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1385

ANSI / IEEE C37.2 Device Numbers

ANSI/IEEE Device Numbers
Protective relays are commonly referred to by standard device numbers. For
example, a time overcurrent relay is designated a 51 device, while an
instantaneous overcurrent is a 50 device. Multifunction relays have
combinations of device numbers. A 27/59 device, for example, is a
combination under/over voltage relay. Letters can be added to clarify
application (87T for transformer differential, 59G for ground overvoltage).
Standard Electrical Power System Device Function Numbers
Device
Description

A device, such as a control switch, etc., that serves,

either directly or through such permissive devices as
protective and time-delay relays, to place equipment
in or out of operation.
master element
NOTE This number is normally used for a handoperated device, although it may also be used for an
electrical or mechanical device for which no other
function number is suitable.

A device that functions to give a desired amount of

time delay
time delay before or after any point of operation in a
2 starting or closing switching sequence or protective relay system, except
relay
as specifically provided by device functions 48, 62,
79, and 82.
A device that operates in response to the position of
one or more other devices or predetermined
checking or
conditions in a piece of equipment or circuit, to allow
3
interlocking relay an operating sequence to proceed, or to stop, or to
provide a check of the position of these devices or
conditions for any purpose.

A device, generally controlled by device function 1 or

the equivalent and the required permissive and
protective devices , that serves to make and break
master contactor
the necessary control circuits to place equipment into
operation under the desired conditions and to take it
out of operation under abnormal conditions.

A control device used primarily to shut down

equipment and hold it out of operation. (This device
stopping device may be manually or electrically actuated, but it
excludes the function of electrical lockout [see device
function 86] on abnormal conditions.)

starting circuit
breaker

A device whose principal function is to connect a

machine to its source of starting voltage.

10

11

rate-of-change
relay

A device that operates when the rate-of-change of the

measured quantity exceeds a threshold value, except
as defined by device 63 (see 3.1.63).

control power
disconnecting
device

A device, such as a knife switch, circuit breaker, or

pull-out fuse block, used for the purpose of
connecting and disconnecting the source of control
power to and from the control bus or equipment.
NOTE Control power is considered to include auxiliary
power that supplies such apparatus as small motors
and heaters.

A device that is used for the purpose of reversing a

reversing device machine field or for performing any other reversing
function.
unit sequence
switch

A device that is used to change the sequence in which

units may be placed in and out of service in multipleunit equipment.

multifunction
device

A device that performs three or more comparatively

important functions that could only be designated by
combining several device function numbers. All of the
functions performed by device 11 shall be defined in
the drawing legend, device function definition list or
relay setting record.

12 overspeed device

13

synchronousspeed device

14 underspeed device

A device, usually direct connected, that operates on

machine overspeed.
A device such as a centrifugal-speed switch, a slipfrequency relay, a voltage relay, an undercurrent
relay, or any other type of device that operates at
approximately the synchronous speed of a machine.
A device that functions when the speed of a machine
falls below a predetermined value.

A device that functions to match and hold the speed

speed or
or frequency of a machine or a system equal to, or
15
frequency
approximately equal to, that of another machine,
matching device
source, or system.
16
17

not used

Reserved for future application.

shunting or
A device that serves to open or close a shunting
discharge switch circuit around any piece of apparatus (except a
resistor), such as a machine field, a machine
armature, a capacitor, or a reactor.
NOTE This excludes devices that perform such
shunting operations as may be necessary in the
process of starting a machine by devices 6 or 42 (or

their equivalent) and also excludes device function 73

that serves for the switching of resistors.
18

accelerating or A device that is used to close or cause the closing of

decelerating
circuits that are used to increase or decrease the
device
speed of a machine.

starting-toA device that operates to initiate or cause the

19 running transition automatic transfer of a machine from the starting to
contactor
the running power connection.

20

An electrically operated, controlled, or monitored

electrically
device used in a fluid, air, gas, or vacuum line.
operated valve NOTE The function of the valve may be more
completely indicated by the use of suffixes.

21

distance relay

A device that functions when the circuit admittance,

impedance, or reactance increases or decreases
beyond a predetermined value.

A device that serves to control or make and break the

equalizer circuit equalizer or the current-balancing connections for a
22
breaker
machine field, or for regulating equipment, in a
multiple-unit installation.

