Page 1
LTPC
3104
OBJECTIVE
To study different types of beams and columns subjected to various types of loading and
support conditions with particular emphasis on aircraft structural components.
UNIT I Statically Determinate and Indeterminate Structures
9
Plane truss analysis method of joints method of sections method of shear 3-D trusses
principle of super position, clapeyrons 3 moment equation and moment distribution
method for indeterminate beams.
UNIT II Energy Methods
10
Strain Energy due to axial, bending and torsional loads Castiglianos theorems- Maxwell's
and Betis Reciprocal theorem, UNIT I load method - application to beams, trusses, frames,
rings.
UNIT III Columns
10
Eulers column curve inelastic buckling effect of initial curvature the Southwell plot
columns with eccentricity use of energy methods theory of beam columns beam
columns with different end conditions stresses in beam columns.
UNIT IV Failure Theory
9
Ductile and brittle materials maximum principal stress theory - maximum principal strain
theory - maximum shear stress theory - distortion energy theory octahedral shear stress
theory.
UNIT V INDUCED STRESSES
Thermal stresses impact loading Fatigue Creep - Stress Relaxation
7
T
Page 2
UNIT I
Analysis of 2 D, 3 D trusses
Frames
Composite beams,
Propped cantilever
Fixed-fixed beamsClapeyron's Three Moment Equation
Moment Distribution Method, Super position method (brief).
STATICALLY DETERMINATE AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
Statically determinate structure.
If the structure can be analyzed and the reactions at the support can be determined by
using the equations of static equilibrium such Fx = 0 and Fy = 0 and M = 0, then it is
called as a statically determine structure. Example: Simply supported beam, pin jointed truss
or frame.
Truss and Frame
Truss
Frame
Truss is defined as number of members riveted Frame is defined as number of members
together to carry the horizontal, vertical and together to carry the horizontal. Vertical
inclined loads in equilibrium.
loads in equilibrium.
Types of Frames
Frames are classified into two types.
1. Perfect
2. Imperfect
(i) Deficient frame
(ii) Redundant frame
Page 3
3=3
45
Deficient frame
If the number of members are
less than the required number of
members n < 2j-3
Redundant frame
If the number of members are
more than the required number of
members n > 2j-3
Pinjoined
1.
plane
frames
(also known as trusses) are commonly used in structures to span large distances where
constructing beams is uneconomical. They are common as roof structures in industrial
buildings, and large assembly building and bridges.
Assumptions made in the analysis of a pin-jointed plane frame.
The structural action of a frame is derived from the following assumptions to get an
ideal frame.
The frame has perfect hinge joints. For practical purposes, this assumption gives
reasonable results and makes the actual frame more stable.
The frame is loaded only at the joints and not in between the joints. The weights of
members acting over their length are calculated and transferred to the joints for analysis.
Some bending of the members due to their own weight or loads acting in between the joints is
generally neglected.
The centroidal lines of the members meet at the joint. By careful fabrication and
design, this can be reasonably achieved. If the lines are not concurrent, some moment due to
eccentricity is developed.
Two methods employed for the analysis of a pin-jointed frame and principle involved in
each case:
The basic approach to the analysis of a frame is the section method. We take a section
cutting a number of bars, and consider the equilibrium of either of the two parts so obtained.
On solution, the equilibrium equations so formulated can give us values of unknown bar
forces and reactions. Depending upon the method of taking a section, there are basically two
methods of analysing a frame, as shown in figs.
Page 4
Page 5
members is only (2j-3). The three extra equations available can be used to calculate the three
unknown reactions or for checking.
Ritters method of section:
Here, the section is taken as shown in fig. the truss is separated into two parts by such
a section and each part is in equilibrium under the action of a general coplanar fore system.
There are three equilibrium equations. H=0, V=0, and M=0, available for such a force
system and three unknown forces can, therefore, be determined.
If the retains are calculated from the conditions of equilibrium for the frame as a
whole, then the advantage of Ritters method of section is that it enables us to determine the
force in any member by taking a section cutting that member. In the method of joints, it is
necessary to go from free ends as in a cantilever truss.
Before we discuss these methods in detail, we need to look at some simple procedures
to enable us to find forces in some members through visual inspection or to check the results.
Two methods of building a frame work:
Staring with a triangle of three members and three joints, the frame can be built up to
any extent by adding two members for every additional joint. This gives an internally stable
frame work, which can be supported suitably for external stability.
Starting from a firm foundation, two members can be made to form a joint. The frame
can be built up further as described. Note that the frame work is dependent upon its
attachment to the foundation for internal stability.
Analyse the frame shown in fig. and find the forces in all the members.
Solution :
There are three members forces and three reactive components RAH, RAV, and RCV, we
formulate two equations for each of the joints a, B and C and determine the six unknowns.
Page 6
2
0
2.5
(i)
1.5
0
2.5
R AV FAB
(ii)
Note that members AB and AC are assumed to be tension. The ratio of the length, the
vertical, and horizontal projections for member AB are 2.5, 1.5 and 2.0.
Joint B From the free body diagram in fig.
H 0 , 80-FAB
2
2
FBC
0
2.5
2.5
(iii)
V=0 +,
1.5
1.5
FBC
0
2.5
2.5
(iv)
-40-FAB
2
0
2.5
(v)
V=0 +,
1.5
0
2.5
(vi)
R CV FBC
RAV = 8.75 kN
Analyse the frame loaded as shown in fig. and determine the forces in all the members.
Page 7
solution :
The reactions are determined from the equilibrium conditions of the frame as a whole. Let
RAH and RAV be the vertical reaction at B.
H = 0 +, RAH+30=0,
RAH = - 30kN
V 0, R AV 55 30 60 0, R AV 35kN
From visual inspection, considering joint C shown in fig. F BC = 60 kN (tensile) and FAC = FCD,
both tensile or both compressive. As shown in fig, the ratio of the length, horizontal and
vertical projections are 13 , 3 and 2 for AB and BD.
From the free bodies of the joints shown in fig. we observe the following.
Joint A
2
V 0, R AV FAB
H=0, -30-63.1
13 0
3
13
, FAB 35
13
63.1 kN (compressive)
2
Page 8
From joint C,
FCD = 82.5 kN (tensile)
Joint D
V 0, 55+FDB
2
13
The forces in all the members are known. As a check, the equilibrium of joint B can be
verified. H at joint B gives.
30 63.1
3
13
99.15
3
13
V at joint B is equal to -30-60 +63.1 2/(13)1/2 +99.15 s/(13)1/2, which is equal to zero.
The forces in all the members are shown in fig.
The direction of RAH is opposite to that assumed. All the member forces are shown in their
correct nature in fig.
It may be easier in many cases to find the reactions from the equilibrium conditions for the
whole frame. The member forces can be analysed joint by joint.
Analyse the truss shown in figure and determine the forces in all the members.
Solution:
The reactions are found from the equilibrium conditions of the frame as a whole H=0 gives
RAH =0
M=0 @ A
+gives
20
30 =
RAV
kN
Page 9
1
2
1
2
FAC 0,
Page 10
56.67 FDF
1
5
H 0 gives
126.72
2
5
FFE 0
From joint D,
FBD =126.72 kN(compressive)
Joint E V=0 gives
-30-20 +FEB
2
FEB =70.71 kN (tensile)
=0
We have determined the forces in all the members. As a check, let us consider the
equilibrium of joint B. H at joint B.
89.56
1
2
70.71
1
2
126.72
2
5
V at joint B,
50 20 89.56
1
2
70.71
1
2
126.72
1
5
Page 11
V=0 gives
Joint J
FHJ
3
30 0
2
FHJ 34.64 kN (tensile)
H=0 gives
FJG = 17.32 kN (compressive)
FHG =34.64 kN (Compressive)
H= 0 at joint H gives
FHF = 34.64 kN (tensile)
Page 12
3
3
FGF
0
2
2
3
3
108.66 34.64
FGF
0
2
2
FGF = 90.83 kN (compressive)
108.66 FGH
90.83 34.64
17.32 10.77kN(tensile) F
2
2
H=0
Joint F
90.83 90.83
3
3
90.83
60 0
2
2
21.54 90.83
Joint D V =0 gives
FDC =21.54 kN (tensile)
H=0 gives
21.54
21.54
56.19
2
2
=77.73 kN (compressive)
Joint C
V =0 gives
FDB =
FCB
3
3
21.54
60 0
2
2
Page 13
1
1
21.54 66.97 0
2
2
One two unknown member forces can be evaluated at a joint by the method of joints,
explain.
