Description:

Entity-patient, Doctor, treatment.

relation-patient with doctor,
doctor with treatment,
patient with treatment

What is normalization?
In relational database design, the process of organizing data to minimize redundancy. Normalization usually involves dividing a database into two or
more tables and defining relationships between the tables. The major aim of normalization is that reduce the repeated data from the table.
Data redundancy occurs in database systems which have a field that is repeated in two or more tables. For instance, when customer data is duplicated
and attached with each product bought then redundancy of data is a known source of inconsistency, since customer might appear with different values
for given attribute.

Step 2: Converting the E-R Diagram into Tables

b. Converting entity to table and attribute to columns
Hospital

Hosp-id

Primary Key

HCity

HAddress

Hos-Name

Pat-id

Foreign key references to Pat-id of Patient table

Hosp-id

Primary Key

Doc-id

Foreign key references to Doc-id of Doctor table

Patient

Pat-id

Primary Key

PName

PAddress

PDiagnosis

Record-id

Foreign key references to Record-id of Medical Record table

Hosp-id

Foreign key references to Hosp-id of Hospital table

Medical Record

Record-id

Primary Key

Problem

Date_of_examination

Pat-id

Foreign key references to Pat-id of Patient table

Doctor

Doc-id

DName

Qualification

Salary

Primary Key

Doc-id

Primary Key

Hosp-id

Foreign key references to Hosp-id of Hospital table

Step 3: Mapping of Attributes

Simple Attributes
Simple attributes which cannot be divided into subparts.
Example: Salary of Doctor

Composite Attributes
Composite attributes which can be divided into subparts.
Example: Patient Name, Doctor Name

Step 4: Mapping of Relationships

b. Foreign Key approach
Hosp_patient

Pat-id

Hospital table makes foreign key references to Pat-id of Patient table

Hosp-id

Patient table makes foreign key references to Hosp-id of Hospital table

Hosp_Doctor

Hospid

Doctor table makes foreign key references to Hosp-id of

Hospital table

Doc-id

Hospital table makes foreign key references to Doc-id of Doctor

table

PatiPPatient_MedicalRecord

Pat-id

Medical Record table makes foreign key references to Pat-id

of Patient table

Recordid

Patient table makes foreign key references to Record-id of

Medical Record table

Step 5: Identifying the relationships

a. Hospital has a set of patients.
Therefore the relations are 1..N.
b. Hospital has a set of doctors.
Therefore the relations are 1..N.
c. Doctor is associated with each patient.
Therefore the relations are N..1.
d. Each patient has record of various test and examination conducted.
Therefore the relations are 1..N.

Definition - What does Microsoft Access mean?

Microsoft Access is a pseudo-relational database engine from Microsoft. It is part of the
Microsoft Office suite of applications that also includes Word, Outlook and Excel, among others.
Access is also available for purchase as a stand-alone product. Access uses the Jet Database
Engine for data storage.
Access is used for both small and large database deployments. This is partly due to its easy-touse graphical interface, as well as its interoperability with other applications and platforms such
as Microsofts own SQL Server database engine and Visual Basic for Applications (VBA).

Microsoft Access
Microsoft Access is a desktop relational database management system (RDBMS) that
comes as part of the Office suite of products. It is often used by small businesses and
corporate departments for building small database applications that serve a specific
purpose.
Access has lower specifications than SQL Server (see below), so there are many things
it can't do that SQL Server can.
It's for this reason that Access has traditionally been used for smaller applications, with a
small number of users accessing it simultaneously.
One reason you might choose to use Access over SQL Server is for
compatibility/sharing. Many corporate environments and small businesses have Office
installed. Not so many have SQL Server. You can often email an Access database file to
someone and they can just double-click to open it.
Access is generally a lot easier to use than SQL Server especially for beginners. It
has a uniform interface that is consistent with the rest of the Office suite which can be
great if you're an Office user.
Access also includes wizards that walk you through the process of doing something
new.
You can also create forms straight from within Access. Not something you can do with
SQL Server you'll need a separate application for that. Plus, generating a report is a
lot easier in Access. In fact, forms and reports can be generated within a single click in
Access.

