Research Trends in Fluid Dynamics

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ResearchTrendsinFluidDynamics
ResearchTrendsinFluidDynamics:
EXECUTIVESUMMARY
[Introduction|Generalremarks|Compressibleflows|Computationalfluiddynamics|Turbulence|
Dragreduction,propulsionefficiencies|Flowcontrol|Acoustics,noise,andcavitation|
Vortexdominatedflows|Boundarylayers|Waves|Geophysicalfluiddynamics|
Environmentalfluidmechanics|Reactingflowsandcombustion|Fluidinstability|
Magnetohydrodynamics|Buoyantconvection|Rarefiedgasdynamics|Moleculardynamics|
Multiphaseandparticulateflows|ComplexandnonNewtonianfluids|Advancedmaterialsprocessing|
Economicbenefitsofadvancedmaterialsprocessing|Biofluidmechanics|Concludingremarks]
Introduction
Thepurposeofthisbookistoillustratesomeoftheexcitingactivitiescurrentlyunderwayin
variousareasoffluidmechanics,andtobringforththebroadrangeofideas,challengesand
applicationswhichpermeatethefield.Thegreaterpartofthebook,theindividualchapterson
variousresearchtopics,iswrittenforspecialistsinfluidmechanics,includingProgramMonitors,
andconcentratesonthescientificquestionsthatdeterminetheresearchdirections.Thepresent
section,however,isaddressedtothegeneralreader,whoismoreinterestedinthewaysinwhich
thisresearchmayinfluencepublicpolicy,orenhancetheeconomyandUScompetitivenessin
internationalmarkets,thaninthetechnicaldetails.
Generalremarks
Wemightbeginwithafewgeneralstatementsaboutfluidmechanics,thestudyofthemotionof
`fluids',meaningliquidsandgases,andtheeffectsofsuchmotion.Fluidmotionsareresponsiblefor
mostofthetransportandmixing(ofmaterialsorproperties)thattakeplaceintheenvironment,in
industrialprocesses,invehicles,andinlivingorganisms.Hence,theyareresponsibleformostof
theenergyrequiredtopoweraircraft,shipsandautomobiles,topumpoilthroughpipelinesandso
forth.Intheenvironment,fluidmotionisresponsibleformostofthetransportofpollutants
(thermal,particulateandchemical)fromplacetoplace,aswellasformakinglifepossibleby
transportingoxygenandcarbondioxideandheatfromtheplaceswheretheyareproducedtothe
placeswheretheywillbeusedorrejected.Inindustrialprocesses,itislargelyresponsibleforthe
ratesatwhichmanyprocessesproceed,andfortheuniformityoftheresultingproduct.Researchin
fluidmechanicshasasitsultimategoalimprovementinourabilitytopredictandcontrolallof
thesesituations,soastoimproveourabilitytodesigndevices(forexample,aircraftgasturbines,
automobileengines)andtoregulate(forexample,industrialemissions).Iffluidmotionsappearto
beubiquitous,onemightrecallthattheancientGreekphilosopherspostulatedthattherewerebut
fourelements,air,earth,fire,andwater.Ofthefour,threearefluidstates,andthefourth,Earth,is
notonlysaturatedwithwaterinthethincontinentalskinsonwhichwelive,butismostlyliquid
metaljustbelowthecontinents.
Itisagoodideatobearinmindthatmodernfluidmechanics,asadiscipline,iscomparativelyold,
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~usnctam/scordim/fluids/fluid.execsummary.html
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havinghaditsrootsinthefirsthalfoftheeighteenthcentury,althoughsomeinitialworkwasdone
bytheGreeksandRomans,beginninginthelastfewcenturiesBC.However,evenaftertwo
hundredandfiftyyears,(or2500,dependingontheviewpoint)manyunsolvedproblemsremain,
andourabilitytopredictmanyflowsislimited.Manyreasonsforthisarepossible.Examinationof
therecord,however,suggeststhatitwasnotlackoffederalfundsorofmilitaryorcommercial
interestthatwasresponsible.Indeed,militaryandcommercialinterestintheapplicationsoffluid
mechanicshasnearlyalwaysbeenintense,beginningwiththatofHierontheTyrantofSyracuse
(whoemployedArchimedes,butotherwisegavethetitleabadname),whohadanintenseinterest
inthedevelopmentofantisiegeweapons,andcontinuingtothepresentday.Theslowprogresshas
beendue,rather,totheextraordinarydifficultyofthesubjectitself.Manyreasonsforthis,inherent
tothesubjectandnotofconcerntoushere,canbeadduced,butthefactremains.Progressis
difficult,andislikelytoremainso,butthepayoffcanbeconsiderable.
Compressibleflows
Letusturnnowtospecificareas.Compressibleflowsarethoseinwhichthechangesinpressure
fromplacetoplaceintheflowaresolargethatthedensityofthefluidischanged.Theflowaround
acommercialaircraftiscompressible,asistheflowinsidetheengine.Theseflowspresentspecial
difficulties:wavespropagateintheseflowsatthespeedofsound,andtemperaturesarehighand
nonuniform,causinganumberofeffectsthataredifficulttopredict.Velocitiesintheseflowsare
closeto,orexceed,thespeedofsound(supersonic),perhapsbyagreatdeal(hypersonic).
