Theorem
Oka Kurniawan 1, Chee Chin Tan2, Vincent K. S. Ong2, Erping Li1 and
Colin J. Humphreys3
1
Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR, Singapore 117528
2
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Block S2,
3
Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street,
This paper presents a simple and direct method for computing the charge collection
probability distribution by utilizing the reciprocity theorem. The proposed method simplifies the
charge collection probability computation with the use of the finite difference method. We
demonstrate the method by computing the charge collection probability distribution of two finite
junction configurations, the L-shaped and the U-shaped junction wells and compare the
computational results with that obtained from the analytical expression as well as with
experiment. Good agreements were found. This method has the potential of advancing our
Charge carrier generation is a physical phenomenon that has been studied since the
discovery of the semiconductor materials. The mechanism to generate charge carriers inside
and photodetectors, to semiconductor characterization techniques [1, 2]. Once the charge carriers
are generated inside a piece of semiconductor material by means of external excitation, our
interest is then focused on how the excess charge carriers are recombined in the bulk or collected
at the charge collecting junction. The recombination and collection processes usually have direct
In order to generate the charge carriers, an electron in the valance band must gain enough
energy to overcome the energy gap and excites itself into the conduction band while creating a
hole in the valence band [3]. This principle is true regardless of the type of the external
excitation. The external excitation can range from high energy photons to high energy electron
beams. The former is used in semiconductor photovoltaic devices while the latter is normally
used for semiconductor characterization in the scanning electron microscope. When a high
energy photon or electron impinges upon the device or sample, a large number of free carriers are
generated within the generation volume. These free charge carriers will tend to diffuse away from
the generation volume and annihilate themselves through a process known as recombination.
However, if they encounter a built-in electric field at the charge collecting junction, the minority
and the majority carriers are separated from one another, preventing them from recombining.
This separation process is sometimes referred to as a collection process, and this charge collection
3
The electron-beam-induced current (EBIC) mode of the scanning electron microscope
(SEM) is a typical example of the aforementioned mechanism, and is one of the most widely used
techniques for semiconductor materials and devices characterization [2]. It is often used in the
characterization of the minority carriers transport properties, defect and failure analysis of
semiconductor devices, p-n junction profiling, and the imaging of recombination sites [5]. The
reasons for the popularity of this technique are its minimum sample preparation requirement, high
lateral resolution, and depth of resolution of the electron beam source, as well as the availability
of well derived analytical expressions of the EBIC profile. The availability of the analytical
expressions enhances the study of the EBIC technique and allows its many applications to
flourish.
The collected current I (x’, z’) is simply the charge collection probability Q (x, z)
convoluted with the generation volume distribution [6]. This can be simply expressed as
where g(x-x’, z/R) is the two dimensional (2-D) distribution of the generation volume. Different
types of generation volume models were studied and compared in [7]. Therefore, the collected
current and its analytical expression can be easily derived from the charge collection probability
once the generation volume distribution is known. For most configurations, the generation
volume is much smaller than the junction dimensions. For this case a point source charge
generation can be used [8], and this reduces the normalized collected current to simply the charge
The analytical expressions for charge collection probability for the two commonly
configuration, have been well derived in the literature [6, 9-14]. However, these analytical
4
expressions are not applicable to devices with finite junction dimensions such as the L-shaped and
the U-shaped junctions as shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 respectively. This is because one has to
assume that the junction is infinitely deep and that the generation volume is near the surface in
order to use the analytical expression for the normal-collector configuration. One also has to
assume that the junction is very narrow in order to use the analytical expression for the planar-
collector configuration. These assumptions may introduce some inaccuracies if these analytical
Due to the continuing shrinking of semiconductor devices, the L-shaped and the U-
shaped junction configurations can now be easily found in many semiconductor devices such as
the bipolar transistor, field effect transistor, photodiode, phototransistor and charge-couple
devices [1]. There is a rising interest in the study of the charge collection probability in these
Soukup and Ekstrand [18] derived the analytical expressions for collection both on the
inside and outside of the junction well for the L-shaped junction well. Unfortunately, the derived
analytical expressions contain a non-elementary function, i.e., the Bessel function that introduces
some computational difficulties. Recently, the analytical expressions for charge collection within
the junction well for the L-shaped and the U-shaped junction wells were derived by utilizing the
Green’s function method to solve the continuity equation [16]. Despite the difficulties involved in
the derivation, the resulting analytical expressions involved only elementary functions. The
analytical expressions were found to have a good match with the simulation results.
