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Machine Design & Design Considerations

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Chapter

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Machine Design & Design Considerations

Machine Design &Design Considerations

TOPICS

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE DESIGN

CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINE DESIGN
DESIGN PROCESS
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1.5

AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN

1.6

1.5.1 Guidelines in Aesthetic Design

1.5.2 Aspects of Aesthetic Design
ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN

1.7

1.8

1.6.1 Areas Covered Under Ergonomics

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MAN (USER) AND
MACHINE
1.7.1 Design of Displays
1.7.2 Ergonomic Considerations in Design of
Displays
1.7.3 Design of Controls
1.7.4 Ergonomic Considerations in Design of
Controls
WORKING ENVIRONMENT

Page
No

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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE DESIGN

The term design can be defined as the formulation of a plan for the satisfaction of
human need. Design means to create something new or arrange existing things in a
new order to satisfy a recognized need of society.
Mechanical engineering design essentially means the design of the parts, products and
systems of mechanical nature. It deals with all the disciplines of mechanical
engineering, such as, machine design, thermal engineering, fluid power engineering,
refrigeration and air conditioning, etc.
Machine design deals with the design of machines, mechanisms and their elements.
The design of machines or mechanisms ultimately comes to the design of their
individual elements.
Machine Design is the process of selection of the materials, shapes, sizes and
arrangements of mechanical elements so that the resultant machine will perform the
prescribed task.
Design of machine element can be defined as the selection of material and the values
for independent geometrical parameters so that the element satisfies its functional
requirements and undesirable effects and kept within the permissible limits.
The concept of machine design is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Concept of Machine Design

For example, the process of design of a belt drive consists of

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1. Selection of arrangement of mechanical elements such as pulleys, belt, shafts, keys,

bearings, etc.
2. Selection of shapes of these mechanical elements;
3. Selection of materials for these mechanical elements; and
4. Selection of sizes of these mechanical elements.
Most of the problems in mechanical engineering design or specifically in machine
design, do not have a unique right answer. There is nearly endless number of workable
designs, none of which could be called an `incorrect' answer. But of the `correct'
answers, some are obviously better than others.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINE DESIGN
On the basis of methods used and objectives, the machine design can be classified
broadly as follows [Fig. 1.2]

Fig. 1.2 Classification of Machine Design

1. System Design

System design is the design of any complex mechanical system. Each mechanical
system consists of number of sub-systems and each sub-system consists of number of
mechanical elements.
Examples of the system design are design of car, design of EOT crane, design of
conveyer, etc.
2. Product Design

Product design is the design of a product which is a sub-system of any mechanical

system. Examples of the product design are design of gearbox, design of brake, design
of clutch, etc.
3. Element Design

Element design is the design of any mechanical element which is a part of mechanical
sub-system or product Examples of element design are design of gear, design of shaft,
design of key, etc.
4. Empirical Design

Empirical design is the design using empirical formulae and relations. These empirical
formulae are developed based on the past experience and practice.

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Empirical design is preferred where design equations are not available or are too
complex.
Empirical design does not involve too many calculations and is normally too much on
the safer side. Examples of empirical design are design of gear box casing and design
of machine tool body.
5. Optimum Design

For any design problem, a large number of design solutions are available which fulfill
the requirements.
An optimum design is the best design solution from the possible design solutions.
An optimum design minimizes the undesirable effects like cost, weight, size, etc or
maximizes the useful parameters like load carrying capacity, power transmitting
capacity, etc.
6. Computer Aided Design

In computer aided design, computer system is used to assist in the creation,

modification, analysis, and optimization of a design.
1.3 DESIGN PROCESS

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Fig. 1.3 Design Process

The general procedure that is followed in machine design is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. It
consists of following steps
Step 1 Definition of Problem
Define the design problem giving all input parameters, output parameters, and
constraints.
Step 2 Synthesis
Once the problem is defined, the next step is synthesis. Synthesis is the process of
selecting or creating the mechanism for the machine and the shapes of the mechanical
elements so as to get the desired output with given input.
Step 3 Analyses of Forces
Draw the force body diagram of each element of the machine. Find out the forces
(including moments and torque) acting on each element by force analysis.
Step 4 Selection of Material
Select the suitable material for each element. Four basic factors that are to be
considered while selecting the material are availability, cost, mechanical properties,
and manufacturing considerations.
Step 5 Determination of Mode of Failure
Before finding out the dimensions of the element, it is necessary to know the type of
failure by which the element will fail when put into the use.
Step 6 Selection of Factor of Safety
Select the factor of safety based on the application. Knowing factor of safety and
material strength, determine the permissible or design stresses.
Step 7 Determinations of Dimensions
Find the dimensions of each element of the machine by considering the forces acting
on the element and the permissible stresses.
Step 8 Modifications of Dimensions
Modify the dimensions of the elements on the higher side, if required, based on the
following considerations
(i) Selection of standard parts available in the market;
(ii) Convenience of assembly; and
(iii) Convenience of manufacturing.
Step 9 Preparations of Drawings
Prepare working drawing of each element or component with minimum two views
showing following details

