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Romanticism

For other uses, see Romance (disambiguation).

David Friedrich, Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, 1818

Caspar
Otto Runge, The Morning, 1808

Romanticism (also the Romantic era or the Romantic


period) was an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual
movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the
18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was
characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorication of all the past and nature,
preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was
partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution,[1] the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientic rationalization of nature.[2] It
was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and
literature, but had a major impact on historiography,[3]
education,[4] and the natural sciences.[5] It had a signiEugne
Delacroix, The Death of Sardanapalus, 1827, taking its cant and complex eect on politics, and while for much
of the Romantic period it was associated with liberalism
Orientalist subject from a play by Lord Byron
and radicalism, its long-term eect on the growth of
nationalism was perhaps more signicant.
The movement emphasized intense emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as apprehension, horror and terror,
and aweespecially that experienced in confronting the

Philipp

1 DEFINING ROMANTICISM

new aesthetic categories of the sublimity and beauty of


nature. It considered folk art and ancient custom to be
noble statuses, but also valued spontaneity, as in the musical impromptu. In contrast to the rational and Classicist
ideal models, Romanticism revived medievalism[6] and
elements of art and narrative perceived as authentically
medieval in an attempt to escape population growth, early
urban sprawl, and industrialism.
Although the movement was rooted in the German Sturm
und Drang movement, which preferred intuition and
emotion to the rationalism of the Enlightenment, the
events and ideologies of the French Revolution were also
proximate factors. Romanticism assigned a high value
to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists,
whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from
classical notions of form in art. There was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist,
in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of
the 19th century, Realism was oered as a polar opposite to Romanticism.[7] The decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of
nationalism.[8]

1
1.1

Dening Romanticism

William Blake, The Little Girl Found, from Songs of Innocence


and Experience, 1794

Basic characteristics

Dening the nature of Romanticism may be approached


from the starting point of the primary importance of the
free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed
up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David
Friedrich that the artists feeling is his law.[9] To
William Wordsworth, poetry should begin as the spontaneous overow of powerful feelings, which the poet
then recollect[s] in tranquility, evoking a new but corresponding emotion the poet can then mould into art.[10]
To express these feelings, it was considered that the content of the art had to come from the imagination of the
artist, with as little interference as possible from articial rules that dictated what a work should consist of.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were
natural laws that the imaginationat least of a good creative artistwould unconsciously follow through artistic
inspiration if left alone.[11] As well as rules, the inuence
of models from other works was considered to impede
the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able
to produce his own original work through this process of
creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism, and to
be derivative was the worst sin.[12][13][14] This idea is often called romantic originality.[15]

be normative, was a strong belief and interest in the importance of nature. However, this is particularly in the
eect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by
it, preferably alone. In contrast to the usually very social art of the Enlightenment, Romantics were distrustful
of the human world, and tended to believe that a close
connection with nature was mentally and morally healthy.
Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the personal voice of the artist. So, in
literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to
identify the protagonists with the poets themselves.[16]

According to Isaiah Berlin, Romanticism embodied a


new and restless spirit, seeking violently to burst through
old and cramping forms, a nervous preoccupation with
perpetually changing inner states of consciousness, a
longing for the unbounded and the indenable, for perpetual movement and change, an eort to return to the forgotten sources of life, a passionate eort at self-assertion
both individual and collective, a search after means of
expressing an unappeasable yearning for unattainable
Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to goals.[17]

1.4

1.2

Context and place in history

Etymology

The group of words with the root Roman in the various European languages, such as romance and Romanesque, has a complicated history, but by the middle of the 18th century romantic in English and romantique in French were both in common use as adjectives
of praise for natural phenomena such as views and sunsets, in a sense close to modern English usage but without
the sexual connotation. The application of the term to
literature rst became common in Germany, where the
circle around the Schlegel brothers, critics August and
Friedrich, began to speak of romantische Poesie (romantic poetry) in the 1790s, contrasting it with classic but
in terms of spirit rather than merely dating. Friedrich
Schlegel wrote in his Dialogue on Poetry (1800), I seek
and nd the romantic among the older moderns, in Shakespeare, in Cervantes, in Italian poetry, in that age of
chivalry, love and fable, from which the phenomenon and
the word itself are derived.[18]
In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the fairly new literary form of
the novel, had some eect on the sense of the word
in those languages. The use of the word did not become general very quickly, and was probably spread more
widely in France by its persistent use by Madame de Stal
in her De l'Allemagne (1813), recounting her travels in
Germany.[19] In England Wordsworth wrote in a preface
to his poems of 1815 of the romantic harp and classic lyre,[19] but in 1820 Byron could still write, perhaps
slightly disingenuously, I perceive that in Germany, as
well as in Italy, there is a great struggle about what they
call 'Classical' and 'Romantic', terms which were not subjects of classication in England, at least when I left it
four or ve years ago.[20] It is only from the 1820s that
Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, and in
1824 the Acadmie franaise took the wholly ineective
step of issuing a decree condemning it in literature.[21]

1.3

The period

The period typically called Romantic varies greatly between dierent countries and dierent artistic media or
areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848,[22]
and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In
English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789,
or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830,
perhaps a little later than some other critics.[23] Others
have proposed 17801830.[24] In other elds and other
countries the period denominated as Romantic can be
considerably dierent; musical Romanticism, for example, is generally regarded as only having ceased as a major
artistic force as late as 1910, but in an extreme extension the Four Last Songs of Richard Strauss are described
stylistically as Late Romantic and were composed in
194648.[25] However, in most elds the Romantic Pe-

3
riod is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier.
The early period of the Romantic Era was a time of
war, with the French Revolution (17891799) followed
by the Napoleonic Wars until 1815. These wars, along
with the political and social turmoil that went along with
them, served as the background for Romanticism.[26] The
key generation of French Romantics born between 1795
1805 had, in the words of one of their number, Alfred de
Vigny, been conceived between battles, attended school
to the rolling of drums.[27] According to Jacques Barzun,
there were three generations of Romantic artists. The rst
emerged in the 1790s and 1800s, the second in the 1820s,
and the third later in the century.[28]

1.4 Context and place in history


The more precise characterization and specic denition of Romanticism has been the subject of debate
in the elds of intellectual history and literary history
throughout the 20th century, without any great measure
of consensus emerging. That it was part of the CounterEnlightenment, a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment, is generally accepted in current scholarship. Its relationship to the French Revolution, which began in 1789
in the very early stages of the period, is clearly important,
but highly variable depending on geography and individual reactions. Most Romantics can be said to be broadly
progressive in their views, but a considerable number always had, or developed, a wide range of conservative
views,[29] and nationalism was in many countries strongly
associated with Romanticism, as discussed in detail below.
In philosophy and the history of ideas, Romanticism was
seen by Isaiah Berlin as disrupting for over a century
the classic Western traditions of rationality and the idea
of moral absolutes and agreed values, leading to something like the melting away of the very notion of objective truth,[30] and hence not only to nationalism, but also
fascism and totalitarianism, with a gradual recovery coming only after World War II.[31] For the Romantics, Berlin
says,
in the realm of ethics, politics, aesthetics it
was the authenticity and sincerity of the pursuit of inner goals that mattered; this applied
equally to individuals and groups states, nations, movements. This is most evident in the
aesthetics of romanticism, where the notion
of eternal models, a Platonic vision of ideal
beauty, which the artist seeks to convey, however imperfectly, on canvas or in sound, is replaced by a passionate belief in spiritual freedom, individual creativity. The painter, the
poet, the composer do not hold up a mirror
to nature, however ideal, but invent; they do
not imitate (the doctrine of mimesis), but create not merely the means but the goals that

2 ROMANTIC LITERATURE
they pursue; these goals represent the selfexpression of the artists own unique, inner vision, to set aside which in response to the demands of some external voice church, state,
public opinion, family friends, arbiters of taste
is an act of betrayal of what alone justies
their existence for those who are in any sense
creative.[32]

In northern Europe, the Early Romantic visionary optimism and belief that the world was in the process of great
change and improvement had largely vanished, and some
art became more conventionally political and polemical
as its creators engaged polemically with the world as it
was. Elsewhere, including in very dierent ways the
United States and Russia, feelings that great change was
underway or just about to come were still possible. Displays of intense emotion in art remained prominent, as
did the exotic and historical settings pioneered by the Romantics, but experimentation with form and technique
was generally reduced, often replaced with meticulous
technique, as in the poems of Tennyson or many paintings. If not realist, late 19th-century art was often extremely detailed, and pride was taken in adding authentic details in a way that earlier Romantics did not trouble
with. Many Romantic ideas about the nature and purpose
of art, above all the pre-eminent importance of originality, remained important for later generations, and often
underlie modern views, despite opposition from theorists.

2 Romantic literature
John William Waterhouse, The Lady of Shalott, 1888, after a
poem by Tennyson; like many Victorian paintings, romantic but
not Romantic

See also: Romantic poetry


In literature, Romanticism found recurrent themes in the

Arthur Lovejoy attempted to demonstrate the diculty


of dening Romanticism in his seminal article On The
Discrimination of Romanticisms in his Essays in the
History of Ideas (1948); some scholars see Romanticism as essentially continuous with the present, some
like Robert Hughes see in it the inaugural moment of
modernity,[33] and some like Chateaubriand, Novalis and
Samuel Taylor Coleridge see it as the beginning of a
tradition of resistance to Enlightenment rationalisma
Counter-Enlightenment [34][35] to be associated most
closely with German Romanticism. An earlier denition
comes from Charles Baudelaire: Romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice of subject nor exact truth, Henry Wallis, The Death of Chatterton 1856, by suicide at 17
but in the way of feeling.[36]
in 1770
The end of the Romantic era is marked in some areas by a
new style of Realism, which aected literature, especially
the novel and drama, painting, and even music, through
Verismo opera. This movement was led by France, with
Balzac and Flaubert in literature and Courbet in painting;
Stendhal and Goya were important precursors of Realism
in their respective media. However, Romantic styles, now
often representing the established and safe style against
which Realists rebelled, continued to ourish in many
elds for the rest of the century and beyond. In music
such works from after about 1850 are referred to by some
writers as Late Romantic and by others as Neoromantic or Postromantic, but other elds do not usually use
these terms; in English literature and painting the convenient term Victorian avoids having to characterise the
period further.

evocation or criticism of the past, the cult of "sensibility"


with its emphasis on women and children, the isolation
of the artist or narrator, and respect for nature. Furthermore, several romantic authors, such as Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne, based their writings
on the supernatural/occult and human psychology. Romanticism tended to regard satire as something unworthy
of serious attention, a prejudice still inuential today.[37]
The precursors of Romanticism in English poetry go
back to the middle of the 18th century, including gures such as Joseph Warton (headmaster at Winchester
College) and his brother Thomas Warton, Professor of
Poetry at Oxford University.[38] Joseph maintained that
invention and imagination were the chief qualities of a
poet. Thomas Chatterton is generally considered the rst

2.2

Great Britain

Romantic poet in English.[39] The Scottish poet James


Macpherson inuenced the early development of Romanticism with the international success of his Ossian cycle of
poems published in 1762, inspiring both Goethe and the
young Walter Scott. Both Chatterton and Macphersons
work involved elements of fraud, as what they claimed
was earlier literature that they had discovered or compiled
was, in fact, entirely their own work. The Gothic novel,
beginning with Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto
(1764), was an important precursor of one strain of Romanticism, with a delight in horror and threat, and exotic
picturesque settings, matched in Walpoles case by his
role in the early revival of Gothic architecture. Tristram
Shandy, a novel by Laurence Sterne (175967) introduced a whimsical version of the anti-rational sentimental
novel to the English literary public.

