysis is explained using a curved frame as example.
Introduction
Frames and arches often f o n ~ lthe main structural elements in three dimensional
structures covering halls of rectangular or circular ground surface, typically used
in gymnasia, swimming pools or stores of bulk goods. Span dimensions vary
between 20 and 100 m and in rectangular buildings the length is usually two to
three times the spm. Constn~ctionheight is normally between 10 and 30 m. For
fabrication and transportation reasons frames are normally three-hinged with one
hinge at each support and one hinge at the top ridge. The width of the glued
laminated timber cross-sections can be up to 240 tnrn and the depth up to 2 177.
Larger arches can use built-up sections of glulam.
In Figure I six different construction types of frames are shown. Figure l a
details a system consisting of a two-piece column to resolve the corner moment
into tension and compression elements. In Figure l b the shape of the frame is
achieved by means of a finger jointed haunch linking the rafter and column
units. In Figure l c the single rafter units are enclosed by two glulam columns
which are linked along their length and designed as spaced columns. The haunch
connection is effected by circular groups of dowels. The curved frame in Figure
Id takes advantage of the ability to curve glulam and leads to arches which are
shown as a three-hinged variant in Figure le. The two-hinged arch in Figure If
is necessary for flatter roofs but is greatly restricted in overall height and span
by transportation requirements.
EC5: POII 1-1: 2.3.1
In general it has to be verified for all roof members that no relevant limit state is
exceeded taking into account load actions in three dimensions.
This lecture, however, is restricted to the verification of frames and arches due
lo loads acting in their plane. Hence it follows that members forming frames and
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I31411
Figurr I
Simplified analysis
Frames and arches can be verified by a simplified analysis in the same rnaimer
as columns and beams. The calculation of stresses due to external design loads is
based on a Iiilear theory considering equilibrium of tile undeformed static
system. Stresses caused by geotnetrical and structural in-plane and lateral
imperfections and induced in plane deflections are laken into account by
rnultiplying the cornpression and bending strength values by reduction factors
such as kc and .,k
These factors have to be determined from the appropriate
critical compression and bending stresses of in plane and lateral buckling. The
deviation from straightness measured midway between the supports shall be
limited for frame members to 1/500 of the length for glued laminated members.
Design example
Figure 2
Estlnrple: Cllr~~eclflun~e
of a ricli~tg-lruil.
Tile design values of the vertical (V) and horizontal (H) support reactions and
the internal axial forces (N) and moments (M) at cross-sections I , 2 and 3 and
the ridge deflections rt,,,, and u,,,, are given in Table 1 corresponding to the
appropiate combination of actions 1,35 g t I ,5 s.
s,,
V
units
kN
kN
N,
kN
4
MI
M:
M3
'(ttsr
111111
JOYrr
~tilll
1,35 g
s
54
23
-44
-4 I
-30
-73
kN
kN
kN11i
kNt11
MIII
N3
Tnble 1
48
31
-50
-56
-42
-104
-9 1
-61
O
-133
21
32
-92
+ I,5 s
145
78
-134
-139
- 104
-255
-322
-220
Design vnlrtcs of rracrialrs, irltcrrial mi01 forces arrd rl1arftetrts nrid ridge
deji'ections.
Tlte frames are fabricated of glued laminated timber GL 28 with the following
appropriate material design properties (see prEN 1194):
0,9 -28 = 1 9 , 4 ~ h m ~
fm,ad=
design bending strength
123
Eo.scnn,r:
Eo.05.1
= 12000 N/lnrrt2
= 9600 N/lnm2
Co??zpressio~?
brrcFclbrg
It is assumed that cross-sections ( 1 ) and (3) are laterally supported.
kc = 1ni11(kc,>,krt:)
In the case of in plane buckling the curved frame can be interpreted as an arch
with sufficient accuracy. One half of the arc length is estimated as the sum of
length of rafter (1 1 n ~ and
) coIurnn (6 1 1 1 ) .
In the case of lateral buckling, the buckling length is estimated as arc length
between cross-sections ( I ) and (3).
Lateral torsio~talbticklil~g
In addition it is assumed that cross-sections (1) and (3) are torsionally fixed.
5r
240
i.
k, = 1,O
ECS: Part I - 1: 4
tc,,,,l,
Vertical ridge deflection rr,,,,,, due to variable load s (see Table 1).
32 l ~ r t t i
= (1 + 0 , X ) 32 = 40 rltltr
I ~ , . , , , ~ ~ ~=
~.~~
ti,,, ,,,?,I,
B 1415
Design example
The second order linear analysis is shown for the previous example in Figure 2.
A two dimensional nonlinear finite rod element is used. The initial deflections
are shown in Figure 3 assuming an anglef of inclination
Figrcr-e 3
Itrrpstfect slnibrlre: (a) corrcspotlrlitrg to syr~lt~ietricalnctiotls. (b) correspotlditrg to rnor~-syarrrteiricnlncrio~rs.Dashed lirie: initial franrc; solicl
line: irrclinecl fra~~ze;
cf~aitt-dottedlirte: irrcfirwdfr-anre itlcludirlg cnrvatlire.
The combination of actions remains unchanged, but the stresses and deflections
are calculated using a value of E of
s,
units
1,35g+ 1,5s
symmelric
144
79
- 135
146
79
- 1 35
-140
-140
-105
- 106
kN
N1
Nz
kN
kN
kN
N3
kN
Ad,
M,
kNr11
kNt11
-269
-343
Writ
-238
Table 2
non-symmetric
-260
-327
-227
References
Kessel, M.11.(1984). Geornetrisclt nichtlinean: FE-Anrvendungcn im Ingcnjcur~iolzbnu.In: Finite
ElemenLe - Anwendungen in der Baupraxis. Verlag Emst Jlr Sohn Berlin, 237-245.
Kessel, M.l-I., Hinkes, F.J., Schclling, W. (1984). Zur Sichcrung des Drcigetenkral~mcns aus
Bre!tschichtholz gegcn Kippcn. Bauingenieur 59 (1984) 189- 194.
PflUgcr. A.. (1975). Stabilit3tsprobIeme der Elaslostatik. Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, New
York, 3rd Edition.
Tirnoshenko, S. and Gere. J.M. (1961). Theory of' elastic stability. McGraw-Hiif Book Co. Inc.
New Yorli, 2nd Edition.
Young, Y.B, and Kuo, S.R. (1991). Consistent Frame Buckling Analysis by Finite Efcment
Metlmi. J. Struct. Eng. 117 (1991) 1053-1069.
Bracing - Design
STEP iccturc B 15
Objectives
tf. Bruninghoft'
To develop an understanding of how con~pressionor bending members need to
Gcsamtl~ochschulcWuppcrtnl be braced in order to avoid instability, to identify the governing parameters and
to present the procedure of ECS as a worltable design rnetl~od.
Bcrgischc Univcrsitai
Prerequisites
A4
B2
B3
B6
B7
Summary
The lecture starts wit11 a non-mathematical introduciion to the ~nechanismsof
bracing structures. It presents the principal factors influencing the actions on bracing
members and shows how the equations offered in EC5 have been derived. A
practical example showing how the actions on bracing structures are evaluated
comple~nentsthe lecture.
Introduction
Coluinns require a stability calculation to check against failure or unacceptable
defor~nations.Often it is advisable lo restrain one or more points (between the main
supports) from lateral deflection by bracing. This is done in an analogous way to
that used for slender bearns to prevent lateral buckling. Colu~nnsor beams could
be part 01a combined structure, for example an upper chord of a truss. The actions
on the bracing structure may be derived by using a second order analysis whereby
the equilibrium of moments and forces is analysed by considering the deformed
shape or the respective structure. The stiffness of all ~nernbersconcerned and the
slip of built- in joints is tdien into account. However, EC5 presents a simplified
method based on the above approach.
In EC5 the initial curvature of the rneniber axis is limited by deviation from
straightness to 11500 of the length for glued laminated timber and to 1t-300 of the
length for structural timber.
STEP/EUROFORTECI-I -
1111
EU
Comet1 Prognmnic
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N,,-p ,-1.-
C)
F1r
Figure I
'r :
d)
+N 11
-(I
where
ks
= 2 ( 1 +cos - )
111
and a the length, I I Z the number of waves, so that I = it1 n to guarantee a deformed
line of member axis with two hinged ends and with k, = 2 for one wave shape or
I;, = 4 for an infinite number of waves. The spring force F, (see Figure 2).
Figrtre 2
Figitre 3
Nd = M,,Ncric
Mcr,
where Nc,i, and M,,i, are the critical forces calculated according to tile classical
theory of stability. EC5 proposes an alternative approxi~nation
where k,, is calculated from equations 5.2.2 c to e of EC5 for the unbraced length
of the member. Here the torsional rigidity of a beam is taken into account. No
bracing is required if I,, = 1 . Tlie procedure only works if the beam is braced
dong the compression edge.
Figrm 4
Braced con~prc~siotl
ttrenzbers utld deflections; (a) slrrright lirre, (6)it~zpetfect
is rhe stQj$res.s of the bracing str-rtctrrre.
B 1513
The resistance component, negIecting the stiffness EI: of the slender members to be
stiffened, is given by the differential equation of elastic line with regard to the
predeflection
and
M,
nN, y
Then the elimination of (EQfout Equations (10) and ( I 1) above and the conversion
of a sine shaped load qd into a constant form give
where k, = 1 .
For spans of more than 15 i n a particular accuracy of workinanship [nay be
expected to limit deflections so that i t is reasonable to reduce tfle span-related
imperfection by the factor
I
where I is given in
171.
The design engineer st~ouldcheck the deforn~ationsof the system if the deflection
limitations are likely to be exeeded.
Using beams (instead of compression members) in structures the co~npressionedge
should be supported so that the equations in EC5 may be taken for bracing analysis.
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To take into consideration the torsional capacity of beams as described above, the
compression force can be reduced to
Design example
A hangar 60 m lengtll, 20 rn wide and 8 height is to be constructed, using glulam
beams of strength class GL 28 according to prEN 1194, "Timber structures - Glued
laminated timber - Strength classes and determination of characteristic values". The
beams span 20 nr, are 1200 inm deep and 160 r71tn wide and are spaced at 6 m
centres.
Design values of permanent and varable load for the governing load case:
permanent load: g , = 5,4kN/ln
(line load, permanent)
q , = 6,O kNAn
(line load, short term)
variable load:
EC5: Part 1- 1: 3.1.7
Service class I :
k,,,,,,= 0,9
cross-section values:
h 2 b = 38,4 . lo6 rrrnr3
Wy= 6
I,, = q3 h b3 = 1500
. lo6 r11ni4
WY
where
= 570 kNvt
11
N,,
=I0
= 349 ItN
The limitation for horizontal deflection is if700 for bracing actions, N500 for the
combination of wind and bracing loads. These are normally fulfilled if the bracing
strilcture is properly designed connected and the relationship of span I and spacing
e, is less than 6, here
Concluding summary
-
The major factors influencing the bracing actions are ditnensions of the
system and the beams, geolnetric and structural imperfections and material
properties such as strength and modulus of elasticity for bending and torsion.
References
Mohler. K. and Schelling, W. (1968). Zur Bemcssung von l<nickvcrbSndenund ICnickauss~eirungcn
im Hotzbau. Der Bauingcnicur, 43. lahrgang, Hcf 2.
Burgess, I-I.J. (1989). Suggcstcd Cl>angcsin Code Bracing Rccommendations Lbr Beams and Calumns.
In: Proc. ol' thc CIB-W 18 Meeting, Bcrlin, Germany, Paper 22-15-1.
Brilninghorr, H. (1983). Dclcrrnination of' Bracing Structures for Coinpression Members and Benins.
In: Proc. of the CIB-W 18 Mecling, Lillehammcr, Norway, Papcr 16-15-1
Notation
n
c,
Load sharing
STEP leclure B I G
I-I.J. Btass
~eifiUniversity
of Tecl\nology
Objectives
To develop an understanding of the phenomenon of probabilistic load sharing in
parallel stnrclural systems and to quantify the effect on the load-carrying capacity
of systems.
Prerequisite
A4
Summary
The lecture presents examples of parallel structural systems, where the positive
correlation between the strength and the stiffness of timber members increases the
load-bearing capacity of systems compared with that of single members. The
influence of the material behaviour and the variation of timber strength and stiffness
on the load sharing effect is discussed. For common structural systems the load
sharing effect is quantified.
Introduction
EC5: Part 1-1:5.4.6
EC5, like other design codes, includes a load sharing factor for assemblies
consisting of several similar members connected by a load distribution system. An
example of such an assembly is a timber joist floor, where the joists are linked by
panel sheathing. Tile load sharing factor increases the member design strength by
taking into account two effects: first the reduced chance that a weaker member or
pare will be placed at a position where the stresses are particularly high, and second
the positive correlation between strength and stiffness of timber members. This
positive correlation enables a stiffer member to carry a higher proportion of the
applied load. On the other hand, less stiff members, which in most cases are also
weaker cany less of the load. Load sharing counteracts the materiill variability
effects lo a certain extent.
Figitre
The load sharing or load distribution effect improves the member 'behaviour in
systems for both concentrated and distributed loads. For concentrated Icrads, the load
distl-ibution system transfers part of the load to the adjacent members, relieving the
most stressed member under the concentrated Ioad. Figure I shows a[ floor crosssection under the action of a concentrated toad.
In uilifonnly loaded systems, the load-sharing effect is less evident. If the stiffness
of a11 members is the same, the deformation of all members would be identical even
without a load distribution system. Since in reality the inember stiffness varies,
STEPtBUROFORTECH - an initiative under ihc EU Comctt Propnmmc
B lGll
softer members tend to deform more than stirfer members. Line (b) in Figure 2
shows the different joist deformations in a floor if no load distribution system is
effective. If a load distribution system connects the joists, the deformations become
more uniform (see line (a) in Figure 2). In this case, the load distribution system
decreases the load on flexible members and increases the Ioad on stiffer members.
Figlire 2
E'ect of the load di.striDutiorr systerri on the joist dcfornicitions. ( a ) rvitli crrrcl
( b ) witliorrt load clistribirtiori systctrt. 1V: 101v d~;tjctres,s
aember; S: high .stiflress
rtiettiber; A: average strfiress trrer?rber.
The same situation is true where the member behaviour is no longer linear. If the
stiffness of a single member under loads close to the ultimate load decreases due
to ~nicrocracksor plastic deformations, the load is redistributed within the assembly
and the partly damaged member is able to contribute to the load carrying capacity
of the system, the total assembly load can still be increased.
increasing the ratio of the stiffness of the Load distribution systetn to the
average member stiffness,
The bending strength variation of the beams also significantly influences the load
sharing factor. For very small and very large values of the coefficient of variation
(COV), the load sharing factor is small with a maximum for COV values between
0,20 and 0,30. For a typical floor or flat roof, the load sharing factor determined
was k , = 1,15. This corresponds quite we11 to the value of 1,10 in EC5.
Roof Trlrsses
Load distribution in roof truss asselnblies has been studied by Wolfe and McCarthy
(1989) and Wolfe and LaBissoniere (1991). Tests were performed on individual
trusses and full-scale roof assemblies using three different truss configurations. The
Ioad distribution system was I:! n m ~plywood sheathing across the tnlss rafters. By
measuring the load-deflection response of individual trusses independently and as
part of the roof assembly, the effects of assembly interaction under uniformly
distributed loads as well as line loads on individual trusses were evaluated.
Roof load carrying capacity was increased and apparent truss stiffness variability
was decreased by load sharing mechanisms within the assembly. When partial
damage occurred to individual trusses, a redistribution of loads away from these
trusses enabled them to continue to contribute to the assembly load carrying
capacity at a lower Ioad level.
If a single truss in a system was loaded along its top cllord with the design load,
40% to 70% of that load was transferred to adjacent trusses by the sheathing. The
load sharing effect on the load canying capacity of the trusses resulted in ratios of
measured roof assembly strength to minimum truss strength from 1,09 to 1,47.
These values depend on tile effectiveness of the load distribution system and on the
position of the truss in the assembly. They indicate that the design load carrying
capacity of the entire truss, i.e. members and connections, can be increased by at
least 10% due to the load sharing effect. For most systems, a factor of 1,10 can be
considered as a safe minimum value.
Slzect piling
Load sharing effects also increase the bending capacity of planks in sheet piling or
retaining walls, if they are interconnected, for example by tongue and groove joints.
In this case, the load distribution system is the connection between the single
planks. This connection causes a nearly uniform deflection of the individual planks
under uniformly distributed loads although their stiffness values may vary
considerably.
A theoretical analysis (Van der Linden et a]., 1994) was carried out, based on the
following properties of ekki planks (Lophirn alata) in wet condition:
J;,
= f 03 Nhrur1'
and
Design example
Timber floor with beams b x It = 60 x 200 Ilttrr spaced at n = 0,60 rr1 interval with
tongued and grooved floor boards acting as ioad distribution system, span
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1 = 4,60 !ti. Strength class C24 according to prEN 338 "Structural timber. Strength
classes".
Design values of permanent and variable load for the governing Ioad case:
distributed
ly
load, permanent)
permanent load: g, = 1.0 k N / r ~ ~ ~ u n i f o r m
q,,
=
3,O
IcN/ti?
(unifonnly
distributed
load, medium-term)
variable load:
EC5: Part 1-1: 3.1.7
Service class 1:
k,,,,, = 0,8
E C ~Part
:
1-1: 2.3,z.ib
Concluding summary
Typical assemblies where the Ioad sharing effect increases load carrying
capacity are flat roofs, floors, trusses, rafters, wall studs and sheet piling with
effective load distribution systems connecting the individual members.
References
Foschi, R.O.. Folz, B.R. and Yao, F.Z. (1989). Reliability-Basecl Dcsign of Wood Slructurcs.
Structural Rcscarch Sci-ics, Rcpon No. 34, Department of Civil Etlginccring. University of Britisli
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, ISBN 0-88865-356-5.
Vikn dcr Linden, M.L.R., Van dc Kuilcn, J-W. G. and Blass, H.J.(1994). Application of' the Holln~an
yield criterion for Load sharing in timber sheet piling. In: Proc. of the 1994 Pnc. Timber Eng. Conl.
Gold Coast, Australia.
1-1. EIarll
Objective
To present calculation lnethods for slructural fire design.
Zivilingcnieur fijr
Bauwcsen
Prerequisites
STEP lcclurc B 17
Summary
The calculation methods for structural fire design according
Introduction
Generally the same principles are followed to calculate fire resistance as in
standard design. Thus for actions and for material properties characteristic values
are applied. However most fire testing is based on deterministic methods using
mean values for strength. In order to ensure the same safety level EC5:Part 1-2,
gives approximate calcuIation methods that satisfy both requirements, see Figure 1.
For .rr(itrrk~rd/iree.tpo.rttrc:
- Cltiirrit~gcic/~rii~ f ~ l l =l l rPo I or P r
Rcclrtccd .vrer~xtlteirld
str#ie.r rrrctlrad
firfwrctinerricjirc c.~/~~isrtre:
C/rnrrirr# rfc~>lbdc.ll,, rti:cmr.dirig EC5:pctrr I -2:A1tttc-r1)
- hind corryinx crrf,ercir)t~~/'rtrcr~il~crs
~virlrtr rcsidtrcrl crossscclion:
1
', = f h -1
(b 2 ele,rrr,J f i r4 ~iflc.~,/irc
c.f~~ris~rrc
11, = (h -2 %,l,l,j (b - c/ch,,J
jirr 3 .~ide$flrc?erpo.rrorr
- GloItc11smrcfrtntl rtrrrr!~~.~i.r
c~t;cort.lirgEC5:Part 1-22.5.1
~wcrirlchorring rnc~tfels
- Terfr]~errrlarc
prc1jT1c.r iit rkc rc*sidrtcrlcrr~sr-scctio~;
- Strcnjir/r ccirrl srifJrc!s.c f~rmpcrrie.rrIc~~ciidcrrr
on tcrrrl>ercrtrtrc
rttrd nroisltrre rarrfcrrt
fig tire I
Sfnictttml fire
Verification
EC5: Part 1-2: 2.5
The effect of actions E(t) and the resistance of timber members R(t) during fire
exposure is in principle shown in Figure 2 . The fire resistance is reached at the time
t, when R(t) becomes less than E(t). Thus the verification on the design level is
10
20
30
40
50
GO
f (ulirt.)
Figrcrs 2
XJ,,
X,
Char-ring depths
Charring depths for members exposed to fire can be calculated by means of the
cllarring rate (linear relation between charring and time) and the Lime of exposure
to the fire (see STEP lecture A13).
C YG,,,~
Gk,j
A,,
V ~ ,Q k If
C'I~,,Q~~
i >I
Where G, are the permanent loads and Q, the variable loads. y is a partial safety
factor and ~y is a combination value. (A, is normally equal to zero, but has to be
justified in the fire situation).
can be derived from the norrnal design
For fire design tlie forces and mo~nenls(SL,)
value (St,) by the following equation:
S' = 11
(6)
S,l
Esort7ple
System:
112;
e = 1.20 m
Permanent action
Variable action (snow)
Variable action
Bending moment:
EC5:Parli-l:2.3.2.2b
= 1,O
\ifi is a coinbination value; \if,,, = 0,2 combination value for the first variable action
in the event of fire, yr,, = 0,3 combination value for olher variable actions in the
event of fire.
y,
= 2,49
Bending moment:
J
4,/= 8
2.99
. 5.0'
9,34 kN,,,
Calculation methods
Te1r1perlc1frir.eprofiles
The temperature for the actual charline is of n 111agniiudeof about 300 "C. The
charline derived froin P,, (Q) can be piit at 200 "C. For a fire exposure of 111orethan
70 minutes ambient temperatures are reaclied at a distance below the clinrline which
remain constant for the remaining exposure time. This distance is about 30 t m t i
from tile charline and for the charline related to PI, (P) about 25 tilitz. The shape of
the iemperature profile is given in Figure 3.
Figwe 3
If the width of the residual cross-section b, is stnalle~.than n,,for exposure from one
side or smaller than 2nl, for exposure froin two sides, the gradient llns to be
modified to account for a temperature increase beyond ambient in Lhe middle of the
section (see Figure 4).
Figure 4
Figure 5
',
'tlurr
'0
where 4, = 7 fn11z.
Figrcre 6
(8)
Surfaces protected by
wood based panels
tf,rcq
< 20 min.
if,,c,,
2 20 min.
'
tr
1,rccl
Surfaces protected by
gypsum plasterboards
(inner layer)
<~ 20~min.
~
20 rnin.
t p r < 10 min.
tpr 2
k,, =
,k
k(, =
tf.rctl -tpr
----20
I ,O
tf,rrq
-'
pr
10
t,,,,, is the required time OF f'lrc resistance and t,,, tile failure time of protective claddings.