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(i) Dimensions;

(ii) Dimensional tolerances;

(iii) Surface finish;

(iv) Geometrical tolerances; and

(v) Special production requirements like heat treatment.

Prepare assembly drawing giving part numbers, overall dimensions, and part list.
The component drawing is supplied to the shop floor for manufacturing purpose, while
assembly drawing is supplied to the assembly shop.
Step 10 Preparation of Design Report
Prepare design report containing details about step 1 to step 8.
1.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design considerations are the characteristics which influence the design of the element
or, perhaps, the entire system. Normally, a number of such characteristics have to be
considered in any design problem.
In a given design problem, the design engineer should identify the various design
considerations and incorporate them in the design process in their order of importance.
For example, in the design of a spring, two most significant design considerations are
strength and stiffness. Some of the important design considerations are as follows
1.

Strength

2.

Rigidity

4.

Safety

5.

Cost

7.

Ergonomics

8.

3.

Reliability
6.

Aesthetics

Weight
9. Manufacturing

10. Conformance to Standards

11. Assembly

13.

14.

Vibrations

15.

Thermal Considerations

16. Lubrication

17.

Maintenance

18.

Flexibility

19. Size and Shape

20.

Stiffness

21.

Corrosion

Life

12. Friction and Wear

22. Noise
The various design considerations, listed above, are discussed as follows
1. Strength

The machine elements are subjected to any one or combination of loads like forces,
bending moments, and torque. A machine element should have sufficient strength to
avoid failure either due to yielding or due to fracture, under the loads.
2. Rigidity

A machine element should have sufficient rigidity so that its linear as well as angular
deflections, under the loading, are within the permissible limits.
3. Reliability

The reliability is defined as the probability that a component, system, or device will
perform without failure for a specified period of time under the specified operating
conditions. A machine element should have reasonably good reliability so that it can
perform its function satisfactorily over its life span.

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4. Safety

A machine element should be designed such that it ensures safety of the users and
machine.
5. Cost

The life cycle cost of the machine element consists of production cost, operating cost,
maintenance cost, and disposal cost. A machine element should have a minimum
possible life cycle cost.
6. Weight

A machine element should have a minimum possible weight.

7. Ergonomics

Ergonomics is defined as the scientific study of the man-machine-working environment

relationship and the application of anatomical, physiological, and psychological
principles to solve the problems arising from this relationship.
The objective of ergonomics is to make the machine fit for user rather than to make the
user adopt himself or herself to the machine. If the user in likely to communicate
directly with the machine element, it should be designed with an ergonomic
considerations.
8. Aesthetics

Aesthetics deals with the appearance of the product. In a present days of buyer's
market, with a number of products available in the market are having most of the
parameters identical, the appearance of the product is often a major factor in attracting
the customer. This is particularly true for consumer durables like automobiles,
domestic, refrigerators, television sets, music systems, etc.
9. Manufacturing

In a design of machine element, the selection of manufacturing processes must be

given a due importance. The manufacturing processes should be selected such that the
machine element can be produced with minimum manufacturing cost and, as far as
possible, with existing manufacturing facilities.
10. Conformance to Standards

A design of machine element should conform to the national and / or international

standards and codes.
11. Assembly

A machine element or a product should be designed such that it facilitates to minimize

the assembly cost and time.
12. Friction and Wear

Friction and wear are major contributing factors for reducing the life of machine
elements and increasing the power loss. The friction can be reduced by improving the
surface finish, adequately lubricating the surfaces, and replacing the sliding motion by

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rolling motion. The wear can be reduced by increasing the surface hardness.
13. Life

A machine element should be designed for an adequate life.

14. Vibrations

A machine element should be designed so as to keep the vibrations at minimum level.

