ENGINEERING CHENNAI
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
Signature of Lab-in-charge
HOD
Signature of
LTPC0042
OBJECTIVES
To introduce the concept of design of basic structural components and to draft both manually
and using modelling package.
LIST OF EXERCISES
1. Design and drafting of riveted joints
2. Design and drafting of welded joints.
3. Design and drafting control components cam.
4. Design and drafting control components bell crank.
5. Design and drafting control components gear.
6. Design and drafting control components push-pull rod.
7. Three view diagram of a typical aircraft.
8. Layout of typical wing structure.
9. Layout of typical fuselage structure.
10. Layout of control system.
TOTAL : 60 PERIODS
OUTCOMES
Ability to design and draw different joints and components using manual drafting method.
Ex No: 1
Date:
AIM:
To design the riveted joints by over lapping and butt joint method using AUTOCAD
2004 software.
of
placing
and
joining
members
as
lap
(or)
The type of rivet employed such as solid tabular (or) explosive rivets.
The number of rows of rivet such as single, double, triple (or) quadratic riveted
joints.
LAP JOINT:
The places to be connected over lap each other and rivets pass through drilled holes.
when the plates are tension (or) compression Fig(1),a couple acts about the rivets, being not in
same plate tending to bend joints. To avoid the plates are sometimes bend before riveting to
approximately infinite force shown, to reduce the bending action.
BUTT JOINT:
The plates are kept in alignment and a butt strap (or) cover plate {either single or double}
is plate over the joint and rivets are inserted through the hole in plates aligned over another. The
connection of two main plates is through but straps. The butt joint with single butt strap has some
fracture that of lap joints. Thus therefore should never be used for high loading and pressure feed
areas which are fuselage, wings attachment are scalped that they be efficiently caused.
Those joints are called single riveted, a double riveted etc, depending upon the no of rows of
rivet on each main plate.
TERMINOLOGY:
1. Gauge line:
The line through the centers of rivet and parallel to edge of plate is termed as a row (or)
gauge line.
2. Pitch:
The distance between centers of adjacent rivet measured on gauge line called the pitch
p.
4. Diagonal pitch:
The distance between the adjacent rivet centers to adjacent gauge line for zigzag
riveting.
Let
c=allowable crushing stress at the place or rivet
t=allowable tensile stress in place
s=allowable shear stress in place
5. Shearing of rivets:
Shearing area of rivet in single {lap joint} = d
Shearing area of rivet in double shear is not exactly double of that in single but little less.
As per in Indian boiler regulations, it is taken as 1.875times the area in single shear.
2
According shear as of a rivet in double shear =d 1.875
Shearing area shall be different for lap and
joints. Shearing resistance of rivet in double
2
6. Crushing of rivets:
Crushing area of a single rivet =dt and if n be the no of rivets under crushing the
crushing resistance is equal to cr.
The no of rivets in shear equal the no of rivet in crushing.
The rivets in shear are equal to the no of rivets contained between these lines for Eg in
fig.
First row and second row has one rivet each in shear.Thus the rivets in shear are two.
Description of joint like lap joint,butt joint with single strap (or) double strap determines
2
2
the shearing area per rivets (ie) d (or) 1.875d
Total shearing area of rivets equal the produce the value determined at above.
Thus for d<2.54t crushing failure will not occurs in lap joints and butt joints with single
strap and for d<1.075t rivets will never failure in crushing in any type of joints.
Knowing t and d the pitch of rivet in found by equating the shearing resistance of rivet found
be tearing resistance of one pitch length of joints.
of
Plates
Rivets
=p-(d/p)
Shearing efficiency:s=shearing resistance of rivets per pitch length/tearing resistance
of undrilled plate.
Crushing efficiency:cr=crushing resistance of rivets or holes per pitch length of
joint/tearing resistance of undrilled plate.
For
Lap joints,
Butt joints,
Command used:
Line
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
TEARING OF RIVETS:
P
P
P
P
DRAFTING:
Ex No: 1
BUTT JOINT
Date:
Ex No: 1
LAP JOINT
Date:
RESULT:
Thus for riveted joints with over lapping and butt joints method has been
designed with the consideration of failure which are being occurred in riveted
joints and also has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004 software.