It was noticed that the charge collection probability for devices with finite junction
dimensions is conventionally derived by solving the continuity equation to obtain the carrier
concentration. The current density is then calculated from the gradient of the carrier
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concentration. Once the current density is known, the charge collection probability is obtained by
integrating the current density along the collecting junction. The derived analytical solution,
however, is only applicable for a particular collecting junction shape. This is one of the major
In this paper, a new computational method for calculating the charge collection
probability distribution from within the collecting junction is presented. This method uses the
reciprocity theorem and solves the respective partial differential equation (PDE) by using the
finite difference method. The main advantage of applying the reciprocity theorem is that it allows
a shortcut in the calculation of the charge collection probability to be taken. This is achieved by
bypassing the procedure of having to find the charge carrier density distribution. With the
reciprocity theorem, one can directly obtain the charge collection probability from the
homogenous continuity equation. In this way the computational difficulties of having to find the
carrier density can be avoided and this simplifies the calculation significantly.
The verification of this method is done by computing the charge collection probability
distribution for both the L-shaped and the U-shaped junction wells and comparing them with the
one obtained by using the analytical expressions. In additional to that, the charge collection
probability distribution are convoluted with some generation volume models and compared with
that obtained from experiments in [18]. This method computes the charge collection probability
distribution directly regardless of the shape of the junction, provided that the boundary conditions
of the junction can be defined and that the drift diffusion model is valid.
from that found in the EBIC technique. However, the technique for computing the charge
collection probability remains unchanged. This is because the charge collection probability is
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independent of the profile of the charge carriers’ generation volume. Therefore, by convoluting
the results of the proposed method with the generation volume distribution as in (1), the exact
induced current can be obtained. The induced current can refer to either the electron-beam-
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Methods
In 2-D, i.e., in the x-z plane, the continuity equation for a point source generation volume
where q is the minority carrier concentration for n-type samples i.e. holes, λ is the reciprocal of
the diffusion length i.e. λ = 1/L, D is the diffusion coefficient and the delta function refers to the
The charge collection current Q can be computed if the excess minority carrier
concentration due to the point source charge generation, which can be represented by a Green’s
function G, is known. The charge collection current is the product of the charge collection at the
boundary and the gradient of the Green’s function in the direction normal to the boundary. This is
simply written as
∂G
Q( x, z ) = ∫ Qs • dA (3)
∂n
where Qs is the value of the charge collection probability at the boundary, and ∂G/∂n is the
gradient of G with respect to a vector n that is perpendicular to the boundary dA. This equation
simply means that the charge collection probability is obtained by integrating the flux of the
Green’s function solution at the junction interface. Nevertheless, obtaining the charge collection
probability using (3) is not trivial as it involves multiple integration of the Green’s functions.
The reciprocity theorem [20-22] states that the charge collection current satisfies the
homogeneous version of the continuity equation similar to (2). Thus, the charge collection
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∂ 2Q(x, z) ∂ 2Q(x, z)
+ − λ 2Q(x, z) = 0.
∂x 2
∂z 2
(4)
The charge collection current and hence the charge collection probability can be
computed directly by solving the partial differential equation (4) either analytically or with any
numerical technique once the boundary conditions are specified. It can be seen that by applying
the reciprocity theorem, the computation of the charge collection probability is greatly simplified
The partial differential equation (4) can be solved numerically by using the finite
difference method. In the finite difference method, the independent continuous variables are
replaced by discrete variables, having its values at each node point that spans the domain of
interest [23]. In a 2-D plane, the grid points where the approximate solutions are calculated are
defined to be
where xs and zs are the horizontal and vertical spacings between the grid points. A good
The centered difference approximation which gives a second order approximation for a
Applying (7) all the node points in the domain of interest results in a system of equation that can
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Ax = b (8)
where A contains the coefficients of the equations, x gives the solution of Qi,j and the boundary
The boundary conditions used to solve the partial differential equation (4) are the
surfaces enclosing the semiconductor volume. These include the free-semiconductor surface, the
contact and the charge collecting junction [20]. Q is unity at the charge collection junction
surface and zero at the ohmic contact. It is to be noted that for a high surface recombination
velocity surface, the boundary condition is similar to that in ohmic contact, i.e., equal to zero. At
∂Q
− = SQ
∂n (9)
recombination velocity and n is normal outward from the surface. The boundary conditions
The first derivative in (9) can be estimated by using the backward difference
f ( x) − f ( x − xs )
f ' ( x) ≈ .
xs (10)
Therefore, the boundary values at the free semiconductor surface can be easily determined using
(10).
