Christoph Wasshuber

Computational Single-Electronics

SpringerWienNewYork

Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Single-Electronics - Made Easy 1
1.2 A Historical Look Back 5
2 Theory 9
2.1 Orthodox Single-Electron Theory 9
2.1.1 Thermodynamic Formulation 12
2.2 Time and Space Correlations 18
2.3 Master Equation of Electron Transport 19
2.4 Extensions to the Orthodox Theory 22
2.4.1 Cotunneling 22
2.4.2 Influence of the Electromagnetic Environment 25
Quantum Langevin Theory 25
Phase Correlation Theory 27
2.4.3 Different Materials - Different Density of States 31
Discrete Energy Levels 32
2.4.4 Superconducting Tunnel Junctions 33
Quasiparticle Tunneling 34
Parity Effect 34
Andreev Reflections 34
Coherent Cooper Pair Tunneling 35
2.4.5 Self-Heating 37
2.4.6 Image Charge 42
3 Simulation Methods and Numerical Algorithms 48
3.1 Monte Carlo Method 48.
3.1.1 Time-Dependent Tunnel Rates 55
3.1.2 Deterministic Model 58
3.1.3 Random Numbers 58
Linear Congruential Generators 60

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3.2

3.3
3.4
3.5

3.6

3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12

Contents

Lagged Fibonacci or Shift Register Generators 62

Inverse Congruential Generators 64
Resolution Limit for Rare Tunnel Events 66
Solution of the Master Equation 67
3.2.1 Krylov Subspace Approximate of the Matrix Exponential
Operator 70
3.2.2 Schur-Frechet Algorithm 73
Coupling with SPICE 77
Free Energy 79
Tunnel Transmission Coefficient 85
3.5.1 Analytic Solutions 87
3.5.2 Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin Approximation 89
3.5.3 Piecewise Potential Approximation 90
Three Dimensions 91
Transfer Matrix versus Scattering Matrix 92
Piecewise-Constant Potential Approximation 94
Piecewise-Linear Potential Approximation 99
3.5.4 Finite Differences with Continued Fraction 101
3.5.5 Finite Elements 105
3.5.6 Detour via the Time-Dependent Schrodinger Equation 106
Finite Differences 107
Spectral Method 109
Energy Levels 110
3.6.1 Analytic Solutions 110
3.6.2 Bohr-Sommerfeld Quantization Rule 111
3.6.3 Piecewise Potential Approximation 112
Transmission Line Analogy 112
3.6.4 Finite Differences with Continued Fraction 113
3.6.5 Time-Dependent Solutions 115
Evaluation Schemes for Cotunneling 116
Rate Calculation Including Electromagnetic Environment 117
3.8.1 Network Impedance Calculation 121
Numerical Integration of Tunnel Rates 121
Time-Dependent Node Voltages and Node Charges 122
Stability Diagram and Stable States 123
Capacitance Calculations 126
3.12.1 Analytic Formulas 127
3.12.2 Capacitance of Ellipsoid, Elliptic Disc, and Circular
Disc 129
3.12.3 Image Charge Method for Spheres 132
Capacitance of Two Equal Spheres 133
Capacitance of an Arbitrary Arrangement of Spheres 135
Capacitance of Two Intersecting Spheres - Capacitance by
Inversion 137

Contents

3.12.4 Source Point Collocation Method 139

3.12.5 Stochastic Capacitance Calculation for Rectangular
Geometries 143
4 Circuits and Applications 147
4.1 Fundamental Circuits 147
4.1.1 Single-Electron Transistor 147
4.1.2 Single-Electron Turnstile 155
Asymmetric Turnstile 156
4.1.3 Single-Electron Pump 157
4.1.4 Linear Array of Junctions 158
4.1.5 Two-Dimensional Array of Junctions 161
4.2 Metrology Applications 161
4.2.1 The Quantum Metrology Triangle 162
4.2.2 Electron Pump - Current Standard 163
4.2.3 Supersensitive Electrometer 164
4.2.4 Single-Electron Proximity Probe 166
4.2.5 Coulomb Blockade Thermometer 166
4.3 Memory 167
4.3.1 Single-Electron Flip-Flop 168
4.3.2 Electron Trap Memory 169
4.3.3 Ring Memory 172
4.3.4 Background-Charge-Independent Memory 172
4.3.5 Single-Island Memory 174
4.3.6 Multiple-Island Memory 175
4.3.7 T-Memory Cell 177
4.3.8 Combinatorial Access Memory 178
4.3.9 Switch-Source-Sink Memory 180
4.3.10 Negative Differential Resistance Flip-Flop 180
4.3.11 Multivalued Memory from Asymmetric Tunnel
Junctions 180
4.3.12 Nanocrystal Memory 182
4.4 Logic 183
4.4.1 Transistor-like Design - Voltage State Logic 184
4.4.2 Bits by Single Electrons - Charge State Logic 186
Binary-Decision Diagram 187
Lattice Gas Machines 190
Systolic Processors 191
4.4.3 Quantum Cellular Automata 191
4.4.4 Wireless Logic 195
4.4.5 Tunneling Phase Logic 196
4.4.6 Parametron Logic 200
4.5 Interfacing to CMOS 202
4.6 Exotic Circuits 202

Contents

4.6.1 Neuronal Networks 203

4.6.2 Boltzmann Machines 206
4.6.3 Mixed Bag 208
Negative Differential Resistance 208
Digital-to-Analog Converter 211
Asymmetric Tunnel Barriers 212
4.7 Evolutionary Circuit Design 213
5 Random Background Charges 217
5.1 The Good Side of High Charge Sensitivity 218
5.2 Solutions on the Material Level 219
5.3 Solutions on the Device Level 220
5.3.1 Refresh for Single-Electron Logic 220
5.3.2 Coulomb Oscillations 222
5.3.3 Resistive Elements 222
5.3.4 One- and Two-Dimensional Island Structures
5.4 Solutions on the Circuit and System Level 225

223

6 Manufacturing Methods and Material Systems 226

6.1 Shadow Evaporation 227
6.2 Step-Edge Cutoff 228
6.3 Nanoimprint 230
6.4 Planar Quantum Dots 231
6.5 Scanning Probe Microscopy 231
6.6 Granular Films 232
6.7 Self-Assembled Structures 233
6.8 Outlook 233
Appendixes 235
A Fermi's Golden Rule 235
B Capacitance and Resistance Extraction from Measured Data
C Analytic Solutions of the Cotunneling Rate 238
D Algorithms from Number Theory 246
E Convex Hull of Point Set 248
F Analytic Capacitance Calculation 248
References 257
Subject Index 275

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