Another reason you might use Access instead of SQL Server is money. If you already
have Access installed as part of the Microsoft Office suite, purchasing SQL Server is an
extra expense that may not be necessary depending on your situation. SQL Server
can be quite expensive, depending on the license (although there are free options
available).

SQL Server
SQL Server is a more robust database management system than Access. SQL Server
was designed to have many hundreds, or even thousands of users accessing it at any
point in time. Microsoft Access on the other hand, doesn't handle this type of load very
well.
This makes SQL Server well suited for database driven websites. Access is not a
suitable solution for a database driven website unless it has a very small amount of
traffic (like you and a few of your friends). Even then, you may find yourself getting errors
due to multiple users trying to access the database at the same time.
SQL Server is also often the database behind corporate CRMs, business inventories,
and other mission-critical applications. The typical requirements of such applications go
way beyond the capabilities of a desktop system like Access.
SQL Server includes advanced database administration tools that enable organisations
to schedule tasks, receive alerts, optimize databases, configure security accounts/roles,
transfer data between other disparate sources, and much more.
Many features are optional, and can be added during installation. Optional components
include Reporting Services, Analysis Services, Master Data Services, Distributed Replay
Controller, Data Quality Services, R Server, PolyBase Query Service for External Data,
and many more.
Even the main administration console (SQL Server Management Studio) isn't included
with installation it needs to be installed separately. The possible reasoning behind this
is that most SQL Server installations are only accessed remotely via an application (at
least, in a production environment). Administering SQL Server from the same machine is
usually reserved for developers or DBAs in a development environment.
Basically, SQL Server includes a lot of advanced features that many Access users will
never need. But many of these advanced features are considered crucial for any
medium to large scale business.
However, just because it has many (optional) advanced features, doesn't mean that you
have to reserve SQL Server for the big jobs. There are free editions available (Express
and Developer editions) that can be perfect for smaller projects.

Technical Specifications & Limitations

Here's a look at some of the main differences in the limitations between Microsoft Access and SQL Server.
Attribute

Access 2016

SQL Server 2016

Maximum database size

(including all objects and
data)

2 GB, minus the space needed for

system objects.

524,272 terabytes

Attribute

Access 2016

SQL Server 2016

Maximum data size

Whatever's left over after deducting

the system objects from 2 GB.

16 terabytes

Maximum number of
simultaneous users /
concurrent connections

255

32,767

Maximum number of
columns/fields per table

255

1,024 for nonwide tables

30,000 for wide tables

Number of characters in a
255
Text field (Access) Bytes
per varchar(max),
varbinary(max), xml, text, or
image column (SQL Server)

2^31-1

Number of characters in a
Long Text field (Access),
or per ntext or
nvarchar(max) column
(SQL Server)

65,535 when entering data through

the user interface;

2^30-1

Number of indexes in a
table

32 including indexes created

internally to maintain table
relationships, single-field and
composite indexes.

999 nonclustered indexes per table.

Approximately 64,000*

65,536 * Network packet size

Number of characters in an
SQL statement

1 gigabyte of character storage when

entering data programmatically.4,000
when the UnicodeCompression
property of the fields is set to Yes.
This limit also applies to OLE
Object fields.

8 indexes per memory-optimised

table.

Network Packet Size is the size of

the tabular data stream (TDS)
packets used to communicate
between applications and the
relational Database Engine. The
default packet size is 4 KB, and is
controlled by the network packet
size configuration option.

