Nature of Archaeology

M eth od olog y of Fiel d Archa eol ogy

1. Hi st ori ans, archaeol ogi st s and archaeol ogy

History

It can be said that history is concerned with

understanding the past.
The word histor y comes from the Greek word
historia, which means learning by enquiry.
Historical enquir y therefore involves asking questions
about the past.
Historians will ask different questions depending on
their fo cus and the aims of their research.
some focus on prominent people and events, mainly
p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y.
Historians also focus on the short and long term
impacts of events.
Social history is the history of daily lives of ordinary
men and women: where they lived, what they ate, wore,
thought and felt.
Historians

T r a d i t i o n a l l y, h i s t o r i a n s h a v e r e l i e d p r i m a r i l y o n
written docu ments to investigate the past.
Their methodology involves: collection, analysis,
interpretation of written sources, and reaching a
conclusion which proves or disproves a hypothesis.
Historians will collect as man y documents as possible
on the period of their h ypothesis to provide relevant
infor mation. Th ese source s will then be carefull y
anal ysed to deter mine how reliable and useful they are
in relation to the hypothesis.
Historians investigating the same topic often respond
to the argu ments presented in the published wor ks of
other historians, and may publish their own
conclusions.
Such debate is central to the nature of historical
inquiry and underlines the fact that history is a
d ynamic discipline .

Tod a y, h i s t o r i a n s u s e a r a n g e o f s o u r c e s , f r o m
archaeological excavation to written sources.
E.g. a historian researching the experiences of
s o l d i e r s i n t h e F i r s t Wor l d War w i l l u s e b o t h w r i t t e n
sources (like diaries, letters, newspapers), as well as
evidence rom an archaeological excavation of battle
sites, which include the trenches and artefacts found in
them.

Finding a Site

A m u c h y o u n g e r d i s c i p l i n e t h a n h i s t o r y.
History is approximately two and a half thousand years
old, whereas archaeology is barely 200 years old.
The word archaeology comes from a Gr eek word
meaning the discussion of ancient things.
Archaeology is the examination of the physical
remains of the past in order to reconstruct mo ments in
history as co mpletely as possible.
These physical remains are called artefacts , and
include things that have been made or altered by
humans.
i n c l u d e t h e r e m a i n s o f b u i l d i n g s , t o m b s , j e w e l l e r y,
p o t t e r y, w e a p o n s a n d h o u s e h o l d o b j e c t s .
The earliest archaeologists were often little more than
treasure hunter fossicking for valuable artefacts to sell
to museu ms.
More scientific methods were introduced by pioneers
of archaeology such as Sir Flinders Petrie, Sir
Morti mer Wheeler and Giuseppe Fiorelli.
Tod a y a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s ,
i n c l u d i n g p h y s i c s , c o m p u t i n g , g e o l o g y a n d b i o l o g y, a r e
used by archaeologists to investigate the past.

Archaeologists focus on the material or ph ysical

remains of the past.
The main activity of archaeologists is excavation of a
site in order to understand its history and its
contribution to the civilisation to which it belongs.

Photographs taken from the air reveal ancient sites in

di ffe ren t wa ys: crop mar ks, soil mar ks and sh ad o w ma rk s.
Crop marks

Crops do not gro w tall when planted on soil covering

remains of buildings, walls or roads.
C o n v e r s e l y, c r o p s g r o w i n g o v e r a n c i e n t d i t c h e s a n d
p i t s r i p e n e a r l i e r a n d g r o w t a l l e r.
This is not obvious at ground level, but from the air
the outline of the ancient remains can be detected
c l e a r l y.
Infrared photography may enhance this process.

Soil mar ks

Soil marks can be seen from the air after a field has
been ploughed.
Where a ditch, pit or mound once existed, the soil that
has been turned over may be darker in colour than the
soil of the rest of the field.
This can expose the outline of buried fe atures such
as walls, buildings or even entire settlements.

Shadow marks

These are visible from the air when very low

earthworks or mounds cast shado ws at dawn sunset r in
w i n t e r m o n t h s w h e n t h e s u n i s l o w i n t h e s k y.
By following shadow marks, the presence of a site is
revealed.