Solving (8) with the given boundary conditions, one can obtain the numerical solution of
Q at each grid point. This can be easily done using any mathematical software such as Matlab.
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Verification
Equation (8) is solved with its respective boundary conditions using the Matlab program
on a standard personal computer. The diffusion length of the sample is varied from 1 to 10 µm.
The number of vertical and the horizontal grid are both set to 30.
The analytical charge collection probability profile is computed by using the analytical
expressions derived in [19]. This is done numerically with the use of the Matlab program. The
after 600 terms. In practice, the truncation error can be decreased by increasing the number of
terms used, and we found that 600 terms is sufficient for the accuracy which is required in this
work.
The two finite junction geometries that were analyzed in this paper are the L-shaped and
the U-shaped junction wells. The charge collection probability profiles computed using the
proposed method is compared with the analytical profiles in order to verify the validity of the
proposed method.
An L-shaped junction well as shown in Fig. 1, with dimensions of 5 µm for both its
width and height is defined. Uniform mesh spacing is used for this junction well. For simplicity,
the Neumann boundary condition. This boundary is applied for the case of zero surface
recombination velocity. In practice, this zero surface recombination velocity surface can be
achieved by the etching process. At the top surface, a homogeneous boundary condition was used
because of the assumption that the ohmic contact spans completely over the well. The fringing
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effect and the possibility of short circuiting the p-n junction are neglected in this case. The
Q = 1, for x = 0 and 0 ≤ z ≤ h
∂Q
= 0, for x = d and 0 ≤ z ≤ h
∂x (11)
Q = 0, for z = 0 and 0 < x < d
Q = 1, for z = h and 0 ≤ x ≤ d .
With these boundary conditions, eqn. (8) can be solved, and the charge collection probability
The verification using analytical expression is also done for a U-shaped junction well as
shown in Fig. 2, with dimensions of 5 µm for both its width and height is defined. Uniform mesh
spacing is also used for this case. Similar to the case of the L-shaped junction well, the ohmic
contact is assumed to span completely over the well so that fringing effects and the short
circuiting of the p-n junction are neglected. Thus, the boundary conditions for such a junction
Q = 1, for x = 0 and 0 ≤ z ≤ h
Q = 1, for x = d and 0 ≤ z ≤ h
(13)
Q = 0, for z = 0 and 0 < x < d
Q = 1, for z = h and 0 ≤ x ≤ d .
The charge collection probability of the U-shaped junction well is obtained once eqn. (8) is solved
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B. Verification using experimental data
The charge collection probability of the L-shaped well with junction depth of 5 µm,
junction width of 16 µm and diffusion length of 10 µm is computed using the proposed method.
We use a uniform fine grid spacing of 0.01 µm and the boundary conditions are applied as
described in (11). A fine grid spacing is chosen so as to preserve the accuracy of the method to
obtain the induced current profile. The induced current profiles are obtained by convoluting the
charge collection probability generated using the proposed method with two generation models:
the uniform sphere and the pear shaped generation volume. These induced current profiles are
then compared with the one obtained experimentally from the L-shaped junction well of the
In the uniform sphere generation volume model, the generation rate inside the sphere is
made constant and uniform, while the generation rate outside the sphere is zero. The radius of the
uniform sphere generation volume used in the simulation is 1 µm and is tangential to the beam
entry surface. The pear-shaped generation volume used in this paper is the one modeled by
Λ( z / R) x2
g ( x, z ) = exp − 2 (14)
2π σR 2σ
3
σ 2 ( z , R) = 0.36d e 2 + 0.11 z R (15)
where R is the electron range, de is the beam diameter, Λ(ξ) is the normalized depth-dose function
13
The electron range R used in the simulation is determined based on the parameters of the
uniform sphere generation volume used in [18] i.e., R is equal to the diameter of the sphere which
is 2 µm. The beam diameter is not given in [18] and is set to 100 nm in our calculation.