Number of objects in a
database

32,768

2,147,483,647

Number of fields/columns
per foreign key

10

16

Number of fields/columns
per primary key

10

16

Attribute

Access 2016

SQL Server 2016

Number of fields/columns
per index

10

16
If the table contains one or more
XML indexes, the clustering key of
the user table is limited to 15
columns because the XML column
is added to the clustering key of the
primary XML index.
In SQL Server, you can include
nonkey columns in a nonclustered
index to avoid the limitation of a
maximum of 16 key columns.

Number of fields/columns
in a recordset/SELECT
statement

255

4,096

Number of nested
subqueries

50*

32

What is SQL?
SQL is a computer language for working with sets of facts and the relationships between them. Relational
database programs, such as Access, use SQL to work with data. Like many computer languages, SQL is
an international standard that is recognized by standards bodies such as ISO and ANSI.
You use SQL to describe sets of data that can help you answer questions. When you use SQL, you must
use the correct syntax. Syntax is the set of rules by which the elements of a language are correctly
combined. SQL syntax is based on English syntax, and uses many of the same elements as Visual Basic
for Applications (VBA) syntax.
For example, a simple SQL statement that retrieves a list of last names for contacts whose first name is
Mary might resemble this:
SELECT Last_Name
FROM Contacts
WHERE First_Name = 'Mary';
NOTE: SQL is not only used for manipulating data, but also for creating and altering the design of
database objects, such as tables. The part of SQL that is used for creating and altering database objects is
called data-definition language (DDL). This topic does not cover DDL. For more information, see the
article Create or modify tables or indexes by using a data-definition query.
SELECT statements
To describe a set of data by using SQL, you write a SELECT statement. A SELECT statement contains a
complete description of a set of data that you want to obtain from a database. This includes the following:

What tables contain the data.

How data from different sources is related.
Which fields or calculations will produce the data.
Criteria that data must match to be included.
Whether and how to sort the results.
SQL clauses
Like a sentence, a SQL statement has clauses. Each clause performs a function for the SQL statement.
Some clauses are required in a SELECT statement. The following table lists the most common SQL
clauses.
SQL
clause
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
ORDER
BY
GROUP
BY
HAVING

What it does

Required

Lists the fields that contain data of interest.

Lists the tables that contain the fields listed in the SELECT
clause.
Specifies field criteria that must be met by each record to be
included in the results.
Specifies how to sort the results.

Yes
Yes

In a SQL statement that contains aggregate functions, lists fields

that are not summarized in the SELECT clause.
In a SQL statement that contains aggregate functions, specifies
conditions that apply to fields that are summarized in the
SELECT statement.

Only if there are

such fields
No

No
No

SQL terms
Each SQL clause is composed of terms comparable to parts of speech. The following table lists types
of SQL terms.
SQL term Comparable part Definition
of speech

Example

identifier

noun

Customers.[Phone
Number]

operator

verb or adverb

constant

noun

expression adjective

A name that you use to identify a

database object, such as the name of a
field.
A keyword that represents an action or
modifies an action.
A value that does not change, such as a
number or NULL.
A combination of identifiers, operators,
constants, and functions that evaluates to
a single value.

AS
42
>= Products.[Unit
Price]

Top of Page
Basic SQL clauses: SELECT, FROM, and WHERE
A SQL statement takes the general form:
SELECT field_1
FROM table_1
WHERE criterion_1
;
NOTES:

Access ignores line breaks in a SQL statement. However, consider using a line for each clause to help
improve the readability of your SQL statements for yourself and others.
Every SELECT statement ends with a semi-colon (;). The semi-colon can appear at the end of the last
clause or on a line by itself at the end of the SQL statement.
An example in Access
The following illustrates what a SQL statement for a simple select query might look like in Access:

1. SELECT clause
2. FROM clause
3. WHERE clause
This example SQL statement reads "Select the data that is stored in the fields named E-mail Address and
Company from the table named Contacts, specifically those records in which the value of the field City is
Seattle."
Let's look at the example, one clause at a time, to see how SQL syntax works.