2.1

Germany

5
nature, for example the German Forest, and Germanic
myths. The later German Romanticism of, for example E. T. A. Homann's Der Sandmann (The Sandman),
1817, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendor's Das Marmorbild (The Marble Statue), 1819, was darker in its motifs and has gothic elements. The signicance to Romanticism of childhood innocence, the importance of imagination, and racial theories all combined to give an unprecedented importance to folk literature, non-classical
mythology and childrens literature, above all in Germany. Brentano and von Arnim were signicant literary gures who together published Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The Boys Magic Horn or cornucopia), a collection of versied folk tales, in 180608. The rst collection of Grimms Fairy Tales by the Brothers Grimm
was published in 1812.[40] Unlike the much later work
of Hans Christian Andersen, who was publishing his invented tales in Danish from 1835, these German works
were at least mainly based on collected folk tales, and the
Grimms remained true to the style of the telling in their
early editions, though later rewriting some parts. One of
the brothers, Jacob, published in 1835 Deutsche Mythologie, a long academic work on Germanic mythology.[41]
Another strain is exemplied by Schillers highly emotional language and the depiction of physical violence in
his play The Robbers of 1781.

2.2 Great Britain


2.2.1 England

Title page of Volume III of Des Knaben Wunderhorn, 1808

Main article: Romantic literature in English


In English literature, the key gures of the Romantic
movement are considered to be the group of poets including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge,
John Keats, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and the
much older William Blake, followed later by the isolated gure of John Clare. Also such novelists as Walter
Scott from Scotland and Mary Shelley, and the essayists
William Hazlitt and Charles Lamb. The publication in
1798 of Lyrical Ballads, with many of the nest poems
by Wordsworth and Coleridge, is often held to mark the
start of the movement. The majority of the poems were
by Wordsworth, and many dealt with the lives of the poor
in his native Lake District, or his feelings about nature
which he more fully developed in his long poem The Prelude, never published in his lifetime. The longest poem
in the volume was Coleridges The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner, which showed the Gothic side of English Romanticism, and the exotic settings that many works featured. In the period when they were writing, the Lake
Poets were widely regarded as a marginal group of radicals, though they were supported by the critic and writer
William Hazlitt and others.

An early German inuence came from Johann Wolfgang


von Goethe, whose 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young
Werther had young men throughout Europe emulating
its protagonist, a young artist with a very sensitive and
passionate temperament. At that time Germany was a
multitude of small separate states, and Goethes works
would have a seminal inuence in developing a unifying sense of nationalism. Another philosophic inuence came from the German idealism of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling, making Jena (where
Fichte lived, as well as Schelling, Hegel, Schiller and the
brothers Schlegel) a center for early German Romanticism (see Jena Romanticism). Important writers were
Ludwig Tieck, Novalis (Heinrich von Ofterdingen, 1799),
Heinrich von Kleist and Friedrich Hlderlin. Heidelberg
later became a center of German Romanticism, where
writers and poets such as Clemens Brentano, Achim von
Arnim, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendor met regu- In contrast Lord Byron and Walter Scott achieved enorlarly in literary circles.
mous fame and inuence throughout Europe with works
Important motifs in German Romanticism are travelling, exploiting the violence and drama of their exotic and his-

2 ROMANTIC LITERATURE
Marmion in 1808. Both were set in the distant Scottish
past, already evoked in Ossian; Romanticism and Scotland were to have a long and fruitful partnership. Byron
had equal success with the rst part of Childe Harolds Pilgrimage in 1812, followed by four Turkish tales, all in
the form of long poems, starting with The Giaour in 1813,
drawing from his Grand Tour, which had reached Ottoman Europe, and orientalizing the themes of the Gothic
novel in verse. These featured dierent variations of
the "Byronic hero", and his own life contributed a further version. Scott meanwhile was eectively inventing
the historical novel, beginning in 1814 with Waverley,
set in the 1745 Jacobite Rising, which was an enormous
and highly protable success, followed by over 20 further
Waverley Novels over the next 17 years, with settings going back to the Crusades that he had researched to a degree that was new in literature.[43]

George Henry Harlow, Byron c. 1816

In contrast to Germany, Romanticism in English literature had little connection with nationalism, and the Romantics were often regarded with suspicion for the sympathy many felt for the ideals of the French Revolution,
whose collapse and replacement with the dictatorship of
Napoleon was, as elsewhere in Europe, a shock to the
movement. Though his novels celebrated Scottish identity and history, Scott was politically a rm Unionist. Several spent much time abroad, and a famous stay on Lake
Geneva with Byron and Shelley in 1816 produced the
hugely inuential novel Frankenstein by Shelleys wife-tobe Mary Shelley and the novella The Vampyre by Byrons
doctor John William Polidori. The lyrics of Robert Burns
in Scotland and Thomas Moore, from Ireland reected in
dierent ways their countries and the Romantic interest
in folk literature, but neither had a fully Romantic approach to life or their work.

Though they have modern critical champions such as


Gyrgy Lukcs, Scotts novels are today more likely to
be experienced in the form of the many operas that composers continued to base on them over the following
decades, such as Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and
Vincenzo Bellini's I puritani (both 1835). Byron is now
most highly regarded for his short lyrics and his generally
unromantic prose writings, especially his letters, and his
unnished satire Don Juan.[44] Unlike many Romantics,
Byrons widely publicised personal life appeared to match
his work, and his death at 36 in 1824 from disease when
helping the Greek War of Independence appeared from
a distance to be a suitably Romantic end, entrenching his
legend.[45] Keats in 1821 and Shelley in 1822 both died in
Italy, Blake (at almost 70) in 1827, and Coleridge largely
ceased to write in the 1820s. Wordsworth was by 1820
respectable and highly regarded, holding a government
Girodet, Chateaubriand in Rome, 1808
sinecure, but wrote relatively little. In the discussion of
English literature, the Romantic period is often regarded
as nishing around the 1820s, or sometimes even earlier,
torical settings; Goethe called Byron undoubtedly the although many authors of the succeeding decades were
greatest genius of our century.[42] Scott achieved imme- no less committed to Romantic values.
diate success with his long narrative poem The Lay of
the Last Minstrel in 1805, followed by the full epic poem The most signicant novelist in English during the peak

2.2

Great Britain

Romantic period, other than Walter Scott, was Jane


Austen, whose essentially conservative world-view had
little in common with her Romantic contemporaries, retaining a strong belief in decorum and social rules, though
critics have detected tremors under the surface of some
works, especially Manseld Park (1814) and Persuasion
(1817).[46] But around the mid-century the undoubtedly
Romantic novels of the Yorkshire-based Bront family
appeared, in particular Charlottes Jane Eyre and Emilys
Wuthering Heights, which were both published in 1847.
Byron, Keats and Shelley all wrote for the stage, but with
little success in England, with Shelleys The Cenci perhaps the best work produced, though that was not played
in a public theatre in England until a century after his
death. Byrons plays, along with dramatizations of his poems and Scotts novels, were much more popular on the
Continent, and especially in France, and through these
versions several were turned into operas, many still performed today. If contemporary poets had little success
on the stage, the period was a legendary one for performances of Shakespeare, and went some way to restoring
his original texts and removing the Augustan improvements to them. The greatest actor of the period, Edmund
Kean, restored the tragic ending to King Lear;[47] Coleridge said that, Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare by ashes of lightning.[48]

7
norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation. Allan
Ramsay (16861758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as
leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop
the Habbie stanza as a poetic form.[49] James Macpherson
(173696) was the rst Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written
by the ancient bard Ossian, he published translations that
acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a
Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics. Fingal, written
in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than
any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature,
through its inuence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.[50] It was also popularised
in France by gures that included Napoleon.[51] Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but owery adaptations made to
suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.[52]

Robert Burns (175996) and Walter Scott (17711832)


were highly inuenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an
Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the
national poet of Scotland and a major inuence on the
Romantic movement. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang
Syne" is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the
2.2.2 Scotland
year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an
unocial national anthem of the country.[53] Scott beMain article: Romanticism in Scotland
gan as a poet and also collected and published Scottish
Although after union with England in 1707 Scotland in- ballads. His rst prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the rst historical novel.[54] It launched a highly
successful career, with other historical novels such as Rob
Roy (1817), The Heart of Midlothian (1818) and Ivanhoe
(1820). Scott probably did more than any other gure
to dene and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the
nineteenth century.[55] Other major literary gures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists
James Hogg (17701835), Allan Cunningham (1784
1842) and John Galt (17791839).[56] One of the most
signicant gures of the Romantic movement, Lord Byron, was brought up in Scotland until he inherited his familys English peerage.[57]

Robert Burns in Alexander Nasmyth's portrait of 1787

Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era, The Edinburgh
Review (founded in 1802) and Blackwoods Magazine
(founded in 1817), which had a major impact on the
development of British literature and drama in the era
of Romanticism.[58][59] Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol
suggest that publications like the novels of Scott and these
magazines were part of a highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth century, caused
Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain and
become central to a wider formation of a British Isles
nationalism.[60]

creasingly adopted English language and wider cultural Scottish national drama emerged in the early 1800s, as

2 ROMANTIC LITERATURE

Raeburns portrait of Walter Scott in 1822

plays with specically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage. Theatres had been discouraged by
the Church of Scotland and fears of Jacobite assemblies.
In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written
for and performed by small amateur companies and were
not published and so most have been lost. Towards the
end of the century there were "closet dramas", primarily designed to be read, rather than performed, including work by Scott, Hogg, Galt and Joanna Baillie (1762
1851), often inuenced by the ballad tradition and Gothic
Romanticism.[61]

2.3

France

Romanticism was relatively late in developing in French


literature, even more so than in the visual arts. The 18thcentury precursor to Romanticism, the cult of sensibility,
had become associated with the Ancien regime, and the
French Revolution had been more of an inspiration to foreign writers than those experiencing it at rst hand. The
rst major gure was Franois-Ren de Chateaubriand,
a minor aristocrat who had remained a royalist throughout the Revolution, and returned to France from exile
in England and America under Napoleon, with whose
regime he had an uneasy relationship. His writings, all
in prose, included some ction, such as his inuential
novella of exile Ren (1802), which anticipated Byron in
its alienated hero, but mostly contemporary history and
politics, his travels, a defence of religion and the medieval
spirit (Gnie du christianisme 1802), and nally in the
1830s and 1840s his enormous autobiography Mmoires
d'Outre-Tombe (Memoirs from beyond the grave).[62]