Ex No: 2
Date:
AIM:
To design the welded joints which are used for assembling aircraft structures by using
AUTOCAD 2004 software.
WELDED JOINTS:
Welded joints are threaded, cottered, or knuckle joints are permanent in nature and the
component together cannot be separated or dissembled without breaking the weld metal to the
connected part. A machine part or structure whose component parts are joint by welding is called
weldment.
Welded joints are light in weight, when compared to riveted joints due to elimination of
corer plates or straps, gassed plates, chip angle
BUTT WELD:
A butt weld is obtained by putting together the edges of two pieces having practically the
same cross section and heating until fused together.
LAP WELD:
The plates to be joined are made to overlap each other for a certain distance and the right
angle recess so forward along the width of the plates are filled with weld metal.
EDGE WELD:
This type of joint is not recommended for plates thicker than 6mm.
TEE WELD:
The plates to be joined to form a tee may be beveled at on one side, on both sides or is
may not be beveled at all. Although, these joints should preferably be welded on both sides, this
is not always possible as the two sides may not be accessible.
TEE WELD:
CORNER WELD:
If a fillet weld is placed on the inside of a corner joint, it is usually a light weld. The total
throat t of the weld is of the order of 1.35 times the thickness of the plate.
Command used:
Line
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
DRAFTING:
Ex No: 2
WELDED JOINTS
Date:
RESULT:
Thus for the welded joints are designed according to its different loading conditions and
has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004 software.
DESCRIPTION:
CAM MECHANISMS:
The transformation of one of the simple motions, such as rotation, into any other
motions is often conveniently accomplished by means of a cam mechanism. A cam mechanism
usually consists of two moving elements, the cam and the follower, mounted on fixed frame.cam
devices are versatile, and almost any arbitrarily-specified motion can be obtained. In some
instances, they offer the simplest and most compact way to transform motions.
A cam may be defined as a machine element having a cured outline or a groove, which by
its oscillation or rotation motion, gives a predetermined specified motion to another element called
the follower. The cam has a very important function in the operation of many classes of machines,
especially those of the automatic type, such as printing presses, textile machinery, gear-cutting
machines, and screw machines. In any class of machinery in which automatic control and accurate
timing are paramount, the cam is an indispensable part of variety. Some of the most common forms
will be considered in this chapter.
CAM- NOMENCLATURE:
TRACE POINT:
A theoretical point on the follower, corresponding to the point of a fictitious knifeedge follower. It is used to generate the pitch curve. In this case of a roller follower, the trace point
is at the center of the roller.
PITCH CURVE:
The path generated by the trace point at the follower is rotated about a stationary
cam.
WORKING CURVE:
The working surface of a cam in contact with the follower. For the knife-edge
follower of the plate cam, the pitch curve and the working curves coincide. In a close or grooved
cam there is an inner profile and an outer working curve.
PITCH CIRCLE;
A circle from the cam center through the pitch point. The pitch circle radius is
used to calculate a cam of minimum size for a given pressure angle.
BASE CIRCLE:
The smallest circle from the cam center through the cam profile curve.
STROKE :
The greatest distance or angle through which the follower moves or rotates.
FOLLOWER DISPLACEMENT:
The position of the follower from a specific zero or rest position (usually its the
position when the follower contact with the base circle of the cam) in relation to time or the
rotary angle of the cam.
PRESSURE ANGLE:
The angle at any point between the normal to the pitch curve and the
instantaneous direction of the follower motion. This angle is important in cam design because it
represents the steepness of the profile.
Command used:
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
DRAFTING:
Ex No: 3
Date:
RESULT:
Thus the control components of cam has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004
software.
Ex No: 4
BELLCRANK
Date:
AIM:
To design and draft the control components of ell crank by using AUTOCAD 2004
software.
L2.