The SELECT clause

SELECT [E-mail Address], Company
This is the SELECT clause. It consists of an operator (SELECT) followed by two identifiers ([E-mail
Address] and Company).
If an identifier contains spaces or special characters (such as "E-mail Address"), it must be enclosed in
square brackets.
A SELECT clause does not have to say which tables contain the fields, and it cannot specify any
conditions that must be met by the data to be included.
The SELECT clause always appears in front of the FROM clause in a SELECT statement.
The FROM clause
FROM Contacts
This is the FROM clause. It consists of an operator (FROM) followed by an identifier (Contacts).
A FROM clause does not list the fields to be selected.
The WHERE clause
WHERE City="Seattle"
This is the WHERE clause. It consists of an operator (WHERE) followed by an expression
(City="Seattle").
NOTE: Unlike the SELECT and FROM clauses, the WHERE clause is not a required element of a
SELECT statement.
You can accomplish many of the actions that SQL enables you to do by using SELECT, FROM, and
WHERE clauses. More information about how you use these clauses is presented in these sections at the
end of this article:
More about the SELECT clause
More about the FROM clause
More about the WHERE clause
Sorting the results: ORDER BY
Like Microsoft Office Excel, Access lets you sort query results in a datasheet. You can also specify in the
query how you want to sort the results when the query is run, by using an ORDER BY clause. If you use
an ORDER BY clause, it is the last clause in the SQL statement.

An ORDER BY clause contains a list of the fields that you want to use for sorting, in the same order that
you want to apply the sort operations.
For example, suppose that you want your results sorted first by the value of the field Company in
descending order, and if there are records with the same value for Company sorted next by the
values in the field E-mail Address in ascending order. Your ORDER BY clause would resemble the
following:
ORDER BY Company DESC, [E-mail Address]
NOTE: By default, Access sorts values in ascending order (A-Z, smallest to largest). Use the DESC
keyword to sort values in descending order instead.
For more information about the ORDER BY clause, see the topic ORDER BY Clause.
Top of Page
Working with summarized data: GROUP BY and HAVING
Sometimes you want to work with summarized data, such as the total sales in a month, or the most
expensive items in an inventory. To do this, you apply an aggregate function to a field in your SELECT
clause. For example, if you want your query to show the count of e-mail addresses listed for each
company, your SELECT clause might resemble the following:
SELECT COUNT([E-mail Address]), Company
The aggregate functions that you can use depend on the type of data that is in the field or expression that
you want to use. For more information about the available aggregate functions, see the article SQL
Aggregate Functions.
Specifying fields that are not used in an aggregate function: The GROUP BY clause
When you use aggregate functions, you usually must also create a GROUP BY clause. A GROUP BY
clause lists all the fields to which you do not apply an aggregate function. If you apply aggregate
functions to all the fields in a query, you do not have to create the GROUP BY clause.
A GROUP BY clause immediately follows the WHERE clause, or the FROM clause if there is no
WHERE clause. A GROUP BY clause lists the fields as they appear in the SELECT clause.
For example, continuing the previous example, if your SELECT clause applies an aggregate function to
[E-mail Address] but not to Company, your GROUP BY clause would resemble the following:
GROUP BY Company
For more information about the GROUP BY clause, see the topic GROUP BY Clause.