In the method of joints, section is taken around the joint to isolate it. Since the joint is
subjected to a concurrent, coplanar force system, two conditions of equilibrium, H=0 and
V=0, are available for the joint from which two unknown forces can be determined. The
commonly used graphical method is the graphic equivalent of the method of joints. We will
discuss a number of methods which use different techniques but the basic principle is the
joint equilibrium.
As mentioned earlier, there are 2j equations for a frame with j joints, but only (2j-3)
members. Three equations can be used for finding reactions or for checking. The reactions
can also be determined from the equilibrium conditions for the frame as a whole, i.e H=0,
V=0 for the loads and reactive forces. The following examples illustrates the conventional
method of joints.
Plane truss and Space truss
A plane truss is a two dimension truss structure composed of number of bars hinged
together to form a rigid framework, all the members are lie in one plane. Eg: Roof truss in
industries.
A space truss is a three dimension truss structure composed of number of bars hinged
together to form a rigid framework, the members are lie in different plane. Eg: Transmission
line towers, crane parts.
Methods used to analyze the plane & space frames
Analytical method.
1. Method of joints
2. Method of sections (Method of moments)
3. Tension coefficient method.
Graphical method.
Page 14
Hints to be followed while analyzing a simply supported truss using method of joints
The support reactions are determined first.
The analysis is to started from the free end where there is a maximum
of two unknown forces, using the condition of equilibrium Fx = 0, and Fy = 0
.
All the members are assumed to be tensile.
Consider tensile forces as positive and compressive as negative.
The force convention is, upward force assigns positive sign and downward
force assigns negative sign.
Page 15
Find the
reactions
at the ends A and C and the extension of the portion AB. Take e=200 GPa.
Solution : Given : area of bar (A) = 20 20 = 400 mm2 ; Axial force (P) = 450 kN = 450
103 N; Modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 GPa = 200 103 N/mm2 ; Length of AB (lAB) = 300
mm and length of BC (lBC) = 200 mm.
Reaction at the ends
Let
RA = reaction at A, and
RC = reaction at C.
Since the bar is held between the two rigid plates A and C, therefore, the upper portion will be
subjected to tension, while the lower portion will be subjected to compression as shown in
fig.
Page 16
Moreover, the increase of portion AB will be equal to the decrease of the portion BC.
We know that sum of both the reaction is equal to the axial force, i.e
RA + RC = 450 103
(1)
Increase in the portion AB,
R A l AB R A 300
AE
AE
And decrease in the portion BC,
l AB
l AB
R A l BC R C 200
AE
AE
(2)
Since the value lAB is equal to that of lBC therefore equating the equations (1)and (2),
R A 300 RC 200
AE
AE
RC
R A 300
1.5 R A
200
450
180 kN
2.5
or 2.5 Ra 450
Ans.
Page 17
Fig.
x= Bending moment at any section X, considering the beam between
two
support as simply supported and
x = fixing moment at any section X, of the beam,
We know that in the span AB, the bending moment at any section X at a distance x from A,
M x x 'x
EI 1
M d2y
... Q 2
EI dx
d2y
x 'x
2
dx
Multiplying the above equation by x and integrating the same for the whole span AB i.e, from
0 to I1.
l
l
l
x.d2 y
EI
x.x.dx x. x '.dx
dx
0
0
0
4
dy
EI1 x.
y
a1 x1 a'1 x '1
dx 0
or EI[l1iB y B ) 0(iA y A )] a1 x1 a '1 x '1
EI[l1 iB y B ] a1 x1 a '1 x '1
Since yB is equal to zero, therefore
EI1 l1 iB = a1 x1 a '1 x '1
a1 = Area of the diagram in the span AB,
x1 = distance of centre of gravity of diagram from A in the span AB,
a '1 x '1 = Corresponding values for the diagram and
iB = Slope of the beam AB at B.
we know that the shape of the diagram is trapezoidal, having end ordinates equal to MA
Page 18
and MB as shown in fig. therefore splitting up this trapezium into two triangles,
l l
l 2l
a '1 .x '1 MA 1 1 MB 1 1
2 3
2 3
(MA 2MB )
l12
6
l12
6
a1 x1
l
(MA 2MB ) 1
l1
6
(3)
a1 x a
l
(MA 2MB ) 1
I1 l1
6I1
Similarly, in the span BC, taking C as the origin and x positive to the left,
a1 x 2
l
(MC 2MB ) 1
(4)
I2 l1
6I2
a2 = area of the diagram in the span BC,
'
x 2 = Distance of centre of gravity of diagram from C in the span
EiB' =
Where,
BC,
span BC and
i'B = Slope of the beam BC at B,
Since iB is equal to iB, therefore E . iB is equal to E . IB
or
a x2
a1 x1
l
l
(MA 2MB ) 1 2 (MC 2MB ) 2
I1 l1
6I1
6I2
I2 l2
l
l
6a x1 6a x 2
(MA 2MB ) 1 (MC 2MB ) 2 1 2
I1
I2
I1 l1
I2 l2
6a1 x1 6a2 x 2
l1
l
l
l
2MB 1 MC 2 2MB 2
I1
I1
I2
I2
I2 l2
I1 l1
MA
6a1 x1 6a 2 x 2
l1
l1 l 2
l2
2MB MC
I
l
I2 l2
l2
I1 I 2
I2
1
1
MA
Page 19
The product of youngs modulus (E) and moment of inertia (I) is called Flexural
Rigidity (EI) of Beams. The unit is N mm2.
Constant strength beam.
If the flexural Rigidity (EI) is constant over the uniform section, it is called Constant
strength beam.
Composite beam.
A structural member composed of two or more dissimilar materials jointed together to
acts as a unit. The resulting system is stronger than the sum of its parts. The composite
action can better utilize the properties of each c constituent material.
Example : Steel Concrete composite beam, Steel-Wood beam.
Application of the theorem of three moments to a fixed beam:
Sometimes, a continuous beam is fixed at its one or both ends. If the beams is fixed at
the left end A, then an imaginary zero span is taken to the left of A and the three moments
theorem is applied as usual. Similarly, if the both beam is fixed at the right end, then an
imaginary zero span is taken after the right end support and the three moments theorem is
applied as usual.
Carry over factor:
Consider a beam Av fixed at A and simply supported at B, let a clockwise moment be
applied at the support B of the beam as shown in fig below.
Let
Since the beam is not subjected to any external loading, therefore the two reactions - must
be equal and opposite as shown in fig.
Fig.
Taking moments about a and equating the same.
R.l = MA +
(1)
Now consider any section X, at a distance x from A. we know that the moment at X.
Page 20
Mx = MA-R.x
Or
EI
d2 y
MA R.x
dx 2
d2 y
... Q M=EI 2
dx
dy
Rx 2
MA .x
C1
dx
2
dy
=0. therefore
dx
C1=0.
Or
EI
dy
Rx 2
MA .x
dx
2
(2)
MA .x 2 Rx 3
C2
2
6
Where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x=0, then y=0. therefore
C2=0.
Or
EI.y
MA .x 2 Rx 3
2
6
(3)
We also know that when x = l, then y=0. Therefore substituting these values in equation (3)
0
MA .l2 R.l3
2
6
Rl3 MA .l3
6
2
or R.l=3MA
Substituting the value in equation (1)
3MA MA
or MA
MB
2
2 y
MA 1
MB 2
Page 21
Rl2
2
...( Q R.l=.MA )
3
MA.l MA.l
2
=-
MA.l
l
2
4
iB
=
=
l
4EI
l
4EI
... Q MA
2
4EI.iB
l
Define the term Carry over factor, derive a relation for the stiffness factor for a beam
simply supported at it both ends.
Consider a beam AB simply supported at A and B. let a clockwise moment be applied at the
support B of the beam as shown in fig.
Let
l
=
of the beam, and
= Clockwise moment at B.
Span
Since the beam is simply supported at A, therefore there will be no fixing moment at
A. moreover, as the beam is not subjected to any external loading, therefore the two reactions
must be equal and opposite as shown in fig.
Taking moments about A,
R.l =
(1)
Now consider any section X, at a distance x from a, we know that the moment at X,
Page 22
Mx R.x
d2 y
... Q M=EI 2
dx
d2 y
R.x
dx 2
Integration the above equation,
EI
EI
dy
Rx 2
C1
dx
2
(2)
Where C1 is the first constant of integration. Integrating the above equation once again,
Rx 3
EI.y
C1x +C2
6
Where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x=0, then y=0. Therefore
C2=0.