Command used:
Line
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
DRAFTING:
Ex No: 4
BELL CRANK
Date:
RESULT:
Thus the control components of bell crank has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004
software.
GEAR
Date:
AIM:
To design and draft the control components of gear by using AUTOCAD 2004 software.
DESCRIPTOPN:
A gear or more correctly a "gear wheel" is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or
cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gears
working in tandem are called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a
gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed,
magnitude, and direction of a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh
with another gear, however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack,
thereby producing translation instead of rotation.
The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley. An advantage of
gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping.
When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical advantage is
produced, with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in a simple
relationship.
TYPES OF GEAR:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
SPUR GEAR:
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder
or disk with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not straight-sided in form, the
edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be
meshed together correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts.
HELICAL GEAR:
Helical gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not
parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling
causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed in a parallel or
crossed orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the
most common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration are
sometimes known as "skew gears".
DOUBLE HELICAL:
Double helical gears, or herringbone gear, overcome the problem of axial thrust presented
by "single" helical gears by having two sets of teeth that are set in a V shape. Each gear in a
double helical gear can be thought of as two standard mirror image helical gears stacked. This
cancels out the thrust since each half of the gear thrusts in the opposite direction. Double helical
gears are more difficult to manufacture due to their more complicated shape.
For each possible direction of rotation, there are two possible arrangements of two
oppositely-oriented helical gears or gear faces. In one possible orientation, the helical gear faces
are oriented so that the axial force generated by each is in the axial direction away from the
center of the gear; this arrangement is unstable. In the second possible orientation, which is
stable, the helical gear faces are oriented so that each axial force is toward the mid-line of the
gear. In both arrangements, when the gears are aligned correctly, the total (or net) axial force on
each gear is zero. If the gears become misaligned in the axial direction, the unstable arrangement
generates a net force for disassembly of the gear train, while the stable arrangement generates a
net corrective force. If the direction of rotation is reversed, the direction of the axial thrusts is
reversed, a stable configuration becomes unstable, and vice versa.
Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur gears without any need
for different bearings.
BEVEL GEAR:
A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two
bevel gears mesh their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft axes also
intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The angle
between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers
of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called miter gears.
The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may be cut in a
variety of other shapes. Spiral bevel gear teeth are curved along the tooth's length and set at an
angle, analogously to the way helical gear teeth are set at an angle compared to spur gear teeth.
Zero bevel gears have teeth which are curved along their length, but not angled. Spiral bevel
gears have the same advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as helical
gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below 5 m/s
(1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000 rpm.
HYPOID GEAR:
Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not intersect. The pitch
surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of
revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees.
Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth, contact
between hypoid gear teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel gear
teeth. Also, the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion, with the result
that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are feasible using a single set of hypoid gear.
This style of gear is most commonly found driving mechanical differentials; which are
normally straight cut bevel gears; in motor vehicle axles.
Command used:
Line
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
DRAFTING:
Ex No: 5
GEAR ASSEMBLY
Date:
RESULT:
Thus the control component of gear has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004 software.
Ex No: 6
Date:
AIM:
To design and draft the control component of push pull rod by using AUTOCAD 2004
software.
DESCRIPTION:
The push pull rod is used between bell crank and from bell crank to torque arms
(horns) to transmit the force and motion from one to the other. A push-pull rod connected to a
bell crank is shown in fig. push pull rods are also called control rods because they are often in
control systems.
APPLICATION:
AIRCRAFT:
The push-pull rod is used to move the control surface of the Aircraft.
IC ENGINE:
The push pull rod is used to operate the inlet and outlet port of the IC engines.
Command used:
Line
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
DRAFTING:
Ex No: 6
Date:
RESULT:
Thus the control components of push pull rod has been drafted by using AUTOCAD
2004 software.
Ex No: 7
Date:
AIM:
To design and draft the three view diagram of typical aircraft by using AUTOCAD 2004.
