22nd October 1999

IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF COOLING THE FRONT DISC BRAKE ON

A V8 RACING CAR
Matthew Laskaj and Benjamin Murphy
Supervisor: Professor Kerry Hourigan
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Monash University, Melbourne, AUSTRALIA

ABSTRACT
This project aims to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of the cooling of the front disc brakes on
Glenn Setons V8 RaceCar. This is done by improving
the flow through the cooling duct at the front of the car,
which runs from the front air spoiler to the front brake
discs.

Background

A model of the current set up of the brake cooling

system was constructed and tested to determine areas
where the flows and hence cooling would be improved.
Once these areas were found, modified versions of this
system were constructed and tested to determine how
much more efficient, if at all, the new designs were.
Recommendations for improvements to the system could
then be made.

Ford Tickford Racing (FTR) has measured the heat

generated due to the friction between the brake disc and
brake pad at 750 degrees Celsius. This is close to the
Glass Melting Temperature of the steel used in the brake
disc. At this temperature the steel disc starts the melting
process. The brake disc is often witnessed by the pit
crews to be glowing red. At this temperature the steel
takes on different properties to its ambient temperature.
The steel is easily malleable and often warps with the
heat.

INTRODUCTION
The Australian Touring Car Series rules states that a
competitors car must be adapted from a commercially
produced car with modifications allowed for racing
conditions including performance and safety. These
modifications include the brakes, which consists of the
brake pads, calipers and disc. The standard brake disc is
replaced with a 14-inch diameter hollow disc with vanes
running through the centre. The disc is hollow to allow
air to flow through the centre cooling the disc, with the
vanes adding extra surface area to improve cooling. The
brake pads are special high temperature pads able to
perform with uniform characteristics at the high
temperatures associated with the heat generated from
racing conditions. The calipers are larger to hold the
larger pads and have a greater area in the piston to allow
a greater force to be applied on the disc to give greater
stopping capabilities.
A common problem with high performance V8 racing
cars adapted from the road to the racetrack is over
heating of the brakes leading to brake fade. The kinetic
energy of the vehicle is transformed into heat due to the
friction between the brake pads and disc. The large
amount of energy transformed into heat quickly causes
the brake disc, pads, calipers and surrounds to heat up.
The heat generated is not easily dissipated due to the
confined space. The heat from friction is often left in the
wheel arch. In high performance racing vehicles the heat
in the brake discs is sufficient to cause problems.

Heat

The brake pad material is a closely kept secret. The

estimated materials are titanium mixed with ceramic.
The brake pad is a component designed with a high
Glass Melting Temperature. The brake pad is
consistently at the upper echelon of 750oC and is needs
to be around 550oC in normal racing conditions to
operate effectively. The problem of brake fade occurs
when the brake disc reaches this temperature and the
metal surface loses it required properties for strength
and surface friction. The friction coefficient decreases as
temperature increases. This means more force needs to
be applied from the brake pads onto the brake disc to
achieve the same braking force. Thus more energy is
transferred to heat compounding the problem.
The heat is primarily dissipated by the convection with
the airflow across and through the disc. The heat is also
dissipated by conduction. Conduction decreases as the
temperature increases. At 800oC Low Carbon Steel has a
thermal conductivity value of 35 W/mK, whereas at 0oC
Low Carbon Steel has a conductivity value of 55 W/mK.
This 36% decrease in thermal conductivity inhibits the
dissipation of the heat. At higher temperatures the heat
will actually be localised around the brake pad and
calipers. This means more heat will be radiated but the
radiated heat is marginal even at this temperature. In a
fully enclosed environment like a wheel arch radiated
heat only increases the temperature of the surrounding
air. The air expands causing higher pressures and lower
flow rates. The air will expand and push warm air out

the side of the rim as well as back into the wheel arch
and under the car causing lift.
Convection is the heat transfer process of moving air
across a surface with a higher temperature than the
stream temperature. The velocity at which the air blows
over the disc will influence the heat transfer rate. The
temperature gradient is dependent on the rate at which
the fluid (air in this case) carries the heat away. A high
velocity produces a large temperature gradient. Thus the
temperature gradient at the disc depends on the flow
field. However, as stated above, the physical mechanism
of heat transfer at the disc is a conduction process.

V
a

free stream velocity (m/s)

acoustic velocity (m/s)

For air if M<0.3 then the flow is incompressible. The

Mach number was calculated using a range of velocities
from 10 km/h to 250 km/h. The maximum Mach number
calculated was 0.2 at 250 km/h, hence the flow is always
incompressible. Hence a constant density.
For air at standard conditions, a flow can thus be
considered incompressible if the velocity is less than
about 100 m/s (360 km/h).
No V8 racing car as yet can go this fast so the flow is
considered incompressible.

q = hA(Tw T )


This can also be verified by calculating the Mach

Number.

q = heat transfer (J/s)

h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
A = area (m2)
Tw = temperature at the wall (K)
T
stream temperature (K)


If the Mach Number Ma <0.3 then the flow is considered

incompressible.

If
Approximate values
coefficients are:

of

convection

Flow at 2 m/s over 0.2m plate

12(W/m2K)
Flow at 35 m/s over 0.75m plate
75(W/m2K)

heat

transfer

T = 20oC = 293 K
V = 250 km/h = 70 m/s
Cp = 1005 m2/s2K

Then

T01 = T + V2 = 295 K
2 Cp
Ma2 = 5(T01 1)

T
By increasing the velocity the heat transfer coefficient,
or more importantly the rate of heat transfer increases.
The area has an equally important effect in the rate of
heat transfer.
The aim of this investigation is to increase the cooling of
the brake disc. This can be done by increasing the exit
velocity of air the duct across the disc. As shown on the
above formula, increasing the surface area that the air
blows across will also increase the cooling.
In forced convection as in this case the heat transfer
coefficient is redefined as the average heat transfer
coefficient hbar. The average heat transfer coefficient
takes into account the effect of the velocity of the fluid.
The average heat transfer coefficient calculations
depends on the Stanton Number, Prandtls Number and
Reynolds Number. It is dependent upon whether the air
is turbulent or laminar. This affects the constants
relating the above dimensionless parameters. The heat
transfer coefficient also depends on the Mach number
and if the flow is supersonic or subsonic.

Ma = 0.2 < 0.3

The flows in our duct are around 5 m/s. By reducing the

velocity from 70 m/s, the Mach number becomes even
smaller. This verifies incompressible flow through the
entire duct.
CURRENT SET UP

The current system that FTR uses includes a duct of

varying cross sectional areas from the front spoiler,
which collects the air to the wheel rim, itself finishing
with a 90 degree bend. An orange flexible hosing then
directs the air to a diffuser, which directs the air
perpendicularly onto the brake disc. The airs then
disperses into the wheel well and out through the rim to
atmosphere.