Satellite photography

Archaeologists have used photography from satellites

orbiting the Earth to aid in locating potential archaeological
sites.
Archaeological sites have also been located from space
u s i n g s a t e l l i t e r e m o t e s e n s i n g t e c h n o l o g y.
Satellite i ma gin g is mo re e ffi cien t th an aerial p ho to gr aph in g
as it takes over 200 aerial mapping photos to cover the same
area as a satellite image.
S u r v e y i n g Tec h n i q u e s

Archaeologists

Hu man activities have led to man y chance finds. Such

activities include:

Ploughing

Land reclamation

Digging of building foundations

Quarrying and dredging

Construction of roads, rail ways, sewers, dams and

canals

Fishing and underwater driving

Modern warfare, including the digging of military defences
and bo mbing, often reveals artefacts and potential
archaeological sites.
Clues to the location of ancient sites can be so metimes
found in ancient literature.
E.g. Heinrich Schliemann used Ho mers Iliad to find
T r o y.
Ancient map s, legends, folklore and place names all give
clues to the archaeologist about where to begin excavation.
Aerial Survey

Archaeology

Find a site excavate the site record what is found

examine and investigate the findings analysis and
interpretation publish findings.

Different techniques are emplo yed to refine their search

after identifying an area suitable for excavation: simple
observation called field walking, which involves teams of
walkers fanning out over the site to note its ph ysical
features and record any surface finds.
mi gh t find po ttery frag men ts, di fferin g so il co lou rs or
remn ants of buildings.
Locations of finds are plotted on a map. Concentrations of
finds point to good places to start excavation.

An archaeologist working on a dig may be assisted b y

a nu mber of experts such as: anthropologists,
epigraphers, palaeontologists, architects, forensic
pathologists, pap yrologists, botanists, geochemi sts,
radiologists, etc.
Experts such as ceramicists and anato mists, for example,
contribute specialised knowledge used in the interpretation
of pottery and of human and animal remains.
The heavy digging in an excavation is done by workers who
ma y be students, interested members of the public or hired
labourers.

Geographical survey

Its application to archaeology involves the use of imaging

techniques to produce visual plans of the features of the site
below the surface.
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)

The radar signal in the form of an

electromagnetic pulse is directed into the ground.
A receiver records the reflections from buried
objects as well as changed in soil composition.
GPR is most useful where there are uniform
sand y soil conditions, like those found in Egypt.

Resistivity surveying

What ki nd of ex cavation?

A resistivity meter is used. It passes an electric

current between two metal probes in the ground
to measure the resistance of the soil to the
current.
Buried walls are indicated by a high resistance to
the electric current, wh ereas pits and ditches
have a lower resistance.
This technique is based on the amount of
moisture in the soil.

The grid system

M agnetic surveying

Magnetic properties of subsurface materials can

b e d etected usin g a pro to n ma gn eto meter.
The highest readings come from iron, brick,
burned soil, and rock, so archaeological features
mad e of these materials can be easily detected.
Lower readings are given by disturbed soils or
decayed organic mat erials.

Tab l e s u m m a r i s i n g t h e m a i n d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e
d i scip l i n es of hi st o ry an d a rcha eo lo g y .
History
Focuses on written
sources
Written so u rces are
restricted to the last 5500
years
Written so u rces are
limited to literate
societies
Written so u rces fro m
ancient societies were
mostly written b y men
reflecting a male bias

Archaeology
Focuses on physical
sources
Ph ysical sources extend
as far back as the
beginnings of human
history into prehistory
Ph ysical artefacts
provide information
about all human activity
Archaeologists usually
study the lives of all
members of society

Once a site has been chosen, a site plan is drawn up in a

con su ltation with th e su rve yo r.
There are two main techniques used in archaeological
excavation: the grid system and open area excavation .

Allows archaeologists to study the vertical dimension of a

site by revealing the time sequence in the layers exposed.
Sir Mortimer Wheeler wa s the first archaeologist to e mploy
the grid system (earl y 20 th centur y).

Each square to be excavated is marked out on the

ground using string.

It is numbered and then excavated leaving a wall or

baulk in between.