Compressibleflowsaremostcommoninaeronauticalapplicationsinvolvinghighspeedinternal
andexternalflows,butthereisalsoawiderangeofnonaeronauticalapplicationssuchaslaser
technology,vacuumtechnology,gasphasereactors,plasmaprocessingofmaterials,manufacturing
processesinvolvingshockwaves,andtherapidlydevelopingfieldofmicroelectronicflowsensors
andactuatorsassociatedwithcontrol.Thedevelopmentofanewgenerationofhighspeedmilitary
andcivilianaircraft,thedevelopmentofnewaircraftenginesusinghighpressureratiocompressors
andturbinesandsupersoniccombustionramjetsforhighaltitudeairbreathingpropulsion,andthe
developmentofnewhelicopterconceptsallrequireresearchoncompressibleflows.Applications
involvinghighaltitudeflightoroperationinearthorbitorspaceentailhypersonicflows.Somenew
materials(suchasdiamondfilms)aresynthesizedfromgasessohotthatmanymoleculescome
unstuckintotheircomponentatoms,andtheatomsarestrippedofmanyelectronsafluidinthis
stateiscalledaplasma.Thisisacompressibleflowtoo,butaparticularlydifficultone.Inthis
plasmasynthesis,aswellasinthedevelopmentofhighpowergasdynamiclasers,thingschangeso
muchandsorapidlythatthefluid'sinternalstateisalwayslaggingseriouslybehindits
surroundings,creatingspecialproblemsofprediction.Modelsofprocessesoccurringinnaturesuch
assolarconvection,dynamicsofcosmicgasclouds,interstellarjets,galacticevolution,andso
forth,alsoinvolvecompressibleflows.
Computationalfluiddynamics
Alltheseflows,aswellastheirlowerspeed,relativelyincompressiblecounterparts,canandmust
becalculatednumerically,aspartofthedesignprocess.Thisprocedureiscalledcomputational
fluiddynamics,orcomputationalaerodynamics,withtheirsubsets:directandlargeeddy
simulationofturbulence.Theabilitytocalculatethesevariousflowshasinpartreplaced
experiment,andhasbecomeanessentialpartofthedesignprocess,allowingrapidevaluationof
changesindesignparameters.Thissubstantiallyshortensdesigncycletime,whichresultsin
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correspondingreductionsinthecostofnewdesigns.
Turbulence
Mostoftheseflowsareturbulent,thatis,unsteadyandchaotic,notrepeatingindetail.The
turbulentstateisopposedtothelaminarstate,whichissmoothlyvarying,organized,andnot
chaotic.Thedifferenceissignificant,sincethechaoticmotionsoftheturbulentflowproduce1000
timesthedragorheattransferofthecorrespondinglaminarflow.Turbulenceisthelastgreat
unsolvedproblemofclassicalphysicsthereisnocomprehensivetheoryofturbulence,although
muchpartialqualitativeunderstandinghasbeenachieved.Evenintheabsenceofcomplete
understanding,wehavebeenforcedtodevelop(necessarilynotcompletelysatisfactory)waysof
computingturbulentflowsfordesignpurposes.Theinadequacyofthemodelsusedisthefactor
limitingfurtherdevelopmentofcomputationalfluiddynamics.Theuseofdynamicalsystems
theoryandapproachessuchasfractalandmultifractalmeasures(separatechaptersofthisbook
aredevotedtothesetopics,wheredefinitionscanbefound)areattemptstobuildmodelsofvarious
aspectsofturbulentflowsthatwillpermitustomakemoreaccuratecalculations.
Dragreduction,propulsionefficiencies
Thepossiblepayoffsaremany,andwewillmentiononlyafew:reductionofdrag(relativetolift)
ofaircraft,orincreaseofpropulsiveefficiency,wouldresultinacommercialaircraftfleetwith
muchreducedspecificfuelconsumption,andlowercostsperpassengermile,improving
competitiveness,andreducingdependenceonforeignoil.Moregenerally,developmentofaircraft
havingabroaderperformanceenvelope(higheraltitude,longerrange,higherspeed,greater
payload)wouldimprovecompetitiveness.Inthat,asinmanyotherareas,wecurrentlyfacestiff
competitionfromEuropeandperhapssoonfromthePacificRim.NASAfeelsthatinorderto
remaincompetitiveinthenexttwodecades,wewillhavetoimproveourlift/dragratiobyafactor
oftwo,andimprovepropulsiveefficiency,allthisbyflowcontrolofvarioussorts,reducingdragor
increasingmixing,onthewings,fuselageandinsidetheengine.
Flowcontrol
Flowcontrolisinitsinfancy.Whatisenvisionedare,surfacescoveredwithmicrodevicesthatcan
sensethestateoftheflow,andactuatorsthatcaninfluencetheflow,introducingdisturbancesatjust
therighttimetoincreaseorreducethemixingofhighandlowspeedfluid,(makingtheflow
followthecontourofawing,forexample,orincreasingtherateatwhichcombustiontakesplacein
anengine)orreducingthedrag.Oneofthemostimportantaspectsofthisprocessisthe
interpretationofthesensorinput,andthedecisionsregardingwhatdisturbancetointroduce,when
andwhere(knownasthecontrolalgorithm).Thisrequiresanacuteunderstandingofthestructureof
theflowsuchanunderstandingisobtainedbytheuseofdynamicalsystemstheory,whichallows
theconstructionofrelativelysimple(thoughstillcomplicated)modelsoftheflows.