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Results and Discussions
In order to quantify the advantage of our proposed method, we measured the time taken
to generate the charge collection probability profile of the U-shaped junction well. The following
parameters: h = 5 µm, d = 5 µm and L= 5 µm, and 900 node points are used. These nodes points
are distributed evenly within the region of interest. The time used in the proposed method and the
analytical expression are compared. Our proposed method used 1.513s to complete simulation
while the analytical expression, which involved the summation of 600 terms, used 7.301s. This
shows that the proposed method has shorten the time taken to generate the charge collection
probability profile significantly, i.e., more than 6 times faster than the analytical.
Now, we are ready to discuss the plot of the charge collection probability. Fig. 3 and
Fig. 4 show the charge collection probability distribution in the x-z plane with different minority
carrier diffusion lengths computed using the finite difference method for the L-shaped and U-
shaped junction wells respectively with both the junction width and depth being equal to 5 µm.
It can be seen that the maximum, or the unity charge collection probability, is located at the
collecting junction, and drops to the minimum at the top boundary, which is the ohmic contact.
This is in agreement with our intuitive understanding of how the charge collection probability
should behave.
These results also show that the changes in the charge collection probability distribution
are insignificant for L ≥ 5 µm. This suggests that the effect of the diffusion length is
imperceptible when the diffusion length is about the same dimension as the junction well or
larger. This is in agreement with [19]. This also indicates that the extraction of diffusion length
in devices with finite junction dimension is easier if the junction dimension is larger than the
diffusion length.
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Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the relative difference between the results computed using the
finite difference method and the one computed using the analytical expressions derived in [19]
for the L-shaped and the U-shaped junction wells at L = 1µm, h = 5 µm and d = 5µm. The
relative difference profile for the other values of minority carrier diffusion lengths have similar
The statistical summary of the absolute difference between the 2 results for the L-
shaped and the U-shaped junction wells are tabulated in Table I and Table II respectively. It can
be seen in Table I and Table II that the results computed using the finite difference method has
good agreement with the results computed analytically. The maximum difference between the
computed results is 0.025. The mean absolute difference is about 0.0025 for the L-shaped
junction well and 0.004 for the U-shaped junction well. The slight difference can be explained
by the inaccuracies caused by the approximations used in both methods. It can also be observed
in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 that the discrepancies between the two methods are more pronounced at the
vertical junction. This may be due to the coarse grid spacing used at that location, which happen
to have a steep charge collection probability gradient. The accuracy in this region can be
improved by increasing the number of grid points at the appropriate locations. The U-shaped
junction well has an extra vertical junction compared to the L-shaped junction well, thus the U-
shaped junction well is expected to have a larger mean value for the absolute difference. This is
Fig. 7 shows the normalized EBIC profiles generated by convoluting the charge
collection probability distribution obtained using the proposed method with the uniform sphere
generation volume and the pear-shaped generation volume. The results agree with the
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experimental data found in [18]. This validates the use of the proposed method to generate the
It is to be noted that, with this new method, one only needs to define the junction shape,
which serves as the boundary conditions, and the charge collection probability distribution within
the collecting junction well will be obtained by solving the system of equations. This means that
17
Conclusion
We have presented a simple and direct method for the computation of charge collection
probability distribution by utilizing the reciprocity theorem and solving the respective partial
differential equations with the use of the finite difference method. This paper discussed how the
proposed method simplifies the charge collection probability computation and avoids the
as the drift-diffusion model is valid. One of the major advantages of this new proposed method is
that it is readily applicable to any other junction well configuration, provided that the boundary
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18
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Figures
20
Figure 3. Charge collection probability distribution in the x-z plane computed using the finite
difference method for the L-shaped junction well with h = 5µm and d = 5µm. (a) L = 1 µm, (b)
21
Figure 4. Charge collection probability distribution in the x-z plane computed using the finite
difference method for the U-shaped junction well with h = 5µm and d = 5µm. (a) L = 1 µm, (b)
22
Figure 5. Relative difference in the charge collection probability distribution with respect to the
distribution computed using analytical solutions in the x-z plane for the L-shaped junction well
Figure 6. Relative difference in the charge collection probability distribution with respect to the
distribution computed using the analytical solutions in the x-z plane for the U-shaped junction
23
Figure 7. The normalized EBIC profiles of an L-shaped junction well of h = 5 µm, d = 16 µm,
and L = 10 µm, in comparison with the data obtained from [18]. The uniform sphere generation
volume is of radius 1 µm while the R and d e used in the Donolato’s model on the generation
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Tables
Table I. Statistic summary table for the absolute difference in the computed charge collection
probability distribution with respect to the analytical expression for the L-shaped junction well
L = 1 µm L = 3 µm L = 10 µm
Mean 0.002453 0.002559 0.002585
Table II. Statistic summary table for the absolute difference in the computed charge collection
probability distribution with respect to the analytical expression for the U-shaped junction well
L = 1 µm L = 3 µm L = 10 µm
Mean 0.004118 0.004076 0.004076
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Author Biographies
Oka Kurniawan received the B.Eng. degree in electronics and the Ph.D.
