Continental J.

Environmental Sciences 4: 26- 35, 2010

©Wilolud Journals, 2010.

PREDICTION OF OVERBURDEN AND UNDERGROUND WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT IN PARTS

OF LAGOS, SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA

Olugbenga A. Ehinola and Oluwatosin Ogundele

Energy and Environmental Research Group (EERG), Department of Geology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
Nigeria

ABSTRACT
The present study is aimed at predicting the overburden thickness, determination of the
aquiferous units and groundwater flow pattern as well as the quality of the underground
water. Fifty-six water samples were collected from boreholes, and hand-dug wells located
at different area and field parameters such as geographical co-ordinates, elevation, water
level, colour, odour, taste and pH were determined. The hydrochemical parameters
determined include anions (Cl-, SO42- and HCO3-) by titration, cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, total Fe and Mn) as well as some trace elements using Inductively Coupled Plasma-
Optical Emission Spectrometry technique. The field and laboratory data were processed
using Geographic Information System technology to produce geochemical maps. The
results of the sounding data show four-five layers of which two-three are aquiferous units.
These include topsoil (aquitard), saturated clay (aquiclude), sandy clay (1st aquifer),
conglomeratic sand (2nd aquifer) and sand (3rd aquifer) with average resistivity of 24, 342,
10.8, 248 and 922.2 Ωm respectively. Some of the trace element concentrations exceeded
the maximum permissible levels of the World Health Organization (WHO) Standard and
Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS). Natural and anthropogenic contributions were
identified as the main factors that affect the underground water quality.

Keywords: Overburden, aquifer, environment, trace element, underground water

INTRODUCTION
Lagos is an important industrial and commercial centre in Nigeria and has become the melting pot of human
activities thus, drawing people from rural areas in search of both white-collar jobs and better living conditions.
The increased rapid urbanization and rapidity in urban population as well as a leap in industrial activities have
made the city dwellers resort to water sources from boreholes in the coastal aquifers of Lagos. Water is
essential for both life and livelihood. Not only is it required for consumption by humans and animals alike,
bringing with its essential micronutrients such as iron, and fluoride, it is also required for such personal hygienic
needs as washing, bathing, laundering, sewage and general cleaning.

In Lagos, several industries have sprung up but little or no plans are known to have been made in order to
properly dispose off the wastes in such a way that they do not pollute groundwater since aquifers serve not only
as a source of water supply but also a medium for storing wastes. It is a general belief that the underground
water is more pure than the surface water but it is occasionally discovered that groundwater is contaminated.
The contamination may result from percolation of the contaminated surface water, dumping of refuse into
streams and river channels, industrial wastes and improper location if pit latrines. This has led to high incidence
of water borne diseases. The rate of groundwater contamination depends on the porosity and permeability of the
ground as well as the concentration of the pollutants in the source area. Hydrogeological models have been
specifically used to explain the interrelationship of the various hydrological phenomena and to solve various
hydrological and water resources problems.

It is in view of the above that the present study is embarked upon to examine the quality of groundwater in
Lagos and to predict the overburden thickness. The principal objectives of the study are: to determine borehole
depths and establish the underground water flow pattern in the area, to predict the aquifer units in the given area
based on the lithology, to determine the trace element concentration of groundwater in the area, to predict the
distribution of underground water in the area, to identify possible source of ground water contamination in the
area based on the environment condition of boreholes, and to determine the environmental implication of
location of boreholes in the area.

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 Olugbenga A. Ehinola and Oluwatosin Ogundele: Continental J. Environmental Sciences 4: 26- 35, 2010

Hydrogeological setting
Lagos is located within the flat lying coastal plain Southwestern Nigeria. The area is characterized by swamps,
marshes and lagoons (Fig. 1). The coastal plain sand consists of soft, commonly dissected by the numerous
rivers which enter the lagoon. The drainage pattern is dendritic. Factors that could influence drainage include
topography and relief, rock types, faults or joints which also guide stream channels

Fig. 1: Map of the study area showing the drainage and sample locations

The Dahomey basin contains extensive wedge of Cretaceous to Recent sediments up to 3,000 m, which thickens
from the onshore margin (where the predominantly clastic Cretaceous sediments rest on the basement complex)
to the offshore. The study area falls within the eastern Dahomey basin.