23

24

temperature
control device

A device that functions to control the temperature of

a machine or other apparatus, or of any medium,
when its temperature falls below or rises above a
predetermined value.
NOTE An example is a thermostat that switches on a
space heater in a switchgear assembly when the
temperature falls to a desired value. This should be
distinguished from a device that is used to provide
automatic temperature regulation between close
limits and would be designated as device function
90T.

volts per hertz

relay

A device that operates when the ratio of voltage to

frequency is above a preset value or is below a
different preset value. The relay may have any
combination of instantaneous or time delayed
characteristics.

A synchronizing device produces an output that causes

closure at zero-phase angle difference between two
synchronizing or circuits. It may or may not include voltage and speed
25
synchronism- control. A synchronism-check relay permits the
check relay
paralleling of two circuits that are within prescribed
limits of voltage magnitude, phase angle, and
frequency.
26 apparatus thermal A device that functions when the temperature of the

device

27

undervoltage
relay

protected apparatus (other than the load-carrying

windings of machines and transformers as covered by
device function number 49) or of a liquid or other
medium exceeds a predetermined value; or when the
temperature of the protected apparatus or of any
medium decreases below a predetermined value.
A device that operates when its input voltage is less
than a predetermined value.

28

A device that monitors the presence of the pilot or

flame detector main flame in such apparatus as a gas turbine or a
steam boiler.

29

A device that is used expressly for disconnecting one

isolating contactor
circuit from another for the purposes of emergency
or switch
operation, maintenance, or test.

A nonautomatically reset device that gives a number

of separate visual indications upon the functioning of
30 annunciator relay
protective devices and that may also be arranged to
perform a lockout function.
31

A device that connects a circuit, such as the shunt

separate
field of a synchronous converter, to a source of
excitation device
separate excitation during the starting sequence.

A device that operates on a predetermined value of

directional power power flow in a given direction such as reverse power
32
relay
flow resulting from the motoring of a generator upon
loss of its prime mover.
33

A device that makes or breaks contact when the main

position switch device or piece of apparatus that has no device
function number reaches a given position.

A device such as a motor-operated multi-contact

switch, or the equivalent, or a programmable device,
master sequence
34
that establishes or determines the operating sequence
device
of the major devices in equipment during starting and
stop-ping or during sequential switching operations.
A device for raising, lowering, or shifting the brushes
brush-operating or
of a machine; short-circuiting its slip rings; or
35 slip-ring shortengaging or disengaging the contacts of a mechanical
circuiting device
rectifier.
A device that operates, or permits the operation of,
polarity or
another device on a predetermined polarity only or
36 polarizing voltage
that verifies the presence of a polarizing voltage in
device
equipment.
37

undercurrent or A device that functions when the current or power

underpower relay flow decreases below a predetermined value.

A device that functions on excessive bearing
temperature or on other abnormal mechanical
bearing protective
38
conditions associated with the bearing, such as undue
device
wear, which may eventually result in excessive
bearing temperature or failure.
A device that functions upon the occurrence of an
abnormal mechanical condition (except that
mechanical
39
associated with bearings as covered under device
condition monitor
function 38), such as excessive vibration, eccentricity,
expansion, shock, tilting, or seal failure.

40

field relay

41

field circuit
breaker

42

running circuit
breaker

A device that functions on a given or abnormally high

or low value or failure of machine field current, or on
an excessive value of the reactive component of
armature current in an ac machine indicating
abnormally high or low field excitation.
A device that functions to apply or remove the field
excitation of a machine.
A device whose function is to connect a machine to its
source of running or operating voltage. This function
may also be used for a device, such as a contactor,
that is used in series with a circuit breaker or other
fault-protecting means, primarily for frequent
opening and closing of the circuit.

A manually operated device that transfers control or

manual transfer or potential circuits in order to modify the plan of
43
selector device operation of the associated equipment or of some of
the associated devices.
44

unit sequence
starting relay

A device that functions to start the next available unit

in multiple-unit equipment upon the failure or nonavailability of the normally preceding unit

A device that functions upon the occurrence of an

atmospheric
45
abnormal atmospheric condition, such as damaging
condition monitor
fumes, explosive mixtures, smoke, or fire.
A device in a polyphase circuit that operates when the
reverse-phase or polyphase currents are of reverse-phase sequence or
46 phase-balance when the polyphase currents are unbalanced or when
current relay the negative phase-sequence current exceeds a preset
value.
47 phase-sequence or A device in a polyphase circuit that functions upon a
phase-balance predetermined value of polyphase voltage in the
voltage relay desired phase sequence, when the polyphase voltages

are unbalanced, or when the negative phase-sequence

voltage exceeds a preset value.