CATEGORIES OF AIRCRAFT:
Supported by lighter-than-air gases (aerostats)
Unpowered
Balloon
Powered
Airship
Powered
Hybrid airship
Powered fixed-wing
Powered airplane (aeroplane)
powered hang gliders
Powered paraglider
Flettner airplane
Ground-effect vehicle
Powered hybrid fixed/rotary wing
Tilt wing
Tilt rotor
Coleopter
Unpowered rotary-wing
Rotor kite
Powered rotary-wing
Autogyro
Gyrodyne ("Heliplane")
Helicopter
Powered aircraft driven by flapping
Ornithopter
Powered
Hovercraft
Flying
Bedstead
Avrocar
WHAT IS AN AIRCRAFT:
Aircraft are vehicles which are able to fly by being supported by the air, or in general, the
atmosphere of a planet. An aircraft counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by
using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines.
MILITARY AIRCRAFT:
A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is operated by a legal or
insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:
Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own
armament.
Non-Combat aircraft are aircraft not designed for combat as their primary function, but
may carry weapons for self-defense. Mainly operating in support roles.
Combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers, with several in-between types such as
fighter-bombers and ground-attack aircraft (including attack helicopters).
Other supporting roles are carried out by specialist patrol, search and rescue, reconnaissance,
observation, transport, training and Tanker aircraft among others.
CIVIL:
Civil aircraft divide into commercial and general types, however there are some overlaps.
COMMERCIAL:
Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights,
carrying both passengers and cargo. The larger passenger-carrying types are often referred to as
airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft. Some of the smaller types are also used in
general aviation, and some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft.
GENERAL AVIATION:
General aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial use, and
involving a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets (bizjets), trainers, homebuilt,
aerobatic types, racers, gliders, war birds, firefighters, medical transports, and cargo transports,
to name a few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types.
Within general aviation, there is a further distinction between private aviation (where the
pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial aviation (where the pilot is paid by a client
or employer). The aircraft used in private aviation are usually light passenger, business, or
recreational types, and are usually owned or rented by the pilot. The same types may also be
used for a wide range of commercial tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger
and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical evacuations. However the larger, more
complex aircraft are more likely to be found in the commercial sector.
For example, piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or twin-engine) are
common for both private and commercial general aviation, but for aircraft such as turboprops
like the Beech craft King Air and helicopters like the Bell Jet Ranger, there are fewer private
owners than commercial owners. Conventional business jets are most often flown by paid pilots,
whereas the new generations of smaller jets are being produced for private pilots.
Command used:
Line
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
DRAFTING:
Ex No: 7
Date:
TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW
SIDE VIEW
RESULT:
Thus the three view diagram of a typical aircraft has been drafted by using AUTOCAD
2004 software
Ex No:8
Date:
AIM:
To draft and study the wing structural layout of a specified aircraft by using AUTOCAD
2004 software.
WING:
The primary lifting surface of an aircraft is the wing. Wing are attached to airplanes in a
location vertically and longitudinally
WING SPAR:
It is sometimes called a wing beam, is a principal span wise member of a wing structure
WING RIB:
It is sometimes called a plain rib, is a chord wise member of the wing structure used to
give the wing section is shape and also to transmit the air loads from the covering the spar.
TYPICAL WING
LOCKHEAD:
STRUCTURE
OF
TRANSPORT
AIRCRAFT
The mainframe of a modern transport wing consists of spars, ribs, bulkheads and skin
panels with span ark stiffening members. The assembly of the structures may include the use of
non-metallic composite components and bonding of metal structures as well as the use of
conventional metal alloy and fasteners. The structural strength of wing must be sufficient to
carry its own weight along with weight of fuel in its wings and force imposed by the flight
controls and landing gears. These stresses vary tremendously in magnitude during a/c transition
from moving on ground to force flight operation s to returning to the ground.
The basic structure of a modern transport wing is shown. Transport wing consists of two
or more main spars with intermediate spars assist the main spars in carrying operational loads.
The front and rear spars provide main supporting structure for fittings attaching fuselage engine,
pylons, main landing gear and flight surface to wing.