degree from Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, in 2004 and 2008, respectively.
Currently, he is with the Institute of High Performance Computing (A∗STAR), Singapore, as a Research Engineer.
Since 2004, he has been working on the parameter extraction of semiconductor materials and devices using the
electron beam-induced current (EBIC). His research interests include parameters extraction from semiconductor
devices and the modeling of the physical properties of the EBIC measurements, modeling and simulation of
nanodevices, particularly for optoelectronic applications.
Chee Chin Tan received the B. Eng degree (with honors) in electrical and electronic engineering from Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore, in 2008,
Upon his graduation, he joined School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological
Univerisity as Research Student. He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree. Since 2008, he has been working on
the semiconductor materials and devices characterization with the use of EBIC technique. His research interests
include the application and the modeling of electron beam induced current.
Vincent K. S. Ong received the B.Eng. degree (with honors) in electrical engineering and the M.Eng. and Ph.D.
degrees in electronics, from National University of Singapore, in 1981, 1988, and 1995, respectively.
He held a variety of positions in the manufacturing and testing of integrated circuits with Hewlett Packard
Company, both in Singapore and the U.S., for 11 years between 1981 and 1992. In 1992, he was with the Faculty
of Engineering, National University of Singapore, to manage a research center, and to work on research relating
to electron beam effects on integrated circuits. Since 1997, he has been with Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore, where he was first a Senior Lecturer with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering and
where he is currently an Associate Professor.
Erping Li (S’91–M’92–SM’01–F’08) received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Sheffield Hallam
University, Sheffield, U.K., in 1992.
From 1989 to 1992, he was a Research Associate/Fellow in the School of Electronic and Information Technology at
Sheffield Hallam University. Between 1993 and 1999, he was a Senior Research Fellow, Principal Research Engineer, and
the Technical Director at the Singapore Research Institute and Industry. Since 2000, he has been with the Singapore
National Research Institute of High Performance Computing, where he is currently Head of the Advanced Electronic
Systems and Electromagnetics Department. He is also a Guest Professor at Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China, and a
Guest Professor of Peking University, Beijing, China. He authored or coauthored over 150 papers published in the referred international journals
and conferences, and five book chapters. He holds and has filed a number of patents at the US patent office. His research interests include fast
and efficient computational electromagnetics, micro/nano-scale integrated circuits and electronic package, electromagnetic compatibility, signal
integrity and nanotechnology.
Dr. Li is a Fellow of IEEE, and a Fellow of the Electromagnetics Academy. He was the recipient of 2006 IEEE EMC Technical Achievement
Award, the 2007 Singapore IES Prestigious Engineering Achievement Award, and the prestigious Changjiang (Yangtze) Chair Professorship
Award from the Ministry of Education in China in 2007. He is an elected IEEE EMC Distinguished Lecturer for 2007 to 2008. He is currently an
Associate Editor for the IEEE MICROWAVE ANDWIRELESS COMPONENTS LETTERS and IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EMC. He has been a Technical
Chair, Session Chair for many international conferences. He was the President for the International Zurich Symposium on EMC held in 2006 and
2008 in Singapore, the General Chair for the 2008 Asia-Pacific EMC Symposium and the Chairman of the IEEE EMC Singapore Chapter for
2005–2006. He has been invited to give numerous invited talks and keynote speeches at various international conferences and forums.
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