The battle of Hernani" was fought nightly at the theatre in 1830

After the Bourbon Restoration, French Romanticism developed in the lively world of Parisian theatre, with productions of Shakespeare, Schiller (in France a key Romantic author), and adaptations of Scott and Byron alongside French authors, several of whom began to write in
the late 1820s. Cliques of pro- and anti-Romantics developed, and productions were often accompanied by raucous vocalizing by the two sides, including the shouted
assertion by one theatregoer in 1822 that Shakespeare,
c'est l'aide-de-camp de Wellington (Shakespeare is
Wellingtons aide-de-camp").[63] Alexandre Dumas began as a dramatist, with a series of successes beginning
with Henri III et sa cour (1829) before turning to novels that were mostly historical adventures somewhat in
the manner of Scott, most famously The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo, both of 1844. Victor
Hugo published as a poet in the 1820s before achieving
success on the stage with Hernania historical drama
in a quasi-Shakespearian style that had famously riotous
performances, themselves as much a spectacle as the play,
on its rst run in 1830.[64] Like Dumas, he is best known
for his novels, and was already writing The Hunchback
of Notre-Dame (1831), one of the best known works of
his long career. The preface to his unperformed play
Cromwell gives an important manifesto of French Romanticism, stating that there are no rules, or models.
The career of Prosper Mrime followed a similar pattern; he is now best known as the originator of the story
of Carmen, with his novella of 1845. Alfred de Vigny
remains best known as a dramatist, with his play on the

2.4

Poland

life of the English poet Chatterton (1835) perhaps his best terest in Polish history.[66] Polish Romanticism revived
work.
the old Sarmatism traditions of the szlachta or PolFrench Romantic poets of the 1830s to 1850s include ish nobility. Old traditions and customs were revived
Alfred de Musset, Grard de Nerval, Alphonse de Lamar- and portrayed in a positive light in the Polish messianic
tine and the amboyant Thophile Gautier, whose pro- movement and in works of great Polish poets such as
lic output in various forms continued until his death in Adam Mickiewicz (Pan Tadeusz), Juliusz Sowacki and
1872. George Sand took over from Germaine de Stal Zygmunt Krasiski, as well as prose writers such as
as the leading female writer, and was a central gure Henryk Sienkiewicz. This close connection between Polish Romanticism and Polish history became one of the
of the Parisian literary scene, famous both for her novels and criticism and her aairs with Chopin and several dening qualities of the literature of Polish Romanticism
period, dierentiating it from that of other countries.
others.[65]
They had not suered the loss of national statehood as
Stendhal is today probably the most highly regarded was the case with Poland.[67] Inuenced by the general
French novelist of the period, but he stands in a complex spirit and main ideas of European Romanticism, the litrelation with Romanticism, and is notable for his pene- erature of Polish Romanticism is unique, as many scholtrating psychological insight into his characters and his ars have pointed out, in having developed largely outside
realism, qualities rarely prominent in Romantic ction. of Poland and in its emphatic focus upon the issue of
As a survivor of the French retreat from Moscow in 1812, Polish nationalism. The Polish intelligentsia, along with
fantasies of heroism and adventure had little appeal for leading members of its government, left Poland in the
him, and like Goya he is often seen as a forerunner of early 1830s, during what is referred to as the "Great EmRealism. His most important works are Le Rouge et le igration, resettling in France, Germany, Great Britain,
Noir (The Red and the Black, 1830) and La Chartreuse de Turkey, and the United States.
Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma, 1839).

2.4

Poland

Juliusz Sowacki, a Polish poet considered one of the Three National Bards of Polish literature a major gure in the Polish
Romantic period, and the father of modern Polish drama.

Adam Mickiewicz on the Ayu-Dag, by Walenty Wakowicz

Main article: Romanticism in Poland


Romanticism in Poland is often taken to begin with the
publication of Adam Mickiewicz's rst poems in 1822,
and end with the crushing of the January Uprising of
1863 against the Russians. It was strongly marked by in-

Their art featured emotionalism and irrationality, fantasy and imagination, personality cults, folklore and
country life, and the propagation of ideals of freedom.
In the second period, many of the Polish Romantics
worked abroad, often banished from Poland by the occupying powers due to their politically subversive ideas.
Their work became increasingly dominated by the ideals of political struggle for freedom and their countrys
sovereignty. Elements of mysticism became more prominent. There developed the idea of the poeta wieszcz
(the prophet). The wieszcz (bard) functioned as spiritual

10

2 ROMANTIC LITERATURE

leader to the nation ghting for its independence. The tana.[70] The plays of Antonio Garca Gutirrez were
most notable poet so recognized was Adam Mickiewicz. adapted to produce Giuseppe Verdis operas Il trovatore
Zygmunt Krasinski also wrote to inspire political and re- and Simon Boccanegra. Spanish Romanticism also inligious hope in his countrymen. Unlike his predeces- uenced regional literatures. For example, in Catalonia
sors, who called for victory at whatever price in Polands and in Galicia there was a national boom of writers
struggle against Russia, Krasinski emphasized Polands in the local languages, like the Catalan Jacint Verdaspiritual role in its ght for independence, advocating an guer and the Galician Rosala de Castro, the main gmovements Renaixena and
intellectual rather than a military superiority. His works ures of the national revivalist[71]
Rexurdimento, respectively.
best exemplify the Messianic movement in Poland: in two
early dramas, Nie-boska komedyia[68] (1835; The Undivine Comedy) and Irydion (1836; Iridion), as well as in the
later Psalmy przyszoci (1845), he asserted that Poland 2.7 Portugal
was the Christ of Europe: specically chosen by God to
carry the worlds burdens, to suer, and eventually be res- Modern Portuguese poetry develops its character from
the work of its Romantic epitome, Almeida Garrett, a
urrected.
very prolic writer who helped shape the genre with the
masterpiece Folhas Cadas (1853). This late arrival of a
truly personal Romantic style would linger on to the be2.5 Russia
ginning of the 20th century, notably through the works of
poets such as Alexandre Herculano, Cesrio Verde and
Early Russian Romanticism is associated with the writAntnio Nobre. However, an early Portuguese expresers Konstantin Batyushkov (A Vision on the Shores of the
sion of Romanticism is found already in Manuel Maria
Lethe, 1809), Vasily Zhukovsky (The Bard, 1811; SvetBarbosa du Bocage, especially in his sonnets dated at the
lana, 1813) and Nikolay Karamzin (Poor Liza, 1792;
end of the 18th century.
Julia, 1796; Martha the Mayoress, 1802; The Sensitive
and the Cold, 1803). However the principal exponent of
Romanticism in Russia is Alexander Pushkin (The Pris2.8 Italy
oner of the Caucasus, 18201821; The Robber Brothers, 1822; Ruslan and Ludmila, 1820; Eugene Onegin,
Romanticism in Italian literature was a minor movement,
18251832). Pushkins work inuenced many writers
yet still important; it began ocially in 1816 when Mme
in the 19th century and led to his eventual recognition
de Stal wrote an article in the journal Biblioteca ital[69]
as Russias greatest poet. Other Russian poets include
iana called Sulla maniera e l'utilit delle traduzioni,
Mikhail Lermontov (A Hero of Our Time, 1839), Fyodor
inviting Italian people to reject Neoclassicism and to
Tyutchev (Silentium!, 1830), Yevgeny Baratynsky (Eda,
study new authors from other countries. Before that
1826), Anton Delvig, and Wilhelm Kchelbecker.
date, Ugo Foscolo had already published poems anInuenced heavily by Lord Byron, Lermontov sought to ticipating Romantic themes. The most important Roexplore the Romantic emphasis on metaphysical discon- mantic writers were Ludovico di Breme, Pietro Borsieri
tent with society and self, while Tyutchevs poems often and Giovanni Berchet. Better known authors such as
described scenes of nature or passions of love. Tyutchev Alessandro Manzoni and Giacomo Leopardi were inucommonly operated with such categories as night and day, enced by Enlightenment as well as by Romanticism and
north and south, dream and reality, cosmos and chaos, Classicism.[72]
and the still world of winter and spring teeming with life.
Baratynskys style was fairly classical in nature, dwelling
on the models of the previous century.
2.9 South America
Spanish-speaking South American Romanticism was inuenced heavily by Esteban Echeverra, who wrote in the
1830 and 1840s. His writings were inuenced by his haMain article: Romanticism in Spanish literature
tred for the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, and
lled with themes of blood and terror, using the metaphor
Romanticism in Spanish literature developed a well- of a slaughterhouse to portray the violence of Rosas dicknown literature with a huge variety of poets and play- tatorship.
wrights. The most important Spanish poet during this Brazilian Romanticism is characterized and divided in
movement was Jos de Espronceda. After him there three dierent periods. The rst one is basically fowere other poets like Gustavo Adolfo Bcquer, Mariano cused on the creation of a sense of national identity, using
Jos de Larra and the dramatist Jos Zorrilla, author the ideal of the heroic Indian. Some examples include
of Don Juan Tenorio. Before them may be mentioned Jos de Alencar, who wrote Iracema and O Guarani,
the pre-romantics Jos Cadalso and Manuel Jos Quin- and Gonalves Dias, renowned by the poem Cano do

2.6

Spain

2.10

United States

A print exemplifying the contrast between neoclassical vs. romantic styles of landscape and architecture (or the Grecian and
the Gothic as they are termed here), 1816

Exlio (Song of the Exile). The second period, sometimes called Ultra-Romanticism, is marked by a profound
inuence of European themes and traditions, involving
the melancholy, sadness and despair related to unobtainable love. Goethe and Lord Byron are commonly quoted
in these works. The third cycle is marked by social poetry, especially the abolitionist movement; the greatest
writer of this period is Castro Alves.[73]

2.10 United States

11
exemplied by Uncas, from The Last of the Mohicans.
There are picturesque local color elements in Washington Irvings essays and especially his travel books. Edgar
Allan Poe's tales of the macabre and his balladic poetry were more inuential in France than at home, but
the romantic American novel developed fully with the atmosphere and melodrama of Nathaniel Hawthorne's The
Scarlet Letter (1850). Later Transcendentalist writers
such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson
still show elements of its inuence and imagination, as
does the romantic realism of Walt Whitman. The poetry
of Emily Dickinsonnearly unread in her own time
and Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick can be taken
as epitomes of American Romantic literature. By the
1880s, however, psychological and social realism were
competing with Romanticism in the novel.
2.10.1 Inuence of European Romanticism on
American writers
The European Romantic movement reached America in
the early 19th century. American Romanticism was just
as multifaceted and individualistic as it was in Europe.
Like the Europeans, the American Romantics demonstrated a high level of moral enthusiasm, commitment to
individualism and the unfolding of the self, an emphasis
on intuitive perception, and the assumption that the natural world was inherently good, while human society was
lled with corruption.[74]

Romanticism became popular in American politics, phiMain articles: American literature and Romantic litera- losophy and art. The movement appealed to the revoluture in English
tionary spirit of America as well as to those longing to
In the United States, at least by 1818 with William Cullen break free of the strict religious traditions of early settlement. The Romantics rejected rationalism and religious
intellect. It appealed to those in opposition of Calvinism,
which includes the belief that the destiny of each individual is preordained. The Romantic movement gave rise to
New England Transcendentalism, which portrayed a less
restrictive relationship between God and Universe. The
new philosophy presented the individual with a more personal relationship with God. Transcendentalism and Romanticism appealed to Americans in a similar fashion,
for both privileged feeling over reason, individual freedom of expression over the restraints of tradition and custom. It often involved a rapturous response to nature. It
encouraged the rejection of harsh, rigid Calvinism, and
Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire: The Savage State (1 of
promised a new blossoming of American culture.[74][75]
5), 1836
Bryants "To a Waterfowl", Romantic poetry was being
published. American Romantic Gothic literature made
an early appearance with Washington Irving's The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820) and Rip Van Winkle (1819),
followed from 1823 onwards by the Leatherstocking Tales
of James Fenimore Cooper, with their emphasis on heroic
simplicity and their fervent landscape descriptions of an
already-exotic mythicized frontier peopled by "noble savages", similar to the philosophical theory of Rousseau,