EC5: Part 1-2: 4.1
Tuble I
Drterrrrirmtion oJ k,,.
E.g. k,,,,,,,
for standard fire exposure, coniferous timber and for bending strength
where
is the perimeter of the fire exposed residual cross-section in metres
11
is the area of the residual cross-section in ni"
A,
Figure 7
t.0
General c n l c ~ r l a t i o imct/?ods
~
For general calcuIation methods the telnperature and moisture conlent in any point
of the cross section is considered. Also the relationship between strength and
stiffness properties and temperature and moisture content has to be taken into
account. Therefore an increase in the amount of design work is inevitable, but these
more complex methods would lead to more economical constnrctions.
Example:
The following calculation is based on the example given on page 3 for fire
exposure from 3 sides and for a fire resistance of R30 and RGO (30 and 60
minutes):
b x h : 180x220 ntm
cross-section
strength class C27
= 27 N/tltt~t'
Po = 0 i
r
solid timber (see STEP lecture A13)
k,
= 1,25
solid timber
M I = 4,77 k N ~ a
see example page 4
(I,,
R30:
(4
y, =
I, f.30 h'
J30 = I18
6
189'16
703
lO"nu11"
section modulus
R60:
Utilization factor 29.4 / 33.7 = 0,871
R30:
charring depth
- p,,
llc,ulr-
section modulus
--
k m o ~ ~
1 P
-200 Ar
.f mJ,d -
ke%wif k/
'",' = 0.899
-
1 ,25
. 27
= 30,3
N/,r~tn
'
Ynrs
Canclusion
It depends on the amount of design work how econamical the results of calculaiing
the fire resistance will be. It should also be pointed out that not all the problems
related to fire resistance are calculable. The results from fire testing especially for
floor and wall design are useful.
The effective cross section method and the reduced strength and stiffnes method are
very useful For approximate results for the fire resis~nce,which might be enough
in most cases. They are not adequate if the fire resistance time needs to be very
precise or if 2.-order effects are not negligible. If timber members are covered by
panels and if they are be included in the calculation, other design procedures shouid
be applied. In this case testing or more detailed calculation is unavoidable (see e.g.
STEP lecture E12).
References
Hart!.
Glos.
Objectives
To give an overview of the types of mechanical fasteners used in timber structures.
To define the geometry and the basic properties of these fasteners. To give general
guidance and specific guidance on factors governing the design of the joints.
Prerequisites
A4
B2
B4
Summary
This lecture describes the various types ,of mechanical fastener used in timber
structures. The geometry and the application of the most cornrnonly used fasteners
are presented. Further, the behaviour of mechanical fasteners is examined to aliow
a proper selection depending on the aims of the designer. Then, general
recommendations relating to the layout and the design of timber connections are
given. They cotnplement the EC5 rules for assessing reliable designs (see STEP
lectures C2 to C16).
Introduction
The basis of design relates to the layout of the structure, the choice of the framing
system, the proper design of the components and the ease of const~uction.For
timber structures, the serviceability and the durability of the structure depend mainly
on the design of the joints between the elements. For commonly used connections,
a distinction is made between carpentry joints (see STEP lecture C12) and
mechanical joints that can be made from several types of fastener.
For a given structure, the seleclion of iasteners is not only controlled by the loading
and the load-carrying capacity conditions. It includes some construction
considerations such as aesthetics, the cost-efficiency of the structure and the
fabrication process. The erection method and the preference of the designer or the
architect are also involved (Natterer el al., 1991). It is impossible to specify a set
of rules from which the best connection can be designed for any structure. The
main idea is that the simpler the joint and the fewer the fasteners, the better is the
structural result.
In the first part, this lecture presents the different types of fastener. Obviously, it
is not possible to present all types of fastener or connection devices in a single
lecture. Therefore, only the most important and common fasteners are presented.
The general geometry and structural applications are given. The second part deals
with the classification of the fasteners according to their behaviour and their loadcarrying capacity. Then, the final part mentions some calculaCions and details to be
considered in the design of the joints.
Types of fastener
The traditional mechanical fasteners are divided into two groups depending on how
they transfer the forces between the connected members.
cI/l
The main group c o r ~ ~ s p o n dtos the dowel type fasteners. Here, the load transfer
involves both the bending behaviour of the dowel and the bearing and shear stresses
in the timber along the shank of tile dowel. Staples, nails, screws, bolts and dowels
belong to this group. The second type includes fasteners sitcli as split-rings,
shear-plates, and punched metal plates in which the load transmission is primarily
achieved by a large bearing area at the surface of the members. The load
transmissiori is primarily achieved by a large bearing area at the surface of the
members.
When dealing with larger structures, fasteners could be used with special steel
hardware especially for the connection to the foundation or at tile apex of the
structure.
Apart from mechanical fasteners, a mention should be made of a new group relating
to glued joints. They require specific quality control (Ozelton and Baird, 1976).
This technique is mainly carried out using glued-in bolts for beam connections or
large finger joints for frame corners (see STEP lectures C14 and D8).
Nails
Nails are the most commonly used fasteners mainly for structural components such
as diaphragms, shear- walls and trusses. They are manufactured in many sizes,
shapes and materials (see Figure 1). Round wire nails are the most comrnonly used
fasteners for timber. Improved nails with square cross-section or deformed shanks
are also available. The sizes of nails are related to diFferent standardised gauges in
the European countries. The common sizes rangc from 2,75 to 8 rtrrtl in diameter
and 40 lo 200 ntnr in length.
For* nailed joints, the main development results from the use of power-driving
equiptner~tusing coriipressed air. For nail lengths up to 100 mrrr, it allows fast
installation reducing the cost of the execution. The equipment should be set
carefully to avoid over driving the nails especially in wood-based sheet material.
Figure I
For the installation of nailed joints, predrilled holes may be necessary Lo avoid
splitting or to enable nails to be driven into dense hardwood. For softwood species,
tliis operation should be carried out For Douglas-fir and larch mernbers. Then, the
hole diameter has to be no greater than 80% of the nail diameter.
In timber structures, the nails have to be used primarily in single shear for
connecting timber, steel or wood-based panels as side members. The designer has
several possibilities for enhancing the load-carrying capacity of nailed joints. For
a lateral load, larger lateral load-carrying capacily can be obtained using square
nails. The other possibility is to insert steel sheets into the members. The nl'lr s are
driven without predrilling for sheets up to 2 ttlr?! in thickness. To increase both
STEPIEUROFORTECIJ - an initintivc under the EU
Comctt Programme
--
lateral and withdrawal load-carrying capacity, the common clloice is to use special
nails (helically threaded or annular ringed shank nails). They provide greater
witlidrawal strength and reduce the hazard of timber splitting.
Plir~cl~ed
rile fa1 plcites
As nailed plates, punched metal plates allow joints to be ~nadebetween members
in-plane. They are manufactured from galvanized steel plates of thickness ranging
.
installation of the punched metal plates requires special
between 0,9 to 2,s I I I I ~ The
equipment in a factory. Tiley are mainly used for light-framed timber trusses for
wliicll the member thickness should be ar least 35 rnlrt.
Because of the out-of-plane flexibility of such trusses, care should be taken in
handling to avoid darnage to the joints during erection as recomn~endedin prEN
1059 "Timber structures - Production requiretnents for fabricated trusses using
punched nlcttal plates". There exist inany proprietary plates. The designer should
refer lo Lhe manufacturer's specification which should be approved by a certification
organisation.
Bolts nltd d o ~ ~ e i s
Boils are commonly made from ordinary rnilcl steel with hexagonal or square heads
and nuts. The diameters range between 12 and 30 m111.For ease of installation, EC5
requires holes to be driven 1 tr71lr larger than the boft diameter although in practice
larger tolerances may be required. This bolt hole clearance reduces the capacity of
the bolted joints. For this reason and for appearance, dowels are taking tile place
of bolls. They are pieces of round steel rod fitting lightly into drilled holes.
As specified by the EC5 rules, both steel and timber properties affect the loadcarrying capacity of bolted or dowelled joints. Using ordinary bolts as standardised
for steel structures in EN 20898 "Mecl-lanical properties of fasteners-part 1: bolts,
screws and dowels", Table I defines the relevant properties. In addition, Table 2
'
gives the properties of the steel bar to be used in the design of dowels. Depending
on the size of the connection or the method of erection, some dowels may be
replaced by fitted bolts or end-threaded rods to hold the niembel-s together.
Bolt grade
(N/t>lmz)
f;.
T~tbleI
4.8
5.6
5.8
6.8
240
320
300
400
480
Steel grade
f,.
4.6
(NhrttrJ)
Fe360
Fe430
Fe5 I0
235
275
355
- --
T ~ l l ~2l e
Generally, bolts or dowels are iised in double or muliiple shear joints. To ensure the
performa~~ce
of the joints, a minimum thickness is required for timber elements: 30
1nm for side inembers and 40 rtzrrt for internal members. All the tigtltened fasteners
should be instalfed with a washer under any I~eadsor nuts in contact with the
limber.
STEMEUROFORTECI-I- nn initiative undcr the EU Comctt Progrilmnlc
C113
Scre~vs
The main type of screw used for structural applications is the coach screw. The
common sizes range from 6 to 30 imti in diameter and 25 to 300 mrn in length. As
for bolts, the use of a washer is required. In large connections, they conveniently
hold timber connectors in place or replace bolts when they are not suitable. Another
use is to fix joist hangers or framing anchors in combination with nails. A
limitation to their use results froin the predrilling needed to install the coach screws.
Co!ttzectors
The use of timber connectors alIows the transfer of heavy loads by increasing the
bearing area in the timber. For truss connections, a nearly perfect pinned joint can
easily be achieved using a single connector unit instead several dowel-type
fasteners. Figure 2 shows the typical shapes of split-ring, shear-plate and toothedplate connectors.
Figrrre 2
Split-rings and shear-plates are formed from aluminium cast alloy, cast iron or steel
with diameters varying from 60 to 260 nrm. Precision in grooving and boring is
essential for the installation and performance of these types of connector. The
second type is the toothed-plate connector which is made from cast iron or hotdipped galvanized steel. Their diameters range from 38 to 165 mm. Larger
connectors are available for connection of glued-laminated members. In structural
t
installed. To limit the effects of
timber, connectors with diameters up to 75 ~ t r r are
the transverse moment, the joints are held together by fasteners installed with round
or square washers of a size about half the diameter of the connectors used.
Split-rings and double sided toothed-plates are used in a similar way for timber to
timber joints. They transfer the load directly between the surfaces of the members
that are in contact. The assembly is generatly done on site. On the other hand,
shear-plates and single sided toothed-plates are suitable for steel to timber joints as
well as timber to timber joints. They allow the prefabrication OF the joints and only
the bolts are instalted on site. For these connectors, the load transfer is achieved by
the bolt stressed in shear by the bearing area of the connector centre plates.
EN26891 "Joints made with mechanical fasteners - General principles for the
determination of strength and deformation characteristics". Otherwise, the joint
properties are assigned from the behaviour of a single fastener. Figure 3 shows the
experimental behaviour of different fasteners where the load is defined per shear
plane.
Figure 3
tr1171'),
In contrast with rigid glued joints, mechanical fasteners exhibit large deformations
that must be considered by the designer.
Apart from the stiffness of the joints, the overall behaviour depends on the stress
concentrations in shear and in tension perpendicuIar to the grain. These induce a
brittle behaviour for the split-ring connector and for shear-plates. The other
fasteners exhibit an elasto-plastic behaviour resulting from the deformation of the
fasteners as well as the crushing deformation of the timber.
Two important features should be mentioned from these curves:
the initial slip for the bolted joints due to the oversized holes. This leads to
brittle behavjour and a reduced load-carrying capacity for multiple fastener
connections (see STEP lecture C15). An initial slip can also arise for shearplate and single-sided toothed-plate connectors;
the punched plates show a small plastic deformation capacity. It can induce
a brittle failure depending on the geometric imperfections of the joints, within
the fabrication tolerance.
C1/5
Figare 4
The direction of the transferred forces nrfects the behaviour of the joint. For a
single fastener, this influence depends on the size of the fasteners co~nparedwith
the thiciiness of the growth rings or the timber. Froin test results (Sinith and Whale,
1986), the load-carrying capacity of fasteners with a diameter up to 8 r l z r l ~ is
independent of the direction of load to grain. In the case of loads acting at an angle
to the grain, tension stresses perpendicular to the grain reduce tfle ductility and the
capacity of the joint.
To prevent brittle failure and splitting, the ductility of the joint can be enhanced by
reinforcirlg tile members in the joint area. Efficient reinforcement can be made with
steel or wood-based panels glued on the internal sides of the connected members.
Such designs couid be suitable for resisting accidental actions such as seismic
actions (see STEP lecture C 17).
In order to rnodel the joint for structuraf calculations, a joint classification can be
conveniently based on tile static ductility Ds= ic,/rr, of the joint (Figure 5a).
fc)
9"11
Figure 5
Hd'li;,
a~
STEP/EUROFORTECl
Following this ciassification (Table 3), design calculations can be achieved using
the join1 models defined for the serviceability and ultimate limit stales.
Joint type and loading conditions
D,
model at ultimate
limit states
D, 1 3
5c
3 <D, S 6
5c
G < D,
5d
- glued-in bolts,
- split-rings, shear-plates,
- dowel-type fasteners with failure mode 1 * or loaded
at a grain direction greater than 60",
-
toothed-plates,
- punched ~netalplates,
- dowel-type fasteners with failure mode 2:@,
- nail plates,
- dowel-type fasteners wit11 failure mode 3*
Table 3
Cln.ss(ficntior~ofjoirirs based oft file srntic dtrcrility (:? see STEP Iecrrtre C3).
Considering the choice of joint shape, mechanical fasteners provide the designer
with a wide range of possibilities. The proper selection should include strength and
stiffness criteria. As an example, a tension splice joint between glued laminated
members (GL7-4) is considered. Following the design rules given in the STEP
lectures C3 to C9, Table 4 presents some joints able to transfer the design load
equal to 51. 1 0 9 N .
Number A, (10 ' r t ~ i ~ t ~ )R, ( I @ N)
Fasteners
split-rings d,=100 nrrrr
dowel d = 24 nttrt
dowel ti = 14 r/rrrt
dowel d = 9 r ~ z r l r
nails d = 3,4 nlaz, I = 80 ntnl
Tnbie 4
266
52,6
242
165
136
51,2
52,4
53,7
240
52.9
4
8
2 x 38
KJt,r(lo3N/trtnz)
45,G
35,6
41.5
53,3
59,9
The proper selection depends on the stnstural system and the loading conditions
as well as the assumptions considered for the slructural analysis. In this example,
the first three joints correspond to pinned joints. For die two others, attention should
be given to their rotational stiffness since it can induce overloading of the fasteners.
Depending on the bending efficiency of these joints (see STEP lecture Cf G), it
should be considered in the structural analysis in order to clleck the design of the
joint itself and the design of the members. This example exhibits also large
variations in timber joint size and stiffness for the same strength level. With many
smaller fasteners, the translational stiffness is increased.
C117
Figitre 6
.loirlt details: ( a ) splitting drce to shrirrkage, (6) correct joirtt tiritlr oval shaped
iioles.
Eccerttricities
In structural work, the joints and the members should be symmetrical and
concentric wherever possible, especially in heavily loaded members, Nevertheless,
eccentricities can result from several causes (Figure 7):
-
Figlire7
For eccentric timber fasteners such as connectors, the influence of the secondary
transverse moment is included in the calibration of the design strength. The
installation of the required washers counteracts this type of eccentricity.
STEPfEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme
Group nctiolz
When using a closely packed fastener pattern or many fasteners in line, the loadcarrying capacity of the joint may be controlled by the tearing strength of the
member (Figure 8). This block shear failure for a group of fasteners involves shear
along one plane and tension on a perpendjcular plane.
Figrire 8
Block sitear failure itr joitrt: ( a ) rnisiot~faillire of flre fret area S , , (6) sltenr
failnre of tile net area S,
The failure mode is sequential with a fracture on one of the resisting areas, S,
Followed by yielding and failure on the area perpendicular to the fracture plane. For
a brittle lnateriai such as timber, the strengths on both planes must not be added.
Tf~en,the strength of the member is checked considering the net section S, in
tension or S, in shear and the design strength of the material. The design biock
shear strength corresponds to the larger value.
Coinbilzatiort of fasteners
For the transfer of a given force, the design of joint with a combination of various
fasteners can sometimes be achieved especially in trussed structures. To avoid
overloading caused by large stiffness differences or by oversized holes, gluing or
bolts shall not be combined with other mechanical fasteners.
Figrcre 9
IT,,
do~r~els
arld
11,
nails.
Conservativeiy, the design 01.' a joint is made with the assulnption of an elastic
behaviour of the fasteners. The distribution of the design load F,, is based on the
slip ~nodulusof ihe fasteners,
For lateral load on two types of fastener (see Figure 9), equilibrium condition and
compatibility of deformation are expressed as follows:
Clf9
with K,,,,
and K,,*,,
the slip modulus at ultimate limit state for fasteners A and B.
The ultimate design load f;,, and F,,, on a fastener is :
Otllet-j;?cto,s
Another chatlenge for the designer is to fulfill the fire resistance specifications. At
present, the trend is lo hide the joints in the members. At the same tin~e,this gives
aesthetic solutions.
With the design of the joints, the aim of the designer must be the limitation of
stresses pe~.pendicular to the grain. This is interesting work as it requires the
examination of the path of the forces i n the timber structure and the joint area.
When the force acts at an angle to the grain, the joint [nust be located so as to
reduce tension perpendicular to the grain.
Lastly, some consideration is given to corrosion when designing connections in
aggressive or exposed conditions. As a starting point, the design should avoid water
being trapped in the joint area. For exposed connections, a covering provides an
efficient protection from tile sun and water (see STEP lecture Al4). In severe
conditions, corrosion is resisted by rustproofing of stecl coinponents or using
corrosive-resistant metals. The designer should also consider the compatibility of
the ~netalwith timber treatment. As example, caution should be taken for the
installation of coniponents made from aluminium or steel into timber treated with
preservatives containing copper.
References
I-Iirashima, Y. (1990). Latcrtll resistance of timber connector joints parnllcl to grain direction.
Proceeding of thc Inlcrnalional Engineering Conference, Vol. 1: 254-261, Tokyo, Jnpnn.
Hilson, B.O., Whale, L.R.J. Popc, D.J. and Smith, I. (1987). Charnctcristic properties of nailecl and
boltcd joints under sltort-term lnlcral load. Part 3: analysis and interpretation of cmbcdmcnt icst data
in tcrms of dcnsity relatcd trends. J. institute of Wood Science 2 (1 1): 65-71.
Naucrcr, J., 1-lcrzog, T, and Volz, M. (1991). Holzb;s atlas xwci. Edition franqaisc, Presses
poly[cctlniqucs ct univcrsitaires romandcs, LC Mont-sur-Lausannc, S\vitzerland.
Olzcton, E.C. and Baird, J.A. (1976). Timber dcsigncrs' manual. Cmn;icla publishing limited, London,
United Kingdom.
Smith, I , and Whale, L.R.J. (1986). Mechanical timbcr joints. TRADA, Research Rcport 18/86,
I-lugllcndcn Vi~llcy,England.
Witkinson, T.L. and Rowinnds, R.E. (1981). Analysis of mechanical joinls in wood. 1, of Experimental
Mccl~anics 2 1 (1 1): 408-314.
STEPIEUROFORTECH
STEP Icc(ure c2
J. ~hlbcck,R. GBrlachier
UnivcdtBt Knrlsruhe
Objectives
To describe the special problem of tension stresses perpendicular to the grain in
joints when the force in the joint acts at an angle to the grain and to present
different design methods.
Prerequisites
B2
B4
B5
C1
Summary
Illustrated exalnples are given of joints which tend to fail due to perpendicular-tograin tensile stresses. The failure modes are explained. EC5 provides a simple
application rule for designing against these failures, but some more sophisticated
design procedures based on fracture mechanics as well as on purely empirical
equations are presented. Practical applications following such procedures are
demonstrated by design examples.
Introduction
The load-carrying capacities of timber joints with mechanical fasteners loaded at an
angle to the grain direction are normally determined by taking into account the
bending resistance of the fasteners and the embedding strength of the timber.
However, local stresses perpendicular to the grain may under certain conditions lead
to failure at a lower load level.
Some typical examples (Figure I) where tension perpendicular to the grain in joints
occurs are:
(a) joist hangers (steel-to-wood joints)
(b) punched metal plate fastener joints
(c) joints with dowels or ring and shear-plate connectors (giulam beams)
(d) glued-in bolts
Figntz. I
C2/ 1
stresses do not directly compare with the characteristic tensile strength determined
from standard test specimens. Since the stresses in joints loaded perpendicular to
grain are similar to the stresses in notched beams, similar calculation methods, for
example based on fracture mechanics as adopted in EC5 for notched beams, could
be used.
Other methods for taking into account these stresses use empirical solutions. The
perpendicular to grain design is replaced by a shear design procedure with certain
Fictitious strength reductions or by assigning the load component acting
perpendicuiar to the grain to an assumed effective area and comparing the resulting
stresses with certain design stresses perpendicular to grain.
Figlire 2
to
The ratio between the distance b, of the Furthest row of fasteners from the
loaded beam edge and the beam depth h. Therefore, fasteners should be
placed as near as possible to the unloaded beam edge to avoid tension
perpendicular to the grain failures.
Several fasteners in a row spaced along the grain direction distribute the
acting force over a larger stressed area in such a way that the stresses
perpendicular to the grain are considerably reduced. This advantageous
influence increases with the number of rows and with large spacings.
Increasing the depth h or the width t of the beam leads to increasing loadcarrying capacities. Attention must be paid to the fact that only a part of the
width is stressed with tension perpendicular to the grain.
Spreading the fasteners over many rows reduces the tension perpendicular
to the grain stresses.
The tension perpendicular to the grain strength of the timber depends on the
actual stressed volume and consequently influences the load-carrying capacity
of joints in beains with different sizes.
b,.
cr
This design procedure substitutes the design perpendicular to the grain with a
fictitious shear design over the residual cross section. Some important factors
influencing the load-carrying capacities are, however, not taken into consideration.
In the case of b, c 0,511a Inore detailed calculation is required in any case.
for
Md
for
l (Vd 11)
Md = - > , I
Vd ll
Md < 2,l
Vd h
and
for
b, > 0,712
12,
12
M,
V,
is
is
is
is
is
This design proposal modifies the EC5 design rules by taking into account the
influence of the beam depth / I . By this means, the restriction b, > 0,5 h is omitted.