EI.y
Or
Rx 3
C1x
6
(3)
We also know that when x=l, then y=0. therefore substituting these values in the above
equation,
Rl3
0
C1l
6
C1
Rl2 l
6
6
...( Q R.l =)
dy
Rx 2 l
Rlx 2 l
dx
2
6
2l
6
x 2 l
2l
6
...( Q R.l= )
l2 l
l l
l
EI.iB
2l 6
2 6
3
l
is
(Minus sign means that the tangent at B
3EI
makes an angle with AB in the negative or
=
=
l
3EI
anticlockwise direction)
3EI.iB
i
Stiffness factor.
Page 23
It is the moment required to rotate the end while acting on it through a unit rotation,
without translation of the far end being
(i) Simply supported is given by k = 3 EI / L
(ii) Fixed is given by k = 4 EI / L
Where, E = Youngs modulus of the beam material.
I = Moment of inertia of the beam
L = Beams span length.
It is the moment required to rotate the end, while acting on it, through a unit angle
without translation of the far end. We have seen that the moment on a beam having one end
fixed and the other freely supported,
4EI.iB
l
4EI
l
Similarly, we have that the moment on a beam having simply supported ends,
3EI.i B
l
3EI
l
Derive a relation for the stiffness factor for a beam fixed at the end simply supported at
the other.
Consider a beam AB fixed at A and simply supported at B. Let a clockwise moment be
applied at the support B of the beam as shown in fig.
Let
Page 24
(1)
Now consider any section X, at a distance x from A. we know that the moment at X,
Mx = MA R.x
Or
EI
d2 y
MA R.x
dx 2
d2 y
... Q M=EI 2
dx
dy
Rx 2
MA .x
+C1
dx
2
Where C1 the first constant of integration. We know that when x=0, then
dy
0 . Therefore
dx
C1 = 0.
Or
EI
dy
Rx 2
MA .x
dx
2
(2)
MA .x 2 Rx 2
2
6
Where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, then y=0.
Therefore C2 = 0.
Or
EI.y
MA .x 2 Rx 3
2
6
(3)
We also know that when x=l, then y=0. Therefore substituting these values in equation (3)
MA .l2 R.l3
2
.
2
6
Rl3 MA .l2
6
2
or
R/l = 3MA
(4)
Page 25
dy
Rl2
EI
MA .x
dx
2
Now for slope at B, substituting x = l in the above equation,
EI.iB MA .l
Rl2
2
...(R.l=3MA )
3
MA .l MA .l
2
iB
=
Ma .l
l
2
4
... Q M A
2
l
4EI
l
4EI
4EI.iB
l
Fig.
Let
Page 26
Similarly,
2 k 2 :
Similarly,
2 k 3
and 4 k 4
1 k1 k1
k k
k
2 k 2
k
; 3 3 and 4 4
1 k1
Similarly,
2 k 2
; 3 k 3
k
k
and 4 k 4
Page 27
k1 k 2 k 3
k
,
,
and 4 are known as distribution factors for the members OA,
k k k
k
OB, OC and OD respectively. The moments 1, 2, 3, 4 are known as distributed moments.
The quantities
k1
k2
k3
,
,
k1 k2 k3 k 1 k2 k3 k1 k2 k3
3EI 3 E 400
400E
I
4
4EI 4 E 300
I
4
Page 28
Now complete the column for stiffness for all the members, keeping in mind whether
the member is hinged or fixed at the end. Now find out the distribution factor and distribution
moments for each member as shown in the above chart.
Now from the above chart, we find that the distribution factors for OA, OB, OC OD and OE
1 3
3 1
1
,
,
and
respectively .
are ,
4 16 16 4
8
The moment of 4000 kN-m applied at the joint O will be distributed among the member as
obtained from the above in the following table.
OA
Length
(m)
3
M.I
(mm4)
400
OB
300
OC
200
OD
300
OE
250
Member
Stiffness (k)
3E 400
3
4E 300
4
3E 200
2
4E 300
3
4E 250
5
400
300
300
400
200
Distribution
factor
400E 1
1600E 4
300E
3
1600E 16
300E
3
1600E 16
400E 1
1600E 4
200E 1
1600E 8
Distributed
moments N-m
1
4000 1000
4
3
4000 750
16
3
4000 750
16
1
4000 1000
4
1
4000 500
8
Thus distributed moments for OA, OB, OC, OD and OE are 1000, 750, 750, 1000 and 500 Nm respectively.
Statically determinate structures and statically indeterminate structures:
Sl. No
1.
2.
3.
Continuous beam:
A Continuous beam is one, which is supported on more than two supports. For usual
loading on the beam hogging (- ive) moments causing convexity upwards at the supports and
sagging (+ ive) moments causing concavity upwards occur at mid span.
Advantages of Continuous beam over simply supported beam:
1. The maximum bending moment in case of continuous beam is much less than in case
of simply supported beam of same span carrying same loads.
Page 29
2. In case of continuous beam, the averaging bending moment is lesser and hence lighter
materials of construction can be used to resist the bending moment.
General form of Clapeyrons three moment equations for the continuous beam:
ll
A
A
M a 11 2 Mb 12 M c 12 (
L2
6 A1 x1 6 A2 x2
)
11
12
Where,
Ma = Hogging bending moment at A
Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
Mc = Hogging bending moment C
l1 = length of span between supports A, B
l2 = length of span between supports B, C
x1 = CG of bending moment diagram from support A
x2 = CG of bending moment diagram from support C
A1 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports A, B
A2 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports B, C
Clapeyrons three moment equations for the continuous beam with sinking at the
supports:
l1
l2
B
6 A1 x1
11
M a 11 2 Mb 12 M c 12
6 A2 x2
- 6EI
12
C
1 2
11 12
Where,
Ma = Hogging bending moment at A
Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
Mc = Hogging bending moment C
l1 = length of span between supports A, B
l2 = length of span between supports B, C
x1 = CG of bending moment diagram from support A
x2 = CG of bending moment diagram from support C
A1 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports A, B
A2 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports B, C
1 = Sinking at support A with compare to sinking at support B
2 = Sinking at support C with compare to sinking at support B.
Page 30
Ma 2 Mb
l
6 Ax
12
Where,
Ma = Hogging bending moment at A
Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
l = length of span between diagram from support A
x = CG of bending moment diagram from support A
A = Area of bending moment diagram between supports A, B
Clapeyrons three moment equations for the continuous beam carrying UDL on both
the spans.
l1
l2
6 A1 x1 6 A2 x2
w1l13 w2 l23
=
12
4
4
11
M a 11 2 Mb 12 M c 12
Where,
6A1x1 / l1
Wl3 / 4
(3/8)Wl2
(wa / l)/(l2 a2)
6A2x2 / l2
Wl3 / 4
(3/8)Wl2
(wb/l) / (l2-b2)
Procedure for analyzing the continuous beams with fixed ends using three moment
equations:
The three moment equations, for the fixed end of the beam, can be modified by
imagining a span of length 1 0 and moment of inertia, beyond the support the and applying
the theorem of three moments as usual.
Two conditions for the analysis of composite beam.
(i). Strain (Stress x E) in all the material are same (e 1 = e 2)
(e 1 = (Pl1 / A1 E1); e2 = (Pl2 / A2E2))
(ii). The total load = P1 + P2 + P3 (P1 = Stress x area)
Page 31
Join
Member
AB
BA
BC
CB
CD
DC
B
C
D
B
Relative
stiffness
4EI / L
3EI / L
4EI / L
4EI / L
4EI / L
4EI / L
Distribution factor
4EI / L
(4EI / L)/(4EI / L) = 1
(3EI / L) / (7EI / L) = 3/7
(4EI / L)/ (7EI / L) = 4/7
4EI / L) / (8EI / L) = 4/8
4EI / L) / (8EI / L) = 4/8
(4EI / L)/(4EI / L) = 1
Figure
Join
Member
Relative stiffness
AB
BA
BC
CB
4E (3I) / L
4E (3I) / L
4EI / L
4EI / L
B
C
Sum of Relative
stiffness
12 EI / L
12EI / L + 4EI / L =
16EI / L
4EI / L
Distribution factor
(12 EI / L) / (12EI / L) = 1
(12EI / L)/(16EI / L) =
(4EI / L) / (16EI / L) =
(4EI / L) /(4EI / L) = 1
Join
Member
Relative stiffness
Sum of Relative
stiffness
Distribution factor
BA
BC
0 (no support)
(4EI / L)
(4EI / L)
0
(4EI / L) / (4EI / L) = 1
CB
CD
3EI / L
4EI / L
DC
4EI / L
3EI / L + 4EI/L =
7EI / L
4EI / L
Page 32
UNIT II
Strain Energy due to axial, bending and torsional loads
Castiglianos theorems
Maxwell's and Betis Reciprocal theorem
UNIT I load method
Application to beams, trusses, frames, rings, etc.