American Romanticism embraced the individual and rebelled against the connement of neoclassicism and religious tradition. The Romantic movement in America
created a new literary genre that continues to inuence
American writers. Novels, short stories, and poems replaced the sermons and manifestos of yore. Romantic
literature was personal, intense, and portrayed more emotion than ever seen in neoclassical literature. Americas
preoccupation with freedom became a great source of
motivation for Romantic writers as many were delighted

12

ROMANTIC VISUAL ARTS

in free expression and emotion without so much fear of


ridicule and controversy. They also put more eort into
the psychological development of their characters, and
the main characters typically displayed extremes of sensitivity and excitement.[76]

the mystical, many largely abandoning classical drawing and proportions. These included William Blake and
Samuel Palmer and the other members of the Ancients
in England, and in Germany Philipp Otto Runge. Like
Friedrich, none of these artists had signicant inuence
The works of the Romantic Era also diered from pre- after their deaths for the rest of the 19th century, and were
ceding works in that they spoke to a wider audience, 20th century rediscoveries from obscurity, though Blake
partly reecting the greater distribution of books as costs was always known as a poet, and Norway's leading painter
Johan Christian Dahl was heavily inuenced by Friedrich.
came down during the period.[26]
The Rome-based Nazarene movement of German artists,
active from 1810, took a very dierent path, concentrating on medievalizing history paintings with religious and
3 Romantic visual arts
nationalist themes.[78]
See also: Gothic Revival architecture
In the visual arts, Romanticism rst showed itself in

Thomas Jones, The Bard, 1774, a prophetic combination of Romanticism and nationalism by the Welsh artist

landscape painting, where from as early as the 1760s


British artists began to turn to wilder landscapes and
storms, and Gothic architecture, even if they had to make
do with Wales as a setting. Caspar David Friedrich and J.
M. W. Turner were born less than a year apart in 1774 and
1775 respectively and were to take German and English
landscape painting to their extremes of Romanticism, but
both their artistic sensibilities were formed when forms
of Romanticism was already strongly present in art. John
Constable, born in 1776, stayed closer to the English
landscape tradition, but in his largest six-footers insisted on the heroic status of a patch of the working
countryside where he had grown upchallenging the traditional hierarchy of genres, which relegated landscape
painting to a low status. Turner also painted very large
landscapes, and above all, seascapes. Some of these large
paintings had contemporary settings and staage, but others had small gures that turned the work into history
painting in the manner of Claude Lorrain, like Salvator
Rosa a late Baroque artist whose landscapes had elements
that Romantic painters repeatedly turned to. Friedrich
often used single gures, or features like crosses, set
alone amidst a huge landscape, making them images of
the transitoriness of human life and the premonition of
death.[77]

Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson, Ossian receiving the


Ghosts of the French Heroes, 180002

The arrival of Romanticism in French art was delayed


by the strong hold of Neoclassicism on the academies,
but from the Napoleonic period it became increasingly
popular, initially in the form of history paintings propagandising for the new regime, of which Girodet's Ossian
receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes, for Napoleons
Chteau de Malmaison, was one of the earliest. Girodets
old teacher David was puzzled and disappointed by his
pupils direction, saying: Either Girodet is mad or I
no longer know anything of the art of painting.[79] A
new generation of the French school,[80] developed personal Romantic styles, though still concentrating on history painting with a political message. Thodore Gricault (17911824) had his rst success with The Charging
Chasseur, a heroic military gure derived from Rubens,
at the Paris Salon of 1812 in the years of the Empire, but
his next major completed work, The Raft of the Medusa
of 1821, remains the greatest achievement of the Romantic history painting, which in its day had a powerful antigovernment message.

Eugne Delacroix (17981863) made his rst Salon hits


Other groups of artists expressed feelings that verged on with The Barque of Dante (1822), The Massacre at Chios

13
(1824) and Death of Sardanapalus (1827). The second was a scene from the Greek War of Independence,
completed the year Byron died there, and the last was
a scene from one of Byrons plays. With Shakespeare,
Byron was to provide the subject matter for many other
works of Delacroix, who also spent long periods in North
Africa, painting colourful scenes of mounted Arab warriors. His Liberty Leading the People (1830) remains,
with the Medusa, one of the best-known works of French
Romantic painting. Both reected current events, and increasingly "history painting", literally story painting, a
phrase dating back to the Italian Renaissance meaning the
painting of subjects with groups of gures, long considered the highest and most dicult form of art, did indeed become the painting of historical scenes, rather than
those from religion or mythology.[81]
Francisco Goya was called the last great painter in whose
art thought and observation were balanced and combined
to form a faultless unity.[82] But the extent to which
he was a Romantic is a complex question. In Spain,
there was still a struggle to introduce the values of the
Enlightenment, in which Goya saw himself as a participant. The demonic and anti-rational monsters thrown up
by his imagination are only supercially similar to those
of the Gothic fantasies of northern Europe, and in many Cavalier gaulois by Antoine-Augustin Prault, Pont d'Ina, Paris
ways he remained wedded to the classicism and realism
of his training, as well as looking forward to the Realism of the later 19th century.[83] But he, more than any
other artist of the period, exemplied the Romantic values of the expression of the artists feelings and his personal imaginative world.[84] He also shared with many of
the Romantic painters a more free handling of paint, emphasized in the new prominence of the brushstroke and
impasto, which tended to be repressed in neoclassicism

Francisco Goya, The


under a self-eacing nish.
Third of May 1808, 1814
Sculpture remained largely impervious to Romanticism,
probably partly for technical reasons, as the most prestigious material of the day, marble, does not lend itself
to expansive gestures. The leading sculptors in Europe,
Antonio Canova and Bertel Thorvaldsen, were both based
in Rome and rm Neoclassicists, not at all tempted to
allow inuence from medieval sculpture, which would
have been one possible approach to Romantic sculpture.
When it did develop, true Romantic sculpturewith the

Thodore Gricault,
exception of a few artists such as Rudolf Maison[85]
The Raft of the Medusa, 1819
rather oddly was missing in Germany, and mainly found
in France, with Franois Rude, best known from his
group of the 1830s from the Arc de Triomphe in Paris,
David d'Angers, and Auguste Prault. Praults plaster
relief entitled Slaughter, which represented the horrors
of wars with exacerbated passion, caused so much scandal at the 1834 Salon that Prault was banned from this
ocial annual exhibition for nearly twenty years.[86] In
Italy, the most important Romantic sculptor was Lorenzo
Bartolini.[87]

Eugne Delacroix,
Liberty Leading the People 1830

14

ROMANTIC VISUAL ARTS

J.M.W. Turner, The


Fighting Tmraire tugged to her last Berth to be
broken up, 1839

painted scenes of fjords. In Italy Francesco Hayez (1791


1882) was the leading artist of Romanticism in mid-19thcentury Milan. His long, prolic and extremely successful
career saw him begin as a Neoclassical painter, pass right
through the Romantic period, and emerge at the other end
as a sentimental painter of young women. His Romantic
period included many historical pieces of Troubadour
tendencies, but on a very large scale, that are heavily inuenced by Gian Battista Tiepolo and other late Baroque
Italian masters.

In France, historical painting on idealized medieval and


Renaissance themes is known as the style Troubadour,
a term with no equivalent for other countries, though
the same trends occurred there. Delacroix, Ingres and
Richard Parkes Bonington all worked in this style, as
did lesser specialists such as Pierre-Henri Rvoil (1776
1842) and Fleury-Franois Richard (17771852). Their
pictures are often small, and feature intimate private and
anecdotal moments, as well as those of high drama. The
lives of great artists such as Raphael were commemorated
on equal terms with those of rulers, and ctional characters were also depicted. Fleury-Richards Valentine of
Milan weeping for the death of her husband, shown in the
Paris Salon of 1802, marked the arrival of the style, which
lasted until the mid-century, before being subsumed into
the increasingly academic history painting of artists like
Paul Delaroche.[88]

Literary Romanticism had its counterpart in the American visual arts, most especially in the exaltation of an
untamed American landscape found in the paintings of
the Hudson River School. Painters like Thomas Cole,
Albert Bierstadt and Frederic Edwin Church and others often expressed Romantic themes in their paintings.
They sometimes depicted ancient ruins of the old world,
such as in Fredric Edwin Churchs piece Sunrise in Syria.
These works reected the Gothic feelings of death and
decay. They also show the Romantic ideal that Nature is
powerful and will eventually overcome the transient creations of men. More often, they worked to distinguish
themselves from their European counterparts by depicting uniquely American scenes and landscapes. This idea
of an American identity in the art world is reected in
W. C. Bryants poem, To Cole, the Painter, Departing for
Europe, where Bryant encourages Cole to remember the
powerful scenes that can only be found in America.

Some American paintings (such as Albert Bierstadts The


Rocky Mountains, Landers Peak) promote the literary
idea of the noble savage by portraying idealized Native Americans living in harmony with the natural world.
Thomas Coles paintings tend towards allegory, explicit
in The Voyage of Life series painted in the early 1840s,
showing the stages of life set amidst an awesome and immense nature.

Francesco Hayez, Crusaders Thirsting near Jerusalem

Another trend was for very large apocalyptic history


paintings, often combining extreme natural events, or
divine wrath, with human disaster, attempting to outdo
The Raft of the Medusa, and now often drawing comparisons with eects from Hollywood. The leading English artist in the style was John Martin, whose tiny gures
were dwarfed by enormous earthquakes and storms, and
worked his way through the biblical disasters, and those
to come in the nal days. Other works such as Delacroixs
Death of Sardanapalus included larger gures, and these
often drew heavily on earlier artists, especially Poussin
and Rubens, with extra emotionalism and special eects.
Elsewhere in Europe, leading artists adopted Romantic
styles: in Russia there were the portraitists Orest Kiprensky and Vasily Tropinin, with Ivan Aivazovsky specializing in marine painting, and in Norway Hans Gude

Thomas
Cole,
Childhood, one of the 4 scenes in The Voyage of
Life, 1842

William Blake, Albion Rose,

15
music in the aesthetics of German romanticism.[89] Another French encyclopedia holds that the German temperament generally can be described as the deep and diverse action of romanticism on German musicians, and
that there is only one true representative of Romanticism
in French music, Hector Berlioz, while in Italy, the sole
great name of musical Romanticism is Giuseppe Verdi,
a sort of [Victor] Hugo of opera, gifted with a real genius
for dramatic eect. Nevertheless, the huge popularity of
German Romantic music led, whether by imitation or

Louis Janmot, from by reaction, to an often nationalistically inspired vogue


his series The Poem of the Soul, before 1854
amongst Polish, Hungarian, Russian, Czech, and Scandinavian musicians, successful perhaps more because of
its extra-musical traits than for the actual value of musical
works by its masters.[90]
1794-5

Thomas Cole, 1842,


The Voyage of Life
Old Age

Romanticism and music

See also: Romantic music, Musical nationalism, and List


of Romantic-era composers
Musical Romanticism is predominantly a German

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Portrait of Niccol Paganini,