48

49

50

A device that generally returns the equipment to the

incomplete
normal or off position and locks it out if the normal
sequence relay starting, operating, or stopping sequence is not
properly completed within a predetermined time.
machine or
transformer
thermal relay

A device that functions when the temperature of a

machine armature winding or other load-carrying
winding or element of a machine or power
transformer exceeds a predetermined value.

instantaneous A device that operates with no intentional time delay

overcurrent relay when the current exceeds a preset value.

A device that functions when the ac input current

exceeds a predetermined value, and in which the
ac time
51
input cur-rent and operating time are inversely
overcurrent relay
related through a substantial portion of the
performance range.
A device that is used to close and interrupt an ac
52 ac circuit breaker power circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt
this circuit under fault or emergency conditions.
53

A device that forces the dc machine field excitation

exciter or dc
to build up during starting or that functions when the
generator relay
machine voltage has built up to a given value.

54

A device either electrically operated, controlled, or

turning gear
monitored that functions to cause the turning gear to
engaging device
engage (or disengage) the machine shaft.

A device that operates when the power factor in an ac

55 power factor relay circuit rises above or falls below a predetermined
value.
A device that automatically controls the application
field application
56
of the field excitation to an ac motor at some
relay
predetermined point in the slip cycle.
57
58

short-circuiting or A device that functions to short-circuit or ground a

grounding device circuit in response to automatic or manual means.
rectification
failure relay

59 overvoltage relay
60

A device that functions if a power rectifier fails to

conduct or block properly.
A device that operates when its input voltage exceeds
a predetermined value.

voltage or current A device that operates on a given difference in

balance relay voltage, or current input or output, of two circuits.

61

density switch or A device that operates at a given density value or at a

sensor
given rate of change of density.

62

time-delay
stopping or
opening relay

A device that imposes a time delay in conjunction

with the device that initiates the shutdown, stopping,
or opening operation in an automatic sequence or
protective relay system.

63

pressure switch

A device that operates at a given pressure value or at

a given rate of change of pressure.

64

A device that operates upon failure of machine or

other apparatus insulation to ground.
NOTE This function is not applied to a device
connected in the secondary circuit of current
ground detector
transformers in a normally grounded power system
relay
where other overcurrent device numbers with the
suffix G or N should be used; for example, 51N for an
ac time overcurrent relay connected in the secondary
neutral of the current transformers.

65

governor

A device consisting of an assembly of fluid, electrical,

or mechanical control equipment used for regulating
the flow of water, steam, or other media to the prime
mover for such purposes as starting, holding speed or
load, or stopping.

notching or
jogging device

A device that functions to allow only a specified

number of operations of a given device or piece of
equipment, or a specified number of successive
operations within a given time of each other. It is also
a device that functions to energize a circuit
periodically or for fractions of specified time
intervals, or that is used to permit intermittent
acceleration or jogging of a machine at low speeds for
mechanical positioning.

66

67

ac directional A device that functions at a desired value of ac

overcurrent relay overcurrent flowing in a predetermined direction.

A device that initiates a pilot signal for blocking of

tripping on external faults in a transmission line or in
blocking or "out- other apparatus under predetermined conditions, or
68
of-step" relay cooperates with other devices to block tripping or
reclosing on an out-of-step condition or on power
swings.
A device with two-positions that in one position
permits the closing of a circuit breaker, or the placing
permissive control
69
of a piece of equipment into operation, and in the
device
other position, prevents the circuit breaker or the
equipment from being operated.

70

rheostat

A device used to vary the resistance in an electric

circuit when the device is electrically operated or has
other electrical accessories, such as auxiliary,
position, or limit switches.

71

level switch

A device that operates at a given level value, or on a

given rate of change of level.

A device that is used to close and interrupt a dc

72 dc circuit breaker power circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt
this circuit under fault or emergency conditions.

73

74

load-resistor
contactor

A device that is used to shunt or insert a step of load

limiting, shifting, or indicating resistance in a power
circuit; to switch a space heater in circuit; or to
switch a light or regenerative load resistor of a power
rectifier or other machine in and out of circuit.

alarm relay

A device other than an annunciator, as covered under

device function 30, that is used to operate, or that
operates in connection with, a visual or audible
alarm.

A device that is used for moving a main device from

position changing one position to another in equipment; for example,
75
mechanism
shifting a removable circuit breaker unit to and from
the connected, disconnected, and test positions.
76

77

dc overcurrent
relay

telemetering
device

A device that functions when the current in a dc

circuit exceeds a given value.
A transmitting device used to generate and transmit
to a remote location an electrical signal representing
a measured quantity; or a receiver used to receive
the electrical signal from a remote transmitter and
convert the signal to represent the original measured
quantity.