ENERGY METHODS
Strain Energy:
The strain energy of a member will be defined as the increase in energy associated
with the deformation of the member. The strain energy is equal to the work done by a slowly
increasing load applied to the member.
2. Define Strain energy density.
The strain-energy density of a material will be defined as the strain energy per unit
volume.
3. Define Modulus of toughness.
The area under the entire stress-strain diagram was defined as the modulus of
toughness and is a measure of the total energy that can be acquired by the material.
4. Define Modulus of resilience.
The area under the stress-strain curve from zero strain to the strain y at yield is
referred to as the modulus of resilience of the material and represents the energy per unit
volume that the material can absorb without yielding. We wrote
uy
2y
2E
p2
dx
2AE
Page 33
For a beam subjected to transverse loads the strain energy associated with the normal
stresses is
2
L M
U
dx
0 2EI
where M is the bending moment and EI the flexural rigidity of the beam.
7. Write the expression for strain energy due to shearing stresses.
The strain energy associated with shearing stresses, the strain-energy density for a
material in pure shear is
2
u xy
2G
where txy is the shearing stress and G the modulus of rigidity of the material.
8. Write the expression for strain energy due to torsion.
For a shaft of length Land uniform cross section subjected at its ends to couples of
magnitude T the strain energy was found to be
T 2L
2GJ
Where J is the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of the shaft.
9. Explain strain energy for a general state of stress.
The strain energy of an elastic isotropic material under a general state of stress and
expressed the strain energy density at a given point in terms of the principal stresses a, b
and c at that point:
u
1
a2 b2 c2 2v ab bc c a
2E
The strain-energy density at a given point was divided into two parts: u, associated
with a change in volume of the material at that point, and u d, associated with a distortion of
the material at the same point. We wrote u = u + ud, where
u
1 2v
2
a b c
6E
ud
1
2
2
2
a b b c c a
12G
and
Page 34
force Pr acting at the point r in the direction in which the deflection is desired.
Figure
Figure shows a structure AB carrying a load system P1, P2, P3 .Pr, .Pn.
Let the deflection at the point r be yr.
Let We = External work done be the given load system
Wi = Corresponding strain energy stored.
We = Wi
Wi
Lim
yr = Pr 0 .
Pr
Wi
yr =
Pr
=Partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy stored with respect to Pr.
11. Define Maxwells reciprocal theorem.
In any beam of truss the deflection at any point D due to a load W at any other point C
is the same as the deflection at C due to the same load W applied at D.
Figure (i) shows a structure AB carrying a load W applied at any point C. Let the
deflection at C be c. Let the deflection at another point D be d.
Figure (ii) shows the same structure AB carrying the same load W at D. Let the
deflections at C and D be c and d respectively.
Figure
12. Give the relation between number of joints and the number of members in a perfect
frame.
Let there be n members and j joints in a perfect frame, Fig. (a)
Page 35
Fig. (a)
Suppose we remove three members AB, BC and CA and the three joints A, B and C.
We are now left with (n 3) members and (j 3) joints.
Studying this remaining part of the frame (Fig. (b)), we find that the number of
members in such that, for each joint, there are two members.
Hence for the (j 3) joints we have 2(j 3) members.
Fig. (b)
n 3 = 2 (j 3)
n = 2j 3
Hence for a stable frame the minimum number of members required = twice the
number of joints minus three.
13. Derive the expression for Strain Energy under Axial Loading.
Strain Energy under Axial Loading
When a rod is subjected to centric axial loading, the normal stresses x can be
assumed uniformly distributed in any given transverse section. Denoting by A the area of the
section located at a distance x from the end B of the rod and by P the internal force, we write
x = P/A.
Figure
P
dV
2EA 2
Page 36
P2
dx
2AE
In the case of a rod of uniform cross section subjected at its ends to equal and
opposite forces of magnitude P.
Figure
P2L
2AE
14. A rod consists of two portions BC and CD of the same material and same length, but
of different cross sections. Determine the strain energy of the rod when it is subjected to
a centric axial load P, expressing the result in terms of P, L, E, the cross-sectional area A
of portion CD, and the ratio n of the two diameters.
Figure
Un
1
1
L P2
L
P2L
1
2 2
2AE
n2
2 n2 A E 4AE
P2
or
Un
1 n2 P2L
2n2 2AE
P2L
U1
2AE
which is the expression given in equation for a rod of length L and uniform cross section of
area A. We also note that, for n > 1, we have U n < U1; for example, when n = 2, we have U 2 =
5
8 U1. Since the maximum stress occurs in portion CD of the rod and is equal to max = P/A,
it follows that, for a given allowable stress, increasing the diameter of portion BC of the rod
Page 37
Figure
M2 y 2
U
dV
dV
2E
2EI2
2
x
Setting dV = dA dx, where dA represents an element of the cross-sectional area, and recalling
that M2/2EI2 is a function of x alone, we have
M2
2EI2
y dA dx
2
Recalling that the integral within the parentheses represents the moment of inertia I of the
cross section about its neutral axis, we write
M2
dx
2EI
16. Determine the strain energy of the prismatic cantilever beam AB taking into account
only the effect of the normal stresses.
Figure
The bending moment at a distance x from end A is M = - P x. Substituting this
expression we write
Page 38
P2 x 2
P2L3
dx
2EI
6EI
2xy
2G
dV
T 22
dV
2GJ2
T2
2GJ2
dA dx
2
Recalling that the integral within the parentheses represents the polar moment of inertia J of
the cross section, we have
T2
dx
2GJ
Figure
In the case of a shaft of uniform cross section subjected at its ends to equal and
opposite couples of magnitude T yields.
T 2L
2GJ
18. A circular shaft consists of two portions BC and CD of the same material and same
length, but of different cross sections. Determine the strain energy of the shaft when it is
subjected to a twisting couple T at end D, expressing the result in terms of T, L, G, the
polar moment of inertia J of the smaller cross section, and the ratio n of the two
Page 39
diameters.
Figure
Un
1
1
L T 2 L
T 2L
1
2 2
1 4
4
2GJ
4GJ
n
2G n J
T2
or
Un
1 n4 T 2L
2n4 2GJ
Wi
M2 dx
P2 x 2dx P2 l3
.
2EI
2EI
2EI 3
0
p2 l3
6EI
By the first theorem of Castiglione, the deflection in the line of action of the forceP,
Page 40
P
6EI
3EI
20. Find the central deflection of a simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load
at mid span. Assume uniform flexural rigidity.
Solution:Figure shows a beam AB simply supported at A and B and carrying a central load P.
Each reaction
P
2
The bending moment at any section in AC, distant x from the end A is given by,
P
M x
2
Figure
Strain energy stored by the beam
M2dx
Wi
2
2EI
Wi
1/2
p2 x 2 dx
4 2EI
23
p 1 l
pl
. .
4EI 3 8 96EI
p2l3
96EI
P 96EI
pl3
48EI
21. A simply supported beam carries a point load P eccentrically on the span. Find the
deflection under the load. Assume uniform flexural rigidity.
Solution:Figure shows a beam AB of span l which carries a load P at C.
Page 41
Figure
Let
AC = a and BC = b.
Pb
l
.Pa
Reaction at B =
l
The strain energy stored by the beam AB
Reaction at A=
dx Pa
Pb
x
x
l 2EI 0 l
0
Since
dx
2EI
p 2 b2 a 3 p2a 2b3 p 2a 2b 2
a b
6EIl 2
6EIl 2
6EIl 2
a+b=l
p2a 2 b 2
Wi
6EIl
P
6EIl
3EIl
22. Define: Strain Energy
When an elastic body is under the action of external forces the body deforms and
work is done by these forces. If a strained, perfectly elastic body is allowed to recover slowly
to its unstrained state. It is capable of giving back all the work done by these external forces.
This work done in straining such a body may be regarded as energy stored in a body and is
called strain energy or resilience.
23. Define: Proof Resilience.
The maximum energy stored in the body within the elastic limit is called Proof
Resilience.
24. Write the formula to calculate the strain energy due to axial loads (tension).
Page 42
U
Where,
P2
dx
2 AE
limit 0 to L
M2
dx limit 0 to L
2 EI
28. Write the down the formula to calculate the strain energy due to pure shear, if shear
stress is given.
2V
2G
Where, = Shear stress
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
V = Volume of the material.
29. Write the down the formula to calculate the strain energy, if the moment value is
given
M2L
U
2 EI
Where, M = Bending moment
Page 43
30. Write the down the formula to calculate the strain energy, if the torsion moment
value is given.
T2L
U
2GJ
Where, T = Applied Torsion
L = Length of the beam
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
J = Polar moment of inertia
31. Write down the formula to calculate the strain energy, if the applied tension load is
given.