Mach Number

The Mach number was calculated to determine if the

flow was incompressible. The Mach number was
calculated using the acoustic velocity with is a function
of fluid properties and temperature. Using the formula
Ma = V / a
Where: Ma Mach number

FIGURE 1: Wheel well current configuration

A few modifications of the duct configuration have
already been tested by FTR in the wind tunnels. Testing
has included fitting a pressure tapping in the wheel well
while the car was travelling at over 100 km/h. They
found that the pressure didnt increase or decrease which
meant that no air from the brake duct was going into the
well, or if it was it wasnt substantial enough to cause
any pressure variations. The position of the pressure
tapping was important, as it was placed at the top of the
wheel arch away from the wheel rim exit and high above
the bottom of the car where the fast moving air flows
underneath the car. The location of the tapping meant
that very little pressure change was recorded.

6: The suspension and steering gear can not be moved to

increase the airflow. The current set up of running gear
is not negotiable in terms of moving its position.

FTR also attempted to block the passageway for the air

that traveled into the wheel well. This proved a very
difficult operation and not all of the gaps could be filled
due to tight clearances and the number of moving parts.
This attempt was unsuccessful in assisting the flow
through the duct.

HEIGHT: used to simulate the effect of the suspension

of the car.

Constraints

1: Due to the steering and suspension the duct is

occasionally hit by the tyre at full lock. The area for the
duct is limited at this point to a square section of no
greater than 180mm high x 65mm wide. The tyre hits
the duct at 240mm from the entrance of the duct.
2: The flexible ducting has to be used to allow for the
movement in the brake disc and rim with motion
vertically due to suspension movement and horizontally
from the steering movement.
3: The inlet of the duct is fixed by the size of the
entrance on the front of the spoiler. The spoiler has
already been manufactured for this season but next
season this may be changed.
4: The position of the brake pads and calipers is fixed at
the rear of the wheel rim. Obstructing the line between
the calipers and diffuser is the wheel shaft with the
steering arms, drag link, spring and damper. These
obstructions make it difficult for the air to cool the pads
and calipers directly.
5: There is a very small space in the axial direction
between the brake disc and the rim of about 40mm. Fan
blades could be added in this space to increase the flow
through the wheel rim and out to the side of the vehicle.
The blades could be fitted to the five holes in the rim so
the air would run along the blade and out through the
holes in the rim. Unfortunately the gap between the rim
and the brake disc is not enough to place effective length
fan blades. In addition the five gaps in the rim are not
large enough to have an effective area to drag the flow
through. The fan blades have been tried in the past but
were ineffective on touring cars, as they were not large
enough. These blades would not improve the flow,
instead causing extra drag. Fan blades on the rims are
currently used in Indy car racing with good results.

Variables

There are several variables in this sort of problem but

the ones that were chosen to be tested were:

ANGLE OF WHEEL: the steering of the car turns the

wheels and changes the angle of the flexible duct.
VELOCITY OF AIR: the input fan velocity was changed
to give two different input velocities. The outlet is to be
maximised.
AREA AND SHAPE: the duct cross sectional area and
shape are modified on the solutions.
EXPERIMENT

The experimental component was completed to

determine the effectiveness of the duct in delivering air
to the brake disc and to compare alternative solutions.
A full-scale replica of the functioning components
affecting the airflow was built. This includes the wheel
arch complete with brake disc, brake calipers and shaft.
All components can be seen in Appendix A.
The duct was mounted on a stand with the flexible duct
connected to the shaft and brake disc. The wheel rim and
brake disc was mounted on a rotating shaft that was
motorised to simulate the effects of the rim and disc
turning.
Figure 2 below shows the experimental set up and the
positions that the measurements were taken at using the
flow meter (vane anemometer).

Positions
of meter

FIGURE 2: Photo of experimental set up

A layout drawing of the experiment set up and
component dimensions can be seen in Appendix B.
The airflow is courtesy of a three-speed floor fan that
was coupled to the large end of the contraction. The fan
spins at a constant angular speed. The velocity of the air
flow from the fan is small with the largest air flow
velocity being 7m/s. The fan was used at all three speeds
but unfortunately the losses in the duct were too high to
make the air flow undetectable at the lowest speed. The
medium speed was marginal in its readings at the further
end of the system. This speed was used to compare the
losses and ratios of these losses compared to high-speed
flow. This ensures the results are within the range of the
flow meter.

pads. The calipers have only approximately 1/8 of the

total circumference of the disc so its effects are small on
the airflow.
The model of the wheel rim simulates only the inside of
the rim, as the exterior is unimportant to the airflow.
The rim is made of cardboard and medium density fibre
board with holes cut to view the airflow. The holes are
covered with clear plastic to keep the geometry of the
inside of the rim correct. The materials are unimportant
to the functioning of the airflow. The important
consideration is geometric correctness.
The rim, shaft, motor and battery are mounted on a stand
that is separate to the duct stand. This is done so the rim
stand can be turned on an angle to simulate the wheels
turning around a corner.
COMPONENTS

The contraction is 2.3 meters long with side angles of

seven degrees to ensure there is no separation of the
flow. At the end of the contraction, the flow is laminar to
imitate the inviscid flow conditions that are experienced
in real racing conditions.
The duct is mounted on a stand with three separate
height settings to simulate the effect of the suspension.
As the car is braking hard into a corner there is greater
force on the inside wheels so the suspension depresses.
Thus the relative position of the brake disc to the duct
changes in height. The height changes when the car
comes over an inflection in the road. The car continues
on its course but the road drops away so the springs push
down following the road. The suspension drops causing
an increase in height between the duct and brake disc.
The flexible duct is similar to a light helical spring
wrapped in flexible orange PVC. The flexible duct is a
source of large velocity losses due to its corrugated wall
nature. There are small eddy regions behind each
corrugation as the flow separates and flows back into the
void. The flexible duct has a uniform circular cross
section with a mean diameter of 145mm. This duct has
to stretch and bend to suit the conditions that the
suspension goes through.
The diffuser is attached to the flexible duct as well as
the wheel axle. The diffuser is a large sudden expansion
that is 40mm deep and sits 5-10 mm off the brake disc.
This clearance is a working tolerance so the wheel and
brake disc can rotate without the diffuser hitting it. This
clearance means the air can flow out this gap. The
diffusers purpose is to direct the airflow onto the brake
disc.
The brake disc is hollow with vanes separating the two
surfaces. The airflow is directed into the centre of the
brake disc then radiated out to the edge. The brake disc
thus is cooled from the inside as well as the front.
The brake caliper houses and holds the brake pads. The
calipers are mounted on the rear of the wheel arch but is
mounted inside the wheel rim. This position makes it
difficult for servicing and for the airflow to cool the

Details of the existing duct system.