Each baulk provides a vertical record of the sequence

o f la ye rs in relation to each oth er.

The baulks may be removed later to reveal the overall

nature of the site.
The layers exposed during an excavation are called strata
(singular stratum).

These are tagged with labels to differentiate them from

e a c h o t h e r.

T h e s t u d y o f t h e s e s t r a t a i s c a l l e d s t r a t i g r a p h y, w h i c h
is based on the principle that the oldest material is in
the lowest layers and the youngest is closest to the
surface.
When artefacts and other features are unearthed during
excavation, archaeologists use the co-ordinates of each grid
to record the location of the finds on a map, or plan of the
site.

Th is allo ws p attern s o f artefact d istribu tio n to app ear.

These patterns can provide insights into the activities

that may have occurred in different parts of the site.
The grid co-ordinates also provide valuable information
about the findspot and context of artefacts, which enables
their provenance to be established.
Open area excavation

2. Ex cavat i on and st rat ums

Why dig?

Most archaeological excavations are conducted for

research purposes.
Often an archaeologist has questions to ask about past
civilisations or a hypothesis to test.
Tod a y, w i t h g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s o n t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d
preservation of the past, excavation is often carried
out when significant sites are threatened.
urban development such as the construction of
buildings, roads and tunnels.
Archaeologists conduct a salvage dig in a more limited
timeframe than is available for a research dig.
Sometimes there is only time to recover as man y
artefacts as possible before the develop ment resu mes.
Who is involved?

The work is co-ordinated by a director who is usually a

very experienced scholar working and teaching in a
u n i v e r s i t y o r a n e m p l o y e e o f a g o v e r n m e n t a u t h o r i t y.

Not only must the director be an expert in their

field but they must be able to convince
govern ments, sponsors or benefactors to fund the
dig.

The director usually has a deputy and each

e x c a v a t i o n a r e a h a s a s u p e r v i s o r.
Many specialists in different disciplines are employed
to carry out the wide range of activities essential to an
excavation.

3.

This method focuses on the horizontal dimension of a site

b y un co v erin g th e wh o le site la yer b y layer.
The emphasis is on understanding the relationships between
the things found in each layer or stratum.
Each succeeding stratum is not exposed until the one above
it has been completely examined and recorded.
Tod a y, o p e n a r e a e x c a v a t i o n i s u s e d m o r e o f t e n t h a n t h e g r i d
system, which is regarded b y archaeologists as too rigid and
restrictive.
So me sites lend th emselv es to a co mb in atio n o f di ffe ren t
methods depending on the terrain, the research focus and the
complexity of the site.

Exami nat i on t ool s and Anal ysi s

Too l s

I n i t i a l l y, h e a v y e a r t h - m o v i n g m a c h i n e r y c a n b e u s e d t o c l e a r
the surface and remove topsoil that contains nothing of
archaeological significance.
The directors skill is needed to decide when to begin using
smaller hand tools.
The real work of excavation is carried out using picks,
shovels and buckets, then tro wels like the ones used b y
bricklayers.
On ce fin d s ap p ear, fin er too ls lik e p ain tb ru sh es,
toothbrushes and even dental picks are employed to
carefully expose remains without mo ving them or causing
damage.

They must remain in situ (that is, in their original position)

so that their exact location and description can be recorded
before they are remo ved.
Dirt or sand that has been removed at all stages of the dig is
sieved to reveal tiny fragments that might otherwise be lost.
T h e s e c o u l d i n c l u d e p i e c e s o f j e w e l l e r y, b o n e s a n d t e e t h ,
an d fo o d ite ms lik e pip s an d sto n es. All o f th ese can pro vid e
vital clues about the culture of the people who occupied the
site.
Records

It is essential to record the locations and details of

ever ything found within each stratum as it is
destroyed. This is because once excavation has taken
place, a site can never be viewed again in its original
condition.
Grid co-ordinates fro m the grid system are important
for recording the location of findspots.
Visu al reco rd s are also mad e b y artists an d
photographers, while written records are kept, such as
the labels on strata and finds, as well as the detailed
d a y b oo k kep t b y th e d irecto r.
All finds, regardless of their size or apparent value,
are carefully washed, sorted and catalogued before
being used in the interpretation of the site.
Potter y usuall y co mprises a large portion of the finds
on ancient sites and is often recovered in thousands of
fragments.