Acoustics,noise,andcavitation
Wemaymentionherenoisepollutionandabatementorcontroloffluidmechanicallyinduced
sources.Therearetwoprincipalapplications:thefirstisaircraftandaircraftenginenoise.For
example,noiseabatementorcontrolisakeytothefeasibilityofanyfuturesupersonictransport.
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Withoutspecialtreatment,theenginesofasupersonictransportaresonoisythatcurrentregulations
prohibititsoperationfromUSairports.Tomeettheregulations,thenoiselevelmustbevery
substantiallyreducedtobringthisabout,weneedsomewaytogreatlyincreasethemixingofthe
heatedjetfromtheenginewiththesurroundingair,tocausethejettoexpandmuchfaster,andslow
downconsiderably.Exoticnozzleshapeshavebeentriedwithoutmuchsuccess,andcurrentefforts
areconsideringactivecontroloftheflow,inthemannerdescribedabove.Thesecondapplication
concernsshipsandhydromachinery.Here,fluidmechanicalnoiseproductionisnotonlyamajor
sourceofnoisepollution,affectingpassengersandworkers,butamajorsourceofdamageaswell.
Muchofthenoiseproducedinliquidsisassociatedwithcavitation,thelocalvaporizationofthe
liquidinregionsofreducedpressure,andthesubsequentcollapseofthevaporbubbleasitiscarried
intoregionsofhigherpressurethecollapseofthebubbleonasurfacegeneratespressureshigh
enoughtodamagesteel.Marinepropellorstypicallyfailbecauseofcavitationdamage.Detectionof
submarinesandtorpedoesisusuallybytheiracousticsignatureinthiscase,thevesselsareusually
designedtoavoidcavitation,whichisextremelynoisyhowever,theturbulentboundarylayers
excitestructuralvibrationswhichcanradiatenoisetogreatdistances.Theturbulentboundarylayer
alsogeneratespressurefluctuations(knownasselfnoise)whichconfusethevessel'sownlistening
apparatus.Agreatdealofresearchgoesoninanattempttoreducetheseeffects.Wecanalso
mentionherenaturallyoccurringsoundinoceansandlakes,whichisofinterestpartlybecauseit
obscuressonardetection,andpartlybecausethesoundproducedbyfallingrain,forexample,can
provideausefulroutetoremotemonitoringofweather.
Vortexdominatedflows
Manynaturalandtechnologicalflowsarevortexdominated,andsuchflowsareasubjectofspecial
study.Avortexisatubeoffluidwhichisstronglyrotatingatornadoisadramaticexample.Other
highenergyandlargescalevorticesarehurricanesandthepolarvortex(theozonehole).In
supportingtheweightofanaircraft,thewinggeneratesavortex,whichtrailsbehindtheaircraft
fromthewingtips.Theintensityofthesevorticesisproportionaltotheweightoftheaircraft.These
vorticesclosebehindverylargeaircraftarestrongenoughtoflipalightplaneover,andarethe
reasonfortherequiredseparationbetweentakeoffsatairports.Additionalvorticesareshedfrom
maneuveringaircraft.Tounderstandthiswehavetoconsiderhowfluidmovesoverasurface.Since
fluidadherestoanysurfacewithwhichitisincontact,inordertomovepastthesurfacethefluid
mustrollforward.Thisrollingiscalledvorticity.Avortexisconcentratedvorticity.Whenthe
aircraftmaneuvers,theflowsometimesleavesthesurface,anditcarrieswithitthevorticitythat
wasgeneratednexttothesurface,whichisrolledupbytheflowintoavortex.Thegeneration,
interactionanddispersalormixingofvorticityplaysaprofoundroleinawideclassofapplied,
geophysicalandfundamentalfluidflows.Abetterabilitytopredictandcontrolflowswillarise
fromadeepunderstandingoftheprocessesleadingtotheformation(cyclogenesis),evolution,and
persistenceofcoherentvortexstructuresinflowsinwhichdistributedvorticityispresent.Suchan
understandingwouldmakepossibledataassimilationinpredictioncodesandsignalfeedbackfor
controlofaircraft,shipandchemicalprocessperformance.Imagineforecastingmeteorologicalor
oceanographiceventsinwhichlocalenvironmentalmeasurementsandremote(e.g.satellite)
observationsarefedbackintolocalspacetimeregionsofthecomputersimulationcode.Thishas
thepotentialforreducingerrorsandimprovingthereliabilityofpredictions.Similarlyforman
madeflows,wemayhavesensorslocatedwithintheflowwhichprovidefeedbacksignalstoforce
theflowinastablemanner.
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Boundarylayers
Aswehavesuggested,inmostdevices,andespeciallyland,sea,andairvehicles,dragandfluid
resistancetakeplaceinaverythinlayeroffluidnearthemovingsolidobject.Thisisknownasthe
boundarylayer.Inadditiontobeingthesourceofdrag,theprocessesinthisthinregionaresubject
todramaticalterationsthatcausephenomenalikethesuddenlossofliftorstallinairplanes,
andaconcurrentsuddenincreaseindrag.Thisisusuallyduetoamassivechangeintheairflow
nearthewingsinwhichtheflownolongersmoothlyfollowsthecontouroftheobjectbutis
violentlytornawayfromitinaprocesscalledboundarylayerseparation,aprocesswehavealready
mentioned.Muchprogresshasbeenmadeinunderstandingthisstateofaffairsandhowtoprevent
it.Itisanissueofmajorconcernnotonlyforeconomicreasons,butalsoforreasonsofaircraft
safetynearairportsandinflight,especiallywhilemanuevering.Instabilityoftheboundarylayeris
theproximatecauseforthetransitionofflowfromlaminartoturbulent,withconsequentalteration
ofbehavior.Similarissuesofseparationandinstabilityofboundarylayersariseinavastvarietyof
otherflows,includinginternalflowsininternalcombustion,jet,androcketengines,inmedical
equipmentsuchasheartlungmachines,inmanufacturingprocessesinvolvingmaterialsinaliquid
ormoltenstate,andsoon.Inmostcases,thesephenomenahavemajorconsequencesonthe
performanceandsafetyofthesedevices,andthepredictionofmotionsintheboundarylayerisa
criticalissuetothesuccessoftheassociatedtechnology.