Limiting aggregate values by using group criteria: the HAVING clause

If you want to use criteria to limit your results, but the field that you want to apply criteria to is used in an
aggregate function, you cannot use a WHERE clause. Instead, you use a HAVING clause. A HAVING
clause works like a WHERE clause, but is used for aggregated data.
For example, suppose that you use the AVG function (which calculates an average value) with the first
field in your SELECT clause:
SELECT COUNT([E-mail Address]), Company
If you want the query to restrict the results based on the value of that COUNT function, you cannot use a
criteria for that field in the WHERE clause. Instead, you put the criteria in a HAVING clause. For
example, if you only want the query to return rows if there are more than one e-mail addresses associated
with the company, the HAVING clause might resemble the following:
HAVING COUNT([E-mail Address])>1
NOTE: A query can have a WHERE clause and a HAVING clause criteria for fields that are not used
in an aggregate function go in the WHERE clause, and criteria for fields that are used with aggregate
functions go in the HAVING clause.
For more information about the HAVING clause, see the topic HAVING Clause.
Top of Page
Combining query results: UNION
When you want to review all the data that is returned by several similar select queries together, as a
combined set, you use the UNION operator.
The UNION operator lets you combine two SELECT statements into one. The SELECT statements that
you combine must have the same number of output fields, in the same order, and with the same or
compatible data types. When you run the query, data from each set of corresponding fields is combined
into one output field, so that the query output has the same number of fields as each of the select
statements.
NOTE: For the purposes of a union query, the Number and Text data types are compatible.
When you use the UNION operator, you can also specify whether the query results should include
duplicate rows, if any exist, by using the ALL key word.
The basic SQL syntax for a union query that combines two SELECT statements is as follows:
SELECT field_1
FROM table_1
UNION [ALL]
SELECT field_a

FROM table_a
;
For example, suppose that you have a table named Products and another table named Services. Both
tables have fields that contain the name of the product or service, the price, warranty or guarantee
availability, and whether you offer the product or service exclusively. Although the Products table stores
warranty information, and the Services table stores guarantee information, the basic information is the
same (whether a particular product or service includes a promise of quality). You can use a union query,
such as the following, to combine the four fields from the two tables:
SELECT name, price, warranty_available, exclusive_offer
FROM Products
UNION ALL
SELECT name, price, guarantee_available, exclusive_offer
FROM Services
;
For more information about how to combine SELECT statements by using the UNION operator, see the
article Combine the results of several select queries by using a union query.
Top of Page
More about the SELECT clause
In a SELECT statement, the SELECT clause lists the fields that contain data that you want to use.
Use square brackets to enclose identifiers
You can use square brackets to enclose the name of a field in a SELECT clause. If the name does not
contain any spaces or special characters (such as punctuation marks), the square brackets are optional. If
the name does contain spaces or special characters, you must use the brackets.
TIP: A name that contains spaces is easier to read and can save you time when you design forms and
reports, but may end up making you type more when you write SQL statements. You should consider this
fact when you name objects in your database.
If your SQL statement has two or more fields that have the same name, you must add the name of each
field's data source to the field name in the SELECT clause. You use the same name for the data source
that you use in the FROM clause.
Select all fields
When you want to include all the fields from a data source, you can either list all the fields individually in
the SELECT clause, or you can use the asterisk wildcard character (*). When you use the asterisk, Access
determines when the query is run what fields the data source contains, and includes all those fields in the
query. This helps make sure that the query stays up-to-date if new fields are added to the data source.

You can use the asterisk with one or more data sources in a SQL statement. If you use the asterisk and
there are multiple data sources, you must include the data source name together with the asterisk, so that
Access can determine which data source to include all fields from.
For example, suppose you want to select all the fields from the Orders table but only the e-mail address
from the Contacts table. Your SELECT clause might resemble this:
SELECT Orders.*, Contacts.[E-mail Address]
NOTE: Keep track of when you use the asterisk. If new fields are later added to the data source and you
did not plan for them, your query results might not turn out as you want.
Select distinct values
If you know that your statement will select redundant data, and you would rather see only distinct values,
you can use the DISTINCT keyword in your SELECT clause. For example, suppose that your customers
each represent several different interests, some of which use the same telephone number. If you want to
make sure that you only see each telephone number once, your SELECT clause appears as follows:
SELECT DISTINCT [txtCustomerPhone]
Use substitute names for fields or expressions: the AS keyword
You can change the label that is displayed for any field in datasheet view by using the AS keyword and a
field alias in your SELECT clause. A field alias is a name that you assign to a field in a query to make the
results easier to read. For example, if you want to select data from a field named txtCustPhone, and the
field contains customer telephone numbers, you could improve the readability of your results by using a
field alias in your SELECT statement, as follows:
SELECT [txtCustPhone] AS [Customer Phone]
NOTE: You must use a field alias when you use an expression in a SELECT clause.
Select by using an expression
Sometimes, you want to look at calculations based on your data, or retrieve only part of a field's data. For
example, suppose that you want to return the year that customers were born, based on data in the
BirthDate field in your database. Your SELECT clause might resemble the following:
SELECT DatePart("yyyy",[BirthDate]) AS [Birth Year]
This expression consists of the DatePart function and two arguments "yyyy" (a constant), and
[BirthDate] (an identifier).
You can use any valid expression as a field, if the expression outputs a single value when given a single
input value.
Top of Page