Typ e s o f s o u r c e s

Computers have become essential tools for

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s b o t h i n t h e f i e l d a n d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y.
Their uses may include:

Maintenance of data bases, e.g. excavation

reco rd s, o ffi cial site datab ases

Statistical anal ysis using spreadsheet soft ware

Linking data to maps using GIS (Geographic

In formation Systems)

Gr aphic display of surveying including site

topography

Reconstructions using computer graphics, e.g. 3D

models, simulations, CAD (computer aided
design) images.

Everything found during the excavation has to be

sorted, identified, cleaned and catalogued.
Some artefacts require scienti fic anal ysis in specialist
laboratories to determine their age and the materials
from which they are made.
The examination of artefacts also involves comparison
with similar finds from other sites to help the
archaeologist establish their nature and possible
function.
An al ysis and interpretation

The archaeologist interprets the archaeological data

from the dig and draws conclusions about the site and
its occupants from what has been found.
Conclusions can also be drawn about significant
developments, changes to the site over time and the
possible reasons for the changes.
At this point it is often necessary to consult
archaeological reports from other sites and published
histories. This cross- referencing can provide added
information about the site and its context.

Checklist of questions to ask about written sources:

1.
What typ e of written source is it?
2.
Who wrote it and when?
3.
What was the writer s purpose?
4.
Who was the intended audience?
5.
Is it reliable?
6.
Is it useful in providing evidence about the period?

5.

Bi as

Occu rs wh en a writer s ob jectivity is a ffe cted b y attitud es

about race, gender, class, political or cultural factors.
The writers opinions and prejudices need to be taken into
account when interpreting a source.

Gender Bias

4.

An important step in the archaeological process is the

publication of excavation reports.

These contain detailed descriptions of the site

and the finds, as well as the archaeologists
interpretation of their significance.
Once published, these reports are available to other
archaeologists and historians who use them in their
own research.
Sometimes conflicting interpretations give rise to
academic debate about the reconstruction of the past.
In this way each site contributes to the accumulation
of kno wledge about specific cultures and times.

Sources and evi d ence

Often occurs in ancient sources.

Most of these sources were written by men and therefore
provide a purely male perspective.
The majority of ancient wo men were illiterate so had no
voice and remain invisible in the sources.
The few pro minent wo men who do appear in ancient sources
are often portrayed in a negative light, merel y because they
were not perfor ming stereotypi cal female roles.
One-sided accounts

Publishing the results

Checklist of questions to ask about archaeological sources:

1.
What is it?
2.
In what context was it found?
3.
Can it be accurately dated?
4.
Ho w d o es its con d ition a ffe ct its in terp retatio n ?
5.
Is it reliable and/or useful in providing evidence about
the past?
6.
What evidence does this source provide about the past?
Written so u rces

E x a mi n i n g a n d i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e f i n d s

Can be classified into t wo main typ es: archaeological and

written.

Ar chaeological sources are the ph ysical remains of the

p a s t c u l t u r e s . S u c h r e m a i n s a r e c a l l e d a r t e f a c t s . An
artefact is any object that has been made or altered b y
hu man beings.

Written so u rces in clu d e an y ma terials o r o bjects th at

have been written on.
So me sources can be considered as both archaeological and
written, such as a tombstone or an inscription on the wall.
Archaeological sources

Computers in archaeology

A source is anything that has survived from the past. It

can be either written or archaeological.

A source should not be confused with evidence.

Sources are the raw material that historians use wh en

asking questions about the past. The infor mation
gained from the examination of the source is called
evidence, when it is used to reconstruct a picture of
ever yd ay li fe.
All sources produced after the time being studied are called
secondar y sources. Th ese are usually based on the
in formation provided by primary sources.

So metimes kno wledge of events in the past is based on only

one account when it is expected to have more than one
perspective. Ther e can be a number of reasons for this:

Not all ancient societies were literate, or left written

records.