Duct
Material:
Length max:
Radius inlet:
Radius outlet:
Thickness:
Cross-sectional shape:
Colour:

Fibreglass
625mm
55mm
63.5mm
3mm
Circular-Oval-Circular
Blue

Flexible Duct
Material:
Length max:
230)
Diameter:
Thickness:
Cross-sectional shape:
Colour:

PVC, wire
155mm

average(60-

5inches
2mm
Circular
Orange

Diffuser
Material:
Length max:
Width:
Radius inlet:
Thickness:
Colour:

Fibreglass
105mm
180mm
63.5mm
5mm
Black

The current set up can be changed to maximise the flow

across the brake disc.
The diffuser currently only covers one fifth of the total
surface area of the disc. The diffuser rapidly expands the
flow slowing the flow down. Therefore it is better to
direct the high velocity air directly into the centre of the
brake disc. The air can then travel directly through the
disc and out the end of the disc where it hits the rim and
guided out through the wheel rim to atmosphere.

The velocity of the air can be increased by using a

Venturi effect where a contraction accelerates the flow
and reduces the pressure. The higher velocity flow is
more conducive to convective heat transfer. A Venturi
contraction without the expansion leaves high velocity
flow.
Optimising Bends

In optimising a design using circular arc bends of

constant area, only the cross-section and radius ratio are
variables. For most designs the cross-sectional shape is
determined by other considerations and only becomes
important when space is limited as in our case. For a
given duct cross-section and bend section, system losses
are at a minimum when the bend radius ratio is at a
maximum.

1.

Ordinary friction losses which are dependent on the

length diameter ratio of the bend and the relative
roughness

2.

Flow separation on the downstream side of the bend

3.

Secondary flow in the cross sectional plane

associated with centrifugal forces

Figure 4 below shows the flow paths through a bend in a

duct.

A smaller 40mm internal diameter pipe is replacing the

large flexible duct of 5 inch diameter. This means the
angle of curvature in the 40mm flexible ducting is
considerably less. The smaller duct doesnt have to bend
as far as the larger flexible ducting. Thus having a larger
radius reduces the corner losses.
Figure 3 below shows a diagram of the original duct and
flexible tubing with the sharp bend. Shown inside this
duct is the layout of the smaller 40mm diameter tubing
demonstrating the larger radius bend that is possible
within the same space available.
FIGURE 4: Flow through a Bend in a Pipe
Cross-Section

The 40mm internal diameter pipe is not corrugated like

the 5 inch pipe hence the wall friction effect of surface
corrugations is less.
The smaller diameter pipe carries a greater velocity in
the pipe because it has a smaller cross sectional area and
the same flow rate as the larger diameter pipe.

FIGURE 3: overlay of new bend

As a comparison, the original duct has a 90-degree bend,
diameter of 0.1m and radius of corner is 0.035m. From
these values, the loss coefficient k can be found by using
the Table 1, Appendix E. From this, k = 1. For our
modified duct with a diameter of 0.04m and corner
radius of 0.127m, k = 0.096.
There is a much larger loss in the original duct bend of
90 degrees than the 45 degree modified version. For
fully developed flow the head loss of a bend is larger
than for the same length of straight section. The loss in a
bend is due to secondary flow around this region.
Losses in bends result from:

The smaller diameter pipe can be aimed directly into the

interior of the brake disc thus no losses are incurred
through sudden expansions. Getting this close to the disc
will guide the airflow into the centre of the disc and
through the vanes across the other side of the disc
directly onto the calipers and brake pads. This ensures
the airflow cools the pads as well as the disc. Currently
the pads are not cooled. The pads are left to heat up with
the pads being replaced at every opportunity. Pad
deterioration is not a serious concern in racing
conditions. The disc can not be replaced as easily or
inexpensively as the brake pads.
In the modified solutions the square cross section
replaces the oval/circular cross sections. The square
cross section does not change as dramatically as the
original duct. In the new duct there are no expansions as
with the original duct. Expansions cause losses due to
flow separation and back eddies. The irregular change in
cross section gives the flow sudden expansions and
contractions with uneven flow in most parts of the duct.

The flexible duct was replaced with a 40mm diameter

clear flexible duct. The duct comparison on diameter
alone means that the same flow rate through both ducts
will result in greater velocity through the smaller duct.
This is because the cross sectional area is smaller on
second duct hence the velocity increases to keep the
same mass flow rate.
By having a bell shaped mouth, this ensures the greatest
amount of air enters the duct and ensures it enters
evenly.
Hydraulic Diameter

Flow calculations through a non-circular duct cannot be

calculated using standard methods due to a diameter
needed in the calculations. Instead, the hydraulic
diameter must be used. The hydraulic diameter is an
excellent approximation to the diameter especially when
the flow is turbulent.
Dh = 4A

An air dam of maximum length should be used with the

small diameter pipe short as possible.
The losses in a pipe are due to the frictional drag
resulting from direct contact between the moving air and
the stationary solid boundary such as the wall of the
pipe.
A velocity profile is developed from this
occurrence where the velocity of the stream at the wall is
zero and a maximum stream velocity in the centre of the
duct. Losses may also be due to changes of section of the
conduit or changes in direction. Change in direction
causes may give rise to formation of eddies or wakes or
to separation of the main stream from the solid
boundaries. Thus the losses may be classified as
frictional, sometimes referred to as primary, and
separation, or secondary, losses. Separation occurs in
practice whenever there is a change of section, which
includes all constrictions such as valves or a change in
direction such as bends and elbows.
The major loss, Hf, is the energy (or head) loss due to
friction between the moving fluid and the duct. It is also
known as friction loss, given by the formula

Dh = Hydraulic diameter
A = area
= wetted perimeter


The hydraulic diameter for square and rectangular ducts

can be used if the height divided by the width is no
greater than 4. The hydraulic diameter is not suitable for
extreme geometries like triangular cross sections as
secondary flow increase.
The flexible tube has a concertina across its length to
ensure the maximum flexibility to react to the movement
due to steering and suspension. The corrugated sides
have a mean, minimum (root) and maximum (outer)
diameter. The root diameter was used to calculate values
such as Reynolds number. In between each corrugation
there are back flows causing eddies.

Hf = f L V2
D 2g
Hf = friction loss
f = Moody friction factor
L = length pipe (m)
V = velocity (m2)
D = diameter pipe (m)
The head losses in a pipe are proportional to the friction
factor, f.
The loss coefficient, K, for each duct was calculated
separately due to the different geometry of each duct.
This is why the values in the tables do not match up
exactly. Some ducts had a region of straight pipe where
others had no straight section and contracted from the
start to the end of the duct. The loss coefficient for each
part can be seen in the table below.