78

A device that functions at a predetermined phase

phase-angle
angle between two voltages, between two currents,
measuring relay
or between voltage and current.

79

reclosing relay

80

flow switch

81

A device that controls the automatic reclosing and

locking out of an ac circuit interrupter.
A device that operates at a given flow value, or at a
given rate of change of flow.

A device that responds to the frequency of an

electrical quantity, operating when the frequency or
frequency relay
rate of change of frequency exceeds or is less than a
predetermined value.

82

A device that controls the automatic closing and

dc load-measuring
reclosing of a dc circuit interrupter, generally in
reclosing relay
response to load circuit conditions.

automatic
A device that operates to select automatically
83 selective control between certain sources or conditions in equipment
or transfer relay or that performs a transfer operation automatically.

84

85

86

operating
mechanism

A device consisting of the complete electrical

mechanism or servomechanism, including the
operating motor, solenoids, position switches, etc.,
for a tap changer, induction regulator, or any similar
piece of apparatus that otherwise has no device
function number.

A device that is operated or restrained by a signal

carrier or pilottransmitted or received via any communications
wire relay
media used for relaying.
lockout relay

A device that trips and maintains the associated

equipment or devices inoperative until it is reset by
an operator, either locally or remotely.

87

A device that operates on a percentage, phase angle,

differential
or other quantitative difference of two or more
protective relay
currents or other electrical quantities.

88

A device used for operating auxiliary equipment, such

auxiliary motor or
as pumps, blowers, exciters, rotating magnetic
motor generator
amplifiers, etc.

89

A device used as a disconnecting, load-interrupter, or

isolating switch in an ac or dc power circuit. (This
device function number is normally not necessary
unless the switch is electrically operated or has
electrical accessories, such as an auxiliary switch, a
magnetic lock, etc.)

line switch

A device that functions to regulate a quantity or

quantities, such as voltage, current, power, speed,
90 regulating device frequency, temperature, and load, at a certain value
or between certain (generally close) limits for
machines, tie lines, or other apparatus.
A device that operates when the voltage across an
voltage
91
open circuit breaker or contactor exceeds a given
directional relay
value in a given direction.
92 voltage and power A device that permits or causes the connection of two
directional relay circuits when the voltage difference between them
exceeds a given value in a predetermined direction
and causes these two circuits to be disconnected from

each other when the power flowing between them

exceeds a given value in the opposite direction.
93

94

9599

field-changing
contactor

A device that functions to increase or decrease, in

one step, the value of field excitation on a machine.

A device that functions to trip a circuit breaker,

contactor, or equipment; to permit immediate
tripping or trip- tripping by other devices; or to prevent immediate
free relay
reclosing of a circuit interrupter if it should open
automatically, even though its closing circuit is
maintained closed.
used only for
specific
applications

These device numbers are used in individual specific

installations if none of the functions assigned to the
numbers from 1 through 94 are suitable.

ANSI / IEEE C37.2 Suggested Prefixes and

Suffixes
ANSI/IEEE Prefixes Prefixes and Suffixes
Letters and numbers may be used as prefixes or suffixes to device function
numbers to provide a more specific definition of the function. Prefixes and
suffixes should, however, be used only when they accomplish a useful
purpose:
Auxiliary devices
C Closing relay/contactor
CL Auxiliary relay, closed (energized when main device is in closed position)

CS Control switch
D "Down" position switch relay
L Lowering relay
O Opening relay/contactor
OP Auxiliary relay, open (energized when main device is in open position)
PB Push button
R Raising relay

U "UP" position switch relay

X Auxiliary relay
Y Auxiliary relay
Z Auxiliary relay
Actuating quantities
A Air/amperes/alternating
C Current
D Direct/discharge
E

Electrolyte

Frequency/flow/fault

GP Gas pressure
H Explosive/harmonics
I0 Zero sequence current
I-, I2 Negative sequence current
I+, I1 Positive sequence current
J

Differential

Level/liquid

Power/pressure

PF Power factor
Q Oil
S

Speed/suction/smoke

Temperature

V Voltage/volts/vacuum
VAR Reactive power
VB Vibration
W Water/watts
Main device
A Alarm/auxiliary power
AC Alternating current
AN Anode
B Battery/blower/bus
BK Brake
BL Block (valve)
BP Bypass
BT Bus tie
C Capacitor/condenser/compensator/carrier current/case/compressor
CA Cathode
CH Check (valve)
D Discharge (valve)
DC Direct current
E Exciter
F Feeder/field/filament/filter/fan
G Generator/ground
H Heater/housing
L Line/logic
M Motor/metering
MOC Mechanism operated contact
N Network/neutral
P Pump/phase comparison
R Reactor/rectifier/room