1819

Although the term Romanticism when applied to music has come to imply the period roughly from 1800 until
1850, or else until around 1900, the contemporary application of romantic to music did not coincide with this
modern interpretation. Indeed, one of the earliest sustained applications of the term to music occurs in 1789,
in the Mmoires of Andr Grtry.[91] This is of particular
interest because it is a French source on a subject mainly
dominated by Germans, but also because it explicitly acknowledges its debt to Jean-Jacques Rousseau (himself a
Ludwig van Beethoven, painted by Joseph Karl Stieler, 1820
composer, amongst other things) and, by so doing, establishes a link to one of the major inuences on the
phenomenonso much so that one respected French ref- Romantic movement generally.[92] In 1810 E.T.A. Hoerence work denes it entirely in terms of The role of mann named Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven as the three

16

ROMANTICISM AND MUSIC

It was only toward the end of the 19th century that


the newly emergent discipline of Musikwissenschaft
(musicology)itself a product of the historicizing
proclivity of the ageattempted a more scientic
periodization of music history, and a distinction between
Viennese Classical and Romantic periods was proposed.
The key gure in this trend was Guido Adler, who viewed
Beethoven and Franz Schubert as transitional but essentially Classical composers, with Romanticism achieving
full maturity only in the post-Beethoven generation of
Frdric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Berlioz, and Franz
Liszt. From Adlers viewpoint, found in books like Der
Stil in der Musik (1911), composers of the New German
School and various late-19th-century nationalist composers were not Romantics but moderns or realists
(by analogy with the elds of painting and literature), and
this schema remained prevalent through the rst decades
of the 20th century.[92]

Frederic Chopin in 1838 by Eugne Delacroix

masters of instrumental compositions who breathe one


and the same romantic spirit. He justied his view on
the basis of these composers depth of evocative expression and their marked individuality. In Haydns music,
according to Homann, a child-like, serene disposition
prevails, while Mozart (in the late E-at major Symphony, for example) leads us into the depths of the spiritual world, with elements of fear, love, and sorrow, a
presentiment of the innite ... in the eternal dance of the
spheres. Beethovens music, on the other hand, conveys
a sense of the monstrous and immeasurable, with the
pain of an endless longing that will burst our breasts in
a fully coherent concord of all the passions.[93] This elevation in the valuation of pure emotion resulted in the
promotion of music from the subordinate position it had
held in relation to the verbal and plastic arts during the
Enlightenment. Because music was considered to be free
of the constraints of reason, imagery, or any other precise concept, it came to be regarded, rst in the writings
of Wackenroder and Tieck and later by writers such as
Schelling and Wagner, as preeminent among the arts, the
one best able to express the secrets of the universe, to
evoke the spirit world, innity, and the absolute.[94]
This chronologic agreement of musical and literary Romanticism continued as far as the middle of the 19th
century, when Richard Wagner denigrated the music of
Meyerbeer and Berlioz as "neoromantic": The Opera, to
which we shall now return, has swallowed down the Neoromanticism of Berlioz, too, as a plump, ne-avoured
oyster, whose digestion has conferred on it anew a brisk
and well-to-do appearance.[95]

By the second quarter of the 20th century, an awareness that radical changes in musical syntax had occurred
during the early 1900s caused another shift in historical
viewpoint, and the change of century came to be seen as
marking a decisive break with the musical past. This in
turn led historians such as Alfred Einstein[96] to extend
the musical "Romantic Era" throughout the 19th century
and into the rst decade of the 20th. It has continued to
be referred to as such in some of the standard music references such as The Oxford Companion to Music[97] and
Grouts History of Western Music[98] but was not unchallenged. For example, the prominent German musicologist Friedrich Blume, the chief editor of the rst edition of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart (1949
86), accepted the earlier position that Classicism and Romanticism together constitute a single period beginning
in the middle of the 18th century, but at the same time
held that it continued into the 20th century, including
such preWorld War II developments as expressionism
and neoclassicism.[99] This is reected in some notable
recent reference works such as the New Grove Dictionary
of Music and Musicians[92] and the new edition of Musik
in Geschichte und Gegenwart.[100]

Franz Liszt, 1847

17

Daniel Auber, c.1868

Richard

Wagner,

c.

1870s

Giacomo

Meyerbeer,

1847

Giovanni Boldini, Portrait of


Giuseppe Verdi, 1886

Robert
1839

Felix Mendelssohn, 1839

In the contemporary music culture, the romantic musician followed a public career depending on sensitive
middle-class audiences rather than on a courtly patron,
Schumann, as had been the case with earlier musicians and composers. Public persona characterized a new generation
of virtuosi who made their way as soloists, epitomized
in the concert tours of Paganini and Liszt, and the conductor began to emerge as an important gure, on whose
skill the interpretation of the increasingly complex music
depended.[101]

5 Romanticism outside the arts


5.1 Sciences
Main article: Romanticism in science

Hector Berlioz, 1850

The Romantic movement aected most aspects of intellectual life, and Romanticism and science had a

18

6 ROMANTIC NATIONALISM
ism had a largely negative eect on the writing of history
in the 19th century, as each nation tended to produce its
own version of history, and the critical attitude, even cynicism, of earlier historians was often replaced by a tendency to create romantic stories with clearly distinguished
heroes and villains.[106] Nationalist ideology of the period
placed great emphasis on racial coherence, and the antiquity of peoples, and tended to vastly over-emphasize the
continuity between past periods and the present, leading
to national mysticism. Much historical eort in the 20th
century was devoted to combating the romantic historical
myths created in the 19th century.

5.3 Theology
To insulate theology from reductionism in science, 19thcentury post-Enlightenment German theologians moved
in a new direction, led by Friedrich Schleiermacher and
Albrecht Ritschl. They took the Romantic approach of
rooting religion in the inner world of the human spirit, so
that it is a persons feeling or sensibility about spiritual
matters that comprises religion.[107]
Akseli Gallen-Kallela, The Forging of the Sampo, 1893. An
artist from Finland deriving inspiration from the Finnish national epic, the Kalevala

6 Romantic nationalism

Main article: Romantic nationalism


powerful connection, especially in the period 1800 One of Romanticisms key ideas and most enduring
40. Many scientists were inuenced by versions of the
Naturphilosophie of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich
Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling and Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel and others, and without abandoning
empiricism, sought in their work to uncover what they
tended to believe was a unied and organic Nature. The
English scientist Sir Humphry Davy, a prominent Romantic thinker, said that understanding nature required
an attitude of admiration, love and worship, [...] a personal response.[102] He believed that knowledge was only
attainable by those who truly appreciated and respected
nature. Self-understanding was an important aspect of
Romanticism. It had less to do with proving that man
was capable of understanding nature (through his budding intellect) and therefore controlling it, and more to Egide Charles Gustave Wappers, Episode of the Belgian Revodo with the emotional appeal of connecting himself with lution of 1830, 1834, Muse d'Art Ancien, Brussels. A romantic
nature and understanding it through a harmonious co- vision by a Belgian painter.
existence.[103]
legacies is the assertion of nationalism, which became
a central theme of Romantic art and political philosophy. From the earliest parts of the movement, with
5.2 Historiography
their focus on development of national languages and
History writing was very strongly, and many would folklore, and the importance of local customs and tradisay harmfully, inuenced by Romanticism.[104] In Eng- tions, to the movements that would redraw the map of
land Thomas Carlyle was a highly inuential essayist Europe and lead to calls for self-determination of nationwho turned historian; he both invented and exemplied alities, nationalism was one of the key vehicles of Rothe phrase hero-worship,[105] lavishing largely uncrit- manticism, its role, expression and meaning. One of the
ical praise on strong leaders such as Oliver Cromwell, most important functions of medieval references in the
Frederick the Great and Napoleon. Romantic national- 19th century was nationalist. Popular and epic poetry

6.1

Polish nationalism and messianism

19
with its own peculiar quality, and only when
in every people each individual develops himself in accordance with that common quality,
as well as in accordance with his own peculiar
qualitythen, and then only, does the manifestation of divinity appear in its true mirror as
it ought to be.[108]

Hans Gude, Fra Hardanger, 1847. Example of Norwegian romantic nationalism.

were its workhorses. This is visible in Germany and Ireland, where underlying Germanic or Celtic linguistic substrates dating from before the Romanization-Latinization
were sought out. And, in Catalonia, nationalists reclaimed Catalanism from before the Hispanicization of
the Catholic Monarchs in the 15th century, when the
Crown of Aragon was unied with the Castilian nobility.
Early Romantic nationalism was strongly inspired by
Rousseau, and by the ideas of Johann Gottfried von
Herder, who in 1784 argued that the geography formed
the natural economy of a people, and shaped their customs and society.
The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after the French Revolution with the rise of
Napoleon, and the reactions in other nations. Napoleonic
nationalism and republicanism were, at rst, inspirational
to movements in other nations: self-determination and a
consciousness of national unity were held to be two of the
reasons why France was able to defeat other countries in
battle. But as the French Republic became Napoleons
Empire, Napoleon became not the inspiration for nationalism, but the object of its struggle. In Prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in
the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word
Volkstum, or nationality, was coined in German as part
of this resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte
expressed the unity of language and nation in his address
To the German Nation in 1806:
Those who speak the same language are
joined to each other by a multitude of invisible
bonds by nature herself, long before any human
art begins; they understand each other and have
the power of continuing to make themselves
understood more and more clearly; they belong
together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole. ...Only when each people, left to
itself, develops and forms itself in accordance

This view of nationalism inspired the collection of


folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm, the revival of old epics as national, and the construction of
new epics as if they were old, as in the Kalevala, compiled from Finnish tales and folklore, or Ossian, where the
claimed ancient roots were invented. The view that fairy
tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources,
were preserved in the same form over thousands of years,
was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists, but t in well
with their views that such tales expressed the primordial
nature of a people. For instance, the Brothers Grimm rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by Charles Perrault, which they thought proved
they were not truly German tales;[109] Sleeping Beauty survived in their collection because the tale of Brynhildr
convinced them that the gure of the sleeping princess
was authentically German. Vuk Karadi contributed to
Serbian folk literature, using peasant culture as the foundation. He regarded the oral literature of the peasants as
an integral part of Serbian culture, compiling it to use in
his collections of folk songs, tales, and proverbs, as well
as the rst dictionary of vernacular Serbian.[110] Similar projects were undertaken by the Russian Alexander
Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjrnsen
and Jrgen Moe, and the Englishman Joseph Jacobs.[111]

The November Uprising (183031) in Kingdom of Poland


against the Russian Empire

6.1 Polish nationalism and messianism


Romanticism played an essential role in the national
awakening of many Central European peoples lacking
their own national states, not least in Poland, which

20

7 GALLERY

had recently lost its independence when Russias army


crushed the Polish Uprising under Nicholas I. Revival and
reinterpretation of ancient myths, customs and traditions
by Romantic poets and painters helped to distinguish their
indigenous cultures from those of the dominant nations
and crystallise the mythography of Romantic nationalism. Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed struggle for independence also became popular themes in the

Joseph
Wright,
arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Ro1774, Cave at evening, Smith College Museum of
mantic poet of this part of Europe was Adam Mickiewicz,
Art, Northampton, Massachusetts
who developed an idea that Poland was the Messiah of
Nations, predestined to suer just as Jesus had suered
to save all the people. The Polish self-image as a "Christ
among nations" or the martyr of Europe can be traced
back to its history of Christendom and suering under
invasions. During the periods of foreign occupation, the
Catholic Church served as bastion of Polands national
identity and language, and the major promoter of Polish
culture. The partitions came to be seen in Poland as a
Polish sacrice for the security for Western civilization.