Located between the ribs, depending upon their design may be used for purposes such as
fuel bulkheads and support of control surfaces as well as providing the aerofoil shape of the
wing.
Command used:
Line
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
DRAFTING:
Ex No:8
Date:
RESULT:
Thus the layout of typical wing structure has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004
software.
Ex No:9
Date:
AIM:
To draft and study the fuselage structure layout of specialized aircraft by
AUTOCAD 2004 software.
using
FUSELAGE:
The fuselage is the body of aircraft to which the wings and the tail unit are attached. It
provides space for the crew, passenger, cargo ,control and other items, depending upon it size
and design of the aircraft. The aircraft structure is designed to provide maximum strength and
minimum weight.
In general, fuselage are classified into three types depending upon the method, to which
the stress are transmitted to the structure. The three types according to this classified are truss,
semimonocoque, monocoque.
CONSTRUCTION OF FUSELAGE:
The fuselage are designed with a variety of structural components. The great majority of
fuselage are all metal and semi monocoque in construction. This statement applies to small
medium and large aircraft.
The interior structure to which the skim or plating is attached consists of longerons,
frames, bulkheads, stringer, gussets, and possible internal coastal members, riveted bound or
jointed together form a rigid structure that shapes of fuselage. The skim or plating is riveted or
bonded to the structure to form the complete unit. Fuselage for aircraft are designed with many
similarities. The forward section of the fuselage usually contain the cockpit and passenger cabin.
The shape of this section depends upon the passenger capacity and the performance specification
for the aircraft. The real section of the tail cone is usually circular or rectangular in cross
section and taper towards the tail.
FRAMES:
These are circumferential members gradually spaced at regular intervals along the length
of fuselage. Frames can stabilize the skin and stringers can distribute the concentrated loads.
BULKHEADS:
Heavy frames reinforced by beams attached to webs are usually called bulkheads.
STRINGERS;
These are longitudinal members spaced around the fuselage circumference the extend the
full length of fuselage. The stringers attached to the out board edge of frame and the in board
face of skin.
FLOOR BEAMS:
It provides the support for the cabin floor attack to the frame and skin horizontally across
the fuselage.
KEEL BEAMS:
It is a major longitudinal fuselage component in the wing center section and wheel well
area. It extends along the fuselage center line through the wheel well and under the wing center
section. The transport fuselage contains one or more mid section assemblies. These mid section
assemblies one basically circular in shape with a constant cross size. The mid section of the
structure contains landing gear attached points.
The off section changes the cross sectional shape of the fuselage into the size and shape
necessary to join with fuselage at the body or tail cone. The center body or tail cone is in the
point of attachment for the flight control surface and depending on the aircraft design. The
fuselage sections are joined to complete the basic assembly of the fuselage may also in corporate
an engine installation area.
Command used:
Line
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
DRAFTING:
Ex No: 9
Data:
LD-2
LD-2
Boeing 767
LD-3
LD-3
Boeing 747
LD-3
LD-3
Airbus A300
LD-3
LD-3
McDonell
Douglas DC-10
LD-3
LD-3
Boeing 777
LD-3
LD-3
Boeing 747
FUSELAGE SHELL
LONGERONS
RESULT:
Thus the layout of the typical fuselage structure has been drafted by using
AUTOCAD 2004 software.
Ex No: 10
Date:
AIM:
To draft and study the control system layout of specialized aircraft by using AUTOCAD
2004 software.
YAW
DAMPER
TRIM SWITCHES
RIGHT
LEFT
Command used:
Line
Circle
Offset
Hatch
Arc
ELEVATOR
CONTROL
SYSTEM
PITCH
CONTROL:
COLOUMN
DISCONNECT
ELEVATOR FEED
LEFT
HYDRAULI C
PROCESS
ELEVATOR
FEED
RIGHT
HYDRAULIC
PROCESS
DRAFTING:
Ex No: 10
Date:
CONTROL
WHEEL
BALANCING CABLE
PUSH ROD
RESULT:
Thus the control system layout of specialized aircraft was drafted and studied by
using AUTOCAD 2004 software.