More about the FROM clause

In a SELECT statement, the FROM clause specifies the tables or queries that contain the data that the
SELECT clause will use.
Suppose that you want to know the telephone number of a specific customer. Assuming that the table that
contains the field that stores this data is called tblCustomer, the FROM clause would resemble the
following:
FROM tblCustomer
Use square brackets to enclose identifiers
You can use square brackets to enclose the name. If the name does not contain any spaces or special
characters (such as punctuation marks), the square brackets are optional. If the name does contain spaces
or special characters, you must use the brackets.
TIP: A name that contains spaces is easier to read and can save you time when you design forms and
reports, but may end up making you type more when you write SQL statements. You should consider this
fact when you name objects in your database.
Use substitute names for data sources
You can use a different name to refer to a data source in a SELECT statement by using a table alias in
your FROM clause. A table alias is a name that you assign to a data source in a query when you use an
expression as a data source, or to make the SQL statement easier to type and read. This can be especially
useful if the name of the data source is long or difficult to type, especially when there are multiple fields
that have the same name from different tables.
For example, if you want to select data from two fields, both named ID, one of which comes from the
table tblCustomer and the other from the table tblOrder, your SELECT clause might resemble the
following:
SELECT [tblCustomer].[ID], [tblOrder].[ID]
By using table aliases in your FROM clause, you could make the query easier to type. Your FROM
clause, with table aliases, might resemble the following:
FROM [tblCustomer] AS [C], [tblOrder] AS [O]
You could then use those table aliases in your SELECT clause, as follows:
SELECT [C].[ID], [O].[ID]
NOTE: When you use a table alias, you can refer to the data source in your SQL statement by using the
alias or by using the full name of the data source.

Join related data

When you need a way to combine pairs of records from two data sources into single records in a query
result, you can perform a join. A join is a SQL operation that specifies how two data sources are related,
and whether data from one source should be included if there is no corresponding data from the other
source.
To combine the information from two data sources, you perform a join operation on the field that they
have in common. When the values stored in this field match, the data from the records is combined in the
results.
In addition to combining data, you also use a join to specify whether to include records from either table
if there is no corresponding record in the related table.
For example, suppose you want to use data from two tables in a query: tblCustomer and tblOrder. The
two tables both have a field, CustomerID, that identifies a customer. Each record in the tblCustomer table
may have one or more corresponding records in the tblOrder table, and the corresponding values can be
determined by values in the CustomerID field.
If you want to join the tables so that the query combines the records from the tables, excluding records
from either table if there is no corresponding record in ther other table, your FROM clause might
resemble the following (line break added here for readability):
FROM [tblCustomer] INNER JOIN [tblOrder]
ON [tblCustomer].[CustomerID]=[tblOrder].[CustomerID]
In Microsoft Office Access, joins occur in the FROM clause of a SELECT statement. There are two types
of joins: inner joins and outer joins. The following sections explain these two types of joins.
Inner joins
Inner joins are the most common type of join. When a query with an inner join is run, the only records
that are included in the query results are those records where a common value exists in both of the joined
tables.
An inner join has the following syntax (line break added here for readability):
FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.field1 compopr table2.field2
The following table describes the different parts of an INNER JOIN operation.
Part
Description
table1,table2 The names of the tables from which records are combined.
field1,field2 The names of the fields that are joined. If they are not numeric, the fields must be
of the same data type and contain the same kind of data, but they do not have to
have the same name.