S Synchronizing/secondary/strainer/sump/suction (valve)
T Transformer/thyratron
TH Transformer (high-voltage side)
TL Transformer (low-voltage side)
TM Telemeter
TOC Truck-operated contacts
TT Transformer (tertiary-voltage side)
U Unit
Main device parts
BK Brake
C Coil/condenser/capacitor
CC Closing coil/closing contactor
HC Holding coil
M Operating motor
MF Fly-ball motor
ML Load-limit motor
MS Speed adjusting or synchronizing motor
OC Opening contactor
S Solenoid
SI Seal-in
T Target
TC Trip coil
V Valve
Other suffix letters
A

Accelerating/automatic

Blocking/backup

BF Breaker failure
C

Close/cold

Decelerating/detonate/down/disengaged

Emergency/engaged

Failure/forward

GP General purpose
H

Hot/high

HIZ High impedance fault

HR Hand reset
HS High speed
L

Left/local/low/lower/leading

Manual

Open/over

OFF Off
ON On
P

Polarizing

Right/raise/reclosing/receiving/remote/reverse

Sending/swing

SHS Semi-high speed

T

Test/trip/trailing

TDC Time-delay closing contact

TDDO Time delayed relay coil drop-out
TDO Time-delay opening contact
TDPU Time delayed relay coil pickup
THD Total harmonic distortion
U

Up/under

Reference positions of devices

Device

Standard reference position

Adjusting means

Low or down position

Clutch

Disengaged position

Contactor

De-energized position

Contactor (latched-in type) Main contacts open

Density switch

Standard reference

Disconnecting switch

Main contacts open

Flow detector

Lowest flow

Gate

Closed position

Level detector

Lowest level

Load-break switch

Main contacts open

Power circuit breaker

Main contacts open

Power electrodes

Maximum gap position

Pressure switch

Lowest pressure

Reclosure

Main contactor open

Relay

De-energized position

Relay (latched-in type)

Rheostat

Maximum resistance position

Speed switch

Lowest speed

Tap changer

Center tap

Temperature relay

Lowest temperature

Turning gear

Disengaged position

Vacuum switch

Lowest pressure that is highest vacuum

Valve

Closed position

Vibration detector

Minimum vibration

Earthing
Fundamentals:

Earthing Systems
Type of Earth System
System earthing carried out for the purpose of controlling the voltages to earth,
limiting stress on equipment insulation, ensure safe touch and step potentials and
provide for the flow of current to allow for the detection of faults.
Unearthed systems have no intentional connection to ground. They have the
advantage that the system can be operated with a ground fault giving improved
reliability. Unearthed systems frequently have detection schemes employed to find
any faults.
Resistance earthed systems have the neutral connected to earth using one or more
resistances and have well specified and reduced fault currents. Lines to neutral
voltages are normally the same as for unearthed systems. Transients over voltages are
significantly reduced compared to an unearthed system.
Reactance earthed systems have the neutral connected to earth using a reactance.
Solid earthing of generators may permit current magnitudes larger than the maximum
three phase fault current the generator can take. Reactance earthing is used to limit
the fault currents to safe values.
Solidly earthed systems have the neutral directly connected to earth and over voltages
(both transient and fault) are limited. For a solidly earthed system to be effectively
grounded the zero sequence resistance R0, reactance X0 and positive sequence
reactance X1 should be such that R0X1 and X03X1.

System Neutral
System neutrals are usually obtained form the neutral point of delta-star transformers.
However, in other cases (i.e. three wire delta systems) neutrals can be obtained by the
use of zigzag or delta-star transformers. Most earthing transformers are rated for 10s
or 1 min. Resistors can be connected in the neutral of the transformers to obtain
lower fault currents.

Multiple Power Sources

Multiple sources can be either earthed separately (solid, resistance or reactance) or
connected to a common neutral which is itself earthed. Fault currents are determined
by the type and number of connected points. Connection of multiple sources to a
common neutral is not recommended where the sources are not in close proximity and
the impedance of the common neutral may be high enough to prevent the sources
being effectively earthed.