The lithostratigraphic formations range from Cretaceous to Tertiary ages and the successions from the oldest to
youngest include: Abeokuta Group (comprises Ise, Afowo and Araromi Formations), Ewekoro, Akinbo,
Oshosun, Ilaro and Benin Formations with Coastal Plain and Alluvium sands on top (Adegoke, 1977 and Iwugo,
1986). The age is from Oligocene to Recent (Reyment, 1965).

Onwuka (1990) described the local geology of Lagos based on age. The sedimentary formations were classified
into three: the Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary sediments. The Cretaceous sediments are mainly the
Abeokuta Formation which is the oldest unit and overlain the Precambrian crystalline rocks of the Basement
Complex unconformably. The Abeokuta Formation consists of sand, shales and calcareous shales (Fayose,
1970). The sands are medium to coarse grains although with some fine horizons. The Abeokuta Formation is
the thickest sedimentary unit. This is revealed in Afowo I well where the Abeokuta Formation is over 1000 m
thick.

The Tertiary sediments are the Ilaro, Oshosun, Akinbo and Ewekoro Formation. Experience has shown that
whenever greenish grey shale is met in a hole within the Dahomey Basin, no sand layer thicker than 3m is
encountered for the next 100 m or more depending on where the drilling is taking place. The tertiary sediments
are fine grained; the presence of coarse sand in cuttings indicates that one is within the Cretaceous sediments.

The Quaternary sediments are alluvial deposits covering most part of Lagos coastal areas and river valleys. The
deposits are loose sand, silt and clay mixed together in varying proportions at various depths (Kampsax and
SSHWED, 1977). The sorting is generally poor. Lithologically, the formation comprises of sand and clay. The
clay is light coloured in some areas, white, pink and brown colors predominate with grey batches. Any greenish
grey clay thicker than 20 m met in the borehole therefore indicates that the clay has passed through the
Quaternary sediments into the Tertiary.

Onwuka (1990) described three main hydrologic units for the sedimentary area of Lagos which include:

The upper aquifer

This comprises the Quaternary sediments, which are made up of clay and sands. It covers most part of Lagos.
The sandy layer constitutes the water-bearing unit. The Quaternary sediments are made up of litoral, lagoonal

27
 Olugbenga A. Ehinola and Oluwatosin Ogundele: Continental J. Environmental Sciences 4: 26- 35, 2010

and alluvial deposits with parts of the coastal plain sands. The average yield of the upper aquifer from wells is
20 m3/h. The upper aquifer is unconfined while the deeper parts are semi-confined.

The middle aquifer

The Middle aquifer is of the Tertiary sediments with shale and clay intercalations of fine sands and limestone.
Their fissility and laminations of shales as well as limestone solution cavities facilitate transmission channels for
the groundwater. The middle aquifer yields at least 10 m3/h. The gravel beds and limestone of the Ilaro and
Ewekoro Formation constitute the water bearing unit. The middle aquifer is confined with hard water as a result
of the calcareous nature of the Ewekoro and the Ilaro Formations. Calcite precipitation from saturated
underground water could lead to reduction of porosity.

The lower aquifer

The lower aquifer comprises the Cretaceous sediments (sands and shales) of the Abeokuta Formation. This is
the lowermost unit, which is in contact with basement crystalline rocks. The overlying units serve as confining
beds to the Abeokuta Formation, therefore the lower aquifer is confined.

METHODS OF THE STUDY

Lagos is one of the most populated (over 9 million people based on 2006 population census) and most industrialized
cities situated in the coastal area of Nigeria. Salt water intrusion and industrial effluents are the major challenges of
having good quality water for the inhabitants.

The study area was mapped using the e-tree venture Garmin Global positioning system (GPS). This was used in the
determination of the longitude, latitude, elevation of the location of the boreholes for the map production. Water
samples were collected from surface water (creeks) and groundwater (hand-dug wells and boreholes) in the study
area. The determination of physical parameters such as visual observation of colour of the water, manual sensing of
the odour and taste and measurement of pH using indicator paper on the field. The pH was also determined in the
laboratory using digital pH meter.

Hydrochemical parameters such as concentration of anions (Cl-, SO42- and HCO3-) by titration, cations (Na+, K+,
Ca2+, Mg2+, total Fe and Mn) as well as some trace elements using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical
Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) technique were determined to evaluate the water type, quality and usability.

The Processing of field and laboratory data were carried out using Rockwork 2006 and SURFER 8 softwares to
produce subsurface and geochemical maps which provide a reliable means of monitoring environmental
conditions and identifying problem areas.