Losses in Pipes

The head loss of a pipe is independent of the pressure.

The head loss varies almost inversely to the diameter
and varies proportional to the square of the velocity.
Vortex motion results directly from head loss in the
fluid. Streamlining may greatly reduce the vortex motion
and the accompanying energy losses.
The loss coefficient, K, is found experimentally to be
dependent upon the geometry causing the loss and often
the Reynolds Number. For any cross sectional shape the
friction factor in turbulent flow can be expressed as a
simple multiple of a friction factor for flow in a circular
tube at the same Reynolds Number. The frictional
factor f is known as the Darcy Friction factor and is
obtained from the Moody Diagram as seen in Appendix
M.
Smaller diameter pipe with the same velocity results in
greater loss coefficients. Larger diameter, smaller losses.

Losses (K)
Contraction
Duct
Duct Expansion
Duct Contraction 1
Duct Contraction 2
Bend
Flexible Tubing
Diffuser/Bend
Exit

Current System
0.008
0.6
0.02
0.5
0.083
0.5
1

FIGURE 5: Loss coefficients for current set up.

All of the modified ducts of solutions two to five had the
same contraction coefficient (Cc) of 4.78. This is
because they were designed to go from a square section

of 0.155m x 0.155m to a circular section of diameter

0.04m. The contraction coefficient is a ratio of the
upstream and downstream velocities. The smallest area
is known as the vena contracta. The vena contracta is the
minimum area which results when the converging
streamlines begin to expand to fill the down stream area.
The vena contracta is the critical region where the actual
velocity approaches the theoretical velocity. In a smooth
contraction the vena contracta is where the smallest area
occurs. This differs for a sudden contraction.
For turbulent flow in most non-circular shapes a new
phenomenon is found. One that is non existent in the
flow through circular, concentric annular and 2-D
sections. This phenomenon is known as secondary flow,
but its quite distinct in character from the similarly
named feature of flow in bends. The secondary flow in
straight ducts of non- circular section is a transverse
motion superposed on the primary axial flow and is only
manifested under turbulent flow conditions. It arises
because all three components of the fluctuating velocity
are non-zero. The fluctuating velocity components are of
course not present in laminar flow so there is no
secondary flow in the corresponding laminar motion.
Secondary motion tends to smooth out the variations in
wall shear stress around the perimeter of the duct.

local regions of severe adverse pressure gradients, the

flow through contractions can be analised as though
viscous effects were absent.
A second feature of contractions is their ability to reduce
local non-uniformities in the axial velocity profile at a
cross-section. This effect can be seen in the measuring of
velocities through the duct. At the beginning of the
contraction, large variations in the maximum to
minimum values were present for velocities of the
airflow. At the small end of the contraction, the range of
values was much less and there was a far more stable
flow present.
A final aspect of contractions is the effect on turbulence.
The broad effect on the flow passing through the
contraction is for vorticity components aligned with the
axial direction to be stretched and those in the transverse
direction to be compressed. Hence the turbulent velocity
component axial direction is reduced by a factor of
(V1/V2)2, where the transverse components are
increased by a factor of (V1/V2)-1.
Adverse pressure gradients can only be avoided in
infinitely long contractions. K1 small is associated with
slender contractions whose area changes gradually
whereas K large gives rise to stubbier contractions with
a more rapid change of area with axial distance.

Contraction

The arrangement that creates the least amount of loss is

that of a conical contraction in which the cross-sectional
area decreases gradually from A1 to A2 and as a
consequence the velocity increases from V1 to V2.
Unfortunately this is not seen readily in the results as the
fan was not at a constant speed. The backpressure build
up forced the air back out of the fan in a phenomenon
known as secondary flow. The flow is a maximum in the
middle with the flow slowing at the centre and the flow
going backwards along the walls of the contraction.
The contraction is important to the flow of the air. A
long slowly decreasing contraction will yield a steady
laminar flow. A quick decreasing contraction will lead to
turbulent unsteady flow with high viscous forces in the
fluid. As the velocity increases, the enthalpy pressure
and density decrease.
The head loss through a contraction in a pipe is less than
an expansion due to the smaller amount of turbulence.
The energy losses accompanying a decrease in velocity
generally are greater than those associated with an
increase.
The Continuity Principle states that in incompressible
flow there is a corresponding increase in the mean
velocity as the flow passes through the contraction. As in
the equation below:

The viscous properties of the fluid in a contraction can

therefore be broadly described as a region in which the
axial pressure gradient is favourable.
The process of separation is associated with large rates
of dissipation of mechanical energy. Because of their
ability to transfer momentum laterally, turbulent flows
are more able than laminar flows to negotiate regions of
adverse pressure gradients.
Whether or not separation takes place the general effect
of the adverse pressure gradient is to give rise to a
localised region of slow moving fluid stretching away
from the wall. Because of the continuity condition which
is applied over the whole cross-sectional area the axial
flow velocities must necessarily increase elsewhere in
order to compensate for this effect. There is a tendency
for flows to become increasingly non-uniform whenever
the axial pressure gradients are encountered. This is
found to be the case for flow in bends, diffusers etc. as
discussed below.
Diffuser/Expansion

The diffuser has a greater loss of energy and depends

upon wall roughness but more importantly, the
expansion angle . If the angle is sufficiently large,
separation of the fluid stream occurs and the losses are
increased substantially.


The critical value of max at which separation occurs

depends on Reynolds number as can be seen below.


V1A1 = V2A2
One feature of a contraction with inviscid flow is that
when considering wall profiles which do not give rise to

Re
max


5 x 104
10


10 x 104
8.5


15 x 104
7.5


20 x 104
6.5


If the angle is greater then the expansion must be treated

as a sudden expansion.
Sudden Expansion

In a sudden expansion, eddies form in the corners. They

are mainly responsible for the energy loss because of the
high kinetic energy in them. The energy is constantly
being dissipated as heat. The stream of fluid diffuses
gradually as eddies are formed.