15. Thermal Considerations

A machine element should be able to withstand the temperature to which it may be

subjected. In addition, it should dissipate the heat generated, if any.
16. Lubrication

In a design of machine elements, due consideration must be given for the lubrication of
the elements, if there is relative sliding or rolling motion between the elements.
17. Maintenance

A machine element should be such that it can be easily repaired or serviced.

18. Flexibility

A machine element should be flexible so that the modifications can be carried out with
minimum efforts.
19. Size and Shape

As far as possible, standard sizes and shaped should be adopted for machine element.
20. Stiffness

Whenever stiffness is a functional requirement like in springs, a machine element

should be designed with a precise value of required stiffness.
21. Corrosion

A machine element should be a corrosion resistance. This can be achieved by a proper

selection of material and adapting the surface coating.
22. Noise

A machine element should be designed such that the noise during operation is at
minimum possible level.
1.5 AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN
Each product is to be designed to perform a specific function or a set of functions to the
satisfaction of customers. The parameters that are normally considered by the
customer while selecting the product are
1.

Functional Performance

2. Durability

3.

Initial and Running Costs

4.

Ability to Withstand Adverse Conditions

5.

Service Support Available

6.

Comfort to User

7.

Appearance

In a present days of buyer's market, with a number of products available in the market

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are having most of the parameters identical, the appearance of product is often a major
factor in attracting the customer.
This is particularly true for consumer durables like automobiles, domestic refrigerators,
television sets, music systems, etc.
Aesthetics is defined as a set of principles of appreciation of beauty. It deals with the
appearance of the product. Appearance is an outward expression of quality of the
product and is the first communication of the product with the user.
At any stage in the product life, the aesthetic quality cannot be separated from the
product quality.
The growing importance of the aesthetic considerations in product design has given
rise to a separate discipline, known as industrial design. The job of an industrial
designer is to create new shapes and forms for the product which are aesthetically
appealing.
1.5.1 Guidelines in Aesthetic Design
For any product, there exists a relationship between the functional requirement and the
appearance of a product. The aesthetic quality contributes to the performance of the
product, though the extent of contribution varies from the product to product.
For example, the chromium plating of the automobile components improves the
corrosion resistance along with the appearance. Similarly, the aerodynamic shape of
the car improves the performance as well as gives the pleasing appearance.
The following guidelines may be used in aesthetic design (design for appearance)
1. The appearance should contribute to the performance of the product. For example,
the aerodynamic shape of the car will have a lesser air resistance, resulting in the
lesser fuel consumption.
2. The appearance should reflect the function of the product. For example, the
aerodynamic shape of the car indicates the speed.
3. The appearance should reflect the quality of the product. For example, the robust
and heavy appearance of the hydraulic press reflects its strength and rigidity.
4. The appearance should not be at too much of extra cost unless it is a prime
requirement.
5. The appearance should be achieved by the effective and economical use of
materials.
6. The appearance should be suitable to the environment in which the product is used.
1.5.2 Aspects of Aesthetic Design
The various aspects of the aesthetic design, which are discussed below, are also
related to functional requirements, ergonomic considerations, manufacturing
considerations, assembly considerations and cost, in addition to the aesthetic
considerations. These aspects are not very rigid.

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1. Form (Shape)

2. Symmetry and Balance

3. Color

4. Continuity

5. Variety

6. Proportion

7. Contrast

8. Impression and Purpose

10. Material and Surface Finish 11. Tolerance

9. Style
12. Noise

There are five basic forms of the products, namely, step, taper, shear, streamline and
sculpture, as shown in Fig. 1.4. The external shape of any product is based on one or
combination of these basic forms.
(i) Step form the step form is a stepped structure having vertical accent. It is similar to
the shape of a multi-storey building.
(ii) Taper form the taper-form consists of tapered blocks or tapered cylinders.

Fig. 1.4 Basic Types of Product Forms

(iii) Shear form

the shear form has a square outlook.

(iv) Streamline form the streamline form has a streamlined shape having a smooth flow
as seen in automobile and airplane structures.
(v) Sculpture form the sculpture form consists of ellipsoids, paraboloids and
hyperboloids.
2. Symmetry and Balance
Most of the life forms in the nature are approximately symmetrical about at least one
axis. The human eye is thus conditioned to see the things in symmetrical form and
tends to reject asymmetrical shapes as ugly. Hence in many products, symmetry about
at least one axis improves the aesthetic appeal of the product. However, wherever
functional requirement demands asymmetry, balance in the product improves the
aesthetic feeling.