P2 L
U
2 AE
Where, P = Applied tensile load.
L = Length of the member.
A = Area of the member
E = Youngs modulus.
32. Write the Castiglianos first theorem.
In any beam or truss subjected to any load system, the deflection at any point is given
by the partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy stored with respect to force
acting at a point.
U
P
Where, = Deflection
U = Strain Energy stored
P = Load
33. What are the uses of Castiglianos first theorem?
1. To determine the deflection of complicated structure.
2. To determine the deflection of curved beams, springs.
34. Define: Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem.
In any beam of truss the deflection at any point A due to a load W at any other
point C is the same as the deflection at C due to the same load W applied at A.
Page 44
2
per unit volume.
2G
= 50 2 / (2 x 80000).
= 0.015625 N / mm2. per unit volume.
39. Find the strain energy per unit volume, the tensile stress for a material is given as
150 N/mm2. Take E = 2 x 10 N/mm2.
U
f2
Per unit volume
2E
= (150)2 / (2 (2x 10 2)
= 0.05625 N/mm 2 per unit volume.
UNIT III
Columns with various end conditions
Eulers Column
Rankines formula
Page 45
Page 46
L
effectiveness length
P Pc Pc
Where
Pc = Fc A = crushing load
Pe = Buckling load according to Eulers formula
2EI
= Eulerian load =
L2
Page 47
Long column
It is subjected to buckling stress only.
Failure occurs purely due to buckling
only.
Slenderness ratio is more than 120.
Its length to least lateral dimension is
more than 30. (L / D > 30)
2 EI
(0.5 L)2
2 EI
( L) 2
3. One end fixed, other end hinged.
2 EI
PE
(0.7 L)2
PE
Page 48
fC A
(1 a (1ef /r )2 )
Page 49
Z = section modulus
20. Write Eulers formula for maximum stress for a eccentrically loaded column?
max = P / A + ( M max / Z)
P Sec(1 eff/2) (P/EI)
= P / A+ e
(1 ( P /PE ))Z
Where, P = axial load
A = cross section area
PE = Eulers load
e = eccentricity
Z = section modulus
EI = flexural rigidity
21. What is a beam column? Give examples.
Column having transverse load in addition to the axial compressive load are termed as
beam column.
Eg: Engine shaft, Wing of an aircraft.
22. Write the expressions for the maximum deflection developed in a beam column
carrying central point load with axial load, hinged at both ends.
24. Write the expressions for the maximum deflection developed in a beam column
carrying uniformly distributed load with axial load, hinged at both ends.
Page 50
O = 5w L4 / 384 EI
w = uniformly distributed load / m run.
P = axial load
PE = Eulers load.
25. Write the expressions for the maximum bending moment and max, stress developed
in a beam column carrying uniformly distributed load with axial load, hinged at both
ends.
[1 0.03( P /PE )]
[1 ( P /PE )]
max = P / A + ( M max / Z)
M max = MO
Where,
MO = wL2 / 8
w = uniformly distributed load / m run
P = axial load
PE = Eulers load
Z = section modulus
26. Write the expressions for the deflection developed in a beam column carrying
several point loads at different distance with an axial load, hinged at both ends.
y sin kx [ Q1 sin kc1 Q2 Sin kc 2 Q3 sin kc 3........ ] ( x /PL)[Q1c1 Q2c2 Q3c 3...... ]Pk sin kL
sin k( L x)[Q2 sin k(L-c 2 ) Q3 sin k( L c3 )] (( L x) /PL))[Q2 ( L c2 ) Q3 ( L c 3 )]Pk sin kL
27. Write the general expressions for the maximum bending moment, if the deflection
curve equation is given.
BM = - EI (d2y / dx2)
PART B
1. Derive the expression for crippling load when both ends of the column are hinged.
Case 1 : when both ends of the column are pinned or hinged.
The following fig. shows a column AB of the length l and uniform sectional area a, hinged at
both the ends A and B. let P be the crippling load at which the column has just buckled.
Consider any section at a distance x from the end B. let y be the deflection (lateral
displacement) at the section.
The bending moment at the section is given by,
Page 51
El
d2 y
Py
dx 2
d2 y
El 2 Py 0
dx
fig.
d2 y P
y0
dx 2 El
The solution to the above differential equation is
P
P
y C1 cos x
C
sin
x
EI
EI
C1 = 0
A also, the deflection is zero.
i.e at
x = l, y = 0
0 = C2 sin l
EI
Since C1 = 0 we conclude that C2 cannot be zero.
This is because if both C1 and C2 are zero the column will not bend at all.
Hence sin l
P
0
EI
P
0, , 2,3 ,4
EI
EI
P=
2EI
l2
2. Derive the expression for crippling load when one end of a column is fixed and other
is free.
Case 2 : when one is fixed and the other is free.
Page 52
The following fig. shows a column AB of length l whose lower end B is fixed, the
upper end A being free. Let due to the crippling load P the column just buckle. Let a be the
deflection at the top end.
d2 y
El 2 P(a y)
dx
Where y is the deflection at X.
d2 y
Py Pa
dx 2
EI
d2 y P
Pa
y
2
dx
EI
EI
P
P
y C1 cos x
C2 sin x
a
EI
EI
Fig.
x = 0, y = 0
0 = C1 + 0
C1 = -a
P
dy
P
P
P
C1
sin x
C
cos
x
dx
EI
EI
EI
EI
dy
0
dx
P
0= C2
EI
C2 = 0
x = 0,
At A the deflection is a
AAt
x = l, y = a
P
a = -a cos l
a
EI
Page 53
P
cos l
0
EI
EI 2
P=
2EI
4l2
3. Derive the expression for crippling rod when both ends of the column are fixed.
Case 1 : when both ends of the column are fixed.
The following fig. shows a column AB of the length l whose ends A and are both fixed.
Obviously there will be a restraint moment say M0 at each end. Let P be the crippling load.
Consider any section X distance x from the lower end B. The bending moment
at the section X, is given by.
El
d2 y
M0 Py
dx 2
El
d2 y
Py M0
dx 2
fig.
M
d2 y P
y 0
2
dx
El
EI
P
M0
P
y C1 cos x
C
sin
x
EI
EI
P
(1)
Where C1 and C2 are constants of integration. The slope at any section is given by
P
dy
P
P
P
C1
sin x
C
cos
x
dx
EI
EI
EI
EI
(2)
Page 54
x = 0, y = 0
C1 = 0
0 C1
M0
P
C1
M0
P
At
x = 0,
x = l, y = 0
M0
M
P
cos l
0
P
P
EI
P
1 cos l
0
EI
M0
P
P
cos l
1
EI
P
0, 2 4,6, ... ....
EI
P
2
EI
P=
42EI
l2
4. Derive the expression for crippling load when one end of the column is
fixed and the other end is hinged.
Case 4 : when one end of the column is fixed and other end is pinned or hinged.
The following fig. shows a column AB of the length l whose upper end A is
hinged while its lower end B is fixed.
Let P be the crippling load. Studying the nature of bending we realize that there
Page 55
d2 y
Py H(l x)
dx 2
d2 y
Py H(l x)
dx 2
fig.
d2 y P
H
y (l x)
2
dx
El
EI
P
P
H
y C1 cos x
C
sin
x
P (l x)
EI
EI
(1)
Where C1 and C2 are constants of integration. The slope at any section is given by,
P
dy
P
P
P
H
C1
sin x
C
cos
x
dx
EI
EI
EI
EI
P
(2)
x = 0, y = 0
H
H
0 = C1 + l C1 l
P
P
dy
0
dx
P H
0= C2
EI P
x = 0,
C2
H EI
P P
Page 56
At
x = l, y = 0
Simplifying we get,
tan l
P
H
P H EI
lcos l
sin
l
P
EI P P
EI
P
P
EI
EI
P
4.5 radians
EI
l2P
=(4.5)2 20.25
EI
20.25 EI
P
l2
Approximately 20.25 = 22
22 EI
l2
5. Calculate the safe compressive load on a hollow cast iron column (one end rigidly
fixed and the other hinged) of 150 mm external diameter and 100 mm internal diameter
and 10m in length. Use Eulers formula with a factor of safety of 5 and E = 95 K N/mm2.
Solution :
D = 150 mm d = 100 mm
l
10
L
5 2m 5 2 1000 mm
2
2
=5000
2 mm
I=
P
safe load=
373.92 kN
L2
(5000 2)2
373.92
74.78 kN
5
6. A hollow alloy tube 5 metre long with external and internal diameters equal to 40 mm
and 25 mm respectively was found to extend by 6.4 mm under a tensile load of 60 kN.