So metimes the defeated side in a war does not have the

o p p o r t u n i t y t o t e l l i t s s i d e o f t h e s t o r y. T h e v i c t o r s c a n
therefore present their own perspective of the event
unchallenged.
Man y surviving docu ments were produced b y the ruling
classes and are often an attempt to justify their policies and
actions.

Becau se th ey are o fficial d o cu men ts, read ers ten d to

accept them at face value since they appear to have the
s t a m p o f a u t h o r i t y.

Ho we ve r, th ey cou ld h ave been disto rted fo r

propaganda purposes.

6. Dest ruct i on and preser vat i on

Over time, both the natural environ ment and the actions of
human beings are responsible for the destruction and
preservation of sources of evidence of the past.

Ver y c o l d c l i m a t e s c a n p r o v i d e p e r f e c t c o n d i t i o n s f o r
the preservation of organic material, including human
remains. E.g. Oetzi the Iceman.
Geological conditions

Destruction
The natural environment

The most obvious form of destruction are the effects of

climate and vegetation.
Natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, land
subsidence and volcanoes not only cause immense loss
of life and property in the short term, but also wipe
out significant evidence of both the past and the
present.
Less dramatic, but equally destructive in the long
term, are the weathering effects of climate, including
heat, cold, wind and rain.
Deterioration can also be caused b y plants and
animals.

Plants crack and destro y stonework

Rats and mice, insects, fungi and bacteria wreak

havoc on all kinds of organic remains.

The composition of the soil in which objects are buried

ma y play a role in the preservation of evidence.
The chemicals of a plant or animal may react with
m i n e r a l s i n t h e s o i l a n d s o p r e v e n t d e c a y.
E.g. the presence of calcium may turn bones into
hard stone.

The actions of people

People play a part in the preservation of evidence, either

d e l i b e r a t e l y o r a c c i d e n t a l l y.
Burial custo ms play a most significant role because to mbs,
hidden from grave robbers, have preserved grave goods and
bodies.
The y provide archaeologists with opportunities to learn
about the people who built them.
Fire can also preserve evidence.
Altho u gh u su ally con sid ered to be a d estru ctive elemen t,
it may convert perishable objects, such as grain, to a
carbonised form.
D a m p c l a y, s u c h a s t h a t u s e d i n w r i t i n g t a b l e t s , c a n b e
fired and therefore preserved. Such tablets would normally
have been only a temporary record.

Human agents of destruction

War f a r e :

War f a r e a n d c o n f l i c t i n t h e i r m a n y f o r m s h a v e
always been the worst examples of hu man
destructiveness.

Such conflict is usually accompanied by looting,

by both individuals and by organisations.
Tou r i s m :

Modern mass tourism is a major cause of damage

and destruction to archaeological sites.

Tou r i s t s w a l k , t o u c h , p h o t o g r a p h , t a k e s o u v e n i r s
and breathe, all of which danger the sites they
visit.
Modern development:

Urban develop ment poses one of the greatest

threats to sites of historical value.

It is o ften di ffi cult to strike a b alan ce b etwe en

preserving evidence of the past and providing for
the needs of the present and the future.

Construction of roads, freeways, tunnels,

skyscrapers, shopping malls, housing
develop ments, etc., inevitably destro y what lies
beneath.

Tod a y, h o w e v e r , g r e a t e r e f f o r t s a r e b e i n g m a d e t o
minimise the extent of the destruction.

Developers frequently emplo y archaeologists and

other specialists to advise them on the heritage
concerns of their projects.
Pollution:

Causes significant deterioration and destruction

of archaeological sites.

E.g. air pollution in the form of emissions fro m

traffic and industry combine to create acid rain.
This acts as a corrosive agent that eats into and
destro ys ancient stonewor k.

Ancient monuments can also be threatened b y

ground pollution. This is a ma jor proble m in
Egypt wher e the damming of the Nile and modern
irrigation practices have caused a rise in the
wa ter table. This has beco me contaminated b y
sewage and salts, both natural and from artificial
fertilisers.
Preservation of Evidence

7. Sci ent i fi c Di sci pli nes

8. Dat i ng Met hods

Ver y d r y c l i m a t e s i n d e s e r t r e g i o n s o f t h e w o r l d
preserve normally perishable objects.
The heat of the desert and the absence of moisture
p r e v e n t d e c a y.
In more temperate regions, organic material nor mall y
decays but archaeological evidence may be preserved
in lakes and rivers under layers of silt, and in wat erlogged peat bogs and marshes.