Solutions 2 to 5 redesign the entire duct system. Each

solution has a different ducted section geometry and all
4 solutions use the same flexible tubing section, which
replaces the flexible tubing with a 40mm diameter
section of smooth tubing, 210mm long. All solutions
begin with a 155 x 155mm square section.
Solution 2 has a straight cross section of 155 x 155mm
for 215mm from the entrance then reduces
symmetrically as a square cross-section to 40 x 40mm
circular section. The sides reduce at an angle of 15
degrees each. Hence the total contraction angle is 30
degrees.
Solution 3

This solution begins square and reduces to 40 x 40mm

in two sections. The first reduction is made by
contracting to a 155 x 40mm section in the horizontal
plane then reduces to fit constraint number one. Finally
contracts to 40 x 40mm in the vertical plane. Therefore
this profile goes from square, to rectangle, to square to a
40mm diameter circular section.
This solution was based on the theory that low flow in a
wide duct with a sharp contraction at the end has smaller
overall losses than a long, steady contraction. The
beginning of the duct slopes in gradually with a rapid
contraction at the end. There are no sharp corners as
they are rounded with a reasonable radius. This was
done to eliminate any obvious separation points.
Solution 4

FIGURE 6: Formation of Eddies

SOLUTIONS
A description of the ducts used for possible solutions are
described below. Each one is designed to minimise
losses by utilising the behaviour of airflow through ducts
described in previous sections.
Each duct can be seen in Appendix, A Figures 17 to 21.
Solution 1

This solution uses the existing duct system configuration

and components, except that one major addition has
been made. At the end of the flexible tubing where the
diffuser is located, a bend has been placed to direct the
flow across the disc towards the centre of the disc and
also towards the caliper.
The major advantage of this configuration is that the
flow doesnt hit the brake disc perpendicularly. It is
directed by a curved section across the disc. This reduces
losses in the flow enormously by keeping a continual
flow in the duct system instead of it coming to a virtual
stop which creates a large back pressure. It also directs
the air across the disc to remove heat more effectively
through the convection process.

Solution 4 is based on the same theory as solution 3

except with the difference that the wide ducted section is
longer than for solution 3. The duct is a square cross
section for half of its length and then slopes in rapidly to
form the contraction.
Solution 5

This solution is based on Solution 2. However the main

difference is that instead of a rather sharp contraction
angle of Solution 2 with a long ducted section, this
solution has no ducted section. Instead, it is one long,
gradual contraction.
Constant Diameter Pipe

This solution was designed and built to have a reference

to compare our solutions to a constant diameter duct.
This duct can also be compared to the original duct
system. There are no contractions or expansions on this
duct and only a 45-degree bend at the end. This duct has
a bend which is a miter elbow consisting of four miters
each at 11.25-degrees angle. Therefore this duct should
have very little losses and more or less a constant flow
throughout its length. Theoretically this duct should be
the best resulting flow with minimum losses. However it
is impractical as it would not fit in the car itself. It was
designed only as a reference point, or as a benchmark.

Solution 2

RESULTS
Effect of Angle

As the angle of the wheel increases, the angle of the

bend in the flexible duct decreases. Thus there is less
diversion of the flow and a greater velocity is
experienced.

However, there is a lower loss coefficient in the large

diameter pipe than in the small diameter pipe. This is
still true even if the velocities are the same. This is
because the loss coefficient is calculated by dividing by
the diameter. Therefore a smaller diameter pipe will
always have a larger loss coefficient.
K = f (L/D)

For example, as the angle decreases to the flexible pipe decreases the flow.


the bend in

Effect of Height

The height of the duct changes with the suspension. This

affects the flexible duct by bending in the vertical axis.
The bending in the vertical axis was measured to have a
height range of 200mm. The three displacements in this
experiment were 0, 100 and 200mm.
The loss coefficients will not vary for the bend in the
flexible tubing for Position 6 at 0mm and Position 1 at
200mm. This is because Position 4 is the reference
point, or height at which the tubing is horizontal at
100mm. Therefore the height is effectively -100mm at
Position 6 and +100mm at Position 1.
Loss Coefficients

Shown in Appendix H are the loss coefficients for each

duct and their components. The table has been set up to
compare components and their corresponding losses
individually and not as an entire system for reasons as
described above.
The contraction for all duct systems has the same loss
coefficients because the same contraction is used for all
models from the fan to the duct.
All of the duct solutions have differing aspects. Some
have straight sections, some have one contraction, some
have two contractions and some have a diffuser. From
the table it can be seen that the smallest loss coefficient
is for a contraction as described earlier. Therefore it is
better to go from as large a diameter as possible in order
to scoop or collect as much air as possible and then
reduce down to the size needed to fit through each
region on the car.
It can also be seen from this table that according to the
results the reduction configuration with the least losses
is that for solution 3, based on the theory that low flow
in a wide duct with a sharp contraction at the end has
smaller losses than a long, steady contraction. The
beginning of the duct slopes in gradually with a rapid
contraction at the end.
As expected, there are significantly lower losses in the
bend with a smaller diameter pipe due to a greater
radius of bend and smaller diameter pipe. This is shown
in the graphs in Appendix I. The bend losses are
dependent upon the angle, the radius of the bend and
diameter of the bend.

All of the exits have a loss coefficient of 1, no matter

what shape they are. However, every configuration
except for solution 1 hits the brake disc at a 90-degree
angle or at 45 degrees for solutions 2 to 5. There are
very large losses involved in this type of configuration,
especially for 90-degrees. The values in the loss
coefficient table for these were approximated as
equivalent to that of a very sharp bend while for solution
1 the exit bend was much smoother with a larger radius.
Therefore the losses are considerably smaller for
solution 1.
Head Loss

The head loss is measured in metres and is due to

friction. The friction occurs in wall friction and viscous
forces in the secondary flows. The head loss for each
component was calculated using the loss coefficient (K),
velocity and gravity. The overall head loss for
incompressible flow is given by the sum of the
individual head losses whilst the change in static head in
the duct is given by Bernoullis equation. The head loss
can then be added to obtain the total head loss for each
duct. The V2/2g part of the coefficient is known as the
velocity head.
As can be seen in Appendix on the graphs 1 to 3 the
head losses are plotted for each duct cumulatively. It is
seen that the duct with the highest exit flow velocity had
the highest total head loss. This is due to the velocitysquared term in the equation for head loss
HL = KV2
2g
and the unity value of 1 for the loss coefficient at any
exit, the total head loss for any system is high when the
velocities at these sections are large.
The current set up has the lowest head loss. This is due
to the low velocities corresponding to the high loss
coefficient regions, at the bend and at the exit. Vice
versa, there are high velocities occurring at the low loss
coefficient regions such as the contraction and in the two
duct sections.
Due to the inconsistency in the airflow provided by the
fan and not being able to take pressure measurements,
the total head losses for each system is not a very
feasible or accurate way to compare results from duct to
duct. To get a better idea of which system is more
efficient, it is better to compare each component of the
system individually for each solution. For example, is it
better to have a large diameter pipe with a small radius
bend or a small diameter pipe with a large radius bend?