Note that this design proposal based on fracture mechanics leads for deep beams
(11 >> 130 ~tim)and with 0,7 h > b, > 0,5 h to substantially lower design values
than EC5. On the other hand there is a discontinuous point at b,. = 0,7 11. For
infinitesimally small changes of / I , there is a "design jump".
The factor q makes allowance for the fact that only part of the load F,,,,, causes
tensile stresses, some of it also causing compressive stresses perpendicular to the
grain.
The factor k, allows for the fact that the load F,,,, is distributed over several rows
of fasteners so that only a reduced portion of tensile stresses is acting in the Line of
the furthest row of fasteners:
with
The effective thickness, t,/,can approximately be assumed as the sum of the depths
of penetration, 1, of the fasteners (Figure 2).
(1 1)
ttj = El r: t
For nails and screws I should not be assumed to be greater than 12 d
If two groups of fasteners are positioned near to each other with a centroidal
distance of 1, the effective area increases by the factor
In cases where the joint is near to the beam end, it should be realized that the load
or the stresses cannot distribule unchecked. If the distance of the joint from the
beam end is less than the beam depth itself, only half the effective length should
be taken into account.
Examples
Design of a joint with force acting perpendicular to the grain.
Joint with dowels acting perpendicular to the grain of a glulam beam with a cross
section of r x h, 100 x 600 r?t17r (Figure 4)
Service class 1: k,,, = 0,8
Strength class GL 28 according to prEN I 194 "Timber structures - Glued laminated
timber - Strength classes and determination of characteristic values."
fi~,~,k
= 3.0 N/lnm2
A:jox,k
= 0,45 N/1?1t7?
Design values:
.f;,,.d
= 1,85 N / r n m y f , , , , , d
= 0,28 Nhnnt'
Design load-carrying capacity per shear plane per dowel: R,! = 8,15 kN
Design load-carrying capacity of the joint. R,,,oi, = 2 . 12 . 8,15 = 196 k
N
Figlire 4
t4 = El
2 t =
AU = l,,ej teI
100 rttm
28300 ?tznzZ
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undcr the
EU Comett Programme
Concluding summary
Joints may fail under certain conditions due to perpendicular to the grain
stresses.
In order to reduce this risk of failure the fasteners should be placed as near
as possible to the unloaded edge.
Spreading the fasteners over a certain area reduces the tension perpendicular
to the grain stresses and increase the safety.
The EC5 design of joints with Ioads acting perpendicular to grain is very
simple but does not take into consideration some important factors
influencing the load-carrying capacities. Tesl results indicate that the design
according to EC5 may lead to unsafe design situations.
Some more sophisticated design rules do exist and should be used in cases
where 0,7 h > be > 0,511.
References
Ehlbeck, J., GGrlacller, R., Werner, H. (1989). Delerminnlion of perpendicular-to-grain tensile siresses
in joinls wich dowel-type-fasteners. Proc. of the CIB W I8 Meeting. Berlin, Germany, Paper 22-7-2.
Van dcr Put, T. A. C. M. (1990). Tension perpendicular lo rhc grain
dlc ClB W 18 Meeting, Lisbon, Portugal, Paper 23- 10-1.
;II
Objectives
B.O. Hilson
University of Brigklon
Prerequisite
C1
- General
Summary
Embedding strength is defined and the parameters to be controlled in the design
of embedment test apparatus are described. Johansen's equations for the ultimate
strength of timber-to-timber joints, and steel-to-limber joints, are developed.
Graphical representations of the timber-to-timber equations based on Moller are
shown.
Introduction
Laterally loaded joints with dowel-type fasteners are illustrated in Figure I .
Typical dowels that might be used include nails, staples, screws and bolts.
Figtire I
In the past the working load design values for these types of joint have been
determined from the results of short-duration tests on relatively small numbers of
replicate joints. One approact? made estimates of lower percentile values, eg
lower first percentile, assuming a normal distribution, and these were then
divided by a Factor to account for safety and workmansi~ipand to reduce the
strength to an equivalent long-duration load value.
The data available from the above tests are generally insufficient to enable
reliable estimates to be made of the characteristic strengths required for EC5. To
obtain the data by mass testing would have been prohibitive because of the inany
combinations that are possible in practice. Conseqtrently, techniques have been
developed which enable characteristic values to be predicted froin material
properties and joint geometry.
STEPfEUROFORTECI-I- an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme
c3/1
The equations used in EC5: Part I-! are based upon a theory first developed by
Johailsen (1949). The equations predict the ultimate strength of a dowel-type
joint due to either a bearing failure of the joint members or the simultaneous
development of a bearing failure of the joint members and plastic hinge
formation in the fastener. The precise mode of failure is determined by the joint
geometry and the material properties namely the fastener yield molnent and the
embedding strengths of the timber or wood-based materials.
Many researchers have carried out tests to validate Johansen's equations
including MolIer (1951), Aune and Patton-Mallory (1986), Hilson et al. (1990)
and in every case, provided the effects of friction between inembers and axial
force development have been minimised, good agreement has been found
between experiment and theory.
Material properties
The embedding strength of tirnber, or of a wood-based material, is defined as the
ultimate stress obtained from a special type of joint test called an embedment
test. A typical test arrangement is illustrated in Figure 2.
,*...,,
. l L " , , * O i i r ~ . P *..
Ciiif
tF
Figure 2
Bending deformation of the dowel must be minimised and this can be achieved
by clamping the ends of the dowel in the steel side plates and by limiting the
thickness of the test specimen typically to twice the dowel diameter.
where t is the thickness of the test specimen and d is the dowel diameter.
The embedment, r r , is the movement of the dowel relative to the specimen, i.e.
of BB relative to A in Figure 2.
Further guidance on the determination of embedding strength is given in EN 383
"Determination of embedding strength and foundation values for dowel type
fasteners" and suitable apparatuses for measuring embedding strength are
described by Rodd et al. (1 987).
Even in the most carefully designed apparatus some slight movements, in
addition to the embedment of the dowel in the specimen, will occur. The
characteristics of the apparatus should be measured, therefore, by carrying out a
test with a rigid, (e.g. steel), central member and a tightly fitting dowet of the
same diameter and surface condition as those under investigation. This
characteristic should then be deducted from the normal test characteristics to
obtain the true load-embedment characteristics.
Procedures for measuring the yield moment of nails are set out in EN 409
"Determination of the yield moment for dowel-type fasteners - nails".
E C ~ Part
:
1-1: 6.2
p =fh ad where
9
*
k f
Y
- M YF
C313
From Figure 5
From Figure 6
Rd
Rd
Rd
Figure 5
Figure 7
Mode la failitre.
Figure 6
tl.
Rd
b1
Equating and putting b, = P gives :
STEPIEUROFORTECH -
~ J Iinitiative
under the
EU Comet1 Programrnc
tz.
Substitution gives:
,f!flk61.;
b ~ , ~
R'I
Figure 8
R,l
Figlire 9
Mode Zbfailiirc.
At kin,, shear = 0
t1 - bl gives:
=-
Failure rnode 2b
As before b , =
{fiortl
Figure 9)
P b2
- b2 gives :
2
*z
STEPlEUROFORTECH
Figirre 10
Mode 3 failitre.
Johansen's equations may also be derived using the Virtual Work approach
(Aune and Patton-Mailory, 1986).
Additional resistance
As the fastener deforms under load axial forces can develop for failure modes 2
and 3. These are caused by friction between the fastener and the timber and also
by the constraints produced by the heads of nails and the washer assemblies in
bolts.
The force in the inclined part of the fastener will have a component parallel to
the applied load and wilt, therefore, enhance the resistance. EC5 talces this effect
into account by enhancing the resistance for inodes 2 and 3 failures by I0 per
cent.
In an actual joint the load carrying capacity will correspond ro the lowest value
obtained for Rd by substituting into the full set of equations. The equation giving
the lowest capacity will also identify the failure mode.
Moller charts
Moller (1951) represented tile Johansen equations for single shear, in cases for
which f3 = 1, by a graphical representation. In this lecture the Moller chart has
been modified to incorporate the 10% enhancement for modes 2 and 3 failures
and is shown in Figure 11. It should be noted that in this chart t, is the larger
thickness or embedded length. Similar charts may be produced for other values
C3/7
t2
of
a point
may be found on the chart, the appropriate failure mode identified'and hence the
J",t,d
fir, d
Fklrm 11
M ~ d g e dMLiller c l r ~ r t-
Figiirg 12
Mode I b (Figure 5)
Mode I b (Figure 6)
(8)
(9)
i
R ~ .2 + @
[
~
l
Mode 2l
(Figure
(
8 or 9) (10)
l
&,f,ddtl
( 1 1)
The Figure number refers to the diagram showing half of the corresponding
symmetrical double shear joint.
In these equations t, is the central member thickness and t, the thickness of an
outer timber or the penetration in an outer timber whichever is the smaller. In
each case R, represents the resistance of one shear plane so the resistance of the
whole joint is normally 2R,. The equations apply to symmetrical double shear
joints - other geometries may be analysed using the same principles.
Again to allow for axial force effects the modes 2 and 3 values may be
enhanced by 10%. A modified Moller chart incorporating the enhancement is
shown in Figure 12.
STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initintivc under the EU Comelt Programme
Figrcre 13
Mode 2 failtire
steel plate.
- tlrick
Figure 14
t1 - bl gives
:
substituting a, = 2
- Mode ib
Again for modes 2 and 3 a 10% increase is suggested in EC5 to allow for axial
force effects.
Tlzi~asteel plates
For thin steel plates the plate will be unable to provide the rotational resistance
to develop a plastic hinge in the fastener and so the EC5 equations have been
developed assuming no moment of resistance at the interface.
EC5 defines a thin steel plate as one having a thickness equal to, or less than,
haif the dowel diameter.
Using the above assumption the following equations may be derived:
Figurr I5
I~I~II
Figtire 16
Referellces
Aunc, P. and Patton-Mallory, M. (f986). Lateral lond-bearing capacity of nailed joinls based on
[lie yield tllcory - Theoretical development and experimental vcrification. US Department of
Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory, Rescnrcli Papers WL 469 cP: 470.
Hilson, B.O.. Whnlc, L.R.J. and Smith, 1. (1990). Cl~aractcristicpropcrties of nailed and bolted
joints under shori-term lateral load. Part 5 - Appraisal oT current design data in BS5268:Paa
2:1984 Structural Use of Timber. J. Inst. Wood Sci. 1 i(6) 208-212.
Johansen, K.W.(1949). Theory of Limber connections. lnlemational Association of Bridgc and
Structural Engineering. Publication No. 9:249-262. Bern
Mijlier, T. (1951). En ny metod fijr berlkning av spiki'ijrband. Report No 117, Chalmers
University of Technology, Sweden
Rodd, P.D.,Anderson, C., Whale, L.R.J. and Smith, I. (1987). Characleristic propcrties or nailed
and boltcd joints under short term lateral load. Pan 2 - Embedment test apparatus for \\rood and
wood-based sheet materials. 3. Inst. Wood Sci. I I(?): 60-64,
Nailed joints I
STEP ~ecturcCJ
B.O. I-li~son
University of Briglrton
Objectives
To describe the different types of nail arid present typical exa~iiplesof their use.
To present empirical equations for the predictio1-1 of etnbedding strength in
e n t nails. To introduce nail spacing requirements and
timber and yield ~ i i o ~ r ~ for
to give an example of a timber-to-timber nailed joint design. To dernonstrale the
effects of pre-drilfing and slip.
Prerequisites
C3
Summary
Val-ious types of nail are described includirig sn-looth wire (round asid square
sections), annular ringed shanli, helically threaded ant1 square twisted nails. The
advantages of the different forms are discussed.
The etnpirical equations for embedding strength and yield moments are quoted
and a brief description of their origins and limitations presented.
The need to control spacing is described and EC5 recommendations are given.
The advantages and disadvantages of pre-dl-illing are discussed. The i~nportance
of slip is stressed and an example of the design of a nailed tiruber-to-timber joint
is presented.
Types of nail
Nails are the most commonly used fasteners in timber construction and are
available in a variety of lengths, cross-sectional areas and s~rrfacetreatments.
The most conlmon type of nail is the s~noothsteel wire nail which has a circi~lar
cross-section i d is cut from wire coil having a ~ninilnu~n
tensile strength of 600
N / I ~ I IIt~ is
I ~ available
.
in rt standard range of diameters up to a maximum of S
rllrlt and can be plain or treated against corrosion, for example, by gnlvanising.
The head of the nail is most com~nonlyforged into n flat circle of approximalely
twice the dia~neterof the shaft but sonie nails are available with s~uallerheads to
enable these to be driven flush witli the timber surface.
'In some cou~itriesnails are produced with a square cross-section and t11ese are
used in the same applications as the smooth round nails described above.
The performance of a nail, both when under lateral load and under withdrawal
loading, may be enhanced by modifying the surface of the nail. One approacli is
to deform the s~rrfaceof a smooth round nail by cutting annular threading or
helical threading onto tlie shank of the nail. Another Lakes nails with a square
cross-section and twists them into a helical pattern. This process not only
modifics the nail surface but also work hardens the steel thus raising the yield
strength. Galvanising, chemical etching, coating with cernent and coating with
plastic are other ways in which tlie performance of a nail [nay be enhanced.
Pre-drilling
When nails are driven into dense timbers there is a danger that excessive
splitting will occur. This can be combatted by blunting the pointed end of the
nail so that it cuts through the timber fibres rather than separating them but a
more reliable approach is to pre-drill the timber. In this latter case the nails are
driven into pre-drilled holes normally having a diameter not greater than 80% of
the nail diarneier.
Embedding strength
EC5 recommends the following values for the characteristic embedding strength
for nails up to 8 N ~ I I Iin diarneter driven into timber and they apply for all angles
of load to grain direction.
Without predrilled holes
&,,
= 0,082 p,
iV/mrtt2
irir?i.
Yield moment
EC5 only presents guidance for the characteristic yield moment for cosnmon
smooth steel wire nails made from a wire having a minimum tensile strength of
600 N/lmn2.
For round nails it proposes,
For round nails d is the diameter in tnrlt and for square nails the side dimension
in ITlUl. Other types of nail would have to be tested in accordance with EN 409
"Determination of the yield inonlent for dowel type fasteners - Nails" to
determine suitable values for M,,.
Nail spacing
Nails must be spaced at suitable distances from each other, and fron-i the ends
and e d g s of pieces of timber, in order to avoid ~lnduesplitting. The var-jous
distances involved are shown in Figure I .
I
I
e I
n,
a,
Tlie end distance is said to be loaded when the load on the nail has a component
towards the end of the Limber. Otherwise it is referred lo as an unloaded end
distance. Loaded end distances need to be greater than unloaded ones.
In a similar way the edge distance may be loaded or unloaded.
The i~lostsuitable vnlues for spacings and distances will vary from species to
species depending principally upon the cleavage and shearing strength of the
tiinber, the timber density and the nail diameter.
Pre-drilling reduces the splitting tendency considerably and hence allows much
closer spacing of the nails as described earlier.
The spacings and distances recoin~nencfed by EC5, and based on years of
experience are presented in Table 1.
STEPIEUROFORTECI-I- i ~ iniliativc
n
uncicr thc EU Conlett Progr:lmmc
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Distrunce
Spacing parallel
Spncirig
perpendicular
Loadecl end
Unloaded end
Loaded edge
Urlloaded edge
TctOle I
No Pre-drilling
420 < p, < 500 kghzr'
p, 2 420 kg/rrri
d < 5 tnrrr: l(kl
15d
rl 2 5 nlnl: 1L)d
Pre-drilled
(4+3 1 cosa ( jd
5cl
( I O-t-5co.~a)d
5d
(3+ 1 sirla ( )d
(15+5co.sa)cl
(7-1-5cosot)d
1Ocl
(5+5.sir10()cI
lSd
(7+5silra)d
7d
(3+4siila)c/
7d
3d
5d
a = arrglc c!J
Naif slip
Nailed joints, in comnlon with joints nlade with rill other types of nicchanical
fi~stener,slip under loacl. This is illusrrnted in Figure 2 which shows a typical
load-slip characteristic fos a cornpression test on a three member nailed joint.
Fiigllr~2
An estir~~atc
of the instantaneous slip tililt will occur whet1 the service Ioad is
applied may be ob~ainedfroin n knowledge of tile instantaneous slip modulus
K.,,., determined from tests carried out in accordance with EN26891 "Timber
structures. Joints made with mechanical fasteners. General principles for
determination OF strength and clefonnation characteristics," or frotn the following
reco~nme~idations
in EC5.
For pre - drilled situations : K,,, =
For no pre - &itling :
pyd
N/mrn
20
Kser= p,
do''
Nlmm
25
1,5
Final slip measurements in nailed joints will be greater than the instantaneous
\falues due to creep and may be estimated frorn:
It is essential to allow for the slip in the joints when calculating the displacement
of a nailed timber structure under service load. Normal elastic theories predict
the displacement of struclures from the elastic shortening or lengthening of the
members in the case of trusses and from the assumption of no slip between the
component parts in beams. Joint slip will add considerably to these effects and,
therefore, produce much larger displacements.
The deflection of a nailed timber truss due to slip in the joints can often exceed
that due to the elastic axial lnovements in the members.
In nailed composite beam construction the simple theoly of bending will not
apply and stresses and deflections must be calculated allowing for [he slip that
will occur between, for example, the flanges and the web of a nailed I-beam.
This incomplete interaction niay be assessed using a procedure described in
Annex 3 EC5: 1-1.
Slip also affects the momenl-rotation characteristics of joints such as nailed
plywood gusset joints in some portal frame construction.
Fig~tre3
Te~rsiotlsplice joirrt.
Assur~~ing
the same strength class for each component,
P= 1
Mode 1 b
R,
1278 N
= pointside penetration
I2
minimum
R,
mtn
< 30 r w r l
=fir,l,dt2d
p = 10y9*30*3,35.1,0= 1095 N
Mode l a
Mode 2a
Mode 2b
Mode 3
( b ) Completer- approach
The set of design equations can be written into a computer program with j;,,,,,,,
I,,
t,, d, p and M,,,,as input parameters.
(cJ
Moiler- char-t ~ppronclr
If MoIler cllarts are available, in tIiis case for = I , then the mode of failure
may be identified quickly and only one equation needs to be used.
mln
since
From Figure 1 1 in STEP Lecture C3 the failure mode is identified as mode la.
Number of nails =
Design load
- -3600
494
Spacii7gs
p, = 310 kg/,n! No pre-drilling. a = 0"
From Table 1 :
Spacing parallel
Spacing perpendicular
Loaded end distance
Unloaded edge distance
= 10d
= 5d
= 15d
= 5d
= 3 3 3 171111
= 16,s ~nnz
= 50,3 t i ~ i i z
= 16,8 rnn~
F i r4
= 2 (60+35+60)= 3 10 rnrn
Slip
For no pre-drilling
will move 0,54 nrru relative to the cover plates so that the abutting faces of the
central inembers will draw spat by 2 - 054 r?tr?t = 1,08 nun.
Reference
Whnlc, L.R.J., Smith, 1. and Hilson, 8.0. (1989). Characteristic propertics of nnilcd and bollcd
joints under sliort term lareral loiicl. Part 4 - Thc influence of resling mode and filslcncr diameter
ilpon embcdrncnr tcsr data. J. Insc. Wood Sci. 1l(5): 156-161.
Nailed joints I1
STEP I C C ~ U ~cs
C
B.O. I-lilson
University of Brighton
Objectives
To present an example of a laterally loaded, nailed panes-lo-timber joint design.
To discuss the use of axially loaded nails.
Prerequisite
C4
Nailed joints I
Summary
The empirical equation for the embedding strength for plywood is given and the
scope for the introduction of new panel products wit11 the adoption of Joha~~sen's
theory is emphasised. An example of the design of a laterally loaded, nailed,
panel-to-timber joint is presented.
The use of axially loaded nails is discussed and the factors to be considered are
presented together with a design example.
Nuil spncii~g
For panel-to-timber joints and for steel-to-timber joints closer spacings may be
adopted than those recoinmended for timber-to-timber joints (see S'IEP lecture
C4). This is because there is generully less tendency for the panel product to
split on nailing and the nails are normally used in single shear so that they do
not fully penetrate the solid timber member thus reducing tile splitting tendency
in that member. These effects have been confirmed by nailing tests.
C5/ 1
k"I0d
&,k
h,d = ---Y hi
Plywood
Timber
0,80
1,3
'4970
= 30,2 N / ~ ~ , ~ "
0y80.19,4 = l l , g ~ / r r t s l ~
1,3
headside
f,,, plywood
l1Y9 = 0,39
-302
the
Mode I b
Rd
= A,,,,,,1 , (1
I?
= 30,2
17,1
- 3,35
= 1730 N
Mode l a
Mode 2a
Mode 2b
Mode 3
Minin~uinvalue = 597 N
Number of nails
Mode I n failure
irtrlt
C5/3
Spcicii~gs
p, = 340
k,S/r,lf,
no pre-drilling, a = 0"
Spacing parallel
Spacing perpendicular
Loaded end distance
Unloaded edge distance
= 0,85 - IOcl
= 0,85 - Sd
= 0 3 5 - 15cl
= 0 3 5 - Scf
= 28,5 11rrll
= 14,2 ~ I Z I T I
= 42,7 rlittr
= 14,2 I I I I I Z
= I0,l
I~~IIJ
= 23,5 ttlru
5000
Design load per nail (serviceability limit state) = 12
417
Instantaneous slip per nail = - = 0,4 nirrt
1058
417 N
Axially-loaded nails
Smooth steel wire nails are relatively weak when loaded axially and, therefore,
EC5 recom~nendsthat they should not be used for permanent and long-term
axial loads. The best resistance is obtained when tile nails are driven into side
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under lhe EU Comctt P r a g r i ~ m n ~ c
grain. Nails driven into end grain are norn-ially assumed to Iiave negligible axial
load capacity. Changes in the ]noislure content of the timber will also reduce the
axial load capacity of smooth nails.
Other fdctors which affect the resistance that nails can offer to axial withdrawal
loads include the density of the timber into which the nail is driven and the
surface condition of the nail. Consequently, cement-coated nails, annular and
helically threaded nails and square twisted nails all perform better under axial
loads than smooth nails. Another advantage of annular and helically threaded
naiis is tllat their resistance to withdrawal is little affected by changes in the
moisture content of the timber (see EC5: 1-1 For further guidance).
Figitre 3
Perpendicrrlai. trailing.
There are two ways in which the nailed joint shown in Figure 3 is likely to fail
(ignoring tensile failure of the nail itself):
(a)
(b)
withdrawal of the nail froin the member receiving the point, and
the nail head being pulled through the sheet material.
R , = A,, (1 l
R,, = i,,,,
G! 11 + f2,d
10'" pp,'-Nhnrti"
and
A,, = (300 - 10'" pp,"N/lnat2
where p, is in li6hn3.