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Fig. 1.5 Arrangements of Control Panel

Fig. 1.5 shows three arrangements of a control panel

(i) Arrangement (a) it is symmetrical but is ergonomically poor, as control knobs are
placed on either side of the panel.
(ii) Arrangement (b) It is ergonomically good but looks unbalanced because bulk of the
display mass is towards the right of the panel, and hence aesthetically poor.
(iii) Arrangement (c) It is ergonomically good as well as aesthetically pleasing because
of the sense of balance of mass about the central axis.
3. Colour
Color is one of the major contributors to the aesthetic appeal of the product. Many
colors are linked with different moods and conditions. The selection of the color should
be compatible with the conventions. Morgan has suggested the color code given in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Morgan color Code

color

Meaning
Danger, Hot

Red

Orange

Possible
Danger

Yellow

Caution

Green

Safe

Blue

Cold

Grey

Dull

4. Continuity
A product which has good continuity of elements is aesthetically appealing. For
example, a fillet radius at the change of cross section adds the continuity to the
product, and hence improves the appearance, as shown in Fig. 1.6.

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(a) Poor Appearance

(b) Better Appearance

Fig. 1.6

5. Variety
Variety is particularly useful while marketing the range of products. The variety relieves
the user of the boredom. For example, in consumer appliances, the functionally
identical products are manufactured in a number of varieties by a single manufacturer.
6. Proportion
Proportion is concerned with the relationship, in size, between connected items or
elements of items.

(a) Poor Appearance

(b) Better Appearance

Fig. 1.7 Spanner

The product which is out of proportion is not aesthetically pleasing. Normally, the
proportions of the product are developed from the sound functional requirements, but
can sometimes override the functional aspect. The spanner, shown in Fig. 1.7(a),
satisfies
the
functional
requirement
and
is
also easy to manufacture. But it is out of proportion, and hence poor in appearance.
The spanner shown in Fig. 1.7(b) is in proportion and aesthetically pleasing.
7. Contrast
Contrast is a distinction between the adjacent elements of the product which have
clearly different characteristics and functions. The contrast improves the aesthetic
appeal of the product.
8. Impression and Purpose
The product not only should look nice but also should look as if it will work. The product
should give the impression of the satisfactory performance or purpose. The taper shape
gives the impression of strength and stability as shown in Figs.1.8 and 1.9 respectively.

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Machine Design & Design

(a) Impression of Weakness

Fig. 1.8

(b) Impression of Strength

(a) Impression of Instability

(b) Impression of Stability

Fig. 1.9

Similarly, the streamline shape gives the impression of speed.

9. Style
Style is a visual quality of the product which sets it apart from the rest of the
functionally identical products. Good style will skillfully reflect a current public mood,
which may be influenced by the technological developments, or by a prevailing social
or environmental climate.
10. Material and Surface Finish
The material and surface finish of the product contribute significantly to the
appearance. The material like, stainless steel gives better appearance than the cast
irons, plain carbon steels or low alloy steels. The brass or bronze give richness to the
appearance of the product. The products with better surface finish are always
aesthetically pleasing. The surface coating processes like spray painting, anodizing,
electroplating, etc. greatly enhances the aesthetic appeal of the product.
11. Tolerance
Proper tolerance of the mating parts improves the aesthetic appeal of the product.
Unwanted clearance or interference hampers the aesthetic appeal.
12. Noise
Unwanted noise is disturbing and is suggestive of some malfunction within the product,
and hence it greatly reduces the aesthetic appeal.
1.6 ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN
In a machine design, the machine is considered as an entity in itself. However, in
reality, the man (operator), machine and working environment form the system and
this system needs to be considered as a single unit. Ergonomics is defined as the
scientific study of the man-machine-working environment relationship and the

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application of anatomical, physiological and psychological principles to solve the

problems arising from this relationship. The word ergonomics is formed from two
Greek words ergon (work) and nomos (natural laws).
The final objective of the ergonomics is to make the machine fit for user rather than to
make the user adapt himself or herself to the machine. It aims at decreasing the
physical and mental stresses to the user.
1.6.1 Areas Covered Under Ergonomics
The different areas covered under the ergonomics are
1. Communication between Man (User) and Machine;
2. Working Environment;
3. Human Anatomy and Posture While Using the Machine; and
4. Energy Expenditure in Hand and Foot Operations.
1.7 COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MAN (USER) AND MACHINE
Fig. 1.10 shows the man-machine closed loop system. The machine has a display unit
and a control unit.
A man (user) receives the information from the machine display through the sense
organs. He (or she) then takes the corrective action on the machine controls using the
hands or feet. This man-machine closed loop system in influenced by the working
environmental factors such as lighting, noise, temperature, humidity, air circulation,
etc.
The communication system between the man (user) and the machine consists of the
displays and the controls. The man-machine system has two important units
1.

