MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

16MECH82H

Dr. Mohamed Lotfy Taha

Lecturer, Mechanical Engineering
BUE
mohamed.lotfy@bue.edu.eg
AY2016-17 S1

INDICATIVE CONTENTS
Fundamentals of measurements: measurement units, measurement system applications,

elements of a measurement system

Sensors, Transducers, and Transmitters
Instrument Types and Performance Characteristics: static, dynamic and calibration
Data acquisition systems
Signal Conditioning

References: Refer to course specs

COURSE MATERIALS

Course Material (Course Notes, Handouts, and Homeworks) on (E-learning) Web Page of the course.
Office Hours:Wednesday 10:00 12:00

Email: mohamed.lotfy@bue.edu.eg

PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE:
Problem-Solving Technique:
A.

Known

C.

Assumptions

B.

Find

D. Schematic
E.
F.

Analysis, and
Results

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM APPLICATIONS

IMPORTANCE OF MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS
For a displacement measurement: 10 to 20 different type of instruments (ranges, accuracies, principles)

The instrument may not be available in the market and for some purpose, the engineer has to design his own

instrument.

Power Plant (material, energy, signal) monitoring

MEASUREMETNS ARE THE BASIS OF ANY CONTROL SYSTEM

Significant Results of Measurements are

Fundamental data for research, design and development,

Basic input data for control of processes and operations,

Data for safe and economic performance of systems.

FUNDAMENTALS OF MEASUREMENTS
INTRODUCTION: BASIC TERMENOLOGY
A measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a physical variable/quantity.

a measurement is the evaluation of a quantity made after comparing it to a quantity of the

same type which we use as a "unit".

the field of knowledge concerned with measurement is called Metrology

a measurement system is used to extend the abilities of the human senses.

The goal of a measurement system is to convert the sensed information into a form that

can be easily quantified.

unless we have a standard we cannot assign a number.

For example: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, torque, flow, pressure, temperature,

level etc. are the mechanical quantities.

INSTRUMENTATION
Instrumentation: refers to a group of permanent systems which help us measure objects and maintain

control of a process. In this sense, instruments and systems of measurement constitute the "tools" of
measurement and metrology.

The device used for measurements is called instrument. Instrument is made up by joining basic function

elements (transducer, transformer, converter, power amplifier, modulator, integrator .etc.)

INSTRUMENT CLASSIFICATION

Element Mechanical, Electrical, Electronical, optical, Pneumatic or hydraulic

Display Analog, Digital

Principle of function open loop (Mechanical pressure gauge), closed loop (Electronic pressure gauge).

SENSOR VS. TRANSDUCER

The word sensor is preferred for the initial measurement device because transducer represents a device that

converts any signal from one form to another. It changes one physical quantity to another physical quantity.
(thermocouple: Temperature Voltage)

All sensors are transducers, but not all transducers are sensors.

CALIBRATION

Calibration affords the opportunity to check the instrument against a known standard and subsequently to

reduce errors in accuracy.

Comparison with a gauge of known accuracy, which is higher than the instrument to be calibrated.

CALIBRATION
The relationship between the value of the input to the measurement system

and the systems indicated output value is established during calibration of the
measurement system.

The quantity to be measured being the measurand, which we call m, the sensor

must convert m into an electrical variable called s. The expression s = F(m) is

established by calibration. By using a standard or unit of measurement, we discover
for these values of m (m1, m2 mi ) electrical signals sent by the sensor (s1, s2 ... si
) and we trace the curve s(m), called the sensor calibration curve.

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ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy of a system can be estimated during calibration. If the input value of

calibration is known exactly, then it can called the true value. The accuracy of a
measurement system refers to its ability to indicate a true value exactly. Accuracy is
related to absolute error, :
= true value indicated value

from which the percent accuracy is found by

Precision: or repeatability of a measuring system refers to the ability of the

system to indicate a particular value upon repeated but independent applications

of a specific value input. Precision of a measurement describes the units used to
measure something.

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ACCURACY AND PRECISION

It is impossible to make a perfectly precise measurement.

Accuracy can be improved up to but not beyond the precision of the instrument by

calibration.

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PRECISION AND BIAS ERRORS

Precision Error is a measure of the random variation found during repeated

measurements.

Bias (Systematic) Error is the difference between the average value in a series of

repeated calibration measurements and the true value.

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ERROR ESTIMATION

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TERMS USED IN INSTRUMENT RATING

Resolution: The smallest increment of change in the measured value

that can be determined from the instruments readout scale. The

resolution is often on the same order as the precision; sometimes it is
smaller.

Sensitivity: The change of an instruments output per unit change in the

measured quantity. Typically, an instrument with higher sensitivity will

have also finer resolution, better precision, and higher accuracy.

Range: The proper procedure for calibration is to apply known inputs

ranging from the minimum to the maximum values for which the
measurement system is to be used. These limits the operating range of
the system.

Hysteresis: An instrument is said to exhibit hysteresis when there is a

difference in reading on whether the value of the measured quantity is

approached from above or below.

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ELEMENTS OF A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Detector-transducer or sensor stage

Intermediate or signal conditioning
stage
Readout stage
Feedback control stage (optional)

Ref: Richard, Theory and design of Mechanical Measurements

ELEMENTS OF A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Detector-transducer or sensor stage: (comes into contact with the

measured parameter.)

The physical variable to be measured is detected.

Signal is transformed into more usable form.

Intermediate or signal processing stage:

The transduced signal is modified by one or more basic operations, such as

amplification, filtering, differentiation, integrating or averaging, etc.

Terminating or readout stage: (pointer on a dial, flickering, siren,

oscilloscope, storage unit)

Acts to indicate, record or control the variable being measured. Output may

be analog or digital.

Feedback control stage:

In those measurement systems involved in process control, feedback control

stage contains a controller that interprets the measured signal and makes a
decision regarding the control of the process.

MEASUREMENT UNITS
Metric system

Imperial system

Volume

Density

Force

Work

in3

lb/in3

lb

lb ft

liter

3
SI system of units m

gm/cm3

kg/m3

kgf

Newton

velocity

kW h

km/h

Joul

m/s

ft/s

Refer to Appendix I: Morris, A. S., Langari, R., Measurement and Instrumentation. Theory and Application,

Butterworth Heinemann, 2011.

DEFINITIONS OF STANDARD UNITS

FUNDAMENTAL SI UNITS

DERIVED SI UNITS

SOME PREFIXES OF MULTIPLES OF SI UNITS

EXAMPLES OF STANDARD ORGANIZATIONS

International Organization for standardization (ISO)

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Standards Council of Canada (SCC)
British Standards (BE)