Find the buckling load for the tube, when used as a column with both ends pinned. Also
find the safe compressive load for the tube, with a factor of safety of 4.
Solution :
Page 57
Wl
AE
WL 60 103 5 103
61213.6 N/mm2
A
765.76 6.4
I
(40 4 25 4 ) 106489 mm 4
When used as a column
64
P
Buckling load
2573.43 N
L2
50002
5573.43
643.36 N
4
7. A bar of length 4 meters when used as a simply supported beam and subjected to a
uniformly distributed load of 30 kN/m. Over the whole span deflects 1.5 mm at the
centre. Determine the crippling loads when it is used as a column with the following
conditions:
i)
Both ends pinjointed
ii)
One end fixed and the other hinged,
iii)
Both ends fixed
Solution :
Analysis as a beam
w = 30 kN/m = 30 N/mm
l = 4000 mm, = 15 mm.
5 wl4
384 EI
5 wl4
5
30 (4000)4 2
EI
.
1013 Nmm2
384
384
15
3
Analysis as a column
i)
Crippling load
ii)
2EI
2
1
2 1013
= 412335 N=4112.335kN
2
l
3
(4000)2
Page 58
Crippling load
iii)
22EI
P 2 2 4112.335 =8224.67 kN
l
Crippling load
42EI
4 4112.335 =16449.34 kN
l2
8. Determine the ratio of the buckling strengths of two circular columns one hollow
and the other solid. Both the columns are made of the same material and have the same
length, cross-sectional area and end conditions. The internal diameter of the hollow
column is half of its external diameter.
Solution :
D1 = External diameter of the hollow column
D2 = 0.5 d1 = internal diameter of the hollow column
D = Diameter of the solid column
Since both the columns have the same area
2
D2
2
(D1 0.25D1 )
4
4
D12 4
D2 3
2EIh
L2
2E Is
Buckling load for the solid column = Ps
L2
1
D14 D14
4
4
Ph Ih D1 D2
16
Ps Is
D2
D4
Buckling load for the hollow column= Ph=
15 D14 15
.
.
16 D4 16
4
5
3
3
9. Derive the expression for load when column subjected to eccentric loading.
Rankines Method: Consider a short column subjected to an eccentric load P. let e be the
eccentricity from the geometric axis. Let A be the sectional area of the member.
P P.e
P P.e
Maximum compressive stress =Pmax
yc
yc
A
I
A AK 2
Page 59
P=
ey
P
1 2c
A
k
Pmax A
ey
1 2c
k
1 k2
k2
k 2
Where l = effective length of the column
ii) Eulers Method:
Consider a column AB of length l subjected to an eccentric load O at eccentricity e.
let the top of the column be free and the bottom of the column be fixed. Let y be the
deflection at any section X distant x from the fixed end B. let a be the deflection at A.
The bending moment at the section X is given by
EI
d2 y
P(a e y)
dx 2
d2 y P
P(a e)
y
2
dx
EI
EI
fig.
The solution to the above differential equation is given by,
y C1 cos x
P
P
C2 sin x
(a e) ..(i)
EI
EI
x = 0 and y = 0, and
dy
0
dx
Page 60
0 = C1 + (a+e)
and
0 = C2
At A,
x = l and y = a
a = - (a+e) cos l
P
EI
P
(a e)
EI
P
a = (a+e) 1 cosl
EI
P
(a+e) cos l
e
EI
a + e = e sec l
P
EI
The maximum bending moment for the column occurs at B and is equal to P (a+e)
Max.B.M. = M = Pe sec l
P
EI
P
A
Pe sec l
P
EI
If both ends of the column had been hinged, it can be shown that the maximum bending
moment
L P
M Pe sec
2 EI
10. A column of circular section made of cast iron 200 mm external diameter and 20 mm
thick is used as a column 4 metres long. Both ends of the column are fixed. the column
carries a load of 150 kN at an eccentricity of 25 mm from the axis of the column. Find
the extreme stresses on the column section.
Find also the maximum eccentricity in order there may be no tension anywhere on the
section. Take E = 94000 N/mm2.
Solution :
Area of the column = A
Page 61
= I
4.637 107
4.637 105 mm3
100
Section modulus
l 4
2 metres = 2000 mm
2 2
L P
2 EI
L P
2 EI
L P
150 1000
1000
0.1855 radian
2 EI
94000 4.637 107
=1063=1038' say 1040'
sec 1040'=1.017
Maximum bending moment M = 150 1000 25 1.017 = 3813750 N mm
Maximum compressive stress = Pmax
=
P M
A Z
150 1000
3813750
13.26 8.22
11310
4.637 105
= 21.48 N/mm 2
If tension is just to be avoided corresponding to the maximum eccentricity.
P M
A Z
P
Pe sec
L P
2 EI
11310
4.637 105
e
4.637 105
40.3 mm
11310 1.017
11. Derive the expression for maximum compressive stress if column with initial
curvature.
Page 62
The following fig. shows a column AB of length l with both its ends pinned. The column
has an initial curvature having a central deflection a.
Let at a distance x from the end B the initial deflection be y. For purpose of analysis
let us assume a sine curve for the initial deflection be y. For purpose of analysis let us
assume a sine curve for the initial profile of the centre line of the column,
So that,
y'=a' sin
x
l
dy' a '
x
cos
dx
l
l
d2 y '
2a '
x
2 sin
2
dx
l
l
...(i)
When the loading on the column reaches the critical value P, the column will deflect
to the form ACB, so that the deflection at x changes from y to y. this happens due to the
bending moment Py.
d2 (y y ')
Py
dx 2
Ei
d2 (y y ')
P
y
2
dx
EI
d2 y P
d2 y '
2a '
x
sin
2
2
dx
EI
dx
l
l
..(ii)
x
l
dy
x
x
Ca ' cos
dx
l
l
and
d2 y
2
x
Ca' 2 sin
2
dx
l
l
d2 y
in equation (ii) we have,
dx 2
Page 63
2
x P
x
2a '
x
Ca ' 2 sin
Ca' sin
2 sin
l
l EI
l
l
l
2 P
2
C 2 2
EI
l
l
C=
2
l2
2
l
EI
2
1
1
2
P
Pl
1
1 2
P0
EI
Pe
a ' sin
Pe P
l
...(iii)
At
x= , y=a
2
a=
Pe
a'
Pe P
PPe
a'
Pe P
P M P My e
A Z A AK 2
PPe
y
P
a' c 2
A Pe P AK
Pe
a' y
Pe a ' y e
P
2 c P0 1
.
1
A
Pe P
K
Pe P k 2
Pe a ' y c
= P0 1
.
p0 P K 2
or rearranging,
Pmax
P
a' y
1 1 0 2 c
K
P0
Pe
Page 64
UNIT IV
Maximum Stress theory
Maximum strain theory
Maximum shear stress theory
Distortion Theory
Maximum strain energy theory
Simple problems of shaft under combined loading.
Maximum stress theory:
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum principal
(tensile) stress reaches the elastic limit stress of the material in simple tension or the
maximum principal stress (that is, the maximum principal compressive stress) reaches the
elastic limit stress in simple compression.
Maximum strain theory:
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum principal
tensile strain in the material reaches the strain at the elastic limit in simple tension or when
the minimum principal strain (i.e. maximum principal compressive strain) reaches the elastic
limit strain in simple compression.
Maximum shear stress theory.
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum shear stress
in the material reaches the maximum shear stress at the elastic limit in simple tension.
Distortion energy theory.
According to this theory, the elastic failure of a material occurs when the distortion
energy of the material reaches the distortion energy at the elastic limit in simple tension.
Maximum strain energy theory.
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum strain
energy in the material reaches the maximum energy of the material t the elastic limit in
simple tension.
Maximum principal stress theory.
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum principal
(tensile) stress reaches the elastic limit stress of the material in simple tension or the
maximum principal stress (that is, the maximum principal compressive stress) reaches the
elastic limit stress in simple compression.
In this theory, the maximum or the minimum principal stress is taken as the criterion
of failure. Minimum principal stress is actually the maximum compressive principal stress.
Page 65
(only if 1 is tensile)
(only if 3 is compressive)
(1)
(2)
The above theory is in good agreement with experimental results of brittle materials such as
C.I
The above theory I contradicted in the following cases.
i)
In simple, tension test on mid steel sliding occurs approximately 45 to the axis of
the specimen, showing that the failure in this case is due to maximum shear stress
rather than the direct tensile stress.
ii)
A material even though weak in simple compression has been found to sustain
hydrostatic pressure far in excess of the elastic limit in simple compression.