Waves
Thebulkofinternationalcommerce,bothinrawmaterialsandmanufacturedgoods,istransported
bysea.Seagoingvesselsofallkindsfaceharshanddangerousconditions,especiallybecauseofthe
powerofoceanwaves.Improvementsindesignofsuchvessels,andalsoimportantfixedocean
structureslikeoffshoreoilplatforms,requireunderstandingandpredictingtheinteractionbetween
thestructureandwaves.Waterwavesalsoareamajorsourceofdragonships,andthisisamajor
factorlimitingthespeedandsettingthecostofoceantransportation.Understandingofsomeaspects
ofthiswaveresistancehasledtoimportantdesignimprovements,suchasthebulbousbownow
universallyusedtoreducewavedragoncargovessels.Muchmoreneedstobedonetoproduce
betterdesignsforshipsandfixedstationplatforms,tounderstandtheeffectsofwaveswhenships
aremaneuveringbothinopenwaterandinharborareas,andtodealwithextremewavestatesthat
threatenthesurvivaloftheships,platforms,and,ofcourse,theirpassengersandcrews.
Coastalareasaredenselypopulated,andofeconomicimportancebecausetheyprovideaccessto
sealanesandshipping,tofisheriesandtheotherresourcesoftheoceans,andrecreation.Coastlines
aremoveable,slowly,bywaves,currentsandtides.Theinteractionofwaveswithcoastal
installationsandharbors,andthemovementofsedimentintheturbulent,wavebuffetedsurfzone
thatcausesthecoastlinetochangeitsshape,areamongtheconcernsofcoastalengineers.Waves
andtheireffectsaredifficulttopredict,especiallywhenthewavesarehigh,andtheconsequent
effectsmostimpressive.Importantprogresshasbeenmadeinunderstandingtheorigin,growth,and
propagationpathsofwavesinthedeepoceanbutmanycriticalissuesinthisprocessremain
unknown.Thisisevenmoresoaswavesentertheshallowerwaternearthecoasts,wheretheyare
stronglyaffected,andhelptodrivestrongcurrents,andwheretheyaresubjecttotheturningeffects
ofdecreasingdepth.Whilesomeeffectsofwaveandcurrentactionarerelativelyslow,likethe
reshapingoftheshoreline,othersaresuddenandcatastrophic,liketidalwaves(tsunamis).The
destructionofpropertyandlifefollowingtsunamiimpactoftenhasbeendevastating.Now,
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understandingofhowtidalwavesarebornandgrowhasreachedalevelthatpermitstrackingof
thesewavesandearlywarningofpopulationsintheirpaths.Predictionofdamagerequires
understandingofthewavesattheirlargestamplitudes,andthisremainsachallengingopen
problem.
Geophysicalfluiddynamics
Accuratepredictionoftheweatherisaneverydayconcern,withenormousramificationsformost
humanactivityandeconomicimpactstoomassivetotally.Thisistherealmofmeteorology,which
hasalwaysposedsomeofthemostfascinatinganddifficultoffluidmechanicalproblems.The
oceansplayakeyroleinthisprocess``elNino''hasbecomeahouseholdname.Thefluid
mechanicsandconcomitantheattransportintheoceanaretherealmofthephysical
oceanographer,andsoitisthecoupledoceanatmospherefluidsystemthatcontrolstheweather,
anditslongtermtrend,theclimate.Thefluidmechanicsoftheseprocessessharemanycommon
features,andthesefields,andrelatedfluidprocessesintheEarthsciences,arenowoften
collectivelytermed``geophysicalfluiddynamics.''Therelatedareasinvolvefluidmechanicsin
starsandthegiantgaseousplanets,inotherastrophysicalfluiddynamicsquestions,andinfluid
mechanicsoftheEarth'sinterior,whichshapethedistributionanddriftmotionofthecontinents,
volcanicactivity,andthegenerationofthemagneticfieldofourplanetbythedynamomotionsof
itsmoltenironinterior.Processessuchasthebreakingofwindwavesintheoceanandinlakes
causebubblesofgasfromtheatmospheretobemixedintothesurfacelayers,wherethegasenters
intosolutioninthewater.Theseprocessesarevitalforexample,theoxygenlevelsandtherefore
thebiologicalproductivityoftheseasandlakesaredeterminedbythisexchangeofgasbetweenthe
atmosphereandthesurfacewaters.Similarly,thelevelsofgreenhousegasesintheatmosphereare
stronglyinfluencedbythetransferofthesegasestotheocean,whichhasanenormouscapacityto
absorbtheminthisway,gastransferplaysasignificantroleintheimportantdebateonglobal
warming.