When the head diameter of a smooth nail is at least twice the diameter of he
nail shank then it may be assumed that the head pull-through mode of failure
cannot occur.
STEPIEUROFORTECI-i- an initialivc under lhc EU Cornell Programme
c5/5
Figure 4 shows 12 ~ t i r l lthick plywood cladding nailed to timber studs acted upon
by a wind generated suction force Q,,
f,,
= 0,7*&73 = 0,93N/rntn2
43
- 3,00' = 473 N
106
- .I000
750
141 m m
Objectives
To describe ultimate limit state design procedures for bolted and dowelled joints
including rules for spacings. To present empirical equations for the prediction of
embedding strengths and fastener yield moments. To show briefly some possibilities
for improving the performance of these joints.
Univcrsit%t Karlsruhc
Prerequisites
C2 Tension perpendicular to the grain in joints
C15 Multiple fastener joints
Summary
Design rules for ultimate limit stare design for various types of bolted and dowelled
joints are evaluated. The rules for spacings, end and edge distances are explairled
and the influence of load-to-grain angle is commented upon. Empirical equations
for the embedding strengths of' the members and the fastener yield moments are
given. The effect of system properties (e.g. fastener surface friction) on the
chatacre~.isticload-carrying capacity of the joints is described and possibilities to
improve the joints' performance are presented. The load distribution between
fasteners in fine is discussed.
Introduction
Dowels (Figure I) are slender cylindrical rods made of steel, mainly with a smooth
surface. The minimum diameter is G n t m . The tolerances on the dowel are
-0,O1 +O,f ~ t l i t t and the pre-drilled holes in the timber member should have a
diameter not greater than the dowel itself. The holes in steel members may be predrilled 1 ntar larger than the dowel diameter and due allowsu~cemay be made for
any extra slip that may occur.
Bolls (Figure I ) are dowel-type fasteners with heads and nuts. They should be
tightened so that the members fit closely, and they should be re-tightened if
necessary when the timber has reached equilibrium ~noisturecontent. Bolt I~oles
may have a diameter not more than I 111111 larger than the bolt. If a bolt is fitted in
a hole which is not greater than its shank, the design method for dowelled joints
can be applied. Washers with a side lengttl or a diameter of at feast 3 d and a
thickness of at leust 0,3 cl (d is t l ~ ebolt diameter) should be used under the head
and nut. Washers shou1d have a full bearing area.
Joints with dowels are used in timber construction to transmit high forces. This
economic type of joint is easy to produce. In large dowelled connections it may be
necessary to replace some dowels wilh fitted bolts in order to maintain the fonn of
the joint. Dowelfed joints are stiff, compared with bolted joints. Therefore, bolted
joints should not be used in construction where large deformations impair the
serviceability.
Figitre I
Bolts and dowels can be used For liinber-to-timber joints, panel-to-timber joints or
steel-to-timber joints.
The embedding strength can be assumed to increase linearly with increasing wood
density. Small spacings as well as small end distances of the fasteners can cause
premature failures. Therefore, splitting in timber joints should be avoided by
appropriate spacings and distances.
When the force acts at an angle to the grain the influence of the tensile stresses
perpendicular-to-grain shall be taken into account. Design methods for this are
given in STEP lecture C2.
the type of fastener, the manufacture of the joint and tlle wood density or the
cluality of ttie wood-based materials. Tflus, the embedding strengtll is not a special
material property, but a systems property. For bolts and dowels up to 30 ntrtr
diameter the following characteristic embedding strength values for timber should
be used:
0,082(1- 0,014 Pk
witlt p, in lig/rn3 and d in nutt.
&,oak
fh,cr,k
N/IIIIII
(1
A4,o.k
kgOsin'
for softwood:
for hardwood:
ct +
cos' a
lcw
k,
1,35+ 0,015d
0,90+ 0,015d
Figrrre 2
~c5:Parri-1:6.5.1.3(2)
A,,
Yield il?or~lerltof.fitstc?ner's
The yield moment of dowel-type fasteners should generally be determined in
accordance wit13 prEN 409 "Tinlber structures Test metl~ods- Determination of
the yield tnoment ordo~veltype fasteners - Nails". Althougl~prEN 409 is developed
for nails only, it hns been verified (Elifbeck and Werner, 1992) that rile test ~neihods
given in prEN 409 can in principle also be used for bolts and dowels. For round
steel bolts it11d dowels the characteristic value for the yield moment should be.
calcu lated approxitnately ns
EC5:
klrt
1 - 1: 6.5.1.2 (2)
STEPJEUROFORTEC1.I -
i ~ ninitiative
undcr the
EU Cometi Progranlmc
C6/3
M~~lfiple
- fasfet~ei'joii~t
The loads in bolted and dowelled joints are non-uniformly distributed between the
individual fasteners in a n~ultiplefastener joint. For more than six fasteners in line
with the load direction, the load-carrying capacity of the extra fasteners should be
reduced by 113, i.e. for rz fasteners the effective number rzcf is
1iCl
=6
2
-
(tl
- 6)
(7)
If the failure of the joint is not governed by splitting and if plastic deformations are
possible, then the loads can be redistributed in the joint. For further information see
STEP lecture CIS.
Figure 3
Figrtra 4
Figtire 5
90"5 a c 270'
180'.1'_
a < 360'
a,
(4+3 icosa ( ) d
a2
4d
a,,
7(1 (2 SO ttml)
4rl
(j.i,,
0's a 2 180"
all ollier values or a
(1
+- 6 1 sin a 1 ) (1
(2 -1. 2 sin a ) d
3rl
(24 4
(2 3d )
TcibIe I
A4i1~inrtrt>l
spacirrgs nrtd riistorrres for Dolls.
n,
( 3 + 4 1 c o s ~ Ir ) d
cl2
3rl
a,,
- 90' I a 5 90'
7d (2 80 tnni)
3d
150'5 aI210"
90' < a < 150"
2 l 0 " < crc270"
ox,
fl4.1
a,,
0'5 a 5 180"
all other values ol' a
CI~.~
1 sin a 1
(2 3d)
(2 + 2 sin a ) d
3d
(2 3 d )
Mini~jjicaispncittgs N I Idisturlces
~
for-
Tubit.2
ciolor~!els.
The spacings a, may be redt~cedto a minimum of 4d. In this case the load-carrying
capacity decreases due to the danger of splitting. Tl~esefore,the characterislic
embedding strength J,,o.k should be reduced by tile spacing factor k,,:
for bolted joints
I
The design load-carrying capacities for bolted and dowelled joints can be calculated
using tile modified Johansen theory. This theory is described in STEP lecture C3.
EC5: Part 1-1: 2.3.3.2 and 3 The design values of the relevant lnaterial properties are calculated with the
C615
fastener parallel to the interface of the joint tnelnbers can be added to the lateral
shear load. Ttte component perpendicular to the surfaces of ihe members forces
these members into tight contact and may cause additional resistance in the
direction of the joint load due to the friction between the members. This clamping
effect diminishes gradually because of wood relaxation and shrinltage. The increase
of strength in joinls made with resin injected bolts (Rodd et a1.,1989) has the same
reason. The embedment characteristics are also superior to those of plain bolts in
terms of both strength and stiffness.
The load-carrying capacities of a joint can substantially be increased by gluing a
wood-based panel onto the members. (BlaR and Werner, 1988). In ttiat case the
spacings arid distances af the fi~stenersmay be reduced. Tlie reinforcing material is
able to spread highly concentrated loads uniforlnly while tile glueline transfers the
load into the timber member by shear stresses. Splitting in timber joints can be
avoided. Design proposals are given by Werner (1993).
Concluding summary
The design load-carrying capacities of bolted and dowelled joints should be
calculated using the general design equations for dowel-type fasteners
Bolted joints are, because of larger holes, not as stiff as dowelied joints and
the mini1nu111spacings required are greater.
For riiore than six fasteners in lirle with the load direction the load-carrying
capacity sliould be calculated with an effective, i.e. a reduced number of
fasteners.
References
Blall, i-I.J. and Wcmcr, 11. (1988). Stabdiiklverhindungenmil versiirkten AnschluRbcreichcn. Uauctl
mil Holz 90: 601-607,
i-lola-Vcthindunge~
mil stif\fiirmigcil Verbir~dungsr~~itteln
unrer
Bcriicksichtigung van strei~endcnEinfluUgiilJen. Dissertation. Univcrsit:il Karlsruhe, Gcrmilny.
S'~P/EUROFORTECI.I- an iniiiativc under the EU Colnctt Programme
Ob,jectives
To describe serviceability limit stare design procedures for bolted and dowelled
joints and to demonstrate the effect of slip. To present examples for designing
laterally loaded, timber-to-timber, panel-to-timber and steel-to-timber jojnts.
Prerequisites
A1 7 Serviceability limit states - Deformations
C6 Bolted and dowelled joints I
Summary
Design rules for serviceability limit stare design are presented for bolted and
dowelled joints. The design procedure and the importance of fasteners' slip are
deinonstrated by examples.
Figrrre I
with p, in
ECS: Part I-!: 4.2 (2)
Irfraliseci load-cfefoi.~~~nrion
crtr.ves of c/ort~rl/ecl
(0)arid bolte0 (b)jni11f.c
lig/rn3
and d in nnrr.
If the characteristic densities of the two jointed inembers are different then p,
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an iniii:itivc under the EU Comctt Programme
c7/1
should be taken as
=-
Vi,@
Ks,
EC5: Part 1-1: 4.2 (4)
F is the load per shear plane per dowel under service load. The final joint slip
is given by
1%"
kd&l>(l+kdcj?)
L$,st
1%"
(4)
ititGt
rr,,,
iii,,
rtfi,,
= -+ 1 ltlftl
Ksc*
with
-- (u,-
KvFrfor dowels of
Ultil~~rrte
lirrzit state design
Fd = 1,35 12+ 1,5 14 = 37,2 kN
centre member:
= &,,2,d = 0,87
= I ,3):
a1 =
*
6o
d = 5,3d
12 cos20'
0,082 (1
k,
=
= 15,21
1,3
outer members: a , = 4.43 d > (3+4 cos70") = 4,37 d
= 0,87
~/ntm'
i r e2
= 1,l):
(rlirll).
R,, = ~ n i n
16779m75403
(2+1,28).10
-1 $8
11,91 .12.802
26,O
= 3,25 kN
2 . 4
-
Values for
permanent
short-term
instantaneous slip
fiitst
3929
0,46 . 0,83 (I
E C ~ Part
:
1- i : 4.2 (4)
final slip
ccnuc member
outer
ltlitt
mcmbers
The same joint configuration as for example I , except centre member made of
plywood of 20 nrrrr thickness.
- 0,01
O,11(1
43 56
11,91
12) . 650
. 9 = 43,6 IV/,ti,rr2
1,3
3,66
E C ~ Part
:
1 - 1 : 4.2 (2)
EC5: Port I - I : 4.2 (1)
1 . 477'~~
- 12 = 6251
20
N/mm
timber
plywood
permanent
030
1 ,00
short-term
0,OO
0,OO
r$,,
0,46
0,52
. \/(I
0,8)(1
1,O)
0,54
0,52
Dowel ii = 24 11tnt
Glued laminated timber according to prEN 1194:
GL 24
Steel plate
Service class 1 ; load duration class: short-term
permanent load
Load Tor the governing load case:
variable load
llzrn
= 360 Nhmt~"
p, = 380 kghn3
t = 15 trr1i7
k,,,, = 0 ~ 9
G, = 130 liN
Q,= I95 kN
0,74
E C ~Part
: 1-1: 6.2.1(2)
E C ~ Pnrt
: 1-1: 6.2.1, (2)
A check should also be made on the strength of the steel plate (see EC3: Part 1.1
"Design of steel structures - general rules and rules for buildings" (ENV 1993-1-1)).
I%"
- 325
13'
1,83 {(I
O,60)
195 . 1,83
1 + 325
= 2,02
11tm
I;,,, =
16,3 kN
K,,, = 8890 N/~ttnz
rri,
1 mm
16300 =
8890
2,83 rnnt
Screwed joints
STEP lecture C8
J. Ehlbeck, W. Ehrhsrdt
Universilat lCarlsruhe
Objective
T O describe the load carrying behaviour and the load-carrying capacity of screws.
Prerequisite
C3
Summary
The lecture describes the load-canying behaviour of screwed joints and presents the
design rules given in EC5.
Introduction
Wood screws are especially suitable for steel-to-Limber and panel-to-limber joints,
but they also can be used for timber-to-timber joints. Suck screwed joints are
mainly designed as single shear joints.
Screws with a diameter greater than 5 ntm should be turned into pre-drilled holes
to prevent splitting of the wood. The holes should be pre-drilled over the length of
the unthreaded shank with the diameter of the smooth shank and over the threaded
portion with a diameter of about 70 per cent of the shanlc diameter. Screws should
be inserted by turning and not by driving with a hammer, otherwise tile load
carrying capacity, mainly the withdrawal capacity, will decrease significantly.
Requirements referring to design and material of the screws will be fixed in a
European product standard. In the design equalions d should be taken as the
diameter of the screw measured on the smooth shank. Tile diameter d of coach
screws varies from 8 to 20 nml, the diameter of countersunk head or round head
screws varies from 4 to 8 m m z . The root diameter of the screw in the threaded
portion cl, is about 70 per cent of the diameter measured on the smooth shank. The
depth of the thread Ill varies from 0,125 d to 0,14 d, the threadpitch h, from 0,4 d
to 0,5 ci. The length of the threaded portion is about 60 per cent of the total length
of the shank.
Figtire I
At present the relevant national product standards do not specify any values
regarding fastener properties with respect to the load carrying capacity. It is
STEPRUROFORTECH - an initinlive undcr [he EU Cornell Programrnc
C8ll
assumed that the design rules for screwed joints in EC5 are applicable for screws
according with the British Standard BS 1210 "Wood screws" and the German
Standards DIN 96 "Halbrund-Holzschrauben rnit Schlitz", DIN 97 "Senk-Holzschcauben mit Schlitz" and DIN 571 "Sechskant-Holzscl~rauben".
Or
where A,+k is the characteristic tensile strength of the screw material and
d is the diameter tneasured on the smooth shank (nominal screw diameter).
STEPIEUROFORTECI~I- an iniriativc under the EU Comcu Programme
hd UeJ.- 4
(3)
The design value of tile withdrawal parameter should be calculated from the
characteristic withdrawal parameter taking into account the load duration class, the
service class and the partial safety coefficienr .y,,
cl
lfl
p,
IF a depth of penetration of more than 10d is taken into account, the stresses should
be checked against the design tensile strength of the screw material in the root area.
The head pull through effect for axially loaded screws with sheet material should
be checked using the equations for annular ringed shank and threaded nails. For
timber to timber joints it may be necessary to use washers to avoid high pressure
perpendicular Lo the grain.
where R,,, and R , , , are the design load-carrying capacities of the joint loaded with
axial load or lateral load alone.
Design example
Screwed joint of a wind bracing. It is assumed that the spacings are in line with the
relevant design rules.
4 -1
M,,,, = 0,8
400 2
10 g3 . 1 = 61100
6
1,l
0'8
pk ktt,od
-f;lC = 0,082 (1 - 0,01 6)-----YM
c5 y ,
Rd
(@-1)
A,,, t , d
1,I J
0,082 (1
0,41
d = 1,1 42
96
17,5
= mill
N~llnt
12
lom3= 8,26 kN
. 61100 . 17,5 . 12 .
10') =5,57 kN
Axial load:
I,/ = 0,6 120 = 72 nrnr < 10 d = 120 mrn
No need to check against tensile strength of screw rnateriat
EC5: h r t 1- 1: 6.7.2b
&,,
= (1,s + 0,6 d)
=&,,
R a ~ ~
($ -
6Y
AI
= 113
. (72
Od
(1,5
0,6
12)
9 = 113 N , I ~ Z I ~ Z
1,3
- 12)
- loe3 = 6,76 kN
Interac tion:
EC5: Part 1-1: 6.3.3b
0,707 22
4 5 ,
Oy707 22
4 . 6,76
0,49
0,33 = 0,82 r 1
Conciuding summary
-
Screws with a diameter > 5 mnt shall always be turned into pre-drilled holes.
The length of the smooth shank s110uId be greater or equal to the thickness
of the member under the screw head.
Under lateral loading for screws with a diameter less than 8 nlrti the rules for
nails apply, for screws with a larger diameter the rules for bolts apply.
Objectives
I-I.J. UInss
Dclfi Ulliversity
To show the different types of timber connectors placed in precut grooves and the
fabrication of respective joints. To explain the background of the models used to
calculate the characteristic strength values of ring and shear-plate connector joints.
of Tedlnolagy
Prerequisite
C15 Mulliple fastener joints
Summary
Various fomx of ring and shear-plate timber connectors are identified. The loadcarrying behnviour of connections with ring, or shear-plate connectors, and bolts is
described. The possibie failure rnodes for different load-grain angles and their effect
on the design values of the connection strength are discussed. Special attenti011 is
given to the required spacing, end and edge distances of the connectors in a joint.
Introduction
Ring and shear-plate connectors are used in later-ally loaded timber-to-timber and
steel-to-timber joints, generally in conlbinatio~lwith bolts. While ring connectors
nre exclusively applied in timber-to-limber joints, shear-plate connectors may be
used for steel-to-timber joints as well as for timber-to-timber joints. Shear-plate
connectors are nonnally installed before the osselnbly of tile structure and the joints
are demountable (see Figure 1).
Ring and shear-plate connectors are itvailable in a variety of sl~apesand sizes, with
diameters ranging from 60 to 260 m n ~ They
.
are always circular because they are
placed into precut grooves produced by rotary cutters and ore made from aluminum
cast alloy, steel or cast iron. Those connectors comn~onlyused in Europe are
specified in prEN 912 "Timber fasteners - Specifications for connectors for timber".
In prEN 912 ring connectors are denoted as Type A wilereas sltcar-plate connectors
are listed as Type 3.
The production of ring and shear-plate connector joillts comprises severaI sreps.
First, the bolt hole and the connector groove are drilled into the wood (see Figure
2 left). For the connector grooves proper cutters are necessary, corresponding to the
shape of the ring cross-section. Then, the connectors are placed into the grooves
and the titnber members to be connected are put together. Finally, the bolts are
inserted into the holes and tightened (see Figurc 2 right). As an alternative to bolts,
coach screws ruay be used to hold the connection together.
Fi~rii-c2
;In
However, the shear block failure occurs only if the embedding strength of the wood
in front of the connector is sufficiently large. Otherwise embedding failure will
govern the load-carrying capacity of the connection, as it will with larger end
distances, a,.
I;igtirc 4
lortclcd iir
where
R,
,
A,
f;,
dc
It,
The apparent shear strength decreases with increasing shear aren. Based on tests
with ring connector joints by ICuipers and Verrneyden (1964), he following
relationship between the apparent shear strength and the shear area is assumed:
fi, =
K A;"~'
(2)
C9/3
For a joint with one connector per shear plane the shear area is (see Figure 3):
Ring or shear-plate connector joints loaded at an angle of more than 30" to the
grain or in co~l~pression,
respectively, show different failure modes. Connections
with load-grain angles between about 30" and 150" show a splitting failure mode,
where in most cases the member with a loading co~nponentperpendicular to the
grain shows a tensile failure perpendicular to the grain (see Figure 5).
E~~~belicli~rg
str-e~igih
Based on 139 tests with varying timber density, Hilson ( 1 9692) gives the following
relationship between the embedding strength under a ring or shear-plate connector
and lhe timber density at 13% moisture content:
with p in k ~ / r t t ' (6)
f, = 82 ( p / 1 0 0 0 ) ' ~IV/?rz1n2
~~~
Eq~~ation
(6) can be replaced by a more simple linear relationship:
with p in kghn"7)
f;, = 0,078 p ~tnzrtt"
If the bolt contribution is ignored, iln approximate value of the joint strength may
be obtained by using an artificial value for.6 ~nultipliedby the projected area of tlie
connector. Frotn Hilson (1969b) the mtio of the tl~eoreticalconnector contribution
to dleoretical joint strength including the bolt, based on 30 tests, averaged 0,804.
The resulting value of .f,
with p in kg/~/ln"8)
fh = 0,078 / 0,804 p = 0,097 p N/nt1n2
agrees well with the results of the cornpression Lests reported in Blass el: al. (1994)
which result in the folollowing characteristic value of the embedding strength:
with p, in kgh? (9)
= 0,095 pk ~ / n z m '
In the following, a value of 0,09 p, is used for the embedding strength A,,.
Co1ntection sb.engflr
From the ultimate load and the timber dimensions, the parameter K in equation (2)
was determined for each tensile tesr specimen. From all the values of the parameter
K, a characteristic value was tlien determined as the 5-percentile value. Based on
service classes 1 & 2, a specified minimum timber member thickness and a
characteristic density of the timber of 350 kg/rn3, the characteristic value of the
parameter K was found to be:
STEPIEUROFORTECH - nn initiative undcr the EU Comctt Progrrlntme
Cw.5
Based on this value for K, and a characteristic embedding strength.6,. = O,09 PI, the
characteristic load-carrying capacity of a ring or shear-plate connector loaded in
tension parallel to the grain is:
where A , is the shear area per connector according to Figure 3 and equation (4) or
(5) in ~ i t r n ' .
Limiting values for the member thickness have been introduced since, with small
member thicknesses, a splitting instead of a shear block failure mode, or embedding
failure, is more likely to occur and consequently the cotlnection strength decreases
(Scholten, 1944). The evaluation of the test results is based on a rninimuln side
member thickness of 3 fi,, and a minimum middle metnber thickness of 5 h,, with
11, as defined above.
Although the calculation rnodet which assurnes a shear block failure of the wood
in front of the connector describes only the behaviour of tension specimens loaded
at an angle of up to about 30", it has been applied to all connector joints with loadgrain angles up to 150". This means that joints loaded at an angle to the grain with
a splitting fiiilure mode have also bee11 evaluated on the basis of the assurr~edshear
block failure. The model nevertheless gives fairly uniform results wiilt respect to
the 5-percentile value OF the parameter K.
This can be explained by the fact that the end distance and the connector spacing
similarly influerlce tlie ultimate load if splitting is the governing failure mode. Irt
this case an increased end distance obviousiy increases tlle ared Ioaded in tension
perpendicular to the grain. Only if the end distance becomes very large and the
failure inode does not include splitting, can a further increase of connection strength
with increasing end distance not be expected.
The results of the tension test evaluation show no indication of an influence of
number of conllectors for up to three connector units per joint. The same applies
to the compression joints where a clear relation between the 5-percentile value of
the parameter K and the number of connector units per joint cannot be established.