Historical dating relies on written records such as

documents, govern ment and religious records, and
inscriptions on stone, clay or pap yrus.
Two t e c h n i q u e s f o r d a t i n g i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s : r e l a t i v e
and absolute dating.
Relative dating

Based on the principles of stratigr aph y and typology to

establish approximate dates for archaeological finds.
Stratigraphic dating

Climate

Archaeologists can call on man y branches of the social and

ph ysical sciences to help them anal yse their finds.
Finds can include artefacts, hu man and animal remains, and
the soil or other material in which they have been deposited.
E . g . t h e s c i e n c e s o f b o t a n y, z o o l o g y a n d b i o l o g y c a n
provide information about the health and diet of ancient
peoples and their environments.
The application of scientific techniques to archaeology is
commonly referred to as archaeometry.
The impact of science can be seen today in nearly every
a r e a o f a r c h a e o l o g y.
In addition to the contribution of established sciences such
a s b o t a n y, g e o l o g y, p h y s i c s a n d c h e m i s t r y, t h e l a s t 5 0 o r s o
years have witnessed the develop ment of new scientific
techniques using satellites, computers, molecular DNA
analysis and many other sophisticated tools.

Since each layer usuall y represents a different period of

hu man occupation at the site, they are able to work out
wh ich ob jects are earlier o r later th an ea ch o th er.
O b v i o u s l y, t h e s t r a t a c l o s e r t o t h e s u r f a c e a r e y o u n g e r t h a n
t h o s e b e l o w.
Th is me tho d o f d atin g di ffe ren t levels to estab lish a
chronological sequence is called stratigraphic dating it is
a form of relative dating (objects are either younger or
older than those in the strata above and below).
Stratigraphic sequences, however, can so metimes be
unreliable.
E.g. Inhabitants of the previous site may have dug a large
hole. The top of the heap of excavated dirt would then be
o l d e r t h a n t h e l a y e r b e l o w.
Natural processes including erosion and the down-slope
mo vement of soils in colder climates can also change the
original context in which the artefacts were deposited.
Typ o l o g y d a t i n g

This is also a principle of organising finds in a

chronological sequence.

G r o u p s o f a r t e f a c t s s u c h a s p o t t e r y, t o o l s o r w e a p o n s c a n b e
arranged in a sequence fro m the earliest to the latest t ypes
based on the follo wing two important principles:
1.
All artefacts belonging to a particular period have
distinctive features based on the materials from which
they are made and on their shape and decoration.
2.
Over a long period of time, these artefacts will sho w
gr adual changes, or evolution, in st yle or decoration.
The materials from which they are made and their
p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s m a y a l s o v a r y. As a g e n e r a l
rule, the earliest samples in the sequence tend to be
simple, whilst the latest samples will be more
elaborate.

year and the innermost one represents the year of

its first growth.

The growth ring varies in thickness depending on

factors such as fluctuations in climate and the
age of the tree.

As a tree ages, its rings become progressively

thinn er.

Dendrochronologists measure these rings and

record their findings in diagrams that show the
successive rings in a particular tree.

Older trees of the same species growing in the

same region will show a similar pattern of ringgrowth.

Archaeologists can match the pattern of growth rings

in timber artefacts fro m an excavation site with the
ma ster sequence for that region. This enables the m to
calculate a date for the stratum in which the timber
artefacts were found.
Potassium-argon dating

The Thre e-Age Syste m

De vised in 1836 by the Danish scholar, C.J. Thomsen

(17881865).
He established a three-part organisation of ancient
artefacts based on the technology of stone, bronze and
iron.
Such excavation confirmed that stone artefacts came
before bronze ones and iron artefacts followed bronze
ones.
Each of these three ages has been further divided in to
e a r l y, m i d d l e a n d l a t e p e r i o d s t h a t m o r e c l e a r l y s h o w
specific technological develop ments during each age.