In design problems and in equations (1) and (2) are replaced by the safe values of
stresses obtained by diving the elastic limit stress (or the limit of proportionally or yield point
stress or the ultimate stress) by a factor of safely. Let these safe stresses be t and c(1 = safe
tensile stress and c = safe compressive stress).
and
Principal stresses in a M.S. body are +40 MN/m 2 and -100 MN/m2, the third principal
stress being zero. Find the factor of safety based on the elastic limit if the criterion of
failure for the material is the maximum principal stress theory. Take the elastic limit
stress in simple tension as well as in simple compression to be equal to 210 MN/m 2.
Solution : here 1 = 40 MN/m2, 2 = 0 and 3 = -100 MN/m2
Now
1 = t
Or
1 =
f.o.s
210
5.25
f.o.s=
1
40
Also
|3 | c
or
|3 |
'
f.o.s
f.o.s=
210
2.1
100
Page 66
So the material, according to the maximum principal stress theory, will fail due to
compressive principal stress.
f.o.s = 2.1
Principal stresses in a c.I. body are + 35 MN/m 3 and 80 MN/m2, the third principal
stress being zero. Find the f.o.s based on the elastic limit if the criterion of failure is the
maximum principal stress theory. Take the elastic limit stress in simple tension as 70
MN/m2 and in simple compression as 500 MN/m2.
Solution :
Now
1 = t
Or
1 =
f.o.s
70
2
f.o.s=
1 35
Also
|3 | c
f.o.s=
'
f.o.s
'
500
6.25
|3 | 80
According to the maximum principal strain theory, the conditions to cause failure are
Page 67
and | 3 |
[ 1 must be positive]
'
E
[ 3 must be negative]
or
[3 (2 3 )]
E
E
and
1
'
| 3 (1 2 ) |
E
E
or
[1 ( 2 3 )
and
[3 (1 2 ) '
To prevent failure
[1 ( 2 3 )
and
[3 (1 2 ) '
and
[1 ( 2 3 )
(1)
[3 (1 2 ) '
(2)
In design in equation (1) and (2) are replaced by safe stresses which can be designated by
t, and c respectively.
1 3
2
Page 68
1 3
to prevent failure
2
2
or
1 3 to prevent failure
(1)
Solution :
b maximum bending stress =
N / m2
3
Z
10
32 100
T
15 1000 240 106
3
3
10
16
16 100
Page 69
10 6 320
1
1 106 320
240
2
6
b b 4
10
2
2
106 320
480
1 1
320
160 10 6
(1 1.805)
(148+41) 106
=189 10 6 N/m2
f.o.s=
240 10 6
1.27 Ans.
189 106
(1)
In actual design in the above equation is replaced by the allowable stress obtained by
dividing (or the ultimate stress or yield point stress) by a f.o.s.
The results of this theory are similar to the experimental results for ductile materials (i.e. the
materials which fail by general yielding) for which = approximately.
Also note that order of 1, 2 and 3 is immaterial here.
The theory does not apply to materials for which is quite different from .
Page 70
iii. It does not give results exactly equal to the experimental results even for ductile
materials, even through the results are quite close to the experimental.
Distortion energy theory.
According to this theory, the elastic failure of a material occurs when the distortion energy of
the material reaches the distortion energy at the elastic limit in simple tension.
V
(1 2 )2 (2 3 )2 (3 1 )2
12G
V
V
(1 0)2 (0 0)2 (0 )2
2 2
12G
12G
Q 1 , 2 0 and 3 0
(1)
or 2 12 22 32 (12 23 31 )
(2)
In actual design in equations (1) and (2) is replaced by safe equivalent stress t, in simple
tension.
The above theory has been to give best results for ductile for ductile materials for which =
approximately.
Note that order of 1, 2 and 3 is immaterial for this theory.
i.
The theory does not agree with the experimental results for the material for which
is quite different from .
ii.
For hydrostatic pressure or tension, the above theory gives = 0. This means that
the material will never fail under any hydrostatic pressure or tension and this is
obviously not correct. Actually when three equal tensions are applied in three
principal directions, brittle fracture occurs and as such maximum principal stress
theory will give reliable results in this case.
A solid shaft transmits 1000 kW at 300 r.p.m maximum torque is 2 times the mean. The
shaft is subjected to a bending moment, which is 1.5 times the men torque. The shaft is
of ductile material for which the permissible tensile and shear stresses are 120 MPa and
60 MPa respectively. Determine the shaft diameter using suitable theory of failure. Give
justification of the theory used. Find result by use of max. principal stress theory also.
(AMIE Sec B, Winter 94).
Solution : It is problem of combined bending and torque.
Principal Stresses :
b
32M
16T
, = 3
3
d
d
Page 71
1
1 32M 32
16
Principal Streses = b b2 4 2
3 M2 T 2 3 (M M2 T 2 )
3
2
2 d
d
d
16
16
M M2 T 2 , 2 0 and 3 3 (M M2 T 2 )
3
d
d
or
16
d3
or
16
d3
or
16
d3
i.e,
M
2M
4M
M T
2
2 16
M M T
3
d
2
16
M M T
2M2 2T 2 T 2 2t
3T 2
2t
32
3
M2 T 2
3
d
4
(1)
2NTmean
1000 103
60
2 300 Tmean
1000 103
60
Now
or
kNm
i.e
Tmean
T-Max.torque=
200
kNm
and
M=Max.B.M.=
150
kNm
32 150 200
120 10 3
d
6
d3
10 3
32 103
3
32
3
(150)2 (200) 2
150 2 (200)2
6 2
2
3
120 10
4
120 10
4
3
3
or d 6.191 10
d=0.1836 m= 183.6 mm Ans.
Justification for the theory used: The theories generally used for ductile materials are (i)
maximum shear stress theory and (ii) distortion energy theory. Out of these theories,
distortion energy theory is best for ductile materials, as the experimental results for these
materials fit very well with this theory. Maximum shear stress theory gives results on safer
Page 72
2t
side, that is a little more materials is used than the actual required as given by distortion
energy theory.
3
d t
32
2
200 150
3
d 120 10 6
32
or
10
or
32 (200 / )2 (150 / )2
d
10 3
6
120 10
3
This gives
d3=6.755 10-3
and
i.e
or
1
3
M M2 T 2
d t
2
32
3
M+ M2 T 2
d t
16
2
2
150
150 200
3
103
d 120 10 6
16
or
2d3
150+ (150) (200) 3
120 10 6
10 16
or
or
d3 54.0379 10 4
2 120 103 d3
16
Page 73
2. Ductile failure:
Slipping of particles accompanied, by considerable plastic deformations.
Theories of failure:
1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory. (Rakines theory)
2. Maximum Principal Strain Theory. (St. Venants theory)
3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Trescas theory or Guests theory)
4. Maximum Shear Strain Theory. (Von-Mises-Hencky theory or Distortion energy
theory)
5. Maximum Strain Energy Theory. (Beltrami Theory or Haighs theory)
Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rakines theory)
According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
value of the maximum Principal Stress ( 1 = f y ).
Maximum Principal Strain Theory. (St. Venants Theory)
According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
value of the maximum Principal Stain (e1) reaches a value to that of the elastic limit strain
(fy / E) of the material.
e 1 = fy / E
e1 1/E[ 1 (1/m)( 2 3 )] f y /E [ 1 (1/m)( 2 3 )] f y
In 3D
In 2D, 3 = 0 e1 1/E[ 1 (1/m)( 2 )] f y /E [ 1 (1/m)( 2 )] = fy
Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Trescas theory)
According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
maximum shear stress equal determined from the simples tensile test.
In 3D, ( 1 3 ) /2 fy /2 ( 1 3 )
In 2D, ( 1 2 ) /2 fy /2 ( 1 ) y
due
to
distortion
(1/
12G)
2
Shear strain energy due to simple tension, U = f y /6G
2
2
2
2
(1/ 12G) [( 1 2 ) ( 2 3 ) ( 3 1 ) ] = f y /6G
[( 1 2 )2 ( 2 3 )2 ( 3 1 )2 ] = 2 f y2
In 2D,
2
[( 1 2 )2 ( 2 0)2 (0 1 )2 ] = 2 f y
Page 74
deformation
(1/2E)
2
Strain energy due to simple tension, U = f y /2 E
2
2
2
2
(1/2E) [ 1 2 3 (2 /m)( 1 2 2 2 2 2 ) ]= f y /2 E
2
2
2
2
[ 1 2 3 (2 /m)( 1 2 2 2 2 2 ) ]= f y
2
2
2
In 2D, [ 1 2 (2 /m)( 1 2 )] f y
Theories used for ductile failures
Page 75
oct 1/3 ( 1 2 )2 ( 2 3 )2 ( 3 1 )2
Plasticity ellipse:
The graphical surface of a Maximum Shear Strain Theory (Von-Mises-Hencky theory
or Distortion energy theory) is a straight circular cylinder. The equation in 2D is
12 1 2 22 f y 2 which is called the Plasticity ellipse
UNIT V
Page 76
3. Define
plane stress
and
plane strain.