This way each component can be demonstrated as more

efficient and hence more effective. Once this is
determined, the most efficient components in the system
can be joined to form one single duct depending on the
feasibility of the design (taken into consideration
constraints such as space restrictions).
Velocity Profiles

While measuring velocity flows throughout the duct

system, flows were found not to be uniform along cross
sections throughout the entire system. Because of this,
measurements were taken for the duct and also the
flexible tubing cross sections. These velocity profile
diagrams can be seen in Appendix F for the existing set
up and Appendix G for the modified solutions.
In order to provide consistent results, velocity readings
were taken at the same positions and also at the same
depth for both the existing and modified systems. In the
flexible duct measurements were always taken at the
center to minimise the effects of eddies, except where
noted otherwise.
As the velocity increases the drag of the flow increases
according to the formula
Cd =


the wheel well it will be sucked underneath the car

causing lift. The racing cars have plated that produce a
drop in pressure that essentially sucks the car to the
road. If these plates are filled air from the wheel well
they lose their effectiveness and all downward force is
lost. The flow could be encouraged to go out through the
rim by blocking off the gap to the inside of the wheel
well. Unfortunately the only way to do this is to mount a
circular disc to the inside of the rim. The problem is the
brake calipers are an intrusion. The clearance is also
needed to service the brakes and replace the rims / tyres.
An alternative is to have higher pressure in the wheel
well. The high-pressure air could force the air out
through the rim but the problem of a high pressure in the
wheel well is that the air will be sucked underneath the
car. The wheel well is a low-pressure region on the car.
A cross section of the existing flexible section was also
taken. The velocity was measured in five points; top,
bottom, left, right and center. The flow was always
maximum at the center with a maximum flow of 6.31
m/s at -30 degrees. The corrugations on the flexible
tubing had a profound effect on the velocity of the outer
regions of flow.

v2

The drag reduces the velocity of the flow. Therefore the

drag should be minimised. The high velocity flow should
travel in the shortest length pipe possible. This leaves a
sufficiently large air dam to provide power to the high
velocity duct.

The disruptions in the flow were due to the change in

the cross section and duct configuration. These
disruptions in flow cause the following to occur in the
duct.
Separation occurring at the corrugations
Secondary flow
Viscous dissipation of energy
Adverse pressure gradients
Localised regions of slow moving fluid


Current Set Up

In the middle section of the existing duct the velocity

was always found to be highest at the bottom. The
outside section also had quite high flows. In each case
the top of the duct was the slowest with the inside also
quite slow. The maximum flow in the ducted section
was 6.19 m/s at the bottom at 30 degrees.

By altering the duct and flexible tubing cross sections

configuration, different flow profiles were developed.
Solution 1

The velocity profiles for the exits can be seen in

Appendix G, Diagrams 1 5. With the modification of
the curve on the diffuser the flow was found to be fastest
at the top and the bottom of the disc surface with low
flow in the center. This low flow in the center is mainly
due to the wheel axle blocking the flow. This axle
disrupts the flow causing a high-pressure region in front
building up the pressure upstream slowing the velocity
down.
The highest flow was recorded at 5.54 m/s at the bottom
of the disc at 15 degrees.
FIGURE 7: Cross-section of Wheel Rim Assembly
Showing Directions of Flow
Once the air hits the rim it can go two ways: it can either
go left back inside the wheel well or right out through
the rim and down the side of the car. It is preferred the
flow goes out through the rim. If the air goes back into

Solution 2 - 5

For each different solution a velocity profile was taken

as can be seen in Appendix G diagrams 6-13.
Solution 2 had mainly constant velocities around the
outside of the tubing and slowed down through the

10

inside region. The maximum for the outside at high

speed was 5.4 m/s with 3.6 m/s through the inside. This
was similar for the low speed with 3.83 m/s on the
outside and 2.3 m/s on the inside.
For Solution 3 the greatest flows were recorded in the
bottom outside corner. The flow then slowed down in
the center with lowest flows in the top inside corner.
This is an even velocity profile with maximum to
minimum change approximately linearly.
Solution 4 showed the velocity changing from a
maximum on the outside to a minimum on the inside of
the duct. The flow was very stable with a range of only 1
m/s. At low flow the profile was similar with a range of
only 1.5 m/s.
For Solution 5, the greatest flows were on the bottom
left side with the lowest flows being through the center
as with most of the other solutions. A maximum of 6.1
m/s for the high speed bottom section and 2.7 m/s in the
center.

The positions where measurements were taken are listed

below. The corresponding numbers match up with those
in the graphs.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Start of Contraction
End of Contraction
Centre of Duct
Start of Flexible Tubing
End of Flexible Tubing/Diffuser
Wheel Rim to Well
Wheel Rim to Atmosphere

From the graphs, it can be seen that the system with the
highest flow is Solution 1 and Solution 3 with just over
6 m/s, with the lowest being Solution 2 with a maximum
of 4.2 m/s.

Constant Diameter Duct

From the graphs of the original set up it shows that after

position 4 (the flexible tube) that the flow rate decreases
rapidly. From this it appears that the reason for this
sudden flow decrease is from the components after the
flexible tubing, that is the tubing itself, the diffuser and
the exit. However, this is not entirely the case.

This duct was built to compare flows for ducts with

losses to that with the lowest amount of losses possible,
although not entirely practical. The duct was tested at
two speeds being high and low speeds. This was done to
determine if the results were accurate over a speed
range. The outlet profile was recorded at five places
being centre, outside, inside, top and bottom. The results
can be seen in Appendix G diagrams 14 and 15. The
highest speed recorded was 4.66 m/s at the outside with
the fan on high.

If we compare the original set up in position 6 and the

same set up without the wheel assembly we can see
where the differences lie. There is a significant decrease
in velocity of around 2 3 m/s after the 90-degree bend.
However, this is not entirely true because of the bend
and following components. Without the wheel there is
only a marginal drop in velocity at these positions for
+30 and 30 degrees. For the other 3 angles of 15, 0
and +15 degrees the velocity actually increases by 23%
up to 6.5 m/s.

The centre of the duct was the next highest speed. This
is consistent on both graphs. Unusually on low speed the
highest speed was recorded at the bottom. The lowest
speed was recorded at the outside, which is the opposite
to the high-speed graph.

This demonstrates the inefficiency of the design of the

exit region of the diffuser and hitting the disc at 90degrees. This end region creates a build up pressure in
the tubing and duct. The pressure build up then
increases the pressure upstream known as backpressure.
The backpressure is responsible for the reduction of
velocity on these graphs which makes it different to the
values without a wheel.

Fan

A profile of the fan was taken to determine the region of

maximum velocity. The velocity profile was taken for
two speeds being low and high. The flow was found to
be a maximum approximately halfway along the blades,
at 5.27 m/s on high speed and 4.99 m/s on low speed.
The flow was very slow in the center of the fan and
consistently recorded at speeds of less than 1 m/s. At the
tip of the fan blades the speeds were moderately high
with velocities of around 2.5 m/s on high speed.
Knowing that the flows were highest mid way along the
fan blade, measurements were taken in this position for
the start of the contraction.
Velocity Graphs

For each system, graphs have been plotted of the

Position Vs Flow (m/s) as shown in Appendix C for the
existing duct and Appendix D for the solutions. These
graphs represent the flows associated with the coinciding
positions so that each system can be compared.