Henry Fuseli, 1781,


Adam Mickiewicz wrote the patriotic drama Dziady (diThe Nightmare, a classical artist whose themes
rected against the Russians) where he depicts Poland as
often anticipate the Romantic
the Christ of Nations. He also wrote Verily I say unto
you, it is not for you to learn civilization from foreigners, but it is you who are to teach them civilization ...
You are among the foreigners like the Apostles among
the idolaters. In "Books of the Polish nation and Polish pilgrimage" Mickiewicz detailed his vision of Poland
as a Messias and a Christ of Nations, that would save
mankind. Dziady is known for various interpretation.

Philip James de
The most known ones are the moral aspect of part II,
Loutherbourg, Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, a key
individualist and romantic message of part IV, as well as
location of the English Industrial Revolution
deeply patriotic,messianistic and Christian vision in part
III of poem. Zdzisaw Kpiski, however, focuses his interpretation on Slavic pagan and occult elements found in
French Romantic painting
the drama. In his book Mickiewicz hermetyczny he writes
about hermetic, theosophic and alchemical philosophy on
the book as well as Masonic symbols.

Gallery

Emerging Romanticism in the 18th century

Joseph
Vernet,
1759, Shipwreck; the 18th century sublime

Thodore Gricault, The


Charging Chasseur, c. 1812

Ingres, Death of
Leornardo da Vinci, 1818, one of his Troubadour

21
style works

John
Constable,
1821, The Hay Wain, one of Constables large six
footers

J. C. Dahl, 1826,
Eruption of Vesuvius, by Friedrichs closest follower

William Blake, c.
182427, The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The
Harpies and the Suicides, Tate

Karl Bryullov, The


Last Day of Pompeii, 1833, The State Russian
Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia

J. M. W. Turner,
The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons
(1835), Philadelphia Museum of Art

Eugne Delacroix,
Collision of Moorish Horsemen, 184344

Eugne Delacroix, The


Bride of Abydos, 1857, after the poem by Byron

Other

Joseph Anton Koch,


Waterfalls at Subiaco 18121813, a classical
landscape to art historians

James Ward, 1814


1815, Gordale Scar

22

ROMANTIC AUTHORS

Bront family
Robert Burns
Lord Byron
Thomas Carlyle

Hans Gude, Winter


Afternoon, 1847, National Gallery of Norway, Oslo

Alexander Chavchavadze
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Alexandre Dumas
Maria Edgeworth
Ralph Waldo Emerson

Ivan
Aivazovsky,
1850, The Ninth Wave, Russian Museum, St.
Petersburg

Ugo Foscolo
Aleksander Fredro
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Nikolai Gogol
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Victor Hugo

John Martin, 1852,


The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Laing
Art Gallery

Washington Irving
John Keats
Zygmunt Krasiski
Jzef Ignacy Kraszewski
Herman Melville
Adam Mickiewicz

Frederic
Edwin
Church, 1860, Twilight in the Wilderness, Cleveland
Museum of Art

Cyprian Kamil Norwid


Mikhail Lermontov
Alessandro Manzoni
Grigol Orbeliani
Edgar Allan Poe
Alexander Pushkin

Albert
Bierstadt,
1863, The Rocky Mountains, Landers Peak

Mary Robinson
George Sand
Walter Scott

Romantic authors

Mary Shelley
Percy Shelley

Jane Austen

Juliusz Sowacki

Nikoloz Baratashvili

Henry David Thoreau

William Blake

William Wordsworth

23

Scholars of Romanticism
Gerald Abraham
M. H. Abrams
Donald Ault
Jacques Barzun
Ian Bent
Isaiah Berlin
Tim Blanning
Harold Bloom
Friedrich Blume
James Chandler
Jerey N. Cox
Carl Dahlhaus
Northrop Frye
Peter Kitson

[3] David Levin, History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott,


and Parkman (1967)
[4] Gerald Lee Gutek, A history of the Western educational
experience (1987) ch. 12 on Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
[5] Ashton Nichols, Roaring Alligators and Burning Tygers:
Poetry and Science from William Bartram to Charles Darwin, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
2005 149(3): 304315
[6] Perpinya, Nria. Ruins, Nostalgia and Ugliness. Five Romantic perceptions of Middle Ages and a spoon of Game
of Thrones and Avant-garde oddity. Berlin: Logos Verlag. 2014
[7] "'A remarkable thing,' continued Bazarov, 'these funny old
romantics! They work up their nervous system into a state
of agitation, then, of course, their equilibrium is upset.'"
(Ivan Turgenev, Fathers and Sons, chap. 4 [1862])
[8] Szabolcsi, B. (1970). The Decline of Romanticism: End
of the Century, Turn of the Century-- Introductory Sketch
of an Essay. Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum
Hungaricae. 12: 263. doi:10.2307/901360. JSTOR
901360.
[9] Novotny, 96

Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe

[10] From the Preface to the 2nd edition of Lyrical Ballads,


quoted Day, 2

Paul de Man

[11] Day, 3

Jerome McGann

[12] Ruthven (2001) p.40 quote: Romantic ideology of literary authorship, which conceives of the text as an autonomous object produced by an individual genius.

Anne K. Mellor
Jean-Luc Nancy
Ashton Nichols
Leon Plantinga
Christopher Ricks
Charles Rosen
Ren Wellek
Susan J. Wolfson

10

See also

11

Notes

[1] Encyclopdia Britannica. "''Romanticism''. Retrieved


30 January 2008, from Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
Britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
[2] Casey, Christopher (October 30, 2008). ""Grecian
Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time": Britain,
the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism.
Foundations. Volume III, Number 1. Archived from the
original on May 13, 2009. Retrieved 2014-05-14.

[13] Spearing (1987) quote: Surprising as it may seem to us,


living after the Romantic movement has transformed older
ideas about literature, in the Middle Ages authority was
prized more highly than originality.
[14] Eco (1994) p.95 quote: Much art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is a contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical art was in vast
measure serial, and the modern avant-garde (at the beginning of this century) challenged the Romantic idea of
creation from nothingness, with its techniques of collage, mustachios on the Mona Lisa, art about art, and so
on.
[15] Waterhouse (1926), throughout; Smith (1924); Millen,
Jessica Romantic Creativity and the Ideal of Originality:
A Contextual Analysis, in Cross-sections, The Bruce Hall
Academic Journal Volume VI, 2010 PDF; Forest Pyle,
The Ideology of Imagination: Subject and Society in
the Discourse of Romanticism (Stanford University Press,
1995) p.28.
[16] Day 34; quotation from M.H. Abrams, quoted in Day, 4
[17] Berlin, 92
[18] Ferber, 67
[19] Ferber, 7
[20] Christiansen, 241.

24

[21] Christiansen, 242.

11 NOTES

[22] in her Oxford Companion article, quoted by Day, 1

[41] Zipes, Jack (2000). The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales.


Oxford University Press. pp. 1314, 218219,. ISBN
978-0-19-860115-9.

[23] Day, 15

[42] Christiansen, 215.

[24] Mellor, Anne; Matlak, Richard (1996). British Literature 1780-1830. NY: Harcourt Brace & Co./Wadsworth.
ISBN 978-1413022537.

[43] Christiansen, 19296.

[25] Edward F. Kravitt, The Lied: Mirror of Late Romanticism


(New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996):
47. ISBN 0-300-06365-2.

[45] Christiansen, 21320.

[26] Greenblatt et al., Norton Anthology of English Literature,


eighth edition, The Romantic Period Volume D (New
York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc., 2006):

[47] Or at least he tried to; Kean played the tragic Lear for a
few performances. They were not well received, and with
regret, he reverted to Nahum Tate's version with a comic
ending, which had been standard since 1689. See Stanley
Wells, Introduction from King Lear Oxford University
Press, 2000, p. 69.

[27] Johnson, 147, inc. quotation


[28] Barzun, 469
[29] Day, 13; the arch-conservative and Romantic is Joseph
de Maistre, but many Romantics swung from youthful radicalism to conservative views in middle age, for example
Wordsworth. Samuel Palmer's only published text was a
short piece opposing the Repeal of the corn laws.

[44] Christiansen, 197200.

[46] Christiansen, 18889.

[48] Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, Table Talk, 27 April 1823 in


Coleridge, Samuel Taylor; Morley, Henry (1884). Table
Talk of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Christobel, &c. New York: Routledge. p.
38.

[30] Berlin, 57

[49] J. Buchan, Crowded with Genius (London: Harper Collins,


2003), ISBN 0-06-055888-1, p. 311.

[31] Several of Berlins pieces dealing with this theme are collected in the work referenced. See in particular: Berlin,
34-47, 57-59, 183-206, 207-237.

[50] J. Buchan, Crowded with Genius (London: Harper Collins,


2003), ISBN 0-06-055888-1, p. 163.

[32] Berlin, 57-58

[51] H. Gaskill, The Reception of Ossian in Europe (Continuum, 2004), ISBN 0826461352, p. 140.

[33] Linda Simon The Sleep of Reason by Robert Hughes


[34] Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder,
Pimlico, 2000 ISBN 0-7126-6492-0 was one of Isaiah
Berlin's many publications on the Enlightenment and its
enemies that did much to popularise the concept of a
Counter-Enlightenment movement that he characterised
as relativist, anti-rationalist, vitalist and organic,
[35] Darrin M. McMahon, The Counter-Enlightenment and
the Low-Life of Literature in Pre-Revolutionary France
Past and Present No. 159 (May 1998:77112) p. 79 note
7.
[36] Baudelaires speech at the Salon des curiosits Estethiques (in French). Fr.wikisource.org. Retrieved
2010-08-24.
[37] Sutherland, James (1958) English Satire p.1. There were a
few exceptions, notably Byron, who integrated satire into
some of his greatest works, yet shared much in common
with his Romantic contemporaries. Bloom, p. 18.
[38] John Keats. By Sidney Colvin, page 106. Elibron Classics
[39] Thomas Chatterton, Grevel Lindop, 1972, Fyeld Books,
page 11
[40] Zipes, Jack (1988). The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World (1st ed.). Routledge.
pp. 78. ISBN 0-415-90081-6.

[52] D. Thomson, The Gaelic Sources of Macphersons Ossian


(Aberdeen: Oliver & Boyd, 1952).
[53] L. McIlvanney, Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature, Eighteenth-Century Life, vol.
29 (2), Spring 2005, pp. 2546.
[54] K. S. Whetter, Understanding Genre and Medieval Romance (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), ISBN 0-7546-61423, p. 28.
[55] N. Davidson, The Origins of Scottish Nationhood (Pluto
Press, 2008), ISBN 0-7453-1608-5, p. 136.
[56] A. Maunder, FOF Companion to the British Short Story
(Infobase Publishing, 2007), ISBN 0816074968, p. 374.
[57] P. MacKay, E. Longley and F. Brearton, Modern Irish and
Scottish Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2011), ISBN 0521196027, p. 59.
[58] A. Jarrels, "'Associations respect[ing] the past': Enlightenment and Romantic historicism, in J. P. Klancher, A
Concise Companion to the Romantic Age (Oxford: John
Wiley & Sons, 2009), ISBN 0631233555, p. 60.
[59] A. Benchimol, ed., Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), ISBN 0754664465, p. 210.