Geophysical data obtained were partially curve matched on a log paper where modeling parameters such as resistivity
and depth of each layer were obtained before the curves were finally iterated using software known as Resist. The
modeling parameters were gotten from the curve by the use of master curve and several auxiliary curves. This
interpretation enables to locate several aquifer properties, thus allowing for groundwater investigation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Lithologic cross section
Lithologic cross section was done for nine borholes based on stratigraphic principles to understand the
distribution of various units laterally from which the extent can be determined. The various units consists of
clay, shale, sandy clay, coarse sandy clay, fine sand, medium grain sand, laterite,medium sandy clay and
medium sandy clay (Fig. 2 ).

Laterite and medium grain sand which is the topmost unit cut across all the boreholes. Clay and sandy clay
units observed in borehole 13 are absent in both borehole 16 and 12. This may be due to erosion, weathering or
non-deposition (unconformity). Between boreholes 14 and 7, a unit of fine sand is missing in borehole 7 and
this may be due to change in energy of deposition. Few of the lithounits between boreholes 16 and 9 were
correlated based on their lithology. Therefore, from the lithologic cross section, the coarse sand unit can
produce high amount of underground water yield when compared to other units.

28
 Olugbenga A. Ehinola and Oluwatosin Ogundele: Continental J. Environmental Sciences 4: 26- 35, 2010

7
17

15 13 9
0m

8 10m
16

14

12

clay fine sand

medium grain m.sandy clay

shale

c.sandy clay coarse sand

laterite f.sandy clay

Fig. 2: Lithologic cross section and correlation of boreholes in the study area

Geophysical data interpretation

Figure 3 shows a resistivity sounding from a location in Ijora, Lagos State. A proper analysis of data interpretation
reveals the lithology of the subsurface for VES 1 with resistivity value of 18.9 ohm-m which coincides with clay (top
soil). It overlies a 12.9 m thick layer of higher resistivity which is 347.3 ohm-m and this coincides with sandy soil.
The third layer has a relatively low resistivity value which has a depth of 97.1 m and a thickness of 75.3 m and this
coincides with the clayey formation. The fourth layer has a high resistivity value of 922.2 ohm-m with an unknown
thickness which is the sandstone formation. The fourth layer constitutes a very good aquifer with high water yield, it
can therefore be recommended for drilling.

Fig. 3: Vertical electrical sounding (VES) layer model

Water table and underground water flow pattern

Hydrogeologic survey of the area was carried out by the determination of the water table depth of 15 different
boreholes located in Lagos metropolis. The groundwater depths were gotten from some drilling companies in Lagos
and ranged from 39 to120 m. Borehole depths were lower in low land areas such as the Creeks, Victoria Island,
Victoria Garden City, Lekki, and Badore areas, while the highest water table depth was located in high land areas like
Iju, Ojota, and Ikeja areas (Fig. 1). A 3D model of the flow pattern of the underground water is shown in figure 4. It
could be clearly seen that underground water flows from the highland to the lowland areas

29
 Olugbenga A. Ehinola and Oluwatosin Ogundele: Continental J. Environmental Sciences 4: 26- 35, 2010

115.00
110.00
105.00
100.00
95.00
90.00
85.00
80.00
75.00
70.00
65.00
60.00
55.00
50.00
45.00
40.00
35.00

110.00
105.00
100.00
95.00
90.00
85.00
80.00
75.00
70.00
65.00
60.00
55.00
50.00
45.00
40.00

Fig. 4: Groundwater and flow direction in the study area

The distribution of the underground water in Lagos can be studied based on the annual rainfall of the area and the
lithostratigraphic sequence. Water runs off from highland areas that include Iju, Ikeja, and Ojota areas. Water usually
soaks into the water table through infiltration. Some of the water may return to the atmosphere by evaporation
through the soil surface. The amount of water that takes each of these part however varies greatly both in time and
space. Influential factors including steepness of slope, nature of surface material, intensity of rainfall and type and
amount of vegetation have great influence in the underground water. Heavy rainfall falling on steep slope undertaken
by impervious materials will obviously result in a high percentage of the water running off as seen in the diagram
below.

Water table level is important in predicting the production of well, explaining the changes in the flow of springs and
stream, and accounting for the fluctuations in the level of lakes. Although we cannot observe the water table directly,
its elevation can be mapped and studied in details because the water level in wells coincides with the water table. The
3 D model of Lagos was used to characterize the water table of the Lagos aquifer system which is based on surface
topography.