Absolute dating
Radiocarbon dating

Radiocarbon (C-14) can date organic material that is

between 5000 and 400 years old.
It works on the principle that all living things (i.e.,
organic material, such as plants and animals), interact
constantly with the atmosphere, absorbing Carbon-14,
which is a radioactive isotope of carbon.
Scientists can measure the radioactive emissions of the
carbon in a sample of the organism to deter mine when
t h e o r g a n i s m d i e d . I n t h i s w a y, t h e y c a n e s t i m a t e i t s
age.
Exa mp les o f di ffe ren t typ es o f o rgan ic materials th at
can be radiocarbon dated:

Pollen

Bone

Hair

Bird eggshell

Leather

Peat

Blood residues

Paper and parchment

Uraniu m-series dating

A more sophisticated version of radiocarbon dating

A M S s t a n d s f o r Ac c e l e r a t o r M a s s S p e c t r o m e t r y.
Improvement on traditional radiocarbon dating
because:

It can date material back to about 70 000 years

It is more accurate and requires much smaller

samples for testing (e.g. a grain of rice, a single
hu man hair)

Materials which might contaminate the samples

(and therefore produce inaccurate results) can be
more easily reduced with this method

It has the advantage of producing results in a

much shorter time.
S c i e n t i s t s a n t i c i p a t e t h e AM S h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o d a t e
back to 100 000 years.
Dendrochronology

Kno wn as tree-ring dating, which was developed in the

1920s, the first method of scientific dating to be used
by archaeologists.
Often used in conjunction with radiocarbon dating and
can be a useful check on dates obtained b y the
radiocarbon method.
Wor k s o n t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e a g e o f a t r e e a n d o f
an y timber projects made from trees can be
determined by counting the growth rings in a crosssectio n o f th e timb er.

In a cross-section of the trunk of a newly-felled

tree, the outermo st ring represents the present

Most co mmonly used to date rocks containing calcium

carbonate that are most commonly found as stalagmite and
other formations in caves.
This method is another valuable tool for dating human
evolution.
It is especially useful for periods between 50 000 years and
500 000 years old which are beyond the present reach of
radiocarbon dating.
Fission-track dating

Application of radioactive dating used by archaeologists to

determine the thermal age of artefacts containing uraniumbearing minerals.
Dates between twenty and one thousand million years ago
can be determined with this particular technique.
Artefacts that can be effectively dated with this method
include natural and manufactured glass, stones once used in
hearths or for boiling, and an y fired ceramics, such as
pottery and tile.
Fission-track dating is often used to verify dates obtained
fro m potassiu m-argon dating.
Thermoluminescnece dating

AMS radiocarbon dating

K-Ar dating is used by geologists to date volcanic rock up

to millions of years old.
Proved to be one of the most useful methods for dating
hu man evolution.
Scientists dating the various rock layer s have been able to
arrive at dates of over three million years for these fossil
remains.

(TL) another form of radioactive dating.

Unlike radiocarbon dating, it can date potter y and inorganic
material that is over 50 000 years old.
TL was often used to date artefacts fro m sites where
radiocarbon dates cannot be obtained or where the C-14
dates may be unreliable.
Artefacts that may be fake can be subjected to TL dating to
establish their authenticity or otherwise.
Wor k s o n t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e m i c r o s c o p i c s t r u c t u r e o f
so me minerals and ceramics traps nuclear radioactive
e n e r g y.
Scientists measure the amount of light emitted, together
with the radioactive content of the sample, to determine the
o r i g i n a l f i r i n g d a t e o f t h e p o t t e r y.
Other methods of Scientific Dati ng
Dating method
Electron-spin resonance
(ESR)
Archaeomagnetic dating
Obsidian h ydration
Amino-acid racemisation
Cation-ratio dating
Fluorine-uranium-nitrogen
dating

Application
Bone, teeth, shell
Fireplaces, areas of burnt
earth
Vol c a n i c g l a s s , t o o l s , e t c .
Palaeolithic sites
Human or animal bone up
to 100 000 years old
Rock carvings and
engraving
Bone, teeth, antlers, ivor y