Displays

2.

Controls

The considerations in the design of the displays and the controls are discussed below

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Fig. 1.10 Man-Machine Closed Loop System

1.7.1 Design of Displays

Displays are the devices through which the man (user) receives the information from
the machine.
A good display device is one which allows the proper combination of speed, accuracy
and sensitivity of display. The display devices can be broadly classified into two
categories
1.

Qualitative Displays

2.

Quantitative Displays

The displays which indicate only the condition or state without giving the values are
known as qualitative displays. The examples of the qualitative displays are traffic
signals and on-off indicators. The qualitative displays are of following types
(i)
Circular dials [Fig. 1.11(a)];
1.11(b)]; or
(iii)

(ii)

Straight

legend

Colored lights [Fig. 1.12].

(a) Circular Dial

(b) Straight Legend
Fig. 1.11 Qualitative Display by Pointer

Fig. 1.12 Qualitative Display by Colored Lights

The qualitative display by a light can be made more effective by the use of flashing
light, sometimes accompanied by the auditory warning.
2. Quantitative Displays

[Fig.

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The displays which give the quantitative measurements or numerical information are
known as quantitative displays. The examples of the quantitative displays are
voltmeters, ammeters, speedometers, energy meters, watches, etc. The quantitative
displays are of the following types
(i) Moving pointer - fixed scale type displays [Fig. 1.13];
(ii) Fixed pointer - moving scale type displays [Fig. 1.14]; and
(iii) Digital displays [Fig. 1.15].
(i)Moving pointer - fixed scale type displays
The moving pointer - fixed scale type displays [Fig. 1.13] are easy to read than the fixed
pointer - moving scale type displays [Fig. 1.14], and hence they are more common in
use.

(a) Circular Scale

Vertical scale

(b) Semi-circular scale

(c) Horizontal scale (d)
Fig. 1.13 Moving Pointer-Fixed Scale Type
Displays

(ii) Fixed pointer - moving scale type displays

Whenever the values are to be read over the wide range, the fixed pointer-open
window type displays [Fig. 1.14(b) and (c)] are more efficient than the moving pointerfixed scale type displays.

(a) Circular Scale

Window with

(b) Open Window with

(c) Open

Horizontal Scale
Vertical Scale
Fig. 1.14 Fixed Pointer-Moving Scale Type Displays

(iii) Digital displays

The digital display [Fig. 1.15] is most accurate of all the displays.

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Fig. 1.15 Digital Display

1.7.2 Ergonomic Considerations in Design of Displays

The basic objective in the design of the displays is to minimize the fatigue to the user.
The ergonomic considerations in the design of the displays are as follows
1. The scale should be clear and legible.
2. The size of the numbers or letters on the scale should be taken such that,
Height of the number or letter
3. The scale should be divided in a linear progression such as 0 10 20 30 and not
as 0 5 25 45..
4. The number of subdivisions between the numbered divisions should be as minimum
as possible.
5. The vertical numbers should be used for the moving pointer type displays with
circular scales as shown in Figs. 1.13(a) and 1.13(b), while the radially oriented
numbers should be used for the fixed pointer type displays with circular scales as
shown in Fig. 1.14(a).
6. The vertical numbers should be used for the vertical and horizontal scales as, shown
in Figs. 1.13(c), 1.13(d), 1.14(b) and 1.14(c).
7. The numbering should be in clockwise direction on a circular scale, from left to right
on a horizontal scale and from bottom to top on a vertical scale.
8. The pointer should have a knife-edge with a mirror in a dial to minimize the parallax
error while taking the readings.
9. When a display and its associated control are to be placed near each other, the
control device should be placed either below or to the right of the display, as shown in
Fig. 1.16, so that the user's hand, operating the control is less likely to interfere while
reading the display.
10. Whenever straight scales are to be used, the horizontal scales are preferred over
the vertical scales because the vertical scales are more prone to the reading errors.