This does not mean, however, that there exists no influence of number of fasteners
per joint on the characteristic load-carrying capacity of ring and shear-plate
connections. Until further research can clarify the influence of number of
connectors, the effective number rrCl of more than two connectors in line with the
load direction should be assunled as:
11, = 2 + (1 - rt / 20) (rr - 2)
(12)
where
11
Corrrrectioti ~'fi,!firess
C9/6
Since the stiffness \~aluesof the tested connections vary considerably, the influence
of different parameters on the conneclion stiffness is difficult to estimate. Consequently, a si~ilplerelation was chosen to represent connection stiffness as a function
of the connector diameter and the characteristic density of the timber. The influence
of load-grain angle, timber rnoislure content, member thickness and tile number of'
connector units per joint was neglected. Based on a value of 350 kS/r?r3 for the
characteristic density, the followir~gaverage v a l ~ ~ofethe slip modulus k , according
to EN 2689 1 was deterri~ined:
(13)
Ic, = 0,6 d, pk (Nlant)
where rI,. is the connector diameter in nim and p, is the characteristic density of the
respective strength class in kg/m3.
Design equations
If equation ( I 1 ) is applied to a ring or shear-plate connector joint loaded in tension
parallel to the grain with a distance to the loaded end n,, of' 2 cl,., a side niember
thickness of' 3 It,., a middle meluber thickness of' 5 h,, and a characleristic density of
the tirnber of 350 k8h:/,n" the characteristic Ioad-carrying capacity per shear plane for
those connectors listed in prEN 912 is given by:
where
R~,o.k
a is the angle
35 di5 k p k, k, (N)
31,s d, he kp k, (N)
t1tm
(16)
For joints with one axis of connectors loaded in co~npression(I 50" S ol < ?lo"),
only [he embedding strength criterion is applicable:
with rl,. and It,. in it1111(18)
Rc,og = 3 1 3 dc h, kp k, IN)
For compression joints will] more than one axis shear failure between tlte rings is
possible and both conditions of equation (16) have to be verified in this case.
The lnodification faclors for timber density, distancc to the loacled end (only for
tension joints) and inember thickness are defined as follows:
where p, is the chriracteristic density of' rlle timber strength class in kg/rit3
For joints lor~dedin tension only (-30"
distance may be applied:
< cr, S
k,t3 = tnin
1,25
(20)
2 (Ir
where a,, is the distance to the loaded end with a minimum value of 1,5 d,.
k,=min
I
I,
-
311~.
(21)
'2
Itc
where t , and rZ are the side and middle member thicknesses, respectively, and h, is
the depth OF the connector embedment. Equation (21) is applicable only, if t , and
t? are larger than 2,25 11, und 3,75 h , , respectively.
Concluding summary
Timber and connector dimensioits, spacing, end distances and density are the
pri~naryinfluences on the connectioil strength.
Tile L'dilure mode of joints loaded in tension is a shear block failure of tlte
wood in front of the connector unless large end distances lead to an embedinent failure mode. Joints with Load-grain angles between about 30" and 150"
show a splitting failure mode of the inember loaded perpendicular to the
grain. Because of the brittle failure mode and the initial slip of the bolt in its
oversized hole, load sharing between bolt and connector is not taken into
account.
References
Blass, H.J., Ehlbcck. 1. and Schlagcr. M. (1'194). Strength and stiffness of' ring and shear-plate
connections. Molz :11s Roh- und Werksloff 52: 71-76.
Hiison, 0.0.(196911).The bchaviour of sofiwoods loaded in compression parailcl to the grain arid
supported against lateral rnovemenr. Journal of thc Ins!. of Woad Scicncc 4 (4): 11-23.
Hilson. B.O.(1'169b). Tile ultimate strcngltl of timber joints will1 split-ring connectors whcn loadcd
parallcl to (he grain. Journal of the Inst. of Wood Scicncc 4 ( 1 I): 6-26.
Kuipers, J. nrid Vcrmcydcn, P. (1964). Rcscarch on timberjoints in ltle Netherlands. Rapport 4-64-15,
Ondcrzock v-7, Stcvin-Luborntoriurn. Tcchnischc Hogcschool Delft, Neihcrlands.
Scholtcn, J.A. (1944). Timbcr-Connector Joints - Thcir SLrcngth and Design. Tt'cbnici~iBullclir~No.
865,USDA Fnresl Service, Washington, D.C., USA.
STEPEUROF0RTECt.l
Objectives
To show the different types of toothed timber connectors and the fabrication of respective joints. To explain the background to the characteristic strenglh values of
toothed-plate connector joints.
Prerequisite
C3
- Theory
Summary
Various fonns of toothed timber connectors are identified. The load-bearing
behaviour of connections with toothed-plate connectors and bolts is described. The
failure modes and their impact on the design values of the connection strength are
discussed. Special attention is given to tile required spacing, end and edge distances
of the connectors in a joint.
Introduction
Like ring or sl~ear-plateconnectors, toothed-plate connectors are used in laterally
loaded timber-lo-timber and steel-to-timber joints, generally in combination with
bolts. While ring and shear-plate connectors are placed into precut grooves (see
STEP lecture C9), toothed-plate connectors are pressed into the timber members to
be connected. Double-sided toothed-plate connectors are used in timber-to-timber
joints; single-sided connectors may also be used if the connectors are installed
before the assembly of the structure or if the joints sl~ouldbe demountable (see
Figure 1). Single-sided con~lectorsare also used for steel-to-limber joints. Because
of the need to press the teeth into the timber, toothed-plate connectors can only be
used in timber with a characteristic density of not more than about 500 kghn3.
clo/f
connectors colnrnonly ~ ~ s in
e dEurope are specified in prEN 912 "Timber Fdsteners Specifications for connectors for timber". I11 prEN 912 toothed-plate connectors are
denoted as Type C,
Toothed-plate connector joints are manufactured in a similar way to bolted joints.
First, the bolt hole is drilled into the wood. Then, the connectors are placed between
the timber members and the connection is pressed together. Because the pressing
of the connector teeth into the timber requires considerable force, either a hydraulic
press or a high strengtii bolt is used. Only for small connector diameters, up to
about 65 mni, can the usual 111iId steel bolt be used. If bolts are used to press the
connector teeth into the wood. large washers have to be used because of the
otherwise high stresses perpendicular. to the grain and the consequent csushing of
the wood. After pressing, the mild steel bolt is inscrted into the tirnber members
and tightened. Coach screws may be used in connection with toothed-plates as an
alternative to bolts.
Figure 2
E~t~berltrrer~t
fnilrrre of tire ~rjoodutrcler tire corlrrcctor tcetJ1 N ~ I C I111e001t. Tfic
bolt crtrd !Ire corrrlectnr tectlr c11.c d e f ~ r t ~ l pl~~sticull)~.
ed
5,k = 4 , k
(1 )
&,k
where
R,
R,,
R,,
where
A
(I,
is n factor depending on the connector type and determined through tests and
is the connector diameter.
Carri~ectiorlstrengtil
From the timber di~nensionsand using a characterislic density of 350 1kgh11~the
characteristic load carrying capacity of the boll was detern~inedfor each tested
specirnen according to EC5. Tile load-carrying capacity of' tile bolt was then
deducted from the ultiniate load of the connection before calculaling the parameter
A for each test specimen. Bnsed on service classes I & 2 and a specified minin~um
timber member thickness, the characteristic value of the parameter A was found LO
be:
(3)
A, = 18 N/nrm
'*'
Limiting values for the member thickness have been introduced, since snlall
member thicknesses result in a splitting instead of an embedment failure mode ilnd
consequently the connection strength decreases. Tlie evaluation of the test resulls
is based on tile same n~ini~num
timber ~~lelnber
tl~icknessesas for ring and shearplate connector joints, namely a minimum side member thickness of I ,5 ti,. and a
minimum middle member thickt~essof 2,5 h,.. 11,. is the connector height for doublesided toothed-plate conneclors and twice the connector heigl~tfor single-sided
toothed-plate connectors.
The results of t l ~ etest evaluation show il slight decreilse in the clirrr.c~ctcriuticloacicarrying capacity per conneclor will1 increasing number of connectors for up to
STEPIEUROFORTECI.1 - an inifinlivc under thc EU Cornclt Progrnmmc
C 1013
tllree connector units per joint. The decrease in the civerage load-carrying capacity
per connector with increasing number of connectors is more distinct.
Until further research can clarify the influence of the number of connectors, the
effective number ti,, of more than two connectors in line with the load direction
should be assumed as:
(4)
r t , = 2 + (1
tz 1 20) ( a - 2)
where
11
es
30' and 180" is quite
Although the number of tests with load-grain ~ u ~ g l between
small, the 5-percentile value of the parameter A seems to be independent of the
load-grain angle.
Co~lrzectio~z
stijji1es.s
Design equations
The following equations to determine the characteristic strength of a toothed-plate
connector joint per shear plane apply:
(7)
Rj,cr,k= 'c,li Rb,a,k
+
a
R
R,,
(8)
R,,,,, is the load-carrying capacity of the bolt according to EC5 based on the characteristic values of the embedment strength and the fastener yield moment.
+ 0,3 I cosa 1) d,
a,
(1,2
a?
1,2 d,
03.r
-90" S a 5 90"
1,s clr *)
a,,
1501a1210"
90" c a < 150"
210" < a < 270"
1 2 (Ic
(0,9 + 0,G I sina 1 ) 4
( 0 3 i0,6 f sinrw 1 ) ciC
a,,
0<ar11800
a ,
0.6 rf,
For tension joints (-30' I a < 30') the end distance a , , may he further reduced 10
I , I d,, if thc characteristic load-carrying capacity is reduced proportionally.
-
Taliie 1
Mirtir~rrmrspacit~gsnt~ddismmtcc.~
for coi~neoortype CI lo C9.
+ 0,8 1 cosa 1 ) 4
a,
(1,2
a2
Perpendicular to ~ilegrain
1,2 clc
a,,
-90" 5 a 5 90'
2 (i, *)
150'5 a I2 10"
90" < a < 150"
210" < a c 270"
l,2 d'.
(0,4 + I ,G I sina I ) cl,
(0,4 + 1 G
, Isina I ) (lc
o,~,
0" 1 a I180"
(I,,
0,6 d,
For tension joints (-30' 6 a I 30") {he cnd distancc a , , rnay be further reduced to
1,s (1, if tile cllaracteristic load-calrying capacity is reduced proportionally.
The lnodification factors for timber density, Ioaded end distance and member
thiclcness are defined as follows:
kP = min
where p, is the characteristic density in
class.
kg/lt13
C1015
For tension joints (-30" 5 a < 30") a modification hctor for the distance to the
loaded end may be applied. For connector types CI to C9 according to prEN 912
this factor is given as:
ke3 = rnin
(1 1 )
'3.r
IIUIZ.
For connector types CIO and C1 1 according to prEN 912, the modification factor
for tension joints (-30" 5 cx 4 30") is:
k,, = min
I
rL3,f
[IL.
2
with a minimurn value for the distance to the loaded end, a,,!:
k,
tnin
where t , and tI are the side and rniddle member thickness, respectively, and h, is
the connector height for double-sided toothed-plate connectors and twice the
connector height for single-sided toothed-plate connectors. Equation (7) is
applicable only, if t , and t2 are larger than 1 , l 11, and 1,9 It,, respectively.
.-
Concluding summary
--
References
Blass, I-I.]., Ehlbeck, J. and Schla~cr,hcl. (1993). Characteristic strengl11 of ~ooll~ed-plnle
connector
joints. Hotz als Roll- ilnd Wcrkstofi 51: 395-399.
Dctitsches Institr~t Sur Normling (1988). DIN 1052 Tcif 2 Ho1zb;luwcrkc
fiihrung. 13cull~Berlin, Getmany, 27pp.
- Bcrcchnunp
kind Aus-
Objectives
L.R.J. Whnlc
Gang Nail Systems UK
Prerequisite
C1
Summary
The principal factors influencing tile strength of punched metal plate fastener
joints are introduced. The test methods used to establish plate properties are
described, along with the method used in EC5 to establish required plate sizes
for joints based on botll their anchorage strength and their net cross-sectional
steel strength. Finally, some general plate dimensioning rules are given, along
with a description of the means by which the slip of puncl~ed metal plate
fastener joints can be predicted under load.
f ntroduction
A punched metal plate fastener is defined in prEN1075 "Timber Structures Joints made of punched metal plate fasteners" as a fastener made of metal plate
having integral projections punclled out in one direction and bent perpendicular
to the base of the plate, being used to join two or more pieces of timber of the
same thickness in the same plane.
They are generally manufactured from pre-galvanised mild steel or stainless steel
strip with thicknesses varying from 0,9 rrlrrt to 3,5 nun (Figure 1). The innovation
of using plates with pre-formed (integral) "trails" first took place in the USA in
the late 1950's as a development of 111e conventional hand nailed steel or
plywood gusset plate. Botl~systems brought about the ability to form in-plane
timber connections, but punched metal plate fasteners were better suited to
factory pre-fabrication of trusses and were able to transfer member forces with
s~nallerconnection areas, with consequent cost savings in materials.
Figure I
Nowadays, punched metal plate fasteners are widely used throughout the
industrialised world to form tniss connections as well as joints in many other
plane timber stnlchlres (Figure 2a). Many different forms of punched metal plate
fastener- have been developed, involving a variety of nail patterns, nail lengths
and nail shapes. The strength of a11 such plates is dictated by certain key
influerlcing variables however, enabling a common design approach to be
established in EC5 appropriate for all fasteners of this generic type.
Aizchornge
a is the angIe between the force and the lengthways direction of the plate
(defined as being parallel to the direction of the plate slots) i.e. the angle
at which the individual plate teeth are being loaded. This affects the area
of timber being loaded by each plate tooth.
p is the angle between the force and the grain direction i.e, the angle to
grain at which the plate teeth are loading the timber.
The individual species or the strength class of the timber being jointed i.e.
its resistance to loads applied via punched metal plate teeth.
A,, is the area of effective punched metal plate teeth in any member i.e.
the plate contact area on any member, less any allowances for ineffective
~iaits on the edges or ends of the timber and for any misplacement
tolerances when positioning the plate. The effective contact area is defined
as the smallest area arrived at, after first assuming that the plate could be
~nisplaced from its correct position in any direction by a set tolerance
(typically k 5 rtlttt), and that simultaneously any plate area which
encroaches within a set distance (dependent upon the plate type) of tile
member edges or ends tnust be disregarded (see Figure 2b).
r,,,, and I,, are respectively, the distance from the centroid of A,, to the
furthest point of Ad, a n d t h e second moment of area of A,,. about its
centroid i.e. the shape characteristics of A,./. Note: These particular
properties only matter when moments are being transferred by the punched
metal plate fastener.
Steel cnpnciol
y is the angle between the lengthways direction of the plate and the joint
interface i.e, this dictates the net sectional steel area presented along the
joint Iine.
1, a,, b,,,, are respectively, the net projected plate length along the joint
interface, and in directions parallel and perpendicular to the plate direction
at the joint interface i.e. the length of plate available at the joint interface
to sustain loads in the two orthogonal plate directions.
--
The steel type used to manufacture the plate i s . the strength cl~aracteristics
of the steel material itself.
Figlire 2
For the purposes of design, these variables are included in a number of fomulae
which predict the strength of joints based on certain key characteristic plate
strength properties. These characteristic plate properties and the way in which
they are established from tests are described in the next section.
The following characteristic plate strength values are required in EC5 for the
design of punched metal plate fastener joints:
.frr.ap.r
.A,o,k
A.90,o.n
A.0.k
fc,,o.k
L,o,k
f;..~0.1:
x,,4,k
C11/3
presumption which strictly requires the definition of just three constants from
tests as follows:
a)
f;,,,,
is the characteristic anchorage strength for specimens loaded parallel
to grain (p = 0'). It is obtained from straight joints (Figure 3), typically
with plate angles a = 0, 15", 30, 45", GO", 75", 90". A lower bound bilinear relationship may then be fitted to these data (Figure 4) yielding
fitted constants k,, and q,for use in the following predictive equations:
cxscX(,
where k,,
Fig nrr 4
Dcrii~atiartof car~~~tattt.~
kl,k2,a,,
f,,op,t
Figure 5
Stattdarcl lest specitrletts (a = 0').
Figllrc 3
Statrdarrl test specirlrerts (P = 0").
b)
(1)
Figtwe 6
Derivation of constattt C.
~OA~,~,,,
and this being the case:
Having established fitted lines describing the lower bound relationship between
j
&
, and f;,,9, (bi-linear) for straight joints, and the lower bound relationsl~ip
between &, and f;,,o, or il,mo
(siilusoidal) for T-joints, an interpolation
between these extremes:
procedure is provided in EC5 for arbitrary values
The characteristic shape of the fitted f;lqap,,,surface given by Equations (4) (5)
and (6) compared with that given by the raw data for a typical plate is shown in
Figure 7.
Figrcrc 7
Typical f,,&,,,
sit$aces - iefi: tlreorctical and rigltt: e.~perirr~ozlal.
Aizchol-age capacity
Induced stresses from both direct forces and moments acting on punched metal
plate areas may be calculated as follows:
FA
M,
(21 lf.5
Figure 8
=Fe+M
(9)
The internal eccentricity motnent may sometimes counter the external moment of
course.
ECS: P ~ ~ L I
D6.5.1(3)
-I:
The following ultimate limit state anchorage conditions need then to be sa~isfied
in each member at a joint before an acceptable plate size and position can be
said to have been found:
(13)
(14)
where:
the resultant direct force on the joint (compression = negative).
Ft,, is the moment induced force in the joint where FA,=2M/I (Figure 8).
/; is
EC5:Parrl- l :D6.5.2(7,)
R,,,, = tttas
or
f,,,,,
the ELI
(if compression)
Cornett Programme
(15)
,
R,:,, = ~ n n . ~
(if tension)
or
f,:),,,,
(if compression)
Then, the following limit state condilion should be satisfied at each joint
intel-face:
In joints subject to a net compressive force, only 50% of the force needs
lo be lransferred through the plate, the remainder being transferred by
direct timber bearing.
EC5: ~ a r i l - 1 :DG.5.3(t)
F = 1,o + 0,1 L
kN
(18)
where:
ECS: parti-I: ~ 6 . s . x ~ ) -
Joint slip
ECS: Partl-1: D2
Axial slip in punched melal plate fastener joints may either bc allowed for in
truss deflection calculntions by the use of prescribed dips, It,,., (in itttlt) 01. slip
nioduli, K,,.,(in N/r~int)established from joint tests and determined in accordance
with EN 26591 "Timber structures - Joints rnade with ~nechanicalfasteners General principles lor the deterinination of strength and det'ori~iation
characteristics".
These II,,,., or K.,c,,,values relate to the serviceability load level. Corresponding
values may also be detenilined at the ultimate load level, for use in second-order
(nonlinear) analysis, as follows:
c11/7
In addition to tile axial slip ~nodulidefined above, rotational slip moduli rnay
also be determined for use in design, from tests described in prEN 1075.
Concluding summary
The design of punched metal plate fastener joints requires tile definition of
a two-dimensional teeth anchorage strength surface, and 6 separate plate
steel strength characteristics. Standard tests for each of these properties are
given in prEN 1075.
Plate areas on joints must satisfy three separate verification equations
accounting for- direct forces applied to the plate, and ~llomentsinduced
from both internal and external sources.
The punched illeta1 plate design rules in EC5 are supported by many years
of research in Scandinavia (Aasheim and Solli 1990, Kangas 1991,
Kallsner and Karigas 1991, Kangas and Kevarinmarki 1992) and can be
said to represent the state-of-the-art as far as European knowiedge is
concerned.
References
Aasheim, E. and Solli, K.1-I, (1990). Proposal far a design codc for nail plates, CIB-W18A meetins
in Lisbon, paper 23-7-1.
I<n~lgas.J. (1991). Anchorage capacity of nail plate, CIB-WI8A rncciing in OxFord, paper 24-7-3.
KYllsncr, R. and Kangas, J. (1991). Theoretical and cxpcrimental tension and shear capacity of nail
platc connections. CIB-W I8A meeting in Oxford, paper 24-7- 1.
Knngns, J , and Kevwinmlrki, A. (1992). Design values of anchorage strength of nail platc joints
by ?-curve mcthod and interpolation, CIR-WI8A mceting in Ahus, Sweden, paper 25-14-2.
STEPEUROFORTECM
--
Carpentry joints
STEP teclure C I:!
Objective
J . Ehlbeck, M. Kromcr
UnivcrsitBt Kirisrullc
Prerequisites
A6
A7
B2
Strength grading
Solid timber Strength classes
Tension and co~npression
Summary
Supported by drawings and figures, the most frequently used carpentry joints are
presented. By explaining the defonnation and load-carrying behaviour of such
joirlts, the possible field of application is described. Special execution rilles and
reco~nmendationsare given.
Design rules for ultimate limit state as well as serviceability limit state are
evaluated, and their application is demonstrated by typical examples.
Introduction
An ancient timber slructure usually consisling of single timber members is only
efficient if the individual parts are formed into a reasonable construction. Joints
transfer the inner forces caused by external actions from one member to another.
Two or more members of tile constnlction are assembled at nodes. In many cases
the forces will be passed on by contact of the joint areas or by friction. Some
carpentry joints are completed by fasteners made of iron or wood in order to ensure
a correct fit of the connection or to allow the transmission of additional forces.
Althouglr there are a lot of forms of carpentry joints, it is possible to reduce the
~x~ultifude
of joints to some basic types. Some typical basic carpentry joints, such
as half-lap joints, framed joints, tenon joints and cogging joints are sl~ownin
Figures 1 and 2. These joints are either used to lengthen singie members parallel
to grain or to join elements that meet each other at an angle. In the following
sections the defo~mationand load-carrying behaviour of framed and tenon joints is
explai~ied.
F i g I
B N S ~fon11~
C
of carlrettfry joints: (a) hay-fopjoi/rf, (b) coggi'rg jnitrf.
C12/I
Figrrre 2
Framed joints
Framed joints are used to transrnit cornpression forces fro111one inember inclined
to another at a given angle. The compression force of the strut is trans~niltedby
contact using the frontal area of the joint. The chord is loaded in shear. In the past
an additional tenon was used to keep the joint in the right position. Today this is
rnostly brougllt about by nails, so~tletirnesalso by screws, bolts or laterally nailed
cover plates. Framed joints can be formed with a notch in the front area or in the
rear of the strut. Cornbinations of both approaches are also possible (see Figure 3).
Fiptre 3
The resulting compression stresses at an angle to the grain should satisfy the
following condition:
For optimising the joint it is recommended that the angle of the frontal area is set
to half of the angle between strut and chord. Thus, the angle a between force and
grain is the lowest possible for both the chord and the strut (a= P/2).