Environmentalfluidmechanics
Understandingoffluidprocessesiskeytoawidespectrumofenvironmentalquestions.Hereone
isconcernedwithsitingofpowerplantsandotherinstallationsthataresourcesoftoxicchemicals
orrequirelargeflowsofwaterforcoolingandotherpurposes,theriverorlakesourceofwhichmay
bedegradedinthebargain.Otherconcernsincludeprotectionagainstandpredictionofspillsof
liquidpollutants(suchastheExxonValdezcatastrophe)orheavierthanairgases(suchasthe
Bhopalcatastrophe).Ecologicallysensitivecoastalareasandriverestuariesareoftenheavilyused,
andthepredictionofflowsinthesesystemsiscriticaltoplannersconcernedwithavoidingtheir
contamination.Groundwateranditsmotionandqualityaremajorpublichealthmatters.Thesurface
impactsofvolcanismraiseextremelydifficultissuesthatneedtobeunderstood.Theseproblems,
andmanyotherproblemsofenvironmentalfluidmechanicsarenovel,complex,oftenpoorly
understoodandinadequatelystudied.Theyarecentraltoplanningacomplexsociety,andto
anticipatingtheconsequencesof,andpreparingfor,thenaturalandmanmadedisastersthat
continuallyvisitus.
Reactingflowsandcombustion
Combustionoffossilfuelspowersmostaircraft,ship,andautomobileengines,andproducesmuch
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ofourelectricalpowerandhomeandindustrialheating.Improvementsofthesecombustion
processesreducefuelconsumptionandpollutantgeneration.Somenotableexamplesoffluid
mechanicalresearchhavecontributedtothisend,withmassiveeconomicbenefit.Forexample,it
wasfoundthatimpartingswirltotheairinjetenginecombustorsimprovedfueleconomy
substantially.Thisinnovationhasfounditswayintothedesignofnew,highefficiencyhomeoil
burners,extendingtheeconomicbenefitconsiderably.Manyotherexamplesofinnovativeengine
designbasedonanunderstandingofthefluidmechanicsunderlyingtheenginecanbecited.
Combustionresearchinvolvesexperimentalmeasurementsinanenvironmentthattriestomeltthe
instruments,andrequiresexpertiseinchemicallyreacting,heatreleasing,variabledensityparticle
ladenflowsthescientificandengineeringchallengesareformidable.
Fluidinstability
Itcanbeahappy,oradisastrous,circumstancewhensmallchangesproducelargeeffects.Thisis
thecasewithfluidmotions,whichtendtobeverysensitiveandresponsive,sometimesevento
minutealterationsofflowrates,boundaryshapes,boundarytemperaturesinfact,tovirtuallyall
conditionsofthemotion.Thissensitivityisduetothetendencyoffluidmotionstatestobe
unstable.Fromapracticalstandpoint,itaffordsanopportunitytofinetunedesignsandindustrial
processestoachieveadesiredresultwithsmallalterations.Thus,forexample,processeswhich
producesheetsofmaterial(metals,plastics,orothermaterials)typicallypullthesheetsrapidlyfrom
amoltenstate,andthesurfacequalityofthesheetsandfilmssoproduced,ortheratesatwhichthey
canbeproduced,isaffectedbyinstabilitiesintheliquidsheetbeforesolidificationoccurs.
Similarly,crystalmanufacture,suchassiliconusedincomputersandmostmodernelectronic
equipment,isachievedthroughcrystallizationfromacrucibleofmovingliquid,andthefluid
instabilitiesaffectproductionratesandproductquality.Thegeneralproblemoftransitionfrom
laminartoturbulentmotion,withalloftheramificationsassociatedwithtransition,isalong
standingproblemoffluidinstability.Theinstabilityofafluidmotioncanhavepositiveornegative
effects,dependingonwhethertheresultoftheinstabilityproducesordestroysadesiredpropertyof
theflow.Thus,forexample,onemaywishtoavoidordelaytransitiontoturbulencetoreduce
vehicledrag,oronemaywishtopromoteittoenhancemixingincombustionprocessesinengines.
Whiletheeconomicbenefitsofunderstandingandcontrollingfluidinstabilitiesarewellknownin
theindustriesmentioned,anawarenessoftheirpotentialforimprovingproductionqualityandrates
isvirtuallynonexistentinothers.Theintroductionofthisareaoffluidmechanicalsciencetomany
industrialsectorswhereitisnotknowncouldhavevaluableconsequences.Inthefollowing
paragraph,whichbroachesanothertopic,severalexamplesrelevanttothisparagraphwill
neverthelessbefound.
Magnetohydrodynamics
Magnetohydrodynamics(MHD),whichdealswiththecombinedeffectsoffluidmechanicaland
electromagneticforces,isanexcitingbut,atthemoment,onlymoderatelyactiveareaofresearch
anddevelopmentthathasnotbeenexploitedtonearlyitsfullpotential.Thisrelativelylowlevelof
presentactivityisregrettableconsideringthatalargevarietyofflowphenomenacanbemodifiedin
adramaticwaythroughthecontrolledapplicationofelectromagneticforces.Wellknownexamples
includethedamping,modificationandevensuppressionofturbulenceinavarietyofflowsalso,
theuseofelectromagneticstirrersinabathofmoltenmetal,asinsteelcasting,whichprovidesthe
onlynonintrusivemethod(thatis,notrequiringtheintroductiontothebathofadevice,which
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wouldlikelymelt)currentlyavailableforkeepingthecontentsofthebathwellmixed.Currently,
themostpromisingareaofMHDapplicationappearstobeinthematerialsprocessingindustry
where,forinstance,amagneticfieldcanbeusedtomodifytheflowpatternswhichoccurnaturally
intheproductionofsinglecrystalsofsemiconductors,therebyinsuringthatthecompositionofthe
product(thatcontainstraceamountsofotherelementstomakeitelectricallyactive)isuniform.