Geochemical interpretation
In this study, ground water concentration of Ba, B, K, Mg, Mn, Si, Ag As, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Fe, Cu, Li, Mo,
Na, Ni, P, Pb, Sb, S ,Se, Sn, Sr, Te, Ti, U, V, W, Y, Zn were determined. However, trace elements analysis shows
that metal concentration of Al, Mn ,Ag, As, Be, Bi, Cu, Cd, Ce, Co ,Cr, Fe, Cu ,Li, Mo, Ni, Pb ,Sb, S, Se, Sn, Te, Ti,
U, V,W,Y, were safe and below the reporting limit of WHO and NIS. The trace elements indicate excessive level of
Ba, B, Mg, Si, Ca, Cu, Na, P, Sr, Zn which are above the reporting limit in parts of the study area (Table 1 and Figs.
5a-k). The trace elements are highly significant and have been noted to constitute public health challenges that
require urgent attention and additional study in the area.

The concentration of barium ranges from -20 to 1080 ug/L (Fig 5a). The source of barium is said to be geological in
origin due to its erosion from natural deposits (Ehinola, 2002). Barium is present in both igneous and sedimentary
rocks. Despite a relative abundance in nature, barium occurs only in trace amount in groundwater. Drinking water
appears to be the primary source of barium for humans. No metabolic function for barium in humans has yet been
identified, and no conclusive evidence of existence that human disease is associated with chronic ingestion of water
with high levels of soluble barium. However, barium can cause toxic effect to the heart, blood vessels and nerves. For
this reason the maximum acceptable standard of barium in drinking water has been set at 1.0 mg/L. Concentration of
Barium found in the ground water sample from all the site indicates a minimum value of –20 to as high as 1080 µg/L
which was far more than the indicated acceptable value of 20 µg/L. The source of Barium is said to be geological in
origin.

Copper concentration in the area ranges from 6 to 116 µg/L showing alarming concentration of copper in the area
(Fig. 5g). Source of copper concentration could be said to be of natural source as it is frequently found in surface
water and groundwater due to erosion from natural deposits. As a metal used extensively by modern industrial

30
 Olugbenga A. Ehinola and Oluwatosin Ogundele: Continental J. Environmental Sciences 4: 26- 35, 2010

civilization, cases of dissolution from plumbing fixtures and water pipes is known. Organic and inorganic compounds
of copper have been used in agricultural pesticide sprays (Hem, 1985). Because of its low toxicity, the interim copper
limit is based on taste and is set at 1 mg/L. There may be contributed through domestic waste. The reporting limit of
copper is set at 2 µg/L, if it is above the reporting limit, it can lead to gastrointestinal distress. Long term exposure
leads to liver or kidney damage.

Zinc is also found in most drinking water supplied by municipal. High concentration is potentially toxic to plants
and/or warm –blooded animals and man. Zinc appears to have a protective effect against toxicities of cadmium, and
lead. Source of Zn in the environment are usually from natural and anthropogenic source including from industrial
effluents, domestic effluent, and waste dump.

Concentration of Zinc in Lagos area ranges from <5 to 18900 µg/L showing an alarming concentration with all the
samples exceeding the reporting limit at 5 µg/L. Possible sources could include contribution from municipal sewage
and industrial waste water. The considerable high concentration in Lagos area could also be due to contributions from
industries and from higher traffic density in those areas. As Zinc concentration in water approach 40 mg/L, toxicity
would possibly occur and this would lead to symptoms such as loss of appetite, nausea and muscular stiffness.

The concentration of calcium ranges from 1.1 to 81.2mg/L exceeding the reporting limit at 0.1µg/L. Calcium is the
most abundant of the alkaline earth metals and is a major constituent of many common rock minerals. It is an
essential element for animal and plant forms and is a major component of solute in most natural water. Its abundance
in groundwater leads to most common problem associated with groundwater which is hardness. Hard water has not
been shown to cause health problems but can be a nuisance as it may cause soap curds and deposits to form on pipes
and plumbing fixtures. It is found in water that has come in contact with certain rocks and mineral, especially
limestone and gypsum. When these materials are dissolved, they release calcium. People with heart or circulatory
problems may want to consult their physicians about drinking soften water because the softening process removes
calcium and adds sodium to the water. Calcium could be said to be from natural source.