Resistivity
Resistivity depends on the nature of the ground, moisture content and can
vary substantially.
Typical Soil Resistvity
Material

Resistivity -m

Ashes

3.5

Clay soil - 40% moisture

7.7

Clay soil - 20% moisture

33

Clay - London

4-20

Clay - very dry

50-150

Chalk

50-150

Coke

0.2-8

Consolidated Sedimentary rocks

10-500

Garden earth 50% moisture

14

Garden earth 20% moisture

48

Gravel - well graded

900-1000

Gravel - poorly graded

1000-2500

Gravel clay mixture

50-400

Peat

45-200

Sand - 90% moisture

130

Sand - normal moisture

300-800

Sand clay mixture

200-400

Earth Resistivity Measurements

Several methods exist to measure the earth resistance and impedance,
earth resistivity and potential gradients from ground current. It is
recommended that were possible the four point method be used. When
carrying out measurements it should be remembered that earth resistivity
varies with salt contents, moisture content and temperature.
Care should be taken when carrying out earth measurements as large
potentials can exist between the station earth tests and remote earths if a
power system fault occurs. Even though the possibility of a fault is remote,
the use of gloves, insulating shoes, etc. is recommended.
Soil Samples
The measurement of resistivity across the opposite sides of a soil sample is
not recommended. If carried out, the four-terminal method should be used
and the potential terminals should be small relative to the sample and

located sufficient distant from the current terminals to ensure uniform

current distribution.
Two Point Method
Rough measurements can be made with a shepard-soil (or similar)
instrument. This consists of one small and one smaller iron electrode
connected by an insulating rod. A battery (positive to the smaller
electrode) is connected and the rods driven into the ground. A
milliammeter is used the read the current and can be directly calibrated to
read resistivity.

Three Point Method (variation of depth)

This involves driving an electrode (usually a rod) to varying depths and
measuring is resistance using one of the methods given below (preferably
the fall of potential method). The theoretical resistance of a ground rod is
given in the electrode resistanetables and this can be used to calculate the
resistivity. This method gives information about the soil around the
electrode (5 to 10 times the rod length).

Four Point Method (Line Traverse)

Four electrodes are spaced a distance 'a' apart as shown in the figure
(equally spaced or Wenner arrangement). The electrodes are driven to a
depth less than a/20. Current is injected between electrodes C1 and C2,
and the voltage measured between electrodes P1 and P2.
The measured apparent resistance Ra and apparent Resistivity is given by,

and
For homogeneous mediums , is the soil Resistivity. For non-homogenous
materials , is the approximate average Resistivity to a depth equal to the
electrode spacing a.

A disadvantage of the Wenner method is the rapid decrease in potential

when the spacing is increased to large values. Often commercial
instruments are inadequate at measuring such low values. In this instance
the arrangement shown can be used. The resistivity in this instance is given
by:

Interpretation of Resistivity Measurements

Variation in earth resistivity is complex and it is often necessary to establish

an equivalent earth structure. In the figure various earth models plotted
against typical test results. For most applications a two layer model is
accurate enough without being too mathematically involved.

Two-layer models assume two homogeneous layers as illustrated . This

model has a reflection coefficient:

Using the Wenner method with electrode spacing a, given an apparent

resistance of:

Ifo is the apparent resistivity measured by the Wenner method and the
value calculated using the above formulae and N the number of
measurements taken, then by letting h be an error function:

To obtain the best fit, must be minimised and this can be achieved using
numerical iteration based on the method of steepest descent, i.e.

with

with

with
where

and

is calculated until
, where is the
desired accuracy. At each iteration k, new values are given by:
,

and

In order to be sure the calculations converge to the desired solution, the

values of

and

should be such that :

,
and
with
values small enough to guarantee convergence.

being positive

 Electrodes

Electrode Resistance
General Calculation of Electrode Resistance
Example: Sphere (radius = a)

Assume a current I, is injected into an electrode then at some point distant

from the electrode, the current density is:

If the Resistivity of the ground is , the electric field is:

By integrating the electric field from the surface of the electrode to infinity,
the voltage of the electrode is:

Apparent resistance Rg, can now be found from:

Resistance and Distance form an Electrode

Around an earth electrode the resistance of the soil is the sum of series
resistances of virtual shells of earth propagating outward from the
electrode. Shells nearest to the electrode have the smallest surface area
and hence the largest resistance.
Error: Reference source not foundillustrates the contribution of the earth to
the total resistance of the electrode at increasing distances from the
surface of the electrode. As can be seen from the figure 67% of the total
resistance is accounted for at a distance of 0.3 M from the electrode. In
high resistivity locations, decreasing the resistivity in the area close to the
electrode by chemical treatment or the use of concrete will improve the
effectiveness of the earth system.