In this case the compression stress in the front area of the joint is:
If the notched area is at the rear of the strut the cut is made perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the strut. In this case, the angle between force and grain is the
same as between strut and chord. Then the compression stress is:
Fd cosp
(Tc,a,d
bcl ft'
Using double famed joints, it is possible to transmit the sum of the two single
framed joints as described before. In this case it is important that the frontal area
as well as the rear area of the strut fit perfectly into the corresponding pxts of the
chord.
Assuming a ut~iforrnlydistributed colnpression stress in rile strut, the force is
transmitted into the chord by shear stresses. The average shear stress in the chord
is:
In double framed joints the shear areas should not coincide. Therefore, it is
recornmended that the following condition is satisfied:
When delemining the required lengtl~ I,, in the chord, the total horizontal
component of the compression force of the strut should be talten into account.
When designing tire strut, any eccentricities from the joint co~lfigtlrationmay cause
additional bending stresses in the strut. In the tension chord the reduced crosssectional area must be considered.
Design example
Joint of a compression member with a rectangular cross section b x k = 140 x 140
tttm, slope P = 45", with n chord B x It = 140 x I80 nrnl. Cutting depth r,, =
45 n ~ m shear
,
length in the chord I,, = 250 ilrm. Timber of strength class C24
according lo prEN 338 "Structural limber. Strength classes" .
STEP/EUROFORTECW - an initinlive under thc EU Comctl Progmmme
Figlire 4
.f;,YU,I.
= 5,7 N / u ~ n iArk
~ = 2,4
~/ttttn'
With an angle a = PI2 = 22,5" between the direction of the force and the grain of
chord and strut, the design compression strength shall satisfy the following
condition:
,z, =
N[UINI~
4 1,48 ~ [ n s a ~
Tenon joints
In carpentry tenon joints are used for joining members transmirting transverse forces
in ceilings, walis and roof constructions. Today, due to economical reasons, tenon
joints are only used if they are produced by machines. Basically there are joints
with a central tenon or ones with a tenon at the bottom edge of a member. Joints
with a central tenon are nor~nallyused for joining members of the same depth,
whereas joints with a bottom tenon are used to connect members with different
depths, e.g. girders.
The depth h, of hand made tenons is usually one third of the beam depth A. In
modern constructions the tenon depth depends on the size of the processing
machines, The tenon lengths vary from 40 to 60 rnnr. If the tenon joint is
additionally fastened by a peg, greater lengths can be realised.
Mortises should only be arranged in the centre or in the compressive area of a
beam. For designing the beam the reduced cross-sectional area shall be talcen into
account.
The design of tenon joints can be carried out in line with end-notched beams.
Therefore, the following condition should be satisfied:
where 11, is the tenon depth. The factor k,, is a reducing factor taking into account
the geometry of the tenon joint, such as the beam depth h, the tenon depth If,, and
the distance s of the shear laad from the tenon corner.
For joints with a tenon at the bottom edge of the member, k,.=l. For joints with a
central tenon:
k,, = Inin
1 [jm
fi
*,*
'
(8)
kc,90 &,%,d
STEP/EUROFORTECH -
EU Comctt Progrnmrnc
Design example
Joint of: a girder with a rectangular cross section b x 11 = 100 x 180 nrrtl, with
central tenon (tenon depth / I , = 60 I , I ~ I I ) . Timber of' strength class C24 according to
prEN 338.
k,!,,,= 0,8
--
Then,
Objectives
To describe the form and load carrying behaviour of colnrnon cold-formed steel
fasteners for the connection of timber members. To present a design method for
joist hangers and framing anchors.
Prerequisites
C5 Nailed joints II
Summary
The application of corn~nonlyused cold-formed steel fasteners is shown. The loadcarrying behaviour and the capacity of joist hangers under vertical loading is
demonstrated, depending on the different components of the connection. A method
is given for the design of joist hangers loaded at an angle to the symmetry axis.
Introduction
Joist hangers, framing ai~chorsand other fasteners made from cold-formed steel
have widely replaced traditional carpentry joints due to their ease of use and to
avoid the need for complex machining of the timber members. Figure 1 shows
examples of timber connections using cold-formed steel fasteners. The steel is
usually between 1 and 4 rlzrlt thick and is either hot dip galvanised mild steel or
stainless steel.
Figllre I
E S C I I I of
I ~cold-fot7t;ed
~C.~
stccf.fastcrrels.(a)frunzi~rgar~clrot:(b)joist hurrge~;
( c ) itltcgrol fa.~terte~;
( d ) shear force splices, (e) cleat # angle brncket.
The connection between timber and steel is generally nailed using for example
annular ringed shank nails without pre-drilling the nail holes in the timber members.
The nail holes in the steel Fasteners are pre-punched thus allowing simple assembly
on the building site.
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the EU Comctt Programme
C13/1
Load-carrying behaviour
The load-carrying capacity of timber joints with cold-formed steel fasteners not only
depends on the nailed steel-to-titnber connection but also on the strengths of the
timber members and the steel. In particular tensile stresses perpendicular to the
grain are likely to cause failure in timber members before the capacity of the nailed
connection is reached. Connections prone to such failures include the framing
anchor and the joist hanger in Figure 1. Tensile stresses perpendicular to the grain
can be taken into account using the design methods given in STEP lecture C2.
In most practical cases mprure of the steel in the net cross-section is prevented by
the layout of the fastener. Because the number of pre-punched nail holes limits the
force transferred by the nails the steel net cross-section can normally be designed
so as not to govern the load-carrying capacity. However, in many connections
plastic deforinations in the steel fasteners will occur before the rnaxiinum load is
reached.
In most cold-formed steel fasteners there are at least two steel-to-timber interfaces
located in different planes used in the load transfer. The consequent eccentricity
causes a combined lateral and axial loading of the nails.
For a thick steel plate (i.e, for r 2 cl) the design value of the load-carrying capacity
should be taken as the smaller value found from the following equations:
If the steel plate thickness lies between 0,5 d ruid d a linear interpolation is
permitted. The difference between the load carrying capacity according to equation
( I ) and (2), respectively, is caused by the clamping effect of the fastener in the steel
plate (see STEP leccure C3). Tests with nailed steel-to-timber joints (Ehlbeck and
Gorlaclier, 1982) have shown, however, that clamping of nails in the steel plate can
also occur for steel plates with a thickness of r = 2,O 111r11 and annular ringed shank
nails with a diameter of d = 4,O t t t ~ if~ ,the nails are conically shaped close to the
nail head (see Figure 2) and are driven in tight fitting holes. In such a case, the load
carrying capacities for thick steel plates, according to EC5, are reached.
ECS:Part 1-1: 6.3.1.2~
The characteristic embedding strength f;,,ld depends on the nail diameter d in nlnt
and the characteristic density of the timber p, in kg/In3 and is for non pre-drilled
nail holes:
(31
fh,h = 0,082 pk d -Om3 ~ l t t t i ~ t
STEPtEUROFORTECH -
--
at\
Figrtre 2
A~~~zrrlar
rbiged shmlk trail for steel-to-tirtrbercolrt~ecriotlsrvifli a cotle sltaped
shnrlk close to rhe nail heacl,
Because of the variable cross section of the nail in the threaded portion and the
work hardening during manufacture the characteristic yield moment of the nails has
to be determined by bending tesls. Calculating the yield moment from the plastic
moment of resistance and the tensile strength of the nail wire is not possibIe for
threaded nails. Werner and Siebert (1991) have published test results with annular
ringed shank nails produced by four different manufacturer~s.From the test results,
the following characteristic values For the yield moment M y ,
of galvanised and
stainless steel nails can be derived:
My&= 6,37 Nnr for d = 4,O mln and
(4)
6,O nvrz
(5)
kS/l,i3.
Joist hangers
Joist hangers are frequently used as support for sawn timber or glulani beams. Joist
hangers are produced in many different shapes and sizes. Figure 3 shows an
example of a joist hanger for a timber-to-timber connection.
STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Cornet1 Prograrnrnc
c 1 313
Figur-c!3
The load acting in [he plane of symmetry of the joist hanger connection is
transferred from the secondary beam through both the nailed connection and contact
with the bottom plate into the joist hanger and then through the nailed connection
into the main beam. For joist hangers with only a few nails in the secondary beam,
the major part of the load is transferred through contact with the bottom plate. For
the design of a joist hanger it can be conservatively assumed that the shear force
acts along the line of nails in the secondary beam connection. IF the load is mainly
transferred through contact, however, the resulting force will normally be closer to
the main beam. The connection between the joist hanger and the main beam is
consequently loaded by an eccentric force leading to combined lateral and axial
loading of these nails.
Joist hangers with straps passing over the main beam often have fewer nails in the
main and secondary beatn connection. In this type of joist hanger, the loads are
mainly transferred by contact into the main beam. Generally, the load carrying
capacities OF this type of joist hanger have to be derived from tests.
Since the secondary beam nail end distance does not normally satisfy the minimum
value specified in EC5,a reduction in load-carrying capacity of the nailed steel-totimber connection is to be expected. If the nails start to deform, however, the
bottom plate of the joist hanger will be loaded by an increasing contact force and
take over a larger portion of the load. Riberholt (1975) presented a mechanical
model for estimating the contribution of the contact force in the bottom plate. The
capacity of the nailed connection and the contact Force in the bottom plate can be
added since both components have a plastic characteristic.
--
As an example, the verticai design load-carrying capacity is determined for the joist
hanger in Figure 3 with a steel plate thickness of 2 null in service class I and for
short-term load-duration. The nails used are annular ringed shank nails of the type
shown in Figure 2, d x I = 4,O x 50 rrlili with a characteristic yield moment II/ly,,=
6,37 NIILThere are 12 nails in the secondary bean1 and 24 nails in the main bearn
connection. The timber of both the main and the secondary beam has a
characteristic density of 380 kS/t~13.There is a gap of 3 1 7 1 ~ 1between the end grain
of the secondary beam and the side surface of the main beam.
0,7 . 5 rl = 14 tltrtl
< 10 d = 40 r f ~ r n
n2 = 20
1 ~ 7 1 ~>
1
a,,. = 32
t~irn
(9)
R,ad
Here, It,,, is the number of nails in the secondary beam connection and R , , , the
design load-carrying capacity per nail. Because of the clamping effect of the nails
in the steel plate, equation (2) is used to determine the lateral load carrying capacity
per nail. Following the ptacedilre presented in STEP Iecture C4 tile capacity of the
as
secondary beam connection for the joist hanger in Figure 3 results conseque~~tly
R,,,, = 12 * 1,22 = 14,6 kN
(1 0)
Nailed
rnnilt beall1
corr~tectiort
The eccentricity of the force causes a combined lateral and axial loading of the nails
in the main beam connection. The moment is transferred through the axial forces
in the nails and the contact force between the end grain surface of the secondary
beam and the side surface of the main beam. Tests have shown that after the
closing of the gap the bottom edge of the secondary beam bears against the side
surface of the main beam. The consequent distribution of the nail withdrawal loads
is shown in Figure 4.
Figrirc! 3
Distribrlliort of'~~itlldra\vnl
forces irr the rrcliled nlnirt bear)?cortrtection. Fc is
!lie cotlmct forre.
The horizontal contact force I;,acts at the bottom of the secondary beain, the exact
position depending on the bearing area. It is assumed that this position, which is
also the centre of rotation of the secondary beam end cross-section is located I0 ntnt
above the bottom of the secondary beam, The withdrawal forces of the nails are
assumed to increase linexly with increasing distance from the centre of rotation.
The maximum withdrawal load for the uppermost nails can then be written as:
where
V
e
~i,,,,
zi
z,~,
EC5: Part 1-1: 6.33
The condition for colnbined laterally and axially loaded nails is:
Replacing V by R,,,,,,,,rtnd substituting F,, and F,,, in equation (12) by the expressions
in equations (1 1) and (13), respectively, the load carrying capacity of the main
beam connection becomes:
1
Rt,,b,d =
(14)
i=I
For the joist hanger in Figure 3, the capacity of the main beam connection
co~~sequently
results as
1
Rn,b,d =
= 22,2 IdV
(1 5)
35.133
1
24 . 1220
l(907' . 175326
The secondary beam connection consequently governs the design. The load carrying
capacity of the joist hanger is
I$,,,d
= 14,6 IdV
+ (
where
Rj,,,, is the load-carrying capacity of the joist hanger loaded at an angle of 90,
R , is the load-carrying capacity of the joist hanger loaded in the symmetry axis,
IT,,, is the depth of the secondary beam with a maximum of 1,5 Ir,, and
is the depth of tile joist hanger.
i
I
Figrtrc 5
For joist hangers loaded at an angle a between 0" and 9O0,the load carrying
capacity corresponds to the following interaction equation:
Framing anchors
Friuning anchors are used to connect crossing timber members for example to
transfer wind suction forces or as supports for timber beams. In most cases two
diagonally positioned framing anchors are used in one connection. There are
framing anchors with one and two rows of nail holes, respectively. The type with
one row can only transfer tensile forces whereas the type with two parallel rows is
able to transfer additional moments.
When designing framing anchors, three different components have to be taken into
account:
For certain types of Framing anct~ors,Ramhiid (1986) has derived design rules for
framing anchors based on an elastic distribution of the laterat nail loads. Based on
this approach, the following simplified rides can be used to calculate the load
carrying capacity R,,,, of one framing anchor under tensile load:
(19)
with one nail row
Rb,, = 0,7 n RIa for il~lchor~
R/,,, = O,5
ti
R,,,
(20)
where n is the number of nails per leg and R,,,,,, the lateral load carrying capacity per
nail.
Concluding summary
References
Ehlbeck. J. ilnd Gijrlachcr, R. 1982. Mindcstnitgclabstrndc bci Slahlblcc11-liolzn;~gel~~ng.
Rcscafch
Report, Vcrsucl~snnstaltfur Stahl, Holz und Stcinc, Univcrsitst Knrlsruhe, Gcrmnny.
Ehlbeck. 1. and Giirl:~cher, R. 1984. Tragfiihigkcit von Ralkcnscl~uhen untcr zwcincllsigcr
Beanspruchung. Rcscarch Rcporl, Vcrsuciisi~ns~alt
Cur Stahl, Molz und Stcine. Univcrsitiit Ki~lsrullc,
Gcrmnny.
RibcrllolL, It. 1975. Bcrcct>nungvon Stahlblcch-HoizVcrbindungstcilcn in Dilncm;irk. Baucri rnil Hoiz
87534-536.
Riimllild, K.T. 1986. Zum Tragkraftnachwcis von AnschlUsscn mit gcnrtgeltcn Sparrcnpfe~tcnankcrn.
Baucn mit Holz 88:524-529.
Werner, I-I, and Siebcrt, W. 1991. Ncue Untcrsuchut~geninit Niigcln fur den Holzbau. I-1017. ais Rohund Wcrkstolf 49:191-198.
Glued-in bolts
STEP lecture C14
C.J. Jolinnsson
Swedish Nniional Testing
and Research Institute
Objective
To describe the behaviour, design and manufacture of glued-in bolts primarily
in glued la~ninatedtimber.
Prerequisites
A4
A8
A 12
C2
C7
Summary
An introduction to the major fields of application is presented together with the
manufacturing procedure for glued-in bolts. The behaviour is described with
emphasis on factors influencing the short-term strength of axially loaded bolts.
The effect of changing moisture content in the wood is also mentioned. Finally
the design of axially and laterally loaded bolts is shown.
Introduction
Glued-in bolted connections have been used in the Scandinavian countries and in
Germany for more than 20 years. The major area of application has been in
glulam structures. Figures 1 and 2 shows some examples. The bolts are used to
prevent cracks in tile apex zone of curved beams and in end notched beams or to
transfer forces illto a structure or part of a structure as in a column-foundation
joint and in a frame comer. The bolts can be loaded either axially or laterally or
by a combination of both.
Advantages obtained by using glued-in bolts include:
-
Figure I
Girted-i~ibolts
(1.7
a rrreutis of pr-evortir~gcrack.
Fig~rrz.2
Figure 3
I~ljectio~r
of gilrcd bolt corr~zecfiori.
( ( I ) sealirlg, (b) glrie ortt. (c) glire irr,
( d ) block ro preverri rlre bolt froin bcirrg forcer1 orrt bjj fhe gllie.
Different types of adhesives, such as phenol-resorcinoi, two-component polyurethane and two-component epoxy, are being used. The choice of adhesive has to
be related to the production rnethod and how the bolts are loaded. With the
injection method, where the hole is larger than the bolt diameter, the withdrawal
strength of the bolt to a very large extent depends on the strength and durability
of the glue line. In bolts that are screwed in, the forces between wood and bolt
are t12nsferred mechanically to a great extent in areas where glue is missing or if
the properties of the glue are insufficient.
The pi~enol-resorcinol adllesives have a long history of use in structural
applications, for instance in glulam. Riberholt (1988). however, suggests that
phenol-resorcinol should not be used in connection with the injection method
STEPiEUROFORTECH
and oversized holes, due to the strength reducing effect of the initial hardening
shrinkage of the glue. Two-component polyurethane adhesive is sensitive to
elevated temperature (Aicher 1992) and should therefore be used with caution
especially in bolts under high permanent loads if the injection method is used.
In laterally loaded bolts the choice of adhesive is less important as the forces are
mainly transferred via compression in the glue line.
Strain measurements along glued-in bolts confirm that the shear stress
distribution corresponds with that obtained with the Volkersen (1953)
theory (see Table I). The axial strength is influenced by the difference in
stiffness between steel and wood, the glued length of the bolt and the
stiffness of the bond between bolt and wood.
The axial bolt strength also to some extent depends on the wood density.
e
C
---
- -- --
/
+
-ig-d
Components
wilh equal
stiffness EA
!zziZzF
Table I
F-F
I;
lbrce
lg
bolt dinmetcr
Conlponents
wit11 different
stiffness
Bond with Bond wit11 Shorl glued
length
high stiffness low stiffness
Long glued
lcngth
According to Riberholt (1988) the axial strength can be estin~ated with the
following equations which are based on regression analysis of test results from
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C14/3
Far,,
rt11il
0,784p d f i
(1
for two-component epoxy, phenol-resorcinol and other brittle glues where F,,,,
is obtained in N and the symbols are defined as fo\lows:
rl
1,
p
Equations ( I ) and (2) are valid for I, 2 200 am. For lower values the equations
tend to overestimate the axial bolt strength.
Table 2
Stiffness
increase
factors
StiFfness
increase
factors
= f;vl Pk
where R,,
Is
is in N and where
I " ~ brittle
.
glues, such
f,,, is a strength parameter for Equation (4) in N / I ~ I ~ For
as phenol-resorcinol and epoxy t l ~ evalue is 0,520 and for non-brittle
glues, such as two-component polyurethane the value is 0,650.
f,,,,
is a strength parameter for Equation (5) in Nhnrrr. For brittle glues, such as
phenol-resorcinol and epoxy the value is 0,037 and for non-brittle glues,
sue11 as 2-component polyurethane the value is 0,046.
p,
I,
bolt diameter
is the glued in length in mrjt,
Equations (4) and (5) are valid provided that the minimum distances are
according to Figure 4.
Minimum distance
"4
Figure 4
2d
For bolts parallel to the grain direction it should be shown that the total
force in a group of bolts is less than the tensile strength of the effective
area behind the bolts.
C I 4/5
Experience from tested bolts shows that the withdmwal failure mode is
rather brittle when the glued-in length is short. If the force distribution
over a group of bolts is statically indeterminate, the glued-in length should
be at least cf2, d in nlnr.
Gltiecl-~II
bolts perpell~lic~lar
tu the grairr:
The design load-carrying capacity of bolts glued in pel-pendicular to the fibre
direction tnay be calculated accordii~gto EC5. The effect of the glue may be
co~lsideredby increasing the embedding strength by a factor I,2.
Glued-it1 bolt^. parallel to the glaiit:
Riberholt (1988) suggests the following design rules:
The characteristic load-carrying capacity for a bolt carrying a force acting a
distance s from the wood surface is
where
cl=
rnax
in min
bolt diameter
is
the
embedding
strength parameter in Nhtzt?t2.
f,
fh = (0,0023 + 0,75d"sS)p,
Minimum distance
Figlire 5
Il/li~zitr~lrm
cfistnncesfor laterally lunrled bolt^..
Splitting can occur, see STEP lecture C2. Riberholt (1988) sltows how the loadcarrying capacity can be i~nprovedby bonding plywood sIeeves to the end grain.
Concluding summary
For Iateratly loaded bolts the glue causes an increase in the embedding
strengtli of at least 20%.
References
Aicher, S. (1992). Testing ol Adi~esivcsfor Bonded Wood-steel Joints. In: Proc. or the Meeting
fUFRO S 5.02, Bordeaux, France.
Gcrold, M. (1992). Verbund von Holz ond Gcwindcstnngcn aus Stahl. Bautechnik 69(4): 167-178.
Ribcrholt, H. (1986). Glued Bolts in Glulam. Report No. R210, Technical U~liversityof Dcnmnrk,
Dcpartrnent of Stmclural Engineering. Lyngby, Denmark.
Riberholt, H. (1988). Glued Bol~siil GIulnn~- Proposal Ibr CIB Code. In: Proc. of tile CIR-WI8
Meeting. Pzrksvillc, Vancouver Island, Canada. Paper 71-7-2.
Rodd, P.D.,Hilson, B.0. and Spriggs, R.A. (1989). Resin Injected Mechanically Fastened Timber
Joints. In: Second Pacific Timber Engineering Conficrence. Auckland, New Zealand.
Volkersen, 0. (1953). Die Schubkrartverteilung in Lcim-, Niet- und Bolzenverbindungen. Energic
und Technik (1953). 68-71, 103-108, 150-154.
I C C L U ~ CC15
1I.J. Biass
Delft University
Objective
of Technology
Prerequisite
C3
Summary
An idealised elastic solution of the interaction of ~nultiplefasteners in timber joints
is given. The main parameters influencing the load-bearing capacity of multiple
fastener joints are plastic fastener behaviour, creep, rnwufacturing inaccuracies and
variations in load-slip behaviour of single fasteners. The rules for multiple Fdstener
joints for different types of fasteners according to EC5 are presented.
Introduction
Mechanical timber joints generally contain more than one fastener. Even if the load
on the joint is acting at the centroid of the connection, tile load distribution between
the fasteners is non-uniform. The ultimate load of a multiple fastener joint equals
the suln of the single fastener loads at failure. If tile single fastener loads at failure
show large differences and some of tilose fasteners are loaded well below their own
failure load, tile ultimate load of the multiple fastener joint is smaller than the sum
of the ultimate loads of the single fasteners. This fact is the reason for reducing the
load-carrying capacity per fastener in multiple fastener joints for certain fastener
types. Principally, the different influences on the load distribution in multiple
fastener joints apply both to joints with only one type of fastener as well as to
joints containing different types of fasteners.