Magnesium is also an alkali earth metal, common and essential in plant and animal nutrition. It has almost the same
characteristic with calcium as both are associated with hardness found in groundwater that has come in contact with
limestone and gypsum and also cause the same problem of hard water and soft water. Concentration of magnesium
found in the Lagos area ranges from 0.8 to 13.1 mg/L showing relatively high concentration when compared to the
maximum standard element concentration in groundwater (0.1 mg/L) and can be said to be natural source to the
groundwater. Magnesium is known to create a problem for people with kidney disease. High level of Mg can cause
muscle weakness, coma and hypertension.

The concentration of sodium ranges from 2.7 to 45 mg/L exceeding the reporting limit at 0.1 mg/L. Sodium is one of
the most abundant elements. Its salt is highly water-soluble and is present in most natural waters. In igneous rocks,
sodium is slightly more abundant than potassium. Sewage and industrial effluents are also sources of sodium. A high
percentage of exchangeable sodium in soil containing swelling-type clays result in a dispersion which restrict water
movement and affect plant growth. Water with high Na content increases the blood pressure slightly and this is of
particular concern in people with heart, liver, kidney and other disease where salt intake is restricted.

The concentration of silicon in Lagos area ranges from 2.9 to 34.4 mg/L exceeding the reporting limit at 0.1 mg/L.
Silicon, the oxide SiO2 is widely used in referring silicon in natural water. Crystalline SiO2 known as quartz is a
major constituent of many igneous and constitute the bulk of the grains in most sandstone. It seams most probable
that dissolved silica observed in natural water result originally from the chemical breakdown of silicate minerals in
the processes of weathering. It is sometimes measured with nitrogen and phosphorus to obtain a more complete
picture of nutrient condition in water. It courses no harmful affect, but large amount can cause scaling in pipes that
impact water flow and it can interfere with iron and manganese removal.

Potassium concentration in the area is also high ranging from 0.4 to 51.4 mg/L exceeding the reporting limit at 0.1
mg/L. Potassium is an essential element for man, plant and animal .its source to ground water is through leaching
and surface runoff acting on organic residue. Potassium is fairly abundant in sediment. The source of potassium in
Lagos area may be due to natural and anthropogenic sources. It is a component of sewage as it is essential in
metabolism (Hem, 1985). Concentration exceeding 2000 mg/L may be harmful to the nervous and digestive system.

31
 Olugbenga A. Ehinola and Oluwatosin Ogundele: Continental J. Environmental Sciences 4: 26- 35, 2010

The concentration of strontium ranges from <10 to 400 µg/L in the study area exceeding the reporting limit at 10
µg/L thus, indicating high level of strontium in Lagos groundwater. Strontium is an alkali-earth metal with its
physical and chemical properties resembling that of calcium and barium. Strontium is particularly dangerous for
growing children as it is easily deposited in the bones and is believed to induce bone cancer and leukemia. The source
of strontium in the study area could not be ascertained. Judging from the trace element analysis, boron and strontium
showed high intensities in the groundwater samples (Figs. 5a and b). The source of the silicon in the ground is from
surface run off and the sand units from the study area. The elevated level for sodium as seen in Mainland, Unilag of
the area is as a result of industrial activities and antropogenic sources. It is said to be mainly from sewage and
industrial effluent in the study area. For the alkali earth metals; calcium and potassium, showed high intensities in the
groundwater samples and therefore had elevated levels for groundwater samples as noticed in areas such as Ijora, and
Unilag. The elevated level of potassium in Mainland and Ikoyi may be due to natural and anthropogenic sources.

The intensities obtained for copper, zinc vary greatly (Figs. 5j and k). Copper and zinc might be considered to have a
major natural background source in the source. The probable source of copper could be due to domestic effluents and
from industries connected to the study area. The major source of zinc might be anthropogenic. In addition, amount in
rainwater is a major source of its effluents (from Zn –containing dust fallouts) and industrial of its waste waters.

High level of barium found in the study area may be as a result of sedimentary rock alteration. High level was also
found on strontium based on its high intensity. The probable source of strontium is unknown.