This comparison demonstrates how misleading

information can be if it is just taken to be correct. From
this comparison, the measurements taken for each
solution to follow were done so without the wheel
assembly. This way a more accurate indication is given
of losses in the system components.
Solution 1
This was the only solution to be measured with the
wheel assembly attached. The reason behind this was
that the same measurements should be obtained either or
without the wheel. At the end of the flexible tubing is a
bend to direct the flow across the disc rather than hitting
it at 90-degrees. Because of this the flow follows a
continuous path and doesnt hit any restricting barriers.
Therefore this plot can be compared directly to the
original graphs with the wheel assembly attached.

11

As seen, the velocity of the flow is much faster than the

original duct configuration. However, the only difference
between the two is the addition of a bend in the place of
the diffuser. This comparison in maximum velocities
demonstrates the amount of losses that the flow hitting
the brake disc perpendicularly causes. By altering this
region of the duct alone, the flow increases by 35% in
the duct and 25 35% at the exit.
Solution 2

This configuration doesnt reach as high a velocity as

any of the other solutions. There are large losses in the
contraction region causing a build up of pressure in this
area. From here, the flow can not recover and reach a
high enough speed to warrant the reduction in diameter.
Solution 3

This duct reaches the highest velocity of all the duct

configurations. This shows that the contraction used for
this duct is the most effective, the flow speeding up from
0.5 to 6.5 m/s through this section.
Solution 4

This duct also has an effective contraction design,

raising the speed from 1.5 to 5.5 m/s through this region.
This design is very similar to that used in Solution 3 but
the duct region is longer. It is a cross between Solution 2
and Solution 3.

From the graphs it is evident that the head loss is

greatest at the exit as would be expected. This is
because the loss coefficient is 1 and multiplying by the
velocity square results in a large head loss. The second
largest region of head loss is in the duct itself.
The effect of the wheel angle on head loss is significant
at + 30 degrees and 30 degrees. Both of these
consistently recorded higher head losses than the other
three angles. As expected, 0 degrees recorded the lowest
head loss for two out of the three results.
When the duct is bent at +15 or +30 degrees the losses
are higher because of the bend rather than the surface
friction of the corrugated duct.
As the height of the wheel is reduced, the head loss
decreases by the same proportion for all regions. The
shape remains the same for all three heights. In position
1, the largest total head loss is 2.4, for position 4 it is 1.4
and for position 6 it is 1.
Velocity Percentage Increase

Due to the inconsistent nature of the fan, the best way to

eliminate these effects is to calculate the ratio of
increase from the inlet velocity at the start of the
contraction to the end of the duct at the exit. These
values are shown in Figure 4 below.

Solution 5
Velocity %

Current Soln1 Soln2 Soln3 Soln4 Soln5 Soln6

The flow through this constant sloped duct is increasing

at much the same rate as the original contraction that
leads the air into the duct. This linear increase in
velocity continues more or less through the entire duct,
acting as one large continuous contraction. There are no
regions where the flow is greatly obstructed such as
expansions or sharp bends.

Inlet

1.07

1.3

1.21

3.23

3.69

0.43

1.02

Outlet

1.97

3.5

4.34

6.35

5.61

5.73

4.33

169

313

96

52

1232 3.31

Constant Diameter

The greatest overall increase was for solution 5, the

gradual contraction. This increase was helped by a large
backpressure due to the contraction that reduced the
velocity at the fan. However, it did not have the largest
exit velocity even though it had the largest percentage
increase. Solution 2 and 3 had the lowest increase even
though they had the least amount of head loss.

This graph shows a much more uniform flow. There are

no great losses in the system and no contractions to
increase the velocity of the flow.
Head Loss Graphs

Steep sections in the cumulative head loss graphs

indicate it is an inefficient region since the loss is at a
maximum in that area. The final point indicates the total
head loss through the duct. These plots can be seen in
Appendix J with the tables of values shown in Appendix
K.
Knowing where the areas of maximum head loss are
allows for greater effectiveness in determining what
regions of the duct need greater improvement. The flow
can then be improved in this region.

% Increase 84

FIGURE 8: Table of Percentage Increase Over the

Duct

Errors

With any experimental procedure there will a certain

error involved. This experiment was no exception but
care was taken to ensure the most accurate results were
acquired. The following errors were present:


While readings were taken, the flow velocity

fluctuated due to turbulence. A maximum,
minimum and average reading was taken of each
velocity with the averages plotted. The overall

12

average error for the difference between maximum

and minimum values away from the mean was
calculated to be 0.138 m/s. This equates to an
error of 2.2% for each air velocity flow reading.
The error on the loss coefficients was calculated to
be 3.2%. This was calculated from the error in
measuring the lengths of the duct using a steel ruler
with an associated error of 0.5mm. This the most
accuracy that could be measured using the ruler.
The Head Loss error was calculated to be 9.7%.
This is higher than the other errors because the
Head Loss calculations depend upon both the loss
coefficient and the velocity parameters. The
velocity term is squared in the Head Loss formula
thus compounding the error.
The flow anemometer has rotating vanes with speed
proportional to the flow velocity. This meter is
accurate to within
of the measured value.
The flow meter restricts the flow in order to
measure it. The loss in pressure due to this
restriction is 0.00145 x flow2(m/s).
The fan used was a conventional household floor
fan. It did not provide a uniform, steady flow output
through the duct, especially when there was a lot of
backpressure. To account for this inconsistency, the
flow through the back of the fan was measured to
determine how consistent the forward thrust was.


"

The associated error values are shown in the table in

Appendix L.

FEASIBILITY WITH REAL LIFE SOLUTION

This project was undertaken with the aim of improving
the flow and cooling of the brakes on Glenn Setons
racing car with Ford Tickford Racing. Therefore the
results obtained must be related back to the feasibility of
using the findings on the car itself. They are useless if
for example the findings are very good but the duct
wont physically fit in the car.
The duct configurations used for solutions 2 to 5 can not
directly be used on the car itself. These solutions were
designed and tested so that the configurations and
components used could be compared with the existing
components and losses calculated. In order for these to
be used on the car, the theory and results are still
applicable. The geometry must be altered slightly to fit
in the car. Accurate drawings are not available for this
section of the car so exact designs can not be made of
the sizes and angles.
The current duct is made by fitting it to the car and
determining if there is any room available to increase
sizes such as the diameter or if there are any restrictions.
Due to the amount of tight clearances and moving parts,
it is easier to manufacture the ducts this way rather than
drawing the components exactly.