Buoyantconvection
Thenaturallyoccurringflowpatternsreferredtoabovearisebecausetheflowingmaterialisfrom
placetoplacelighter(tendingtorise)orheavier(tendingtosink),becausethetemperatureand
compositionarenotuniform.Aflowproducedbytheseeffectsiscalledbuoyantconvection.
Buoyantconvectionoccursinmanyenvironmentalflows.Examplesinclude:convectioninroom
fires,inenergystoragesystems,andinatmosphericandoceanicsystems.Inviewoftheirfrequent
occurrence,theseflowsdeservespecialattention.Theforceswhichdriveconvectiveflowscanalso
beusedascontrolstooptimizetheoperationofvariousprocessesinvolving,forexample,crystal
growthorchemicalvapordeposition,and,dependingontheapplication,eithertoenhanceorto
suppressflowinstabilitieswithinthesystem.
Rarefiedgasdynamics
Theproductionofhighperformancestructuralmaterialsandcoatings(suchasthecarbonfiber
reinforcedplasticusedingolfclubs,tennisracketsandbicycleframes)alsoinvolvescomplicated
phenomenawherethediscretemolecularnatureofthegascannotbeignored,especiallyinthe
manufactureofmicroelectromechanicaldevices.Thesephenomenaarecomplicatedbecause
conditionsinthegasaresoextreme,andchangessorapid,thattheinternalstateofthegasnever
catchesuptoitssurroundings.Asaresultoftheimportanceofthesephenomenainsuchproduction,
therehasbeenaresurgenceofinterestinthefieldofrarefiedgasdynamicswhichwasassociated
traditionallywiththeflightofaircraftandmissilesathighaltitudes.Infact,thedesignoftiny
machineshavingdimensionsoftheorderofmicronsrequirestheimplementationandmodification
ofrarefiedgasdynamicalcomputationaltechniqueswhichwereoriginallydevelopedfora
completelydifferentapplication.
Moleculardynamics
Manyofthecomputationaltechniquesreferredtoaboveaimtoconstructsolutionstomoreorless
exactequationsdescribingtheflowofgasesunderrarefiedconditions.Inrecentyears,however,
importantadvanceshavebeenmadeusingthemethodofmoleculardynamics(MD),whichapplies
toliquidsaswellastogases.Herethebehaviorofafluidunderparticularcircumstancesis
determinedbycomputingsimultaneouslythemotionofalltheindividualinteractingmolecules.
This,ofcourse,ispossibleonlyonthelargestcomputers.Importantinsightshavetherebybeen
obtainedintosituationsinwhichflowdimensionsareoftheorderofintermoleculardimensions,
forexampletheruptureofathinliquidfilm,asoccurswhenagasbubbleapproachesaliquidvapor
interface,orthedynamicsofthemovingedgeofaliquiddropspreadingacrossasolidsubstrate.
Suchcalculationsprovideextremelyusefulinformationconcerningthepointatwhichwemust
abandontheusualimageofafluidasaseamlesscontinuum,andmustconsideritinsteadasa
collectionofmolecules.Wehavenotedbeforethatfluidusuallystickstoanysolidsurface.Thisis
anexcellentapproximationsolongasthefluidflowsoverthesurfacelikesandoverabeachball
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thatis,solongastheintermoleculardimensionsaresmallrelativetothedimensionsofthesurface.
Asthetwobecomecomparable,however,likesandflowingpastapinhead,thesimpleconditionat
thesurfacenolongerworks,andmoresophisticatedconditionsmustbeappliedMDcanhelpto
determinewhatthoseare.Similarly,MDoffersanopportunityforstudyingflowsthatinvolvetwo
fluidsthatmixalittleonamolecularlevel,sothattheyarenotseparatedwheretheymeetbya
sharpinterface,butarediffusingintoeachotherwhiletheyareflowing.Situationslikethisoccurin
manyindustrialchemicalprocessesandinthekitchenimaginemixingmolassesandcream.MD
alsoallowsustoinvestigatephenomenainvolvinganinterfacebetweentwofluids,onethatis
stronglyinfluencedbysurfaceimpurities,anothersituationthatoccursfrequentlyinindustrial
processes.Alloftheseflowsaremuchtoocomplicatedtocomputefromequations,andthistypeof
moleculebymoleculesimulationistheonlywaytofindoutwhatishappening.
Multiphaseandparticulateflows
Thoseflowsinvolvingtwo(ormore)fluidsthatdonotmix,ormaymixalittle,arecalledtwo
phase(ormultiphase)flows.Anothertwophasematerialwhichplaysakeyroleinavarietyof
naturalandindustrialprocessesisasuspensionofsolidparticlesinaliquid.Examplesincludecoal
slurries,biologicalsuspensions,highenergycompositefuelsforspacepropulsionandcolloidal
suspensionsformakingfilmsaswellascoatingsforelectronicapplications,inadditiontofluids
containingsuspendedparticlesthatcanbeinfluencedbyimposedelectricfields,sothatthenature
oftheflowcanbechangedbyapplyinganexternalelectricfield.Inparticulateflowsonewishesto
predictthebulkbehaviorofthesuspensionsfromaknowledgeofthefinestructureor,conversely,
toconstructsuspensionshavingprescribedflowbehavior(calledrheology).Thisrequiresthatthe
manyfactorswhichcontributetotherheologyofsuchsystems,i.e.theinfluenceofoneparticleon
aneighborthroughthemotionofthefluidaroundit,theforcesduetobombardmentoftheparticles
bythesurroundingmolecules,thesurfaceforcesontheparticles,etc.,beproperlyaccountedfor.