45.00
1 40.00
1 30.00
40.00
1 20.00
1000.00
1 10.00 35.00
900.00 1 00.00
9 0.00 30.00
800.00
8 0.00
700.00 7 0.00
25.00
600.00 6 0.00
20.00
5 0.00
500.00
4 0.00
15.00
400.00 3 0.00

300.00 2 0.00 10.00

1 0.00
200.00
0 .00 5.00
100.00
0.00
0.00

-100.00 -5.00

-200.00

a c
900.00

800.00
b 130.00
120.00
110.00
100.00
90.00
80.00
40.00

35.00

30.00

25.00

20.00

70.00 15.00
700.00

600.00 60.00 10.00

50.00
500.00
5.00
40.00
400.00
30.00 0.00
300.00
20.00
200.00 -5.00
10.00
100.00
-10.00
0.00

-100.00

-200.00

22.00

20.00 30.00
28.00
70.00 18.00 26.00
65.00 16.00 24.00
60.00 22.00
14.00 20.00
55.00
12.00 18.00
50.00
16.00
45.00 10.00 14.00
40.00 12.00
8.00
35.00 10.00
6.00 8.00
30.00
6.00
25.00 4.00
4.00
20.00 2.00 2.00
15.00 0.00
0.00
10.00 -2.00

5.00 -2.00

d e f
0.00
-5.00

28.00
26.00
20.00
24.00
65.00
18.00 22.00
60.00 20.00
16.00
55.00 18.00

50.00 14.00 16.00

14.00
45.00 12.00
12.00
40.00
10.00 10.00
35.00 8.00
30.00 8.00 6.00

25.00 6.00 4.00

2.00
20.00
4.00 0.00
15.00
2.00
10.00
5.00 0.00

0.00
-5.00

95.00 11.00 360.00

90.00 340.00
85.00
10.00
320.00
80.00 300.00
9.00
75.00 280.00
70.00 8.00 260.00
65.00 240.00
60.00 7.00 220.00
55.00 200.00
50.00 6.00 180.00
45.00 160.00
5.00 140.00
40.00
35.00 120.00
4.00
30.00 100.00
25.00 3.00 80.00
20.00 60.00
15.00 2.00 40.00
10.00 20.00
1.00 0.00
5.00
0.00 -20.00
0.00 340.00
-5.00

g
-1.00 320.00
300.00
280.00
260.00

h i
240.00
220.00
90.00 10.00 200.00
85.00
180.00
80.00 9.00
160.00
75.00
140.00
70.00 8.00
65.00 120.00
60.00 7.00 100.00
55.00 80.00
50.00 6.00 60.00
45.00 40.00
40.00 5.00 20.00
35.00 0.00
30.00 4.00
-20.00
25.00
20.00 3.00
15.00
10.00 2.00
5.00
0.00
1.00
-5.00
0.00

-1.00

32
 Olugbenga A. Ehinola and Oluwatosin Ogundele: Continental J. Environmental Sciences 4: 26- 35, 2010

360.00
340.00
320.00 16000.00
15000.00
300.00
14000.00
280.00 13000.00
260.00 12000.00
240.00 11000.00
220.00 10000.00
9000.00
200.00
8000.00
180.00 7000.00
160.00 6000.00
140.00 5000.00
120.00 4000.00
100.00 3000.00
2000.00
80.00
1000.00
60.00 0.00
40.00 -1000.00
20.00

j k
0.00
-20.00

15000.00
14000.00
340.00 13000.00
12000.00
320.00
11000.00
300.00
10000.00
280.00
9000.00
260.00
8000.00
240.00 7000.00
220.00 6000.00
200.00 5000.00
180.00 4000.00
160.00 3000.00
140.00 2000.00
120.00 1000.00
100.00 0.00
80.00 -1000.00

60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
-20.00

Fig. 5: Geochemical isomap of barium (a), boron (b), potassium (c) , silicon (d), magnesium
(e), calcium (f) copper (g), sodium (h), phosphorous (i), strontium (j), and zinc (k)

CONCLUSION
Industrialization and technological developments have led to the introduction of hazardous substances into the
environments which are liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to the living resources and ecological
systems, damage to amenity or interference with the legitimate uses of the environment. The data obtained from
this study has shown the existence of thick overburden in Lagos with the groundwater depths varied from 39
to120 m. Borehole depths were lower in lowland areas such as the Creeks, Victoria Island, Victoria Garden
City, Lekki, and Badore areas, while the highest water table depth was located in highland areas like Iju, Ojota,
and Ikeja areas. The quality of underground water indicates natural and anthropogenic contributions. This calls
for attention from the government and private companies operating in Lagos to think of remedial measures
especially on the identified hot spots.