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(a) Control Device below Display

(b) Control Device to the Right of
Display
Fig. 1.16 Arrangements for Easy Reading of Display

1.7.3 Design of Controls

Controls are the devices through which the man (user) conveys his instructions to the
machine.
Selection of control devices
The type and size of the control device selected for a given application depends upon
the following factors
1. The required speed of operation;

2. The required accuracy of the control;

3. The required operating force;

5. The required direction of the control; and

4. The required range of the control;

6. The convenience of the user.

Types of controls
The various types of controls used in machines are Crank, hand-wheel, star-wheel
hand-lever, foot pedal, knob, push-button, toggle switch, joystick, etc. (Refer Fig. 1.17).

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Fig. 1.17 Types of controls

1.7.4 Ergonomic Considerations in Design of Controls

The ergonomic considerations in the design of the controls are as follows
1. The control devices should be logically positioned and easily accessible.
2. The control operation should involve minimum and smooth moments.
3. The control operation should consume minimum energy.
4. The portion of the control device which comes in contact with user's hand should be
in conformity with the anatomy of human hands.
5. The proper colors should be used for control devices and backgrounds so as to give
the required psychological effect.
6. The shape and size of the control device should be such that the user is encouraged
to handle it in such a way as to exert the required force, but not excessive force,
damaging the control or the machine.
1.8 WORKING ENVIRONMENT
The working environment affects significantly the man-machine relationship. It affects
the efficiency and possibly the health of the operator. The major working environmental
factors are
1. Lighting,

2. Noise, 3. Temperature,

4. Humidity and Air Circulation

1. Lighting
The amount of light that is required to enable a task to be performed effectively
depends upon the nature of the task, the cycle time, the reflective characteristics of the
equipment involved and the vision of the operator.
Codes of practice are available that recommend the amount of light necessary for a
certain task.
The intensity of light in the surrounding area should be less than that at the task area.
This makes the task area the focus of attention.
Operators will become less tired if the lighting and color schemes are arranged so that
there is a gradual change in brightness and color from the task area to the
surroundings.
The task area should be located such that the operator can occasionally relax by
looking away from the task area towards a distinct object or surface.
The distinct object or surface should not be so bright that the operator's eyes take time
to adjust to the change when he or she again looks at the task.
Glare often causes discomfort and also reduces visibility, and hence it should be
minimized or if possible eliminated by careful design of the lighting sources and their
positions.
2. Noise

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The noise at the work place causes annoyance, damage to hearing and reduction of
work efficiency. The high pitched noises are more annoying than the low pitched noises.
Noise caused by equipment that a person is using is less annoying than that caused by
the equipment, being used by another person, because the person has the option of
stopping the noise caused by his own equipment, at least intermittently. The industrial
safety rules specify the acceptable noise levels for different work places. If the noise
level is too high, it should be reduced at the source by maintenance, by the use of
silencers and by placing vibrating equipment on isolating mounts. Further protection
can be obtained by placing the sound-insulating walls around the equipment.
If required, ear plugs should be provided to the operators to reduce the effect of noise.
3. Temperature
For an operator to perform the task efficiently, he should neither feel hot nor cold.
When the heavy work is done, the temperature should be relatively lower and when the
light work is done, the temperature should be relatively higher.The optimum required
temperature is decided by the nature of the work. The deviation of the temperature
from the optimum required reduces the efficiency of the operator.
4. Humidity and air circulation
Humidity has little effect on the efficiency of the operator at ordinary temperatures.
However, at high temperatures, it affects significantly the efficiency of the operator. At
high temperatures, the low humidity may cause discomfort due to drying of throat and
nose and high humidity may cause discomfort due to sensation of stuffiness and over
sweating in a ill-ventilated or crowded room. The proper air circulation is necessary to
minimize the effect of high temperature and humidity.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.

What is machine design?

2.

Classify the machine design.

3.

Explain the various phases involved in the process of design of machine

elements.

4.

What is synthesis?

5.

Explain the various considerations influencing the machine component design.

6.

Explain the importance of aesthetic considerations in design.

7.

What is aesthetics in design?

8.

State the guidelines to be followed in aesthetic design.

9.

Discuss the aesthetic considerations in design with respect to

(i) Shape
balance

(ii) Color

(iii) Surface finish

(iv)

System and

MIME 4222 Engineering Design II (ACT)

Considerations

1-22

Machine Design & Design

10.

Distinguish between 'machine design' and 'ergonomic design'.

11.

Explain the term 'ergonomics'.

12.

Which areas are covered under ergonomics?

13.

Explain man-machine relationship. How working environment does affect this

relationship?

14.

What are the different types of displays?

15.

State the ergonomic considerations in the design of displays.

16.

What are the different types of controls?

17.

State the ergonomic considerations in the design of controls.