Furthermore,particlestendtowander,fromregionsoflargeparticleconcentrationtoregionsof
low,butalsofromregionsinwhichthelayersoffluidaremovingrapidlyrelativetooneanotherto
regionsinwhichthisisnottrue.Thishasbeenshowntoplayakeyroleintheseflows,sincethe
flowcausestheparticleconcentrationtochange,andthischangesthepropertiesofthefluid,
causingmarkedchangesintheflow.Thiskindofinteractionmakestheflowexceedinglydifficultto
compute.Newlydevelopedexperimentaltechniquesaswellasmoresophisticatednumerical
simulationshaveprovidednewinsightonhowparticlesinsuspensionrearrangethemselvesunder
flowconditionstoproducetheobservedphenomena.
ComplexandnonNewtonianfluids
Allofthediscussionabove,withtheexceptionofmultiphaseflows,concernsproblemsinvolving
gasesorliquidsthatcontainsmallmolecules,likewater,wherethebulkpropertiesofthefluid(like
densityandviscosity)areindependentoftheflowconditions.Anotherlargeandimportantbranch
offluidmechanicsisconcernedwithliquidsthatareoftenreferredtoas``complex,''inrecognition
ofthefactthatthesematerialsexhibitmuchmorecomplicatedbehavior.Examplesofcomplex
fluidscanbefoundinanykitchen,bathroom,playroomorgarage,andincludeeggwhite,cake
batter,sillyputty,proprietaryoiladditives,blood,mucousandmany,manyothers.Mostofthese
fluidseitherconsistentirelyoflargemolecules,orhavelargemoleculesfloatinginthem,aswellas
particlesordroplets.Mostplasticsintheirliquidstatefallinthiscategory.Thisbranchoffluid
mechanicsisoftencallednonNewtoniantodistinguishitfromtheclassicalworkonsmall
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molecule(orNewtonian)fluids.Althoughthisclassoffluidsiscommoninnature,inavarietyof
technologies,andastheliquidstateprecursorsofmanyimportanttypesofadvancedmaterials,the
statusofourunderstandingoftheirbehaviorandourabilitytopredicttheirmotions,isatavery
earlystageofdevelopment.Ingeneralterms,thedifferencebetweencomplexfluids,andthesingle
component,Newtonianfluids,isthatinthelattercase,themathematicalformulationisknownbut
themacroscopicphysicalprocessesarecomplexandoftennotwellunderstood,especiallyfor
turbulentflowconditionsforcomplexfluid,eventheappropriategoverningequationsand
conditionsattheboundaries(dothesefluidsticktosolidsorisitmorecomplicated?)arestillnot
wellunderstood.Tocompoundthedifficulty,themodelequationsthathavebeenproposedare
extremelydifficulttosolveandstandardmethodsofcomputationalfluiddynamicsgenerallydonot
workforthisclassofproblems.
Advancedmaterialsprocessing
Thispaucityofunderstandingextractsasubstantialeconomicpenalty.Theproductionand
processingstepsleadingtoafinishedproductemployingadvancedmaterialsaremostoften
carriedoutviadeformation(stretching,squeezing)andflowintheliquidstate.Althoughlargely
empiricalprocedureshavehistoricallybeenusedinthedesignofnewprocesses,futureeconomic
competition,aswellasrequirementsforimprovedproductquality,reproducibilityandprecision,all
demandthedevelopmentofadeductivebasisforprocessdesignandcontrol.Forexample,the
inabilitytopredictthebehaviorofpolymerliquidsinanextrusionmoldingprocessprecludes
predictionofthefinalshapeofthesolidifiedproductthusthedesignofeachmoldmustbedone
byatrialanderrorprocesscostingtenstohundredsofthousandsofdollars,andmuchtime,for
eachnewpart,andlimitingourabilitytoproduceprecisionparts.Sincethousandsofnewinjection
moldingprocessesaredevelopedeachyear,thecostofourignoranceamountstohundredsof
millionsofdollarsforthisonetechnologicalapplication.
QualitativephenomenaobservedinnonNewtonianflowexperimentsareoftendramatically
differentfromexpectationsbasedonsimilarobservationsforsmallmoleculeliquids(e.g.,afinger
dippedinmanyofthesefluidswillspinathreadwhenwithdrawn,andtheforcesinvolvedarequite
differentfromthoseproducedwhenthefluidisrubbedbetweenthepalms).
Developmentofnewexperimentaltechniquesareneededtoprovidemuchmorecomprehensive
characterizationoftherheologicalbehaviorofcomplexfluids,andforcharacterizingthe
microstructuralstateofanonNewtonianliquidundergoingaflow,sincethisdeterminesthe
propertiesofanyproductwhichresultsfromtheflowprocess.
Economicbenefitsofadvancedmaterialsprocessing
Ifwesucceedinansweringthesefundamentalquestions,thepotentialpayoffsintheareaof
advancedmaterialsprocessingaremanyfold.(1)Theywillformabasisforcomputeraided
designofprocessingsystemsformanufacturedpartseliminatingtimeconsumingandcostlytrial
anderrordevelopment.(2)Majorincreasesinproductionratesinmanufactureoffibersmaybe
possible.Instabilitiesofthebulkflow(leadingtounsteadinessandfibernonuniformity),and
apparentbreakdownsinboundaryconditions,etc.,currentlyconstitutethemajorlimitationsofboth
productionratesandproductquality,butnooneknowshowtominimizeoreliminatethese
instabilities,orevenwhetheritispossible.(3)Onecriticalfeatureofcomplexfluidsisthattheir
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microstructuralstate,andthustheirmacroscopicproperties,canbealteredwhentheyundergoa
flow.Thus,thereisthepossibilityofdevelopingproductsfromacomplexfluidwithpropertiesthat
canbepredeterminedoroptimizedbymodificationoftheprocessingflowconditions,e.g.,
polymersmayyieldverylightweightandmoldableelectricalconductors,butonlyifwecan
understandhowtoprocessthemintohighlyorientedandstretchedconfigurations.Althoughthe
potentialeconomicpayoffisenormousintermsoflightweightmaterialsofhighstrength,high
conductivity,etc.,thetechnologyistodaylargelyempiricalandextremelylimitedinscope.(4)
Finally,akeyroutetonewmaterialswithspecifiedproperties,whichisgenerallymuchless
expensivethanchemicalsynthesis,isbymechanicalblendingoftwo(ormore)fluidorfluidand
solidcomponents.Givenasetofconstituentmaterials,andtheirproperties,thereisclearlyamajor
economicincentivetodeveloptheabilitytopredicttheoutcomeofablendingprocess,aswellasto
predicthowtomodifytheprocesstoachieveadesiredmorphology.Beyondtheapplicationsof
complexfluidsasprecursorsofnewmaterials,ormaterialsbasedproducts,therearemany
additionaltechnologicalapplicationsforsuspensions,emulsionsandmultiphase(gasliquid)fluid
flows.Amongtheseonemaymentionmultiphaseflowsinoilreservoirs,oringroundwater
percolationprocessescavitationphenomenawhichleadtonoiseproduction,andtomanywell
knownandexpensivestructuralfailuresrangingfrompropellorsonshipstodamspillways,dueto
cavitationdamage,andinthin,viscousfilmstolubricationbreakdowninhydromachinerytheuse
ofmultiphasefluidsinheattransferprocessesthatareintimatelyconnectedtothecoolingprocesses
innuclearpowerplants,andpipelinetransportprocessesinvolvingslurries.Onecommonfeaturein
someoftheseapplicationsisstilltheoverallmacroscopicflowproperties,butinotherapplications
itisimportanttounderstandthedetailsofmotionatthemicroscale.Forexample,inanoilreservoir,
itisimportanttobeabletopredictoverallpumpingcostsofanysecondaryortertiaryrecovery
process,butcontrolofthemorphologyoftheboundariesseparatingoilandwaterisalsocriticalto
theproductionofoilratherthanwater.Asanotherexample,thedetailsoftheinterfacialregionsin
multiphaseboilingheattransferdeterminesuccess,orfailureviathedevelopmentoflocalhotspots
dueto``dryout"ofthesolidheatedboundary.
Biofluidmechanics
Finally,theintersectionoffluidmechanicsandbiologyintheareaofbiofluidmechanicsoffersthe
opportunityformanyimportantapplications,bothinbetterunderstandingofnormalbiological
processes(forexample,cell,tissue,cartilageorevenbonegrowthinresponsetofluidstresses,
transportprocesses,etc.),butalsointhedevelopmentoftherapeuticmedicalprocedures.Amonga
longlistofbiofluidsresearchwithclearmedicalimplications,wemaycite:(a)fluidmechanics'role
inthegrowthofatherosclerotictissuesinthecirculatorysystem,andanunderstandingof
mechanismsforlocalizationofatheroscleroticlesions,basedupontheresponseofthebiological
systematthecellularleveltofluidstresses(b)heartandheartvalvefunctionandthedesignand
performanceevaluationofartificialreplacements(prostheticcardiacvalves)(c)cardiovascular
flowmeasurementmethods:althoughmuchcurrentdevelopmentisdirectedtowardresearch
applications,thereisclearlyamajormedicalpayoffinimproveddiagnosisofvasculardiseaseand
inthedesignandevaluationoftherapeuticinterventions(d)pulmonaryflowsinterestingfluid
structureinteractionproblemsinunderstandingphysiologicalphenomenasuchas``wheezing"
possiblyleadingtobettertreatmentmethodsforasthmaticconditions,etc.Alsotheroleoffluid
films,surfactantsandairflowinsuchpathologiesas``SuddenInfantDeathSyndrome"or``Crib
Death."Itisclearthatthisisafieldatearlystagesofimpact.Theproblemsare(often)more
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microscopic,atthelevelofcellsormicropores,thanischaracteristicofotherareasoffluid
research.Thefluids,apartfromwaterandair,areoftenmorecomplex.
Concludingremarks
Theeditorshopethatthegeneralsummarygivenabovehasatleastsuggestedthevitalityofthe
fieldoffluidmechanicsandthatthereaderwithsomescientificbackgroundwillbemotivatedto
gainfurtherinsightbystudyingthechapterswhichfollow.
Returntotitlepage.
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