Elastic solution
Lantos (1969) developed a model to calculate the load distribution in timber joints
at an allowable load level assuming the same linear-elastic load-slip behaviour
without initial slip for every single fastener and assuming that nonnal stresses are
uniformly distributed over tile cross-sections of the connected membess. The
validity of his analysis is Iinlited to Llle range within which the behaviour of the
fasteners can be considered elastic and to loads acting parallel to the grain of the
timber members. Crarner (1968) took n similar approacl~,taking into account the
non-uniform distribution of the normal stresses over the cross-section and their
influence on the extensional stiffness of the members. Because the elastic solution
of Lantos forms the basis for the reduction of rile load-canying capacity of lnuIliple
fastener joints in EC5, the solution for joints with constant fastener spacing is
given. A more general solution can be found in Wilkirison (1986).
(M,)
and member 2 (h.l,)occurs in discrete steps at the fastener locations. Each step
represents the load transferred by the respective fastener. Considering the part of the
joint between fastener i and i + I in the defonl~edposition, member 1 is loaded by
the total joint load ininus the loads transferred by fasteners I to i, resulting in an
extension r t I mof
i the original length s. Accordingly, member 2 is elongated from s
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C1511
F i r 1
-t
I , respectively,
V i e ~ of
v irrtdefolnled corlrlectiort (top) arrd secriotr shorvitig cleforrtrecl positiarl
(bottonr) M; Metnbcr I ; M,: kleniber 2.
Comparing the elongated meraber iengths plus the respective fastener slip values
yields:
f 1)
UAi + S + 112,1 = S '+ lLt,i + llL1+l
where Ff is the load [ransferred by the fastener and K is the slip modulus, and
replacing the elongation of the member between two fasteners by
IL =
'n,
E A
where Fn,represents the load transferred by the member between two fasteners,
yields the load on the most stressed fastener at the end of the fastener row for
connections where the connected members have the same axial stiffness EA:
with
(3)
--
The complete derivation of Equation (4) for different inember stiffnesses is also
given by Lantos (1969). Figure 2 shows an example of the load distribution in a
joint containing ten fasteners based on the Lantos solution. The toad concentration
at the beginning and the end of the fastener row is clearly visible.
Fig lire 2
Load disrr-il~lrfiorl
beticreet~sirrg lr.jhsterier.~accordir~gto Larrtn.~.F i . rhc
~ load
and id is rlrc d~'fo~.rr~czrion.
The idea behind this elastic solution is that the 111oststressed single fastener should
not be loaded above its allowable load level. Since the allowable load is reached
first in tlie fasteners at the beginning or the end of the row, these then control tlte
magnitude of the allotvable load for the joint. The factors influencing the difference
in fastener loads according to the elastic solution are the longitudinal stiffnesses of
the connected members, the rlu~nberof fasteners in a row, the fastener spacing and
the slip modulus.
Main factors
Apart from the effect of the difference in longitudinal deformation in tile connected
members, there exist several other factors significantly influencing the load
e
in a timber connection.
distribution between d ~ fasteners
C 15/3
The ultimate load of timber joints with dowel-type fasteners according to EC5 is
based on the work of Johansen (1949). He assumed rigid-plastic behaviour for the
fasteners as well as for the wood surrounding the fasteners (see STEP lecture C3).
Consequently, the load-slip behaviour of dowel-type joints is assumed to be plastic
at ultirnate load level. However, considerable plastic deformations can only be
expected if the failure mode in the connectiorl corresponds to one of those described
by Johansen and the spacing is sufficient for this purpose.
If splitting of the tirnber along the fastener rows occurs at load Ievels well below
the potential plastic capacity, a full redistribution of the load within the joint is
prevented. Consequently, splitting especially decreases the load-bearing capacity of
multiple fastener joints. Splitting in timber joints can be avoided by appropriate
spacings and end distances. The larger the spacing, the smaller the tension stresses
perpendicular to the grain caused by the wedge effect of the fasteners. Thus, large
spacings contribute to a plastic connection behaviour and consequently increase the
capacity of ~nultiplefastener joints although the elastic rnodel predicts the contrary.
A further possibility to avoid splitting and to reach a plastic connection behaviour
is to reinforce the tirnber in the joint area e.g. through glued-on plywood.
Significant plastic deformations in mechanical limber connections can be expected
for connections with nails and other dowel-type fasteners with a comparatively
small diameter as well as for toothed-plate connections. The plastic deformation at
railure in toothed-plate connections is the reason why the toothed-plate and the bolt
are considered to share the load, whereas for split-ring connector joints, whicil
generalIy fail in a brittle manner, a load sharing between split-ring and bolt is
neglected in the design. Creep deformations, however, occur in all mechanical
timber connections.
Figure 3
Fabrication tole/-arlces
If pre-drilled connections with for example bolts or split-ring connectors are used,
fabrication tolerances like misalignment of the bolt holes, lack of straightness of the
bolt holes and variations in the hoIe diameter and initiaI position of the bolts in the
holes further increase the variability in load distribution between fasteners.
Dannenberg and Sexsmith (1 976) as well as Isyumov (1967) ernphasised the importance of fabrication tolerances for the load distribution and the ultimate load of
bolted joints and connections with split-rings or toothed-plates. According to
Willtinson (1986), fabrication tolerances and different shapes of the load-slip curves
within a jojnt cause most of the non-uniformity of the load distribution, while the
influence of the different extensions of the connected members seems negligible.
In the elastic range, Cramer found fairly good agreement between his theory and
tests with carefuily prepared specimens, avoiding misalignment of the bolts and the
bolt holes. But, according to Crarner, even a small misalignment of bolt holes rnay
cause large shifts in bolt loads and therefore the dist~.ibutionof bolt loads in fieldfabricated joints is difficult to predict.
Fabrication tolerances, due for exa~nple10 misaligned bolt holes or split ring
grooves, cause an initial slip for some of the fasteners in the joint. When the joint
is loaded, those fasteners only start to carry load when the fastener slip exceeds the
initial slip values (e.g. bolt No. 4 in Figure 4). If the failure mode is by splitting
before significant plastic deformations occur, the fasteners with initial slip will not
contribute to the load-bearing capacity of the joint at all. According to tests
performed by Mass6 et aI. (19891, the ultimate mean load per bolt of joints made
from glued laminated Douglas fir decreased by more than 50% when the number
of bolts in a row parallel to the direction of loading was increased from one 10 four.
Those test results emphasise the necessity of appropriate spacings and end distances
securing plastic joi~ltbehaviour and a redistribution of loads especially for joints
with fabrication tolerances. Fabrication tolerances can be avoided by precisely
~nanufacturingtimber joints using computer controlled equipment.
20
10
F,ot
Figure 4
c 1515
Considering the other extreme - the load-slip curves of the fasteners within a
connection show the same variation as the load-slip curves of different single
fastener connections - the variation i r i the ultimate loads of the multiple fastener
connection would decrease with increasing number of fasteners. This is because
with many fasteners in one connection the probability of having fasteners with both
low and high ultimate loads increases. In this case the characteristic value of the
ultimate load of the conrzectiotl would increase with increasing nuinber of fasteners.
In reality, the load-slip curves of the single fasteners within a connection are neilher
identical nor statistically independent. The correlillion between the load-slip curves
consequently represents a parameter influencing the ultimate load of multiple
fastener joints.
However, these considerations are only correct, il the failure of the joint occurs
after significant plastic deformations. If the joint fails in a brittle manner - e.g. by
splitting of the wood - the equalisation of forces between tlte fasteners is prevented.
In this case, the favourable effect of plastic deformations on the ultimate load
cannot be used. Therefore, fastener spacing as well as end and edge distances
should be sufficiently large. The potential load-bearing capacity of a connection can
only be utilised, if splitting is avoided and plastic deformations are possible. The
combined positive effects of plastic deformations and variations in load-slip
behaviour are the reasons for the fact that the characteristic load-carrying capacity
of nailed joints according to EC5 is independent of the number of nails in the joint.
E C ~ Part
:
1-1: 6.5.1.7- (3)
Sclsrved joillts
EC5: Purt I- 1: 6.7.1
For screws with a diameter less than 8 1771n the rules for nailed joints apply, that
means any influence of the number of fasteners on the load-carrying capacity may
be neglected. For larger diameter screws, the respective rule for bolted and dowelled
connections applies.
E C ~ P;~rt
: 1-1: 6.8
Tootl~ed-plateconnectar joirlfs
In connector joints, the load sharing between fasteners of the same type as well as
between different fasteners has to be considered. Since the failure mode of toothedplate connector joints in general is plastic, a complete load sharing between toothedplate and bolt is assumed. The capacity of the connection is the sum of the capacity
of the toothed-plate and the bolt. If the connection contains several toothed-plates,
a decrease in load-carrying capacity per toothed-platelbolt sil~lilarto the rule for
bolted and dowelled connections will be inserted in EC5. Until a definitive rule is
introduced, the effective number of connectors for inore than two connectors in a
line can be assumed as (Briininghoff et al., 1989):
Concluding summary
Plastic defornlations and creep tend to equalise the loads between the single
fasteners and are therefore beneficial for the load-carrying capacity of il
multiple fastener joint.
References
Briininghoff, H.ct nl. (1989), tlolzbauwcrke - einc i~us~hrliclie
Erllutcrung zu DIN 1052 Tcil 1 bis
Teil 3. Beutli Berlin ICBln, Gcrmany, 238 pp.
Cramcr, C.O. (1968). Load distribution in multiple-bolt tension joints. Journal of th Stnicturnl
Divisio~i,ASCE 94(ST5):1101-1117.
Danncnbcrg, L.J., R.G. Scxsmith. (1976). Sliear-plalc load distribution in laminated tirnhcr joints.
Report No. 361, Dcpnrtrnent of Slnictural Enginccring, Cornell University, Ithrrca, Ncw York.
Isyutnov, N. (1967). Load distribution in multiple shear-plate joints in tinlber. Forestry Braricl~
Dcpartmcnlal Publication No. 1203, Department of Forcstry and Rural Development, Ottawa, Ontilrio.
Johanscn, K.W.(1949). Theory of timbcr connections. Internation:~lAssociation ol' Bridge and Structural Engineering, Pub1ic;ltion 9249-262.
Lantos, G.(1969). Load distribution in a row of fasteners subjcctcd to lalerai load. Wood Scicncc
l(3): 129- 136.
Masst, D.1.. J.J. Salinns, J.E. Turnbull. (1989). L.~er;il strength and stilfness af single and rnultiple
bolts in glued-lnminatcd timbcr londed parallel to grain. Contribulion No. C-029, Engineering and
Stutisticai Rescarch Centre, Rescarch Branch, Agricullure Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
Wilkinson, T.L. (1986). Load distribution among bolts parallel lo load. jourmil of Strucluml
Engineering 1 12(4):835-852.
Notation
F,
F
n
K
s
E
A
is
is
is
is
is
Objectives
To present the main types of joints used to transfer moments and forces. To
examine the influence of the stiffness of moment-resisting joints on strvctural
beliaviour. To give the calculalion methods associated with force clistribution in the
joint area.
Prerequisites
A4
Summary
Palterns of 'fasteners are described for several types of moment-resisting joints.
Practical applications and general requirements are given for a .splice joint and
frame corner connections. Tile influence of joint stiffness on structural behaviour
is indicated. After an examination of the force and stress distributions in the joint
area, the calculation methods are presented. These methods define the forces acting
on the fasteners and the members, based on the assumption of elastic behaviour.
The design of a frame corner with the fasteners located in two concentric circular
patterns complements the lecture.
Introduction
In timber stluctures, the joints are normally designed to transfer forces stressing the
fasteners in the load direction. The analysis assumes the joints to be pinned because
of the concentration of fasteners in a sindl area li~nitingthe moment aim. However,
the development of glued-laminated timber and other wood-based materiaIs offers
many stmctural possibilities. To fulfil the code requirements, or to optimise the
construction work, designers increasingly use rotationally rigid joints. The type of
joint and the jointing tecl~nologieswill depend to a great extent on the layout of the
structure and how the connected members work.
Moment-resisting joints can work according to three types of force diagram
(Figure I). Depending on the rotation centre C of the joint, the resulting tnon~ent
of the fastener withdrawal (F,,) or lateral (I;,)loads balances the applied moment.
Relating to the diagrams in Figure 1, Figure 2 presents some examples of mornentresisting joints sucl~as; (a) a joint of handrail support to deck beam in a pedestrian
bridge, (b) a splice joint in a continuous beam or arch, and (c) a knee joint in a
frame. The diagrams (a) to (c), respectively, are associated with these joints.
STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme
CiGll
For tlie joint (2a), the action F arid the bending moment ( F a ) induce withdrawal
forces on the fasteners. In the example (Zb), fastener forces balance the bending
moment. Normal and shear forces are transferred to the foundation by steel
hardware stressing the tiunber column in co~npressionparallel and perpendicular to
the grain. As large stresses perpendicular to the grain can occur, this recilnique is
used for tlie transfer of small bending moments.
In the last joint (2c), fasteners are designed to carry forces and bending rnoinents
given by thc structural analysis. The following sections deal with this kind of
mon7ent-resisti~~g
joint.
The trend now is to instali joints working in accordance with diagram (c) as the
traditional knee connection in frames. For this type OF connection, the designer must
be aware of the possible additional stresses perpendicular to the grain. They are
induced by swelling or shrinkage across the restrained cross-section. Either, these
stresses have to be tsrken into account in the calculations, or the height of the
restrained area should be limited. Apart from the possibility of spiitting, this type
of joint offers many advantages. For long-span stnlctures, they are an effective way
of overcoming transport limitations andlor of using economical timber sizes.
AIthough curved frames or arches work more efficiently, timber frames are often
designed with tapered members connected by rnornent-resisting joints. This design
maxiinises internal space in the bttilding.
For the joint calcuIations, the global analysis of the structure and the local analysis
of the connection shouid both be considered. The stiffness of the joints can affect
the structurnl distribution of forces and defonnations. The examination of the
fastener forces and timber stresses allows tlie derivation of the design rilles.
--
where Kr is the rotational stiffness of the joint as defined in the following section
and El is the bending stiffness of the connected member with a span L.
The classification of the joinl as fixed, semi-rigid or pinned is examined in the
example of a two-hinged frame (Figure 3a). Neglecting the deformations induced
by normal and shear forces, the moment in the joint is given by:
(El),
fm,
=-
,-j
(El),
A substantial decrease in the moment in the joint occurs when the stiffness
coefficient p, is lower than 6. Considering this variation, o joint may be considered
as fixed when R,, t 0,85, which requires a p,-value from 8 to 12. In Lhe opposite
extreme, a pinned joint is assumed if R,, I 0 , 2 0 relating lo a mean value P, =
0,5.In all other cases, the structure shall be designed as a structure with semi-rigid
joints. Considering second order effects, this classification is related to braced
structures, i.e, those prevented from swaying. For unbraced slructures, EC3 specifies
a minimum value of 25 for when assuming fixed joints.
P,
C 1613
Figtire 4
Irlfiiierrces of'tlle jobr stifftress orr (cr) - tlre mtio between rile ~ ~ ~ o r nirie ~tile
rt
joittt
urrd N I N I ~ C / - .(M,),
~ ~ C~I Il Il d(b) - IJIC 1.clfio( R , , ) i ~ ~ f w e edeflectiot~
tr
at nlid-span in sertli-rigid ctrld rigicl.5-uttre.
(q)
splice joints where the timber members are parallel (Figure Sa),
cross-grained timber to timber joints (FigureSb).
To achieve an elastic analysis, the members are assumed to be rigid since they are
stiffer and stronger than the joint. Therefore, the joint rotation results from the
rotational displacement o of the fasteners (Figure 5c). Defining the rotation centre
C as the geometrical centre of the joint, the equilibrium condition is given by:
where FhfJis the load on the fasaner j, and r ) its distance from the rotation centre.
Figure 5
(a,+ nf2).
From Equations (3) and (41, the load on he fastener i is expressed as follows:
II
j=I
For parallel members, the slip modulus is determined from the Ilankinson formula
(Ecluation 7). For cross-grained members, the compatibility of the embedding
deformations requires a modified slip modulus to be considered. If the members are
u sindependent of the fastener position
perpendicular to each olher, this slip ~ i i o d ~ l is
(Equation 8).
In addition to Lhe load distribution on the fasteners, the timber stresses have to be
considered in the jointed area. Figure 6 gives the stress distribution in shear and in
tension perpendicular to the grain resulting from a linear orthotropic model.
liigrrrz. 6
Figure 6 shows that a rectangular pattern leads to the most dangerous coinbination
of shear and tension perpendicular to the grain. Locating the fasleners along tile
edges of the members results in higher stresses perpendicular to the grain near to
the end (Boult, 1988). For such patlerns, the risk of splitting can be reduced by not
placing fasteners in the joinr corner, by using small diameter fasteners, or by gluing
on some form of reinforcement.
To calculate the maximum shear stress, the fastener forces are projected on ttre ydirection, considering half the joint. Using the previous notation (Figure 5), the
shear force V,, due to the fasteners is given by:
C 1615
Design calculations
The design has to refer to the value:
K,,,.,,,
for he calculatio~iof structural deformations,
I(,,,,,, to check the load-carrying capacity of the joini and tile second-order
effects (see STEP lecture B7).
Xotntiolzctl stijiress
For dowel-type fasteners, the rotational stiffness is calculated using the slip tnoduIus
K,,,specified in EC5. This low value can be assumed as an average for both the
directions parallel and perpendicular to the grain. If tile joint is made with one type
of fastener, Equation (6) gives the design rotational stiffnesses as:
where:
Figure 7
Gmtner~yof cott~r~rotr
prrtterrts far- rtlotrierlt-rcsistitzgjoittfs. (a)jairrr rypc A, (bj
B.
joirlt type
Load-ctrr-ryirtg crrpaci4,
The moment induces a load F,, perpendicular to the polar radius of the fastener.
The maximum value is calculated as:
K a , 'i
F*, = -M ~ r , d
Kr,
'-1
U, d
STEPEUROFORTECH
ti,
ri2 +
ti2
2 Mu,d
r2
joirlt lype A
Jm
( 1 4)
The total load is calcu1ated by [he vectorial suinmation of I;,,, FN and F,,.
Depending on the ratio N/V, the maxinium load is obtained for:
To checlc the load-carrying capacity of the joint, the variation of tlie embedding
strength A,,,,, wit11 the angle a to the grain has to be considered (Heimeshoff,
1977). The joint must be clesigned for the largest value of the relative fastener load
Sf defined as the ratio of load to strength for a fastener localed at an angle a.
According to EC5 rules, Figures 8a and 8b show the variation of S, for dowel-type
fasteners (d=24 11in1) in a circular pattern. This variation depends on the fastener
slenderness h, = M,:,,lCf;,,,,,,t , Z GI). As illustrated by Figure 8, tlie critical fastener*in
rt circular pattern is located close to the longitudinal axis of the connected members.
In a rectangular or trapezoidal pattern, the critical one can be the same or the
furthest fastener depending on the joint components and the geometrical ratio dl?.
Figttrr S
I~lflric~rcc
o f the fusteiler localiorr on tlre relative capnciry SJ (6)fur cirrrrlar
lIotterlr ~ r l dcfiflew~~t
rario k = j;;y /
= F,, /I;,,, . ((1) c(11111ec1ed
~ ~ ~ e t iC ~I ~b e ~ s
olr n~tglcof 90' a i d (b) 1109
c,,
F,,,
/(F,,
FY)'
(16)
F;
FA, F N Fv
+
(17)
In the case of rectangular or trapezoidal pattern (type B), the furthest fastener
should also be checked for the load:
at an angle:
As previously shown, the shear strength of the members has to be checked in tile
joint area. Considering Equation (9) and the equilibrium conditions, the design shear
force is given by:
joittt type A
"Y
2 vye,
= M4r.d
(i -
p,e,
.+
Ct,e,
- 2
(20)
joint rype B
Sljecific rirles
As load direction varies with fastener location, the load-canying capacities per
fastener are not reduced with the number of fasteners used. Furthennore, placement
of fasteners for type A and B joints should be in accordance with modified
distances (Table 1).
Bolt, Dowel
Ring, Shear-platc
Toothcd-platc
7 el
2 dc
1,s el<
Loaded end
Edge distance
Spacings:
oil a circular or rectangular pattern
between patterns
4 cl
clC
6 el
5 cl
1-5elc
2 el,
I ,S el<
I ,S (1,
Design example
A three-hinged frame (Figure 9) is designed with glued-laminated members of
strength class GL24. The calculation of the knee joint of the frame is to be
considered. Related to the short-term load duration class, the critical load
combinatioil gives the forces in the column (see STEP lecture A3) to be used for
the design:
M,,,= 622 .lo3 Nln
V,,d= 138 +lo3N Nfr,d= 166 .lo3 N
Figlire 9
Gen~i~eriy
of the I,Pnle ( a ) arid layorit of the frattle cotvier (b).
f,,,k =
2,82
Nlrna2
p, = 380
kdr,l3
Loacls on tlie .fasteners rind tinzberConsidering the thickness of members (tz= 2 I , = 200 m~n),the designer chooses
slender dowels with a diameter of 24 t l r t ~ iincreasing the joint ductility.
With distances given in Table 1, the radii are:
= 0,5 h
- 4d
- 5d
600 Nlrrl
=480 m m
r
r
STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative under ttie EU Cornett Programme
2n r-,
2nr,
I Z ~ S -
6d
26
nz<-
6d
= 20
l- I
11
l P t 2 + 11, :'1
600
622 .lo6 = 26,7 .lo3 N
26 .6002 + 20.480~
The maximurn shear force stressing the timber in the joint area has the value:
with:
and gives:
Fc~srt~ler.
copncity
In the direction parallel to the grain, the embedding strength has the following
design value:
Tile coefficient A,, is equal to 1,71. Then, tile load-carrying capacity (see STEP
lecture CG) is calculated considering for the fastener on column axis:
the ratio
p:
A,,,,,
P
= 9,65
= [&.2,d
N/I I I I ~ ~ " , , ~ , ~
= 16,2
1& l , ~ , d ]=
N/ntnr
Tlie calculations result in the minimum strength per shear plane defined by:
a1=20,8"
a,=82,7"
embedding strengdis:
ratio (3:
= [fil,2,d
I fil,l,d]
0364
5,
a11d on rafter:
%,, =
29,8.103 N
Tilnber shew
In the joint area, the strength of the timber is checked for the calculuted force F,,,,,:
References
Roult, B.F. (1988). Multi-nailed motnent resisting joinls. Procccditigs of [lie In~ernationalTimber
Engineering Coni'ercnce, Vol. 2, p. 319-338, Seattle, USA.