Resistance of Earth Electrodes

= resistivity of earth in ohm-centimeters
Dimensions must be in centimeters to give resistance in ohms.
Apparent Resistance Rg,

<>
Sphere,
radius r

Hemisphere
, radius r

, length l,
radius r

Two rods,
spacing s,
S>L
Two rods,
spacing s,
S<L
For multiple
rods, one
length
apart, in a
line,
triangle,
circle or

Number of rods / multiplying factor

2/1.16
3/1.29
4/1.36
8/1.36

square

Trench
earth
(buried
wire),
length 2l,
depth s/2,
radius r
Buried strip,
length 2l,
section a by
b, depth
s/2, b < a/8
90O wire
bend, arm
length l,
depth s/2
Three-point
star, arm
length l,
depth s/2
Four-point
star, arm
length l,
depth s/2
Six-point
star, arm
length l,
depth s/2
Eight-point
star, arm
length l,
depth s/2
Wire ring,
dia. D, wire
dia. D,
depth s/2
Buried
horizontal
round plate,
radius r,

12/1.8

16/1.92

20/2.00

24/2.16

depth s/2

Buried
vertical
round plate,
radius r,
depth s/2
Buried grid,
length l,
width d,
spacing t
( all
elements
length ltd )

Grid/radial
combination
s

where:
= equiv. resistance all parallel radials

Driven rod,
length l, radius
a, 2-layer soil
(1, 2, h see
since 0 K 1 and h >> l only the first few terms are significant
Error:
Reference
source not
found)

Multiple Rods
Multiple electrodes in parallel yield a lower resistance to earth than a single
electrode. Adding a second rod, does not however, reduce the resistance by
a factor of 2. A useful rule is that for systems of 2 to 24 rods, placed one rod
length apart (in a line, hollow triangle, circle or square) will provide a
earthing resistance divided by the number of rods and multiplied by a factor
F.
Multiplying Factors for MUltiple Rods
No. of Rods Multiplying Factor (F)
2

1.16

1.29

1.36

1.68

12

1.80

16

1.92

20

2.00

24

2.16

Measurements
1. Resistance

Electrode Resistance Measurements

Measurements of earth electrode resistance are made to determine the
actual impedance, check calculations and obtain data for further design.
When measuring electrode resistance the same safety precautions should be
taken as for measuring resistivity.
If should be noted that measured values are impedance, although the
terminology often used is resistance. Measurements are usually made of the
reactance only for large installations or where surge currents are important.
Resistance (impedance) measurements tend to differ from calculated values
due to adequacy of the equations used, inaccurate resistivity surveys,
condition of the soil at the time of measurement and adjacent metallic
buried structures.

Two-Point Method
Total resistance of the unknown electrode and auxiliary ground is measured
using a voltmeter/ammeter (or ohmmeter). This only works where the
electrode resistance is significantly higher than that of the auxiliary ground
(i.e. driven rod of 25 and water pipe of 1 ) and is subject to large errors
for low resistance electrodes.
Three-Point Method
Two test electrodes (or similar or low resistance then the test electrode) of
resistance r1 and r2 and the test electrode of resistance r1 are used. The
resistance between each pair of electrodes r12, r13 and r23 are measured and
the resistance of the electrode under test is given by:

The electrode spacing should be at least 10m and preferably 10m or more.
For large systems or electrodes of low resistance this method can be very
inaccurate.

Ratio Method

The resistance of the electrode under test is compared with a known

resistance. The test current should be high enough to ensure sufficient
accuracy.

Staged Fault Tests

Staged high current tests a carried out where specific information is
required on a particular ground installation. Due to the magnitude of
current and possible potentials developed, voltage transformers may be
required for measurements and the voltages are generally recorded using an
oscilloscope or similar instrument.

Fall of potential method

This method is recommended for accurate measurement of earth electrode

resistance. A current is injected into an electrode C and the voltage
measured at electrode P. The apparent resistance

is given by:

If Rg is plotted against the electrode spacing d, the value of Rg at which the

curve levels out is taken as the electrode resistivity. Theoretical results
show that there is one potential probe spacing which gives true ground
impedance; for uniform soils this is such that the ratio x/d=0.618. If the
earth electrode has a complex shape or the soil is non-homogenous, this
spacing can be difficult to determine.

Reliable measurements require d > 100 m and in order to obtain the flat
portion it is necessary for the current electrode to be outside the influence
of the electrode to be tested. Deep driven rods of low resistance present
problems and if large spacing are impractical other methods of
interpretation are required.