Part
compopr

Description
Any relational comparison operator: "=," "<," ">," "<=," ">=," or "<>."

Outer joins
Outer joins are similar to inner joins because they tell a query how to combine information from two
sources. They are different because they also specify whether to include data where no common value
exists. Outer joins are directional: you can specify whether to include all the records from the first data
source specified in the join (called a left join), or to include all the records from the second data source in
the join (called a right join).
An outer join has the following syntax:
FROM table1 [ LEFT | RIGHT ] JOIN table2
ON table1.field1compopr table2.field2
The following table describes the different parts of LEFT JOIN and RIGHT JOIN operations.
Part
Description
table1,table2 The names of the tables from which records are combined.
field1,field2 The names of the fields that are joined. The fields must be of the same data type
and contain the same kind of data, but they do not have to have the same name.
compopr
Any relational comparison operator: "=," "<," ">," "<=," ">=," or "<>."
For more information about joins, see the article Join tables and queries.
Top of Page
More about the WHERE clause
When you want to use data to limit the number of records that are returned in a query, you use query
criteria in the WHERE clause of a SELECT statement. A query criterion is similar to a formula it is a
string that may consist of field references, operators, and constants. Query criteria are a type of
expression.
The following table shows some sample criteria and explains how they work.
Criteria
>25 and <50

Description
This criterion applies to a Number field, such as Price or UnitsInStock.
It includes only those records where the field contains a value greater
than 25 and less than 50.
DateDiff ("yyyy",
This criterion applies to a Date/Time field, such as BirthDate. Only
[BirthDate], Date()) > records where the number of years between a person's birth date and
30
today's date is greater than 30 are included in the query result.
Is Null
This criterion can be applied to any kind of field to show records where
the field value is null.

As the previous table illustrates, criteria can look very different from each other depending on the data
type of the field to which the criteria apply and your specific requirements. Some criteria are simple, and
use basic operators and constants. Others are complex, and use functions and special operators, and
include field references.
IMPORTANT: If a field is used with an aggregate function, you cannot specify criteria for that field in a
WHERE clause. Instead, you use a HAVING clause to specify criteria for aggregated fields. For more
information, see the section Working with summarized data: GROUP BY and HAVING.
WHERE clause syntax
A WHERE clause has the following basic syntax:
WHERE field = criterion
For example, suppose that you want the telephone number of a customer, but you only remember that the
customer's last name is Bagel. Instead of looking at all the telephone numbers in your database, you could
use a WHERE clause to limit the results and make it easier to find the telephone number that you want.
Assuming that last names are stored in a field that is named LastName, your WHERE clause appears as
follows:
WHERE [LastName]='Bagel'
NOTE: You do not have to base the criteria in your WHERE clause on the equivalence of values. You
can use other comparison operators, such as greater than (>) or less than (<). For example, WHERE
[Price]>100.
Use the WHERE clause to combine data sources
Sometimes you may want to combine data sources based on fields that have matching data, but have
different data types. For example, a field in one table may have a Number data type, and you want to
compare that field to a field in another table that has a Text data type.
You cannot create a join between fields that have different data types. To combine data from two data
sources based on values in fields that have different data types, you create a WHERE clause that uses one
field as a criterion for the other field, by using the LIKE keyword.
For example, suppose that you want to use data from table1 and table2, but only when the data in field1 (a
text field in table1) matches the data in field2 (a number field in table2). Your WHERE clause would
resemble the following:
WHERE field1 LIKE field2