25

[60] A. Benchimol, ed., Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), ISBN 0754664465, p. 209.

[85] McKay, James, The Dictionary of Sculptors in Bronze, Antique Collectors Club, London, 1995

[61] I. Brown, The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and Empire (17071918)
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN
0748624813, pp. 22930.

[87] Dizionario di arte e letteratura.


2002. p. 544.

[62] Christiansen, 202203, 24142.

[89] Boyer 1961, 585.

[63] Christiansen, 23946, 240 quoted.

[90] Ferchault 1957.

[64] Christiansen, 24446.

[91] Grtre 1789.

[65] Christiansen, 13038 on de Stal.

[92] Samson 2001.

[66] Leon Dyczewski, Values in the Polish cultural tradition


(2002) p. 183

[93] Homann 1810, col. 632.

[67] Christopher J. Murray, Encyclopedia of the romantic era,


17601850 (2004) vol. 2. p 742

[86] Novotny, 397, 37984


Bologna: Zanichelli.

[88] Noon, throughout, especially pp. 124-155

[94] Boyer 1961, 58586.


[95] Wagner 1995, 77.

[68] Nie-Boska komedia (in Polish).

[96] Einstein 1947.

[69] Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (17991837)". University of Virginia Slavic Department. Retrieved 1 August
2011.

[97] Warrack 2002.

[70] Philip W. Silver, Ruin and restitution: reinterpreting romanticism in Spain (1997) p. 13

[99] Blume 1970; Samson 2001.

[98] Grout 1960, 492.

[100] Wehnert 1998.


[71] Gerald Brenan, The literature of the Spanish people: from
Roman times to the present (1965) p 364
[101] Christiansen, 17678.
[72] La nuova enciclopedia della letteratura. Milan: Garzanti. [102] Cunningham, A., and Jardine, N., ed. Romanticism and
1985. p. 829.
the Sciences, p.15.
[73] Roberto Gonzlez Echevarra and Enrique Pupo-Walker, [103] Bossi, M., and Poggi, S., ed. Romanticism in Science: SciThe Cambridge History of Latin American Literature:
ence in Europe, 17901840, p.xiv; Cunningham, A., and
Brazilian Literature (1996) vol. 2 p. 367
Jardine, N., ed. Romanticism and the Sciences, p.2.
[74] George L. McMichael and Frederick C. Crews, eds. An- [104] E. Sreedharan (2004). A Textbook of Historiography, 500
thology of American Literature: Colonial through romantic
B.C. to A.D. 2000. Orient Blackswan. pp. 12868.
(6th ed. 1997) p 613
[105] in his published lectures On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and
[75] Romanticism, American, in The Oxford Dictionary of
The Heroic in History of 1841
American Art and Artists ed by Ann Lee Morgan (Oxford
University Press, 2007) online
[106] Ceri Crossley (2002). French Historians and Romanticism: Thierry, Guizot, the Saint-Simonians, Quinet,
[76] The relationship of the American poet Wallace Stevens
Michelet. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-97668-3.
to Romanticism is raised in the poem "Another Weeping
Woman" and its commentary.
[107] Philip Clayton and Zachary Simpson, eds. The Oxford
Handbook of Religion and Science (2006) p 161
[77] Novotny, 96101, 99 quoted
[78] Novotny, 112121

[108] Fichte, Johann (1806). Address to the German Nation.


Fordham University. Retrieved October 1, 2013.

[79] Honour, 184190, 187 quoted


[80] Walter Friedlaender, From David to Delacroix, 1974, remains the best available account of the subject.
[81] Romanticism. metmuseum.org.
[82] Novotny, 142
[83] Novotny, 133142
[84] Hughes, 279280

[109] Maria Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms Fairy Tales,
p. 31 ISBN 0-691-06722-8
[110] Prilozi za knjievnost, jezik, istoriju i folklor (in Serbian). ,
. 1965. p. 264. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
[111] Jack Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p 846, ISBN 0393-97636-X

26

12

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edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.
London: Macmillan Publishers.
Smith, Logan Pearsall (1924) Four Words: Romantic, Originality, Creative, Genius. Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
Spearing, A. C. 1987. Introduction section to
Chaucers The Franklins Prologue and Tale
Steiner, George. 1998. Topologies of Culture,
chapter 6 of After Babel: Aspects of Language
and Translation, third revised edition. Oxford and
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Wagner, Richard. Opera and Drama, translated by
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Warrack, John. 2002. Romanticism. The Oxford
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0-19-866212-2.
Waterhouse, Francis A. 1926. Romantic 'Originality' in The Sewanee Review, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Jan.,
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Wehnert, Martin. 1998. Romantik und romantisch. Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart:
allgemeine Enzyklopdie der Musik, begrndet von
Friedrich Blume, second revised edition. Sachteil
8: QuerSwi, cols. 464507. Basel, Kassel, London, Munich, and Prague: Brenreiter; Stuttgart and
Weimar: Metzler.

13 Further reading
Abrams, Meyer H. 1971. The Mirror and the Lamp.
London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19501471-5.
Abrams, Meyer H. 1973. Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature. New York: W.W. Norton.
Azurmendi, Joxe. 2008. Volksgeist. Donostia:
Elkar. ISBN 978-84-9783-404-9.
Barzun, Jacques. 1943. Romanticism and the Modern Ego. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
Barzun, Jacques. 1961. Classic, Romantic, and
Modern. University of Chicago Press. ISBN
9780226038520.
Berlin, Isaiah. 1999. The Roots of Romanticism.
London: Chatto and Windus. ISBN 0-691-086621.
Blanning, Tim. The Romantic Revolution: A History
(2011) 272pp
Breckman, Warren, European Romanticism: A Brief
History with Documents. New York: Bedford/St.
Martins, 2007. European Romanticism: A Brief
History with Documents. Amazon.com. Retrieved
2010-08-24.
Cavalletti, Carlo. 2000. Chopin and Romantic
Music, translated by Anna Maria Salmeri Pherson. Hauppauge, NY: Barrons Educational Series.
(Hardcover) ISBN 0-7641-5136-3 ; ISBN 978-07641-5136-1.
Chaudon, Francis. 1980. The Concise Encyclopedia
of Romanticism. Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell Books.
ISBN 0-89009-707-0.
Ciofalo, John J. 2001. The Ascent of Genius in
the Court and Academy. The Self-Portraits of Francisco Goya. Cambridge University Press.
Cox, Jerey N. 2004. Poetry and Politics in
the Cockney School: Keats, Shelley, Hunt and
Their Circle. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
9780521604239.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1979. Neo-Romanticism. 19thCentury Music 3, no. 2 (November): 97105.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1980. Between Romanticism and
Modernism: Four Studies in the Music of the Later
Nineteenth Century, translated by Mary Whittall
in collaboration with Arnold Whittall; also with
Friedrich Nietzsche, On Music and Words, translated by Walter Arnold Kaufmann. California Studies in 19th Century Music 1. Berkeley: University
of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03679-4 (cloth);

28

13 FURTHER READING
0520067487 (pbk). Original German edition, as
Zwischen Romantik und Moderne: vier Studien zur
Musikgeschichte des spteren 19. Jahrhunderts. Munich: Musikverlag Katzbichler, 1974.

Dahlhaus, Carl. 1985. Realism in NineteenthCentury Music, translated by Mary Whittall. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-26115-5 (cloth); ISBN 0-521-27841-4
(pbk). Original German edition, as Musikalischer
Realismus: zur Musikgeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Munich: R. Piper, 1982. ISBN 3-492-00539X.
Fabre, Cme, and Felix Krmer (eds.). 2013.
L'ange du bizzare: Le romantisme noire de Goya a
Max Ernst, l'occasion de l'Exposition, Stadel Museum, Francfort, 26 septembre 2012 20 janvier
2013, Muse d'Orsay, Paris, 5 mars 9 juin 2013.
Ostldern: Hatje Cantz. ISBN 9783775735902.
Fay, Elizabeth. 2002. Romantic Medievalism. History and the Romantic Literary Ideal. Houndsmills,
Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Gaull, Marilyn. 1988. English Romanticism: The
Human Context. New York and London: W. W.
Norton. ISBN 978-0393955477.
Geck, Martin. 1998. Realismus. Die Musik
in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Allgemeine Enzyklopdie der Musik begrnde von Friedrich Blume,
second, revised edition, edited by Ludwig Finscher. Sachteil 8: QuerSwi, cols. 9199. Kassel, Basel, London, New York, Prague: Brenreiter;
Suttgart and Weimar: Metzler. ISBN 3-7618-11098 (Brenreiter); ISBN 3-476-41008-0 (Metzler).
Gillespie, Gerald, Manfred Engel, and Bernard Dieterle (eds.). 2008. Romantic Prose Fiction (=
A Comparative History of Literatures in European
Languages, Bd. XXIII; ed. by the International
Comparative Literature Association). Amsterdam,
Philadelphia: John Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-2723456-8. [esp. pp. 263295].

9780007149520. New York: Pantheon Books.


ISBN 9780375422225. Paperback reprint, New
York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-3187-0
Honour, Hugh. 1979. Romanticism. New York:
Harper and Row. ISBN 0064333361 (cloth); ISBN
0064300897 (pbk.).
Johnson, Lee. 1991. Eugne Delacroix (1798-1863)
: paintings, drawings, and prints from North American collections, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 9780870996085.
Kravitt, Edward F. 1992. Romanticism Today.
The Musical Quarterly 76, no. 1 (Spring): 93109.
Lang, Paul Henry. 1941. Music in Western Civilization. New York: W. W. Norton.
McCalman, Iain (ed.). 2009. An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Online at Oxford Reference
Online (subscription required)
Mason, Daniel Gregory. 1936. The Romantic Composers. New York: Macmillan.
Masson, Scott. 2007. Romanticism, Chapt. 7
in The Oxford Handbook of English Literature and
Theology, (Oxford University Press) 2007.
Murray, Christopher, ed. Encyclopedia of the romantic era, 17601850 (2 vol 2004); 850 articles
by experts; 1600pp
O'Neill, J, ed. (2000). Romanticism & the school of
nature : nineteenth-century drawings and paintings
from the Karen B. Cohen collection. New York:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Plantinga, Leon. 1984. Romantic Music: A History
of Musical Style in Nineteenth-Century Europe. A
Norton Introduction to Music History. New York:
W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-95196-0 ; ISBN 9780-393-95196-7

Gossman, Lionel. 2007. Making of a Romantic Icon: The Religious Context of Friedrich Overbecks Italia und Germania. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-975-3.

Reynolds, Nicole. 2010. Building Romanticism:


Literature and Architecture in Nineteenth-century
Britain. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780-472-11731-4.

Grewe, Cordula. 2009. Painting the Sacred in the


Age of German Romanticism. Burlington: Ashgate.
Painting the Sacred in the Age of Romanticism.
Amazon.com. Retrieved 2010-08-24.

Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. 1992. The Emergence of


Romanticism. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0195073416

Hamilton, Paul, ed. The Oxford Handbook of European Romanticism (2016).

Rosen, Charles. 1995. The Romantic Generation.


Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN
0-674-77933-9.