Heimeshoff, B. (1977). Bercchnung von Rahmenccken rnit Diibclanschlufl (Dubelkreis). A.G.H.
flolzbau Stalik Actucll, Gcnnany,Folgc 2.
I<esscl, M.H. and Willcmscn, T. (1991). Zur Bercchnung biegestcifer Anschliisse. Baucil rnit Holz:
342-352. Germany.
l<urnalsu, K. atld Kawamoto, N. (1992). An:ilysis of gluiarn semi-rigid portal fr:~mesunder long-lcml
load. Proceeding of CIS-W 18, Sweden.
Leijien, A.J.M. (1988). Steel reinforced joints witti dowcls and bolts. Proccedings of the Intcn~aLio~ial
Timbcr Engineering Confercnce, Vol. 2, p. 474-488, Sci~ttle,USA.
Ohashi, Y. and Sakamoto, 1. (1985)). Study on laminated timber moment resisting joint. Proccedings
of' thc Y'Pncific Timber Enginecring Conlercnce, Vol. 2, p. 37-42. Auckland, Australia.
kicfler. P. and Gallirnard, P. (1 997). Les asscrnblages de structures bois: a)- comportemctlt rntcaniqtie
des principaux types d'nsscmblages; b)- nnnlysc du fonctionnemcnt d'une couronne boulonnee.
Annalcs ITBTP,France, N"504, p. 29-40.
STEPRUROFORTECH - an
Objectives
To provide an understanding of the behaviour of joints of timber structures in
seismic zones and the method of evaluating the performance in accordance with the
Eurocode 8 format.
Prerequisite
C3
- Theory
Summary
The behaviour of timber structures under earthquake actions is mainly determined
by the behaviour of the connections under low cycle loadings. The different
~necllanismsfor dissipating energy such as plastic defoi~nationsin wood and steel,
friction between different parts it11d viscous damping, are quoted and evaluated.
Cyclic performances of different kinds of connections are considered, referring to
rhe available test data. Finally the ~netlzod of evaluating test results is given
according to Eurocode 8, Constructions in seismic zones, Part 1.3, chapter 5.
Introduction
The mode1-n approach to the design of structures in seismic regions considers that
buildings should resist the so-called "service" earthquake ("moderate" but "iiIcely",
i.e. with a peak ground acceleration having an average return period of 50 years)
witllout li~nitationsof use, serious deformations or significant damage. In addition
buildings should resist the "ultimate" earthquake ("severe" but "accidental", i.e. wilh
a return period of 250 years); in this case, there may be serious damage to the
structural elements, but there must not be complete collapse. When subjected to a
severe seismic motion, the structure "softens", increases its own period of
oscillation, "dissipates" kinetic energy and, thanks also to the cyclic character of the
input action, "has time" to invert its motion prior to develop deformations leading
to collapse. The capacity of a structure to developing plastic deformations within
its structural ele~nenesand to dissipate energy without breaking is an essential part
of its capacity to resist a seismic input (Ceccotti, 1989). It is demonstrated that a
structure with plastic and dissipative joints, if appropriately designed, can resist
ltigher seismic motions than the same strucfure with rigid and non-dissipative joints.
In principle this is true also for all kinds of structure. However especially referring
here to the case of timber structures, it is necessary to take into account some
f ~ ~ r t hconsiderations.
er
Under alternating load, timber elements exhibit a generally linear elastic behavionr.
Failure is brittle, primarily because of natural defects like knots, and there is little
dissipation of energy in the wood, except maybe in zones with compression
perpendicular to the grain. Glued joints also behave linearly elastically, and
therefore contribute neither to the plastic behaviour of the structure nor to the
energy dissipation. T11is means that timber structures composed of glued joints and
of inembers assembled with perfect hinges, for example, should be regarded as nondissipative, with no plastic performance whatsoever.
However, plasticity and capacity to dissipale energy can be achieved in the
STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative under (lie EU Cornell Programme
CI7/1
corlnections between the various structural elements if they are "semi-rigid" (as
most mecl~anicalones are) instead of "rigid" (as glued ones are). Well designed
joints with mechanical fasteners have, in general, a very pronounced plastic
behaviour.
Structures may be classified into categories taking into account their plastic
behaviour and their ability to dissipate energy (see STEP lecture D l 0 for more
detailed discussion). This is a fundamental aspect to consider when designing for
seismic loads as it allows a much more economic design, than if every part of the
structure had to be kept in the elastic range OF its behaviour. In terms of seismic
design codes this is done by designing for the design earthquake Ioad actions
divided by a beiiaviour coefficient q which reflects the above inelastic behaviour
and the gIobal ductility of the structural system. The design earthquake to be
considered is defined by taking into account the relevant seismic zone map
(produced by the national authorities). In Eurocode 8, the coefficient q is called the
"Action Reduction Factor" or "Beliaviour Factor", and each structurai category is
characterised by a particular value of q. According to the type of timber structure,
4 ranges from I to 3. For perfectly elastic structures, obviously q = 1. But if a
higher bel~aviourfactor is assumed, then sufficient plasticity and energy dissipating
ability in the joints must be guaranteed.
However, if design calculntions carried out for static loads anticipate forces on the
sections that are already higher than the ones expected in the case of seismic loads
(even when assuming q = l ) , then there is no advantage in requesting any particular
ductility from the joints. This may be the situation with many large stnlctures with
heavy snow loads. In these cases it is not necessary to make tests or foIlow
particular detailing rules other than the usual ones for static situations.
Apart from some particular cases, in general it is advantageous to consider an
appropriate actioii reduction factor, but this implies the need to demonstrate that
connections are sufficiently plastic and dissipative to match the foreseen q value.
This can be achieved with dedicated tests or, in the case of very well known types
of connection, by just following certain detailing mles as explained below.
Ductility
Mechanical joints in general exhibit a very plastic behaviour, provided that tile
usual requirements for end and edge distances are respected. This is due to the
embedding behaviour of timber itself, coupled with the plasticity and the ability to
dissipate energy of tile steel elements (see STEP lecture C3). The load-slip diagram
under non no tonic static loading is characterised by an initially steep incline (see
Figure la, I). Once the elastic limit of either the fastener material and/or the wood
embedding stress has been passed, the slope of the load-slip curve decreases until
a horizontal part of tlle diagram is reached, indicating the limiting resistance F,,,,,
of the joint (see Figure la, fI). This is foHowed by a decreasing part (see Figure
la, 111) which indicates that the joint has failed due to for example the splitting of
the wood or the breaking of the steel. (Of course this part can only easily be
recorded if the test is made under displacement control).
The idea in the second case is to take trtn P equal Il6 tan a. The factor 1/6 is a
reasonable compro~nisebetween the different extreme curves. The uncertainties in
the determination of I:, in order to determine the ratio v,/v,. may be disregarded,
bearing in mind the other uncertainties present.
The eventual descending part of the curve after the maximum load has been reached
indicates that the joint is fractured but still resistant. Reference to a load 20% less
than tlle maximum, if a larger ductility is to be considered, is usually permitted.
Figure 2
Typical loops in the load-slip diagram, whether for low, inrem~ediateor high
deformations, are quite narrow, or "pinched", as shown in Figure 3. They differ
from the "fat" loops typical of miid steel, where the forces necessary to restore the
plastic deformations to zero are similar to tilose causing the plastic deformations in
the first place, (Figure 4c). The "pinching" of the nailed joint Ioops reflects the
"cavityt' phase of the deformation.
STEPEUROFORTECH
C17/3
Figure 3
Figure 4a represents the shape of a well designed dowelled joint, where energy
dissipation is due both to the embedding behaviour of the timber and the plastic
behaviour of the steel. If the dowel is so rigid and resistant that it does not bend,
and the dissipation of energy and ductility are those obtained from the embedding
strength of the timber only, then the load-slip curve is as shown in Figure 4b.
g-u-M-@. [+-3.
t't
-
Cc4
t'f
4'4
.......
.......
It 11as been seen that the et~velopecurve for cyclic loading is assumed to coincide
with that for monotonic loading, i.e. it is independent of the loading history. The
difference between the two is norn~allyless than 10% unless there is so111e alteration
in the configuration of the joint {e.g. a very pronounced pulI-out effect on the
fasteners) or some fracture due exclusively to low cycle fatigue, even though
mechanical timber joints are generally not vely sensitive to sttch effects.
There are exceptions to the above. An example is the many types of steel plates
with integral punched nails (teeth). In these plates, failure under repetitive loading
will often be caused by sudden tooth withdrawal or by brittle failure in the steel.
Other examples are joints with light gauge steel straps and pre-perforated holes for
nails. In these, the alternating load ]nay cause pull out of the naifs. Another case
is that of timber framed walls with very brittle board materials where after cyclic
loading, important pieces of material are damaged and the original strength is lost.
Therefore in order to have a harrnonised basis for the evaluation of the cyclic
behaviour of joints, a CEN Standard is under preparation, giving a simple neth hod
for testing joints, in a quasi-static mode, performed under displacement control.
Figure 5 represents the specified cyclic history, with triple cycles of amplitudes that
STEPfEUROFORTECH - an initiative under ltle EU Conlctl Progra~nme
--
Figure 5
Rccor~trrtcr~derl
pmcerlrlve for cyclic loadi~tgtests.
Figrirr h
ltrt~~aintlerrt
of sirsrrgth betlrlea~file cnvelope r r i t ~ ~cor7.esponditlg
c
to t h e w t
cycle, crlrve N, N I I tlte
~
third c~lcle.
In the inelastic range, the amount of dissipated energy per half cycle due to plastic
deformation (hysteresis) is rneasured by the slladed area E,, in Figure 7 . The ratio
between the dissipated energy and the available potential energy El:,,is called the
"hysteresis equivalent viscous damping ratio" v,,. Tlie Ilysteresis dissipated energy
E,, increases with an increasing amplitude of the loops, whilst v,.,, remains more or
less constant. Values of about 8-10% have been evaluated for well designed dowel
type fastener joints and for plywood framed walls.
i r e7
Dissipatior~ofcttergy by ily.sfewsis.
C 17/5
Of course, in the elastic range, the hysteresis damping is in principle zero (Figure
3a). However, in the elastic range, some energy can also be dissipated. In low
amplitude dynan~icvibrations wilh no secondary structures in place, only a
"viscous" damping ratio of less than 1% can be measured. But the damping ratio
due to friction in the junctions between different elernents and through compression
perpendicular to the grain can easily I-each values of 4% and more. This is
especially the case with inany redundant ele~nentsand contact points, such as are
found in dwellings. This explains why in the elastic range a value of 5 % for the
damping ratio is usually assumed.
Figrirc 8
In corinections between plywood panels and timber elements, ductile behaviour can
be obtained provided that the slenderness of the nails is higher than 4. Tests with
nailed shear walls show large ductilities, and large energy dissipation capncities
(Figure 9).
Dowels
Connections wirh slender steel dowels are able to yield in both the steel and the
wood, thus allowing a large amount of energy dissipalion. IF the slenderness of
dowel fasteners is higher than 8, the behaviour will certainly be of good ductility.
Irrespective of other parameters, such a slenderness will ensure mode three failure
(see STEP lectures C3 and DIO). Will1 stocky dowels and standard spacings,
plasticity will depend upon the ernbedding behaviour of the wood alone. With less
capacity for energy dissipation, tests are recommended for assessing the ductile
performance of such joints.
Bolts
In bolted connections, oversized holes due to fabrication tolerances cause nonuniform load distribution. The consequent overloading of particular bolrs may cause
splitting of the wood under these bolts, preventing a redistribution of the load
within tl~econnection. In seismic regions, therefore, only precisely manufactured
bolted joints, and preferably those using slender fasteners, are recornrnended. Large
bolts (d >16 ntnl) have difficulty in deforming and hence in dissipating energy. It
is recommended that they shouId only be used in combination with tooilted ring
connectors.
STEPEUROFORTECH - an inilialive under the EU Cornctt Programme
C 1717
Requirements of Eurocode 8
In EC8 "Constiuctions in seisnlic regions" structures are c~assifieciinto categories
according to tile ability of their joints to be ductile and be capable of dissipating
energy in the plastic field. It is, in any case, recommended that structures be
designed to be sufficiently rigid to meet serviceability criteria. For structures
designed to take profit from their ability to dissipate energy ( q > 1) it is also
STEPfEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the EU Comctt Programrnc
.-
recolnmended that the strength of the timber members sI~ouldbe higher than the
strength of the connecting joints. Tl1is implies that plasticity in the joints will be
achieved.
The properties of dissipative joints under seismic actions are as a rule required to
be de~nonstratedthrough testing, by ineans of agreed il~ternationaIsta~dards.By
such tests, it must be shown that the ductility is sufficient and that rhe joint
properties are stable under cyclic loading ut a reasonably high load/deformation
level. To ensure sufficient ductility, il is required that the ductility obtained fi-OITI
cyclic tests should be grealer than the assumed behaviour factor q multiplied a
factor of 3. This value is reduced to 2 for panel structures, because of the highly
positive effect in reducing inertia forces due to damping caused by friction, and due
to compression perpendicular to the grain between parts. Such effects are believed
to give a damping ratio more than the usual 5%.
In addition, it is stated that cor~rlectionsbetween elements must be able to deform
plastically for at least three fully reversed cycles at the above ductility ratio without
an ilnpairment of their strength of worse than 20%. By complying wit11 these
conditions, the designer is allowed to calculate the strengtll and stiffness ofthe joint
following the nonnal design rules of EC5.
Concluding summary
For design purposes the seismic behaviour of mechanical timber joints can
sirnply be related to quasi-static behaviour under cyclic loading.
Ductility of joints and dissipation of energy are the most important features
for dissipative design of structures to resist eartliqtrakes.
References
Ceccotti, A,, cdilor, (1989). Slruclural Behnviour o f Timber Constructions in Scislnic Zones. Proc, of
the rclcvnr~tCEC DG III - Univ, of Flor~cnccWorkshop. Fiorcncc, I ~ a l y .
EUROCODE 8 (1993). Constructions irt sci~nlicregions. Ui~derpreparation by TC 250 of CBN,
C 1719
Brussels, Belgium.
RILEM TC 109 TSA (1994). Timber structures in scisrnic regions. RILEM Statc-of-tile-Art Report.
Material and Structures 27: 157-184.
Yasumura, M. el al. (1988). Experiment on a three-storied wooden framc building subjected to
horizontal load, lo: International Timber Engineering Confcrcncc, Seattle, 1988: 262-275.
Objective
To present the methods used Tor calculating the fire resislance of timber
connections.
Prerequisite
A13 Beliaviour of timber and wood-based materials in fire
Summary
Tile relevant cl~aptersfrom EC5: Part 1-2 "General rules - Supplementary rules
For structural fire design" are described.
Calculation methods are given relating to standard fire exposure (standard
temperature-time curve) for unprotected joints with side members of wood and
wilh external steel plates as well as for protected joints. Special attention is paid
10 connections for which an increase of the cross-section is necessary. In one
example fire-test results and calculations are conlpared.
General
The load-bearing capacity of fasteners made of fire-unprotected steel is
considerably weal\-end by heat. All-round protection with wood or wood based
materials offers resistance to heat, thereby protecting the steel members. The
area of the non-protected surfaces of the steel-members is therefore relevant to
the fire-behaviour of fasteners made of steel. Figure 1 describes the relevant
yield point \.I'of steel dependent on tile temperature 6.
--0,ZO - -
_----
*-
4.
0,oo 0
260
'
I,
400
660
*-..I--L.
800
"C
1000
The following section relates to joints between members itt standard fire
exposure situations Formed using nails, bolts, dowels, screws, connectors and
steel plates. The EC5-rules are valid only for joints under lateral load and deal
only with forces which are transmitted symmetrically (see EC5: Part I - 1: Figure
6.2.1, g-k). This restriction in EC5 has in practice often to be replaced by a
logical, mathematical derivation of the fire resistance, e.g. in order to determine
the fire resistance of limber structures with single connections (see Figure 2).
C19/1
Assuming that joints and their fasteners are designed according to EC5: Part 1 - I ,
tlley may be expected to display a fire resistance of I5 minutes (R15). Unless
otherwise stated all joints sl~ouldbe designed for RI5.
For a fire resistance of more than 15 minutes (more than R15) the end arid edge
distances should be increased by a, (see EC5: Part 1-2: Figure 4.4) which should
be taken as:
ell =
Po &,,, -
15)
in
rrltll
(1)
where
%r.:,
Po
The minimum end and edge distances a, and a, of fasteners should be increased
by the extra distance equal to a/. No extra distance is required if the Following
condition for n, and a, is satisfied:
EC5: Part 1-2:
Equation 4.7
Equation 4.8
Equatiort 4.4
where
Equation 4.6
For fire resistance between R30 and R60,il [nay be determined by:
EC5: Part 1-2: Equation 4.9
,
-
(8)
-4
--
,,,TI
Table 1
Figrtrz. 2
11
N,l,n
--.
E,,
1
resp.
1
-
'1 3n
'1 .I
wood-to-wood joints
nails, dowels
RGO
-=
0,20
steel-to-wood joints
nails, clowels
bolts
5,OO
C 1 913
For unprotected external steel plates which are directly exposed only on one
side, the Fire resistance R30 is satisfied for a plate thickness of:
I,
26
ttttll
11
I0,45
Figiit'e 3
1,,,,,,
1
I
= 80 ttrttt
t2 = 200 V I I I J
(1 = 26 mln
= 340 trrttr (10 tntn thick plrrg on encl~side) r ,,,,,,,,.= 70 nrtr~
dowel:
distances:
aI
strength class:
('3~
= 140 mtn
= I60 mnz
pk = 370 IiC:/t~l"
N,,, =
85 rntlr
nlinimurn distances:
=, , ,
= 7 d = 7 36 = 182 nzt?l
'~.c.nnn
= 3 d = 3 26 = 78 trun
l I t l
Derernzirtarion o j clt.sig~~
loali-cclr-ryirrg c ~ c i p ~ c ioff y ttun?zctl tenll?et-cltr.4,z.
a) design load-carrying capacity of dowels
Characteristic values:
(1
MYqk= 0 , 8 j ; , , k G
C 19/4
STEPIEUROFORTECII
26
O,8 -360 .-
"
844Ntt2
Design values:
EC5:Part 1 - I : 6.2.11
.6,,1.11
0,8
Ynr
'
9*7
12,1 Nl,,lm
I ,3
cross-section area
area of dowel holes
net area
k~llfN!sl
f;..,k
OS8
'I6
9,85~/111m2
1-3
AI
= 35200 rni11~
= 41 60 tnm2
= 31000 nlttl'
...sin...side member
Veriji'cation of 60 nti~zntcs.fi~a
resistarzce nccotdirlg to EC5: Port 1-2
1
= 60 ntirt
= 1 ,o
Determination OF qlo:
EC5: Pirrt 1-2: Table 4.2
1,,,,,, = 2 tl,2.r,cr,r
+. tl = 2 . 106 + 200
==,
cl
26
6 9 2 6
Determination of
F
(7):
v(~,:
verification:
9
.
Vj,,2 5 7760
0,903 5 0,25
t1,3
= 15 dowels in 3 rows
t,,3,,lc,,c
= 100 ~ 1 1 1 1 (without: plugs)
--
cross-section area
area of dowel holes
net area
verifications:
A2
A,,
Aner,~
Ell
- -------
= 74 000 mm'
= I5 600 ianz'
= 58 400 l?vn'
= 139
- = 0,246
Rd.Q~~~f.l
= 2 .370 100
= 6 .26 100
= 74 000 - 15 600
565
Based on the reduced strength and stiffness method for members (given in EC5:
Part 1-2: 4.2 and Annex A) a logical, mathematical derivation of fire resistance
could be applied to joints; the reduced cross-section must be checked. Care must
be taken to maice sure that the steel temperature within the joint does not
increase more than 600 "C. This is confirmed not only by tests on dowelled
frame corners but also by calculation models. Hence it can be verified that the
cross-section does not need to be increased more than the necessary dimensions
for the load-carrying capacity for design at normal temperature.
charring rate
remaining cross-section:
b, = 220 - 2 .0,8 . GO = 124 r~un
t, = 80 - 0,8 60 = 32 nlm
cross-section area
A
= 2 . 124 32
= 7940 t?zrn2
area of dowel holes
A,,,, = 2 .26 32
= 1660 nrm'
net area
A,,, = 7940 - 1660
= 6280 nzm'
perimeter
=
2
(2
3
2
+
124)
= 376 rrlni
p,
Xk=
Reduction factor:
EC5: Par1 1-2: Equation A.5
knrod3,, -- 0
0 1 - p,
330 A
-- 1-10'..
1
376
=0,856
330 7940
a
kf = 1,25
I'M,
= 1to
Design values:
EC5: Par1 1-2: Equation 2.1
4 = 0,856
-
19
7
.1,25 .-1-= 21,I Nlmm2
Ynrj
I ,O
MA,:,= k My,,= 0,3 . 767000 = 230 Ni~r
assumption:
k = 0,3
(Figure I: steel temperature: 600 "C)
jj,l,l,= k !{,, k,
R,,,
r , d = 21,t . 32
.26 = 17500 N
R L , ,,,,,
, = 2 . 4 - 12,8 = 102 kN
verification:
E J ; ~ < RL~,,,,~,,,:~
83,4 < 102
,,
%I
<
<
6280
krill,
&,o.~,
L,o,k
16
kf - = 0,856 - I,25 .Yai,r
1 ,O
Protected joints
EC5: Pnrt 1-2:
4.5.4
Joints are considered protected if the fasteners are covered with protective plugs
or wood or wood-based panels with minimum af according to EC5: Pmt 1-2:
Figure 4.5 ( a) and b) glued-in plugs c) protective panels). For fastening of
protective boards the edge distance of fasteners should be at least equal to af
according to Equation (I).
Concluding summary
The method given in EC5: Part 1-2, at its present stage is distinctly on the
"safe side" and consequentely is an uneconomical design for fire
resistances of R30 and even more so for R60.
One test member, a tensile joint wjth dowels and side members of timber,
was checked according to EC5: Part 1-1. Subsequently this member was
calculated using two different methods for a fire resisrance of 60 minutes
(R6O). The tirst method reldes to calculation for joints (Part 1-2), the
second to the structural fire design of members. The first method results in
extremely oversized members because of the q-value applied. 1 for RGO is
only a quarter of that for R30, which is equal to 1 in the example.
Therefore the load-carrying capacity in nomlal temperature design has to
be four times that necessary - four times the number of dowels and
tripling of the timber dimensions.
A comparison of the resuIts show that the second method is in very good
agreement with the fire-test results.
Notation
$WO
Subscripts
<,tlr,l,*
dowel.
side member, middle member.