RECOMENDATIONS
With the possible redesign of the front spoiler before
next season constraint 3 described in the constraints
section (position of entrance) is no longer applicable.
The entrance to the duct could be redesigned. A bell
shaped entrance could be designed to ensure a maximum
flow of smooth laminar flow into the duct. This would
increase the pressure in the duct before it contracts into
the flexible duct. Higher pressures will increase the
velocity of the flow as the cross sectional area is
decreased.
The brake pads and calipers could be placed at the front
of the wheel rim where they could be easily reached by
the airflow. The airflow would be most beneficial here
to remove the heat. The heat around the calipers is
stagnant because there is no air velocity around the
calipers in the current set up. The calipers would cool
with air being blown around them causing convection of
the heat.
The addition of a fan blade design of the wheel rims
would cause a lower pressure on the inside of the wheel
rim and higher pressure outside. The blades would suck
the air out through the rim and down the side of the car.
This has the advantage of reducing the amount of air
going into the wheel arch and eventually under the car.
This improves the overall airflow through out the
system. The design of the fan blades could increase the
area between blades so there is a greater area for the air
to get through. The rim design could utilise the full
limitations of racing constraints and be manufactured to
the full width. This translates to 10mm be added to the
blade dimension in the axial direction out to the edge of
the tyre. The blade dimensions could also go back 40mm
as well. This combined effect adds 50mm to the blade
width. This extra width would add strength to the wheel
rim. The main disadvantage of this design is the cost.
The rims currently in use cost $750 each and are
currently made in Italy. They are uniform throughout the
racing car industry, as they are the only ones not to
break.
Remove obstructions to reduce the backpressure build
up so the air can flow freely. This will increase the
downstream air velocity, thus increasing the cooling
through convection.
FURTHER TESTS
There are a number of further tests that could be carried
out to determine the effectiveness of the recommended
solutions.
Using a wind tunnel would greatly improve the scope of
the experiment. The wind tunnel would allow for air to
be rammed into the front spoiler and hence into the duct.
Thus the effects of the fan and the contraction are
eliminated. The wind tunnel would give a greater range
of velocities that could be tested. Given the range of air
velocities available to the wind tunnel the real life
conditions of high speeds up to 200km/hr could be
tested.

13

One further improvement that could be added is to add a

nozzle at the end of the tube to increase the velocity of
the flow further, but also decreasing the area that the
stream covers.
CONCLUSION
The practical component of the experiment was
successful in determining the direction and magnitude of
the flow out of the duct into the wheel arch and out
through the rim.
The air flowing through the duct is effectively dammed
with insufficient space and poor geometry reducing the
flow through the system. As the airflow slows down the
pressure builds up by the air behind it pushing it. The
air continues to back up and pressure builds reducing the
velocity upstream and hence the effectiveness of the
entire duct.
The advantages in using a Venturi shaped inlet duct are
an increased air velocity that greatly improves the heat
convection away from the disc enabling it to operate
underneath its glass temperature.
Theoretical results are an excellent method of
determining where improvements can be made and
showing regions of major loss. However, they should not
be used solely. Experimental results should also be used
to show visually the behaviour of the flow and also to
compare these results to those calculated theoretically.
Once these have been determined, the most effective and
efficient systems can be designed as described above.

Abdel-Fattah, A.M., "Wind tunnel tests on jindavik air

intake duct with and without an auxilary
intake" 1992.
Bradshaw P. Experimental Fluid Mechanics 1970
Carter, W.G., Gasiorek, J.M., Mechanics of fluids for
Mechanical Engineers
Blackie and Son, London, 1st Edn., 1967.
Crocker, S., Piping Handbook
McGraw-Hill Book Company, London, 4th
Edn., 1945.
Fox, R.W., McDonald. A.T., Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics
John Wiley & Sons, Brisbane, 4th Edn., 1994.
Gerhart, P.M., Gross, R.J., Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics
Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Sydney,
1st Edn., 1985.
Gerhart, P.M., Gross, R.J.
Hochstein,
J.I.,
Fundamentals
of Fluid Mechanics
Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Sydney,
2st Edn., 1992.
Holman J.P. Heat Transfer
McGraw-Hill, Sydney, 7th End., 1992.
Moran, M.J., Shapiro, H.N., Fundamentals of
Engineering Thermodynamics
John Wiley & Sons, Brisbane, 2nd Edn., 1993.
Miller, D.S., Internal Flow: A guide to losses in pipe
and
duct systems
British
Hydromechanics
Research
Association, Bedford, 1st Edn., 1971.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank-you to the people at Ford Tickford Racing for
their continued assistance with the project, especially to
Glenn Seton for his continued support and reliable
source of information.
Phil from PA fast glass the duct manufacturer
Dr. David Fotheringham from Technical and Scientific
Equipment and Dr. Chris Bloore from Dairy Process
Engineering Centre for assistance with the vane
anemometer.

Peerless, S.J., Basic Fluid Mechanics

Permagon Press, Sydney, 1st Edn. 1967.
Potter, M.C., Wiggert, D.C., Fluid Mechanics
Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1st Edn., 1991.
Sinnott, R.K., Chemical Engineering Volume 6
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2nd Edn.,
1996.
Streeter, V.L., Handbook of Fluid Dynamics
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1st Edn., 1961.
Streeter, V.L., Wylie, E.B., Fluid Mechanics
McGraw-Hill, Sydney, 1st Edn., 1983.

REFERENCES

Streeter, V.L., Wylie, E.B., Bedford, K.W., Fluid

Mechanics
McGraw-Hill, New York, 9Th Edn., 1998.

14

Ward-Smith. A.J., Internal Fluid Flow

Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1st Edn., 1980.
Whitaker, S., Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Prentice-Hall, Sydney, 1st Edn., 1968.
White F.M. Fluid Mechanics
McGraw-Hill, Sydney, 3rd Edn., 1994.
Cooler Disc Brakes: CFX Update CFD Fluid
Engineering Solutions No. 17 Spring 1999
Hardie-Ferodo, Pty. Ltd., "Industrial brakes and clutches
with automotive examples" Kensington, 1976.
Ducted Model Aircraft Magazine 1998 and 1999
issues

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Photographs of Components
Appendix B: Drawings of Components
Appendix C: Velocity Graphs: Current Duct
Appendix D: Velocity Graphs: Duct Solutions
Appendix E: Velocity Tables
Appendix F: Flow Profile Diagrams Existing System
Appendix G: Flow Distribution Diagrams Solutions 1 to
5
Appendix H: Loss Coefficient Tables
Appendix I: Bend Loss graphs
Appendix J: Head loss graphs
Appendix K: Head Loss Tables
Appendix L: Error Tables
Appendix M: Moody Diagram

15