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Adegoke O.S 1977. Stratigraphy and Paleontology of the Ewekoro Formation of Southwestern Nigerian, Bull.
Am. Palaeontol., 71 (295):1-39.

Ehinola O. A, 2002. Hydrochemical characteristics of ground water in parts of the Basement complex of south
western Nigeria, Journal of Mining and Geology. 38 (2): 25 –133.

Fayose E.A, 1970. Stratigraphical Paleontology of Afowo-1 well, Southern Nigerian. Journal.of Mining and
Geology pp 1-99.

Iwugo K.O, 1986. Groundwater Quality, Treatment and Pollution in Nigeria –The Lagos Metropolis Case
Study. Proc. of NIWASA Ann. Conf., Ikeja, Lagos.

Hem, J.D, 1985. Study and interpretation of Chemical Characteristics of Natural water: U.S.Geological Survey
Water-Supply Pap

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Metropolitan Lagos. Final Report, Federal Ministry of Works and Planning, Lagos. paper2254.

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 Olugbenga A. Ehinola and Oluwatosin Ogundele: Continental J. Environmental Sciences 4: 26- 35, 2010

Received for Publication: 26/05/2010

Accepted for Publication: 20/06/2010

Corresponding Author:
Olugbenga A. Ehinola
Energy and Environmental Research Group (EERG), Department of Geology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
Nigeria
Email: oa.ehinola@mail.ui.edu.ng

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 Olugbenga A. Ehinola and Oluwatosin Ogundele: Continental J. Environmental Sciences 4: 26- 35, 2010

Table 1: Concentration of elements in the water samples from boreholes in the study area.

Element: Ba B K Mg Si Ca Fe Cu Na P S Sn Sr Zn
Units: ug/L ug/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L ug/L mg/L mg/L mg/L ug/L ug/L ug/L
Detection Limit: 20 1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.01 2 0.1 0.02 1 10 10 5
Saample No. ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP- ICP-
Reference Method: OES OES OES OES OES OES OES OES OES OES OES OES OES OES
1 Intek Group Apapa 160 43 14.8 2.3 2.9 36.3 < 0.01 8 41.2 0.04 14 < 10 130 180
2 Coop. Villas 1, Badore 120 117 7.6 13.1 34.4 14.8 0.02 8 45 0.1 6 < 10 160 20
3 Coop. Villas 2, Badore 120 57 4.7 6.1 25.6 9.8 0.02 8 31.9 < 0.02 <1 < 10 120 25
4 Meyer Paint Depot, Ajak 1080 22 11 4.3 5.7 21.8 < 0.01 18 23.9 0.04 3 < 10 180 370
5 Femi Okunny Estate,
Lekki 40 36 1.9 0.9 6.5 1.6 0.04 6 10.6 < 0.02 <1 < 10 20 25
6 Oduduma Cresent, Lkeja 40 14 0.7 1.1 5 5.6 < 0.01 30 15.3 0.04 <1 < 10 40 445
7 Nigerchin Wife & Cable 60 11 1.4 1.1 4.9 4.8 < 0.01 10 32.2 0.16 <1 < 10 40 18900
8 Wahum < 20 11 0.4 0.5 5.7 1.1 0.02 10 2.7 < 0.02 <1 < 10 < 10 550
9 Eko Hotel 60 58 4.4 2.4 7.3 40.9 < 0.01 6 30.4 < 0.02 3 < 10 50 170
10 Dolfhin Estate 80 160 16.7 9.3 10.6 81.2 < 0.01 10 41.2 0.04 27 < 10 400 40
11 Abeokuta Str. Lagos
Mainland 460 23 18.4 4.3 5.9 9.9 0.08 36 83.9 0.2 5 < 10 80 250
12 Adekunle Str. Lagos
Mainland 240 29 51.4 26.6 9.8 36.3 0.03 116 169 0.12 39 < 10 350 310
13 Unilag 80 29 4 3.8 9.9 11.4 < 0.01 10 15.6 0.04 13 < 10 100 20
14 Ljora 100 119 7.5 12.8 33.7 13.2 < 0.01 6 44.6 0.06 6 < 10 150 <5
15 Ajah, VAC 40 31 1.4 0.8 6.7 9.8 < 0.01 6 10 0.22 2 < 10 20 20

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