Holmes, Richard. 2009. The Age of Wonder: How


the Romantic Generation Discovered the Beauty and
Terror of Science. London: HarperPress. ISBN

Rosenblum, Robert, Modern Painting and the


Northern Romantic Tradition: Friedrich to Rothko,
(Harper & Row) 1975.

29
Rummenhller, Peter. 1989. Romantik in der
Musik: Analysen, Portraits, Reexionen. Munich:
Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag; Kassel and New
York: Brenreiter.
Ruston, Sharon. 2013. Creating Romanticism:
Case Studies in the Literature, Science and Medicine
of the 1790s. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137264282.
Schenk, H. G. 1966. The Mind of the European Romantics: An Essay in Cultural History. : Constable.
Spencer, Stewart. 2008. The 'Romantic Operas
and the Turn to Myth. In The Cambridge Companion to Wagner, edited by Thomas S. Grey, 6773.
Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-64299-X (cloth); ISBN 0-52164439-9 (pbk).
Steve (2010-06-30). Lionel Gossmans Making
of a Romantic Icon: The Religious Context of
Friedrich Overbecks Italia und Germania (American Philosophical Society Transaction 97-5; ISBN
0-87169-975-3) Diane Publishings Blog. Dianepub.wordpress.com. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
Tekiner, Deniz. 2000. Modern Art and the Romantic Vision. Lanham, MD. University Press of
America. ISBN 9780761815280 (cloth); ISBN
9780761815297 (pbk.).
Workman, Leslie J. 1994. Medievalism and Romanticism. Poetica 3940: 134.

14

External links

Romanticism explored on the British Library Discovering Literature website


The Romantic Poets
The Great Romantics
Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Romanticism
Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Romanticism in
Political Thought
Romantic Circles Electronic editions, histories, and
scholarly articles related to the Romantic era
Romantic Rebellion.

30

15

15
15.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses


Text

Romanticism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism?oldid=759348579 Contributors: The Cunctator, Brion VIBBER, Timo


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15.2

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Fountains-of-Paris, Wisielec.97, DatGuy, Nicksavador323, NgYShung, Emotionalllama, Adjo.ahossou, Mario El Helou, Doctor lisa martin;phd, Marvellous Spider-Man, Bobthebuildah, Imminent77, Xandi 89, Ronald Munyithya, Malikaisbal, MichealHanson and Anonymous:
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15.2

Images

File:Adam_Mickiewicz.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Adam_Mickiewicz.PNG License: Public


domain Contributors: www.latribunedelart.com Original artist: Walenty Wakowicz
File:Albert_Bierstadt_-_The_Rocky_Mountains,_Lander{}s_Peak.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
4/45/Albert_Bierstadt_-_The_Rocky_Mountains%2C_Lander%27s_Peak.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, online Original artist: Albert Bierstadt
File:Anne-Louis_Girodet-Trioson_001.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Anne-Louis_
Girodet-Trioson_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVDROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Attributed to Anne-Louis Girodet
de Roussy-Trioson
File:Anne-Louis_Girodet-Trioson_006.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Anne-Louis_
Girodet-Trioson_006.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002.
ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson
File:Barabas-liszt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Barabas-liszt.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Fine Arts in Hungary: <a href='http://www.hung-art.hu/index-e.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder
home.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/24px-Nuvola_
filesystems_folder_home.svg.png' width='24' height='24' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/
Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/36px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/48px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128'
data-le-height='128' /></a><a href='http://www.hung-art.hu/kep/b/barabas/muvek/1840-49/liszt_f.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/24px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='24'
height='24'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/36px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/48px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' datale-height='60'
/></a><a
href='http://www.hung-art.hu/frames-e.html?/english/b/barabas/muvek/1840-49/index.html'
data-xrel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/24px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='24' height='24' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/
Information_icon.svg/36px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/48px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Original artist: Mikls Barabs
File:Beethoven.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/presseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/pi/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html Original artist: Joseph Karl
Stieler
File:Byronharlow.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Byronharlow.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: George Henry Harlow
File:Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
b/b9/Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The photographic reproduction was done by Cybershot800i. (Di) Original artist: Caspar David Friedrich

32

15

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File:Cavalier_gaulois_pont_d'iena_RG_am_face.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Cavalier_
gaulois_pont_d%27iena_RG_am_face.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Siren-Com
File:Chatterton.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Chatterton.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery Original artist: Henry Wallis
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Des_Knaben_Wunderhorn_III_(1808).jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Des_Knaben_
Wunderhorn_III_%281808%29.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Own work (Objektfotographie) Original artist: H.-P.Haack
File:El_Tres_de_Mayo,_by_Francisco_de_Goya,_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/f/fd/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: This le was derived from El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg:
<a
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:El_Tres_de_Mayo,_by_Francisco_de_Goya,_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg'
class='image'><img alt='El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_
Earth.jpg/50px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg'
width='50'
height='39'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_
Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/75px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_
in_Google_Earth.jpg/100px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg 2x' data-lewidth='30000' data-le-height='23131' /></a>
Original artist: El_Tres_de_Mayo,_by_Francisco_de_Goya,_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg: Francisco de Goya
File:Eugne_Delacroix_-_Collision_of_Moorish_Horsemen_-_Walters_376.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/ee/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Collision_of_Moorish_Horsemen_-_Walters_376.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png
2x'
data-le-width='128'
data-leheight='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/3792' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Eugne_Delacroix_-_La_libert_guidant_le_peuple.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Eug%
C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This page from this gallery.
Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Eugne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/c/c7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/d/delacroi/5/509delac.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png'
width='20'
height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/d/delacroi/5/509delac.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Eugne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Eug%C3%A8ne_
Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVDROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Ferdinand-Victor-Eugne_Delacroix,_French_-_The_Death_of_Sardanapalus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Ferdinand-Victor-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix%2C_French_-_The_Death_of_
Sardanapalus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: GQEXB6lJVIn9wA at Google Cultural Institute maximum
zoom level Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: upload on http://en.wikipedia.org, 21:15, 10. Okt 2004 . . User:Leifern . . 600x488 Original artist: Hans
Gude
File:Gallen_Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Gallen_
Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 2. The Bridgeman Art Library, Object 476496 Original
artist: Akseli Gallen-Kallela
File:GericaultHorseman.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/GericaultHorseman.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/
40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Giacomo_Meyerbeer_nuorempana.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Giacomo_Meyerbeer_
nuorempana.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

15.2

Images

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File:Giuseppe_Verdi_by_Giovanni_Boldini.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Giuseppe_Verdi_


by_Giovanni_Boldini.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Ruiz-Healy Times: "De 1813 - Naci Giuseppe Verdi", by Eduardo RuzHealy. Published 10 October 2014; Accessed 1 July 2015. Original artist: Giovanni Boldini
File:Grecian-Gothic_neoclassical-romantic_style-contrast_1816-Repton.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/6/62/Grecian-Gothic_neoclassical-romantic_style-contrast_1816-Repton.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Fragments
on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening Original artist: Humphry Repton
File:Hans_Gude--Vinterettermiddag-$-$1847.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Hans_
Gude--Vinterettermiddag-$-$1847.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Haverkamp, Frode; Hans Fredrik Gude [January
1992] (in norwegian) Hans Gude, Oslo: Aschehoug, pp. 10 ISBN: 8203170722. OCLC: 29047091. Original artist: Hans Gude
File:Hayez,_Fracesco_-_Crusaders_Thirsting_near_Jerusalem_-_1836-50.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Hayez%2C_Fracesco_-_Crusaders_Thirsting_near_Jerusalem_-_1836-50.jpg
License:
Public
domain Contributors:
Web Gallery of Art:
<a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/h/hayez/4hayez.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20'
height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-leheight='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/h/hayez/4hayez.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Francesco Hayez
File:Hector_Berlioz.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Hector_Berlioz.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Hovhannes_Aivazovsky_-_The_Ninth_Wave_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/4/4a/Hovhannes_Aivazovsky_-_The_Ninth_Wave_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: jgHuL7yxgrOSw at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Born in Ukrain, Feodosia. Dead in Russia, St.Petersburg.
Details of artist on Google Art Project
File:IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
File:J.C._Dahl_-_Eruption_of_the_Volcano_Vesuvius_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/1c/J.C._Dahl_-_Eruption_of_the_Volcano_Vesuvius_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
UwHxtswSKjMEFg at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Born in Bergen. Dead in Dresden.
Details of artist on Google Art Project
File:JEAN_LOUIS_THODORE_GRICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_(Museo_del_Louvre,_1818-19).jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_
Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
Unknown Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:James_Ward_-_Gordale_Scar_(A_View_of_Gordale,_in_the_Manor_of_East_Malham_in_Craven,_Yorkshire,_the_
Property_of_Lord_Ribblesdale)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/
James_Ward_-_Gordale_Scar_%28A_View_of_Gordale%2C_in_the_Manor_of_East_Malham_in_Craven%2C_Yorkshire%2C_the_
Property_of_Lord_Ribblesdale%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: twEpmJKUiUDf7w at Google
Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: James Ward
File:Jean-Jacques_Grandville_-_Frenzied_Romans_at_the_First_Performance_of_Hernani_-_WGA10359.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Jean-Jacques_Grandville_-_Frenzied_Romans_at_the_
First_Performance_of_Hernani_-_WGA10359.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
Web Gallery of Art:
<a
href='http://www.wga.hu/art/g/grandvil/caricat1.jpg'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png'
width='20'
height='20'
srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a>
Image
<a
href='http://www.wga.hu/html/g/grandvil/caricat1.html'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Information
icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Jean Ignace Isidore Grard
File:John_Constable_The_Hay_Wain.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/John_Constable_The_
Hay_Wain.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: John Constable Original artist: John Constable
File:John_Henry_Fuseli_-_The_Nightmare.JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/John_Henry_
Fuseli_-_The_Nightmare.JPG License: Public domain Contributors:
wartburg.edu Original artist: Henry Fuseli
File:John_Martin_-_Sodom_and_Gomorrah.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/John_Martin_-_
Sodom_and_Gomorrah.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Former image source [1]; current image source [2] Original artist: John
Martin
File:John_William_Waterhouse_-_The_Lady_of_Shalott_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.
License:
Puborg/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/John_William_Waterhouse_-_The_Lady_of_Shalott_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
lic domain Contributors:
RQHFwa4u2LTw0g at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Tate Images (http:
//www.tate-images.com/results.asp?image=N01543&wwwflag=3&imagepos=2) Original artist: John William Waterhouse

34

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Joseph_Wright_004.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Joseph_Wright_004.jpg License: Public


domain Contributors: Smith College Museum of Art Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby
File:Juliusz_Sowacki_1.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_1.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.polona.pl/dlibra/doccontent2?id=5323&from=latest Original artist: James Hopwood
(1795-1855)
File:Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/ec/Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
tAFrCGFUhXM8Jg at Google Cultural Institute zoom level scaled down from second highest Original artist: Karl Briullov
File:Le_poeme_de_lAme-14-Louis_Janmot-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0497.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
6/6d/Le_poeme_de_lAme-14-Louis_Janmot-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0497.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Rama
Own work Original artist: Louis Janmot
File:Mendelssohn_Bartholdy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Mendelssohn_Bartholdy.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: watercolor painting Original artist: James Warren Childe
File:NiccoloPaganini.jpeg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/NiccoloPaganini.jpeg License:
Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/i/ingres/08ingres.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20'
height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
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Original artist: J. M. W. Turner

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