Integrity of copper grids

Often it is necessary to verify the integrity of copper connections in copper
grid electrode arrangements. The reactance of the copper is effectively
shunted by the surrounding soil and ac measurements are not suitable. By
the use of dc currents the resistance can be measured and compared with
calculated values to determine if there is an adequate connection.

Potential Contour Measurements

Potential contour surveys are curried out to locate hazardous potential
gradients.
A known current of between 50 and 100 A is injected into the electrode to a
remote electrode and returned via and insulated conductor. A remote
electrode is required to prevent gradient distortion and the distance may
vary from 300m for a small installation to more than 2km for large
installation. The test current must be of sufficient magnitude to mask out
any residual ground current.
Voltage drops surrounding the reference point are measured using a high
impedance voltmeter. These are scaled by the ratio of fault current to test
current and points of equal potential connected together to form contours.
If the contour lines have equal voltage between them, then the greater the
number of lines, the greater the potential gradient.

Buried metallic objects (pipes, cable armouring, fences, etc) have a

significant effect on potential gradients and should be taken into account
when doing the measurements.

Transient Impedance

The transient impedance of an earth electrode depends on the amplitude of

the impulse current, the duration of the pulse and ionisation effects within
the soil. Field gradients greater than 2.5kV cm-1 cause the soil to
breakdown, reducing the electrode impedance compared to the impedance
measured at lower amplitudes.
Due to non-linear characteristics, transient impedance measurements need
to be performed with real amplitude voltage and current impulses. High
voltage impulse current generators of adequate energy are required.
A typical measuring circuit is illustrated in the figure. The oscilloscope
records the voltage across the earth impedance and the impulse current.
The transient impedance is given by the point to point ratio of voltage to
current. Specialist equipment is required for the measurement of transient
impedance and it is recommended that the instrument manufacturers
instructions be followed at all times.

Instruments
For measuring the resistance an adjustable AC or DC supply is required, up
to 50 W, 300 V and < 5 Hz. The voltmeter should be 100 V Full scale with a

10 M input. Where a DC supply is used, a 75 mV compensation supply is

required to nullify any existing ground potentials.
Current electrodes should be steel, 13-19 mm diameter, 1 m long. Voltage
electrodes should be copper/brass (for DC) or steel (for AC), 13 mm
diameter, 500 mm long.
Note: for measurements of electrode resistances < 15 m deep, 230 V, 50 Hz
may be used.

2. AEMC - Guide

AEMC Guide
Author
AEMC Instruments (www.aemc.com) manufactures professional electrical
test and measurement instruments for the industrial, commercial and utility
marketplace. Excellent customer support and expert technical assistance are
their top priority. Founded in 1893, their products are backed by over 100
years of experience n test and measurement equipment, and encompass the
latest international standards for quality and safety.
Abstract
Ground resistance testing guide, including:
1. Soil Resistivity
2. Soil Resistivity (4-Pont Method)
3. Ground Electrodes
4. Ground Resistance Values
5. Fall of Potential (3-Point Method)
6. Multiple Electrodes
7. Two Point Simplified Method
8. Continuity Measurement
9. Tech Tips
10.Touch Potential Measurement
11.Clamp On Ground Resistance Measurement
12.Telecommunications
Main Text

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Degrees of Protection (IP Code)

The IP code consists of two characteristic numerals (e.g. IP 56), with an
optional third characteristic numeral and/or an optional additional letter.
Unspecified numeral is replaced by an X (e.g. IP XXB).
Protection against penetration of solid
objects personnel against contact
with live parts

IP Code -- 1st numeral

IP Code -- 2nd numeral

Nonprotected
solid objects
diameter less
than 50 mm

solid objects
diamter less
that 12 mm

solid objects
diameter less
thn 2.5 mm 6

solid objects
diamter less
than 1 mm

dust (no
harmful
deposits)

dust tight

Protection against penetration of water

with harmful effects

Nonprotected
vertical
dripping
water

dripping
water up
to 15o
2

powerful
water jets
waves
6

dripping
water up
to 60o
3

effects of
temporary
immersion
7

splashing
water up
to 360o

IP Code -- 3rd numeral (optional)

0

water jets
all
directions

Non-protected

prolonged
immersion
at
specified
depth

Protection against mechanical impact

impact greater
than 0.25
5
joule

impact
greater than
0.375 joule

impact
greater than
0.5 joule

impact greater
than 2 joule

impact greater
than 6 joule

impact greater
than 20 joule

IP Code -- Letter (optional)

Protection of personnel against

contact with live parts

A direct contact with the back of the hand

B direct contact with a finger
C direct contact with 2.5 mm diameter tool
D direct contact with 0.1 mm diameter wire