4. Write
Airys stress
Page 77
function.
Page 78
1. Explain the following (i) Notation for forces and stresses (ii) Components of stress (iii)
Components of strain.
Page 79
Page 80
2. Explain the following (i) Plane stress and plane strain (ii) compatibility equations.
Page 81
Page 82
Page 83
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
PART A
1. Give the relation between the number of members and the number of joints in a truss and
explain its significance.
2. A solid cylinder 100 cm long and 5 cm in diameter is subjected to a tensile force of 80
kN. One part this cylinder of length L 1 is made of steel (E = 210 GPa) and the other part
of length L2 is made of aluminium (E = 70 GPa). Determine the length L 1 and L2 so that
the two parts elongate to an equal amount.
3. Write down three moment equation in the general form.
4. Define and the S.I. units for (a) Stiffness (b) Flexural rigidity
5. A cantilever beam of length L is subjected to a tip load P, find the deflection at the tip
using Castiglianos theorem.
6. State Reciprocal theorem. Give an example.
7. Find the slope at the support of a simply supported beam of length L and subjected to a
uniformly distributed load by unit load method.
8. Draw Eulers curve for a column and explain critical slenderness ratio.
9. Give the Rankines formula and its significance.
10. A solid cube of steel (G = 80 GPa) is subjected to a shear of 56 MPa. Find the strain
energy per unit volume.
PART B
11.
(a)
method.
Find the forces in the members of the truss shown in the figure by any one
Figure.
Or
(b)
Find the forces in the members of the landing gear tripod shown in the figure
Page 84
12.
(a)
Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the continuous
beam shown in Fig using three moment equation.
Or
(b) Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the continuous
beam shown in the figure using moment distribution method.
13.
(a)
Find the horizontal reaction of the frame shown in the figure using strain energy
method.
(b) Determine the forces in the system shown in the figure, assuming the cross
section area of all bars equal and taking the force X in the diagonal AD as the
statically indeterminate quantity.
Page 85
14.
(a)
(a)
(b) A circular shaft of tensile yield strength 300 MPa is subjected to a combined
state of loading defined by a bending moment M = 15 kN-m and torque T = 20
kN-m. Calculate the diameter d which the bar must have in order to achieve a
factor of safety N = 3. Apply the following theories.
(i) Maximum shear stress theory
(ii) Maximum distortion energy theory
(iii)Octahedral shear stress theory.
Page 86
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
PART A
1. Where are the truss-type structures found in an aircraft?
2. Define the carry-over factor used in the moment distribution method.
3. Transform the cross-section show in figure to a section made of aluminium alone. What
is the criterion used?
4. Write down the moment-curvature relationship for the section shown in figure.
5. Compute the strain energy stored in the bar indicated in the figure.
(a) Determine the forces in the members of the truss indicated in figure.
Or
(b) Look at the 3-element truss configuration shown in figure E = 70 GPa for the
material used. The cross-section area of each member is 5 cm 2. The length of
member (2) is 99.75 cm- this member is stretched so that a pin can be inserted at
Page 87
12.
(a)
13.
(a)
(b)
14.
(a)
(b)
15.
(a)
Or
Determine all the support reactions of the beam shown in figure using energy
methods. Then draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams. E = 210
GPa, I = 10- 4 m4.
(i)
Derive and obtain the first 2 buckled shape and corresponding buckling
loads of a fixed-fixed column.
(ii) Explain Rankines hypothesis.
Or
Write notes on the following topics
(i) Inelastic column buckling.
(ii) The Southwell plot.
What is a beam-column? Where can a beam-column type of structure be
Page 88
(i) Explain the maximum distortion energy failure theory. Refer figure Point
A is a critical point located on the top surface of the lever arm. Determine the
maximum load P0 according to the maximum distortion energy failure theory
using a factor of safety of 1.5. The shaft is made of steel with a yield stress
value of 300 MPa.
Page 89
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
PART A
1. Differentiate between statically determinate and indeterminate trusses with examples.
2. What is equivalent rigidity of a composite beam? Explain with an example.
3. Explain unit load method with an example.
4. Define carry-over factor in moment distribution method.
5. State Castiglianos theorems.
6. State Reciprocal theorem.
7. Calculate the strain energy stored in a cantilever of length L, subjected to a tip load P.
8. Draw Eulers curve for a column and explain critical slenderness ratio.
9. What is South wells plot?
10. A solid cube of steel (G = 80 GPa) is subjected to a shear of 56 MPa. Find the strain
energy in per unit volume.
PART B
11.
(a)
(b)
Find the forces in the members of the truss shown in the figure by any one
method.
Or
The truss shown in figure is supported as cantilever at the joints A and H. Find
the forces in the members.
Page 90
12.
(a)
(b)
13.
(a)
(b)
14.
(a)
(b)
15.
(a)
Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the
continuous beam shown in the figure and using three moment equation.
Or
Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the
continuous beam shown in the figure and using moment distribution method.
A thin circular ring of radius R and bending rigidity EI is subjected to three
symmetric radial compressive loads lying in the plane of the ring structure.
Obtain the expression for the bending moment and plot its distribution.
Or
Calculate the vertical deflection of the point B and the horizontal movement of
D in the pin-jointed frame work shown in the figure. All members of the
frame work and linearly elastic and have cross sectional areas of 1800 mm 2.
E = 200 GPa.
Find the critical load and stress for the column made of Steel, (E = 210 GPa)
shown in the figure, assuming both ends are pinned.
Or
A beam column made of steel simply supported at the both ends is subjected to
a concentrated load of 1000 N at a distance 1 m from the right support and an
axial load of 1000 N. Find the deflection at mid-point and the maximum
deflection. Given : L = 4 m, b = 20 mm, d = 40 nm, E = 210 GPa, calculate
the load the column can carry. Derive the formula used. b is the width of the
cross section and d is the depth of the section.
Explain the various theories of failure and their relative merits and demerits.
Page 91
(b)
Or
A circular shaft of tensile yield strength of 350 MPa is subjected to a combined
state of loading defined by a bending moment M = 15 kN-m and torque T =
10 kN-m. Calculate the diameter d which the bar must have in order to
achieve a factor of safety N = 2. Apply the following theories.
(i) Maximum shear stress theory.
(ii) Maximum distortion energy theory.
(iii) Octahedral shear stress theory.
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
PART - A
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Page 92
8.
9.
A solid cube of steel (E = 210 GPa) is subjected to a tension 200 MPa, find the strain
energy per unit volume.
(a)
(b)
12.
(a)
Find the axial loads in the members of the truss shown in the figure by any
one method.
Or
Find the axial loads in the members of the truss shown in the figure.
Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the
continuous beam shown in the figure using three moment equation.
Or
13.
(b)
Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the
continuous beam shown in the figure using moment distribution method.
(a)
Page 93
(b)
14.
(a)
(b)
15.
(a)
(b)
Or
For the truss shown in the figure, determine the horizontal reaction at A and B.
Page 94
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
PART A
1. When is a structure said to be statically indeterminate?
2. What is the relationship between bending moment and shear force?
3. Sketch the bending moment diagram of a fixed-fixed beam of length L subject to a
concentrated moment Mo applied at x = L/2.
4. Define the carry-over factor.
5. Refer figure. What is the strain energy stored in the bar?
6. State Castiglianos second theorem.
7. What is the effective length of a column?
Page 95
Refer figure. Derive and obtain an expression for the mid-point slope and deflection
using moment-area theorems. Beam length is L and EI is constant.
12.
(a)
(b)
Figure.
13.
14.
(a)
Refer figure. Derive and obtain an expression for the mid-point slope and
deflection using energy methods.
Or
(b)
Refer figure. Determine the axial force in the truss members. Determine also
the vertical and horizontal displacements of joint B. The material used has a
modulus of 70 GPa. The cross-section area of all the members is 3 sq. cm.
(a)
(b)
15.
(a)
(b)
(i) What are the typical materials used for aircraft construction? List the
criteria governing the selection of aircraft materials.
(ii) Explain the maximum principal stress failure theory.
(iii) Explain the maximum principal strain failure theory.
Or
(i) Explain the distortion energy failure theory.
(ii) A shaft is subjected to a maximum torque of 10 kNm and a bending
moment of 7.5 kNm at a particular section. The allowable stress in simple
tension is 160 MN/m2. Determine the shaft diameter using the distortion
Page 96
Figure.
*****************
Page 97