Compendium in Teaching Grammar

TRADITIONAL
GRAMMAR
NOUN
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and

abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words, which small children
learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:
Late last year our neighbors bought a goat.
Portia White was an opera singer.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed
in 48 B.C.
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an
indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an
appositive, an adjective or an adverb.
I.
According to Meaning
A. Proper Noun
a specific name of a place , a person, or a thing
E.g.:
Manila Hotel
Colgate
Filipinos
Mars
B. Common Noun
a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a
general sense
E.g.:
2
sign
town
miles
weather
C. Abstract Noun
a noun which names anything which you can not
perceive through your five physical senses
E.g.:
Afterthought
Childhood
Justice
Schizophrenia
D. Count Noun
refer to things that can be divided up into smaller
units which are separate and distinct from one
another
E.g.:
Table
Chair
Word
Remark
E. Non-count/ Mass noun
a noun which does not have a plural form, and

which refers to something that you could (or would)
not usually count
always takes a singular verb in a sentence

E.g. :
Oxygen
Furniture
Gravel
3
Jewelry
F. Collective Noun
a noun naming a group of things, animals, or

persons
Examples of Collective Nouns
An armory of aardvarks
An abominable sight of monks
An agenda of tasks
An armada of ships
An army of caterpillars
An army of frogs
An atlas of maps
A bale of turtles
A band of men
A bank of circuits
A bank of monitors
A barren of mules
A battery of tests
A bed of clams
A bed of oysters
A bed of snakes
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A belt of asteroids
A bestiary of mythological creatures
A bevy of beauties
A bevy of quail
A bevy of swans
A bill of particulars
A blessing of unicorns
A bloat of hippopotami
A boast of soldiers
A boo of surprises
A book of Mormons
A bouquet of flowers
A bridge of admirals
A brigade of soldiers
A broadside of (artillery) shells (on

water)
A brood of hens
A buffoonery of orangutans
A bunch of grapes
A bury of conies
A business of ferrets
A business of flies
A cackle of hyenas
A calendar of saints
A cast of actors
A cast of falcons
A cast of hawks
A cavalcade of horsemen
A cavy of extra cowboy mounts
A cete of badgers
A chain of islands
A charlotte of web pages
A chorus of angels
A circus of fighter
A clank of tanks
A class of students
A click of (computer) mice
A cloud of bats
A cloud of gnats
A cloud of grasshoppers
A clowder of cats
A cluster of alpha computers
A cluster of grasshoppers
A clutch of chicks
A clutch of eggs
A clutter of cats
A clutter of starlings
A college of electors
A colony of ants
A colony of beavers
A colony of gulls
A colony of penguins
A colony of rabbits
A company of parrots
A company of soldiers
A congregation of people
A congregation of plovers
A congregation of worshipers
A conspiracy of ravens
A constellation of stars
A constituency of voters
A convocation of eagles
A corps of cadets
A coven of witches
A covey of pheasants (while on the

ground)
A covey of quail
A crash of rhinoceroses (in

contemporary use in Kenya Game
Reports)
A crowd of onlookers
A cruft of hackers
A cry of hounds
A cry of players
A culture of bacteria
A death row of turkeys
A deck of sailors
A descent of woodpeckers
A dilation of pupils
A dissimulation of birds
A division of soldiers
A dole of doves
A donut of data
A down of hares
A draught of fish
A dray of squirrels
A drift of hogs
A drift of swine
A dropping of pigeons
A drove of cattle
A dule of doves
A drumming of grouse
An erst of bees
An evensong of choirboys
An exaltation of larks
A fall of woodcocks
A fidget of altar boys
A field of racehorses
A fistful of dollars
A flap of nuns
A fleet of ships
A flight of cormorants
A flight of doves
A flight of stairs
A flight of swallows
A float of crocodiles
A flock of sheep
A flotilla of ships
A fluther of jellyfish
A gaggle of geese (wild or

domesticated)
A galaxy of stars
A galaxy of starlets
A gang of hoodlums
A glossolalia of Pentecostals
A government of Episcopalians
A grist of bees
A grove of trees
A hailstorm of gunships
A hand of bananas
A heap of trash
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A herd of elephants
A herd of horses
A herd of wrens
A hill of beans
A hive of bees
A host of angels
A host of sparrows
A huddle of lawyers
A huddle of players
A hug of teddy bears
A husk of hares
An immersion of Baptists
A kettle of hawks (riding a thermal )
A kindle of kittens
A labor of moles
A leap of hares
A leap of leopards
A leash of foxes
A mask of raccoons
A mass of priests
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A maze of canyons
A meeting of Quakers
A membership of Presbyterians
A mess of officers
A mob of kangaroo
A muscle of marines
A muster of peacocks
A muster of soldiers
A muster of storks
A nest of mice
A nest of rabbits
A nest of vipers
A nest of wasps
A network of computers (linked

together )
An observance of hermits
An orchestra of musicians
A pack of hounds
A pack of wolves
A pad of (sheets of) paper
A paddling of ducks (while

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swimming)
A pantheon of gods
A parade of penguins
A parliament of owls
A parliament of rooks
A party of jays
A passel of brats
A patch of flowers
A patter of footsteps
A peal of bells
A peep of chickens
A piddle of puppies
A pile of dung
A piteousness of doves
A pitying of turtledoves
A plague of locusts
A platoon of soldiers
A plump of waterfowl
A pod of seals
A pod of whales
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A pomposity of professors
A pontificality of prelates
A prattle of parrots
A prickle of hedgehogs
A prickle of porcupines
A pride of lions
A radiance of cardinals
A raft of canvass-back ducks
A raft of ducks (while idle in water)
A raft of widgeon
A rafter of turkeys
A range of mountains
A ring of keys (linked physically)
A rope of pearls
A round of drinks
A route of wolves
A rumble of artillery
A rumpus of baboons
A run of poultry
A salt substrate of potato chips
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A salt substrate of pretzels
A salt substrate of saltines
A salvo of [artillery] shells
A school of fish
A sedge of cranes
A sea of bishops
A sheaf of wheat (stalks of grain tied

together)
A shoal of bass
A shoal of shad
A shock of corn (pile of stalks)
A shrewdness of apes
A siege of herons
A singular of boars
A skein of geese (in flight)
A skulk of foxes
A slate of candidates
A slew of homework
A sloth of bears
A smack of jellyfish
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A sneak of weasels
A sounder of swine
A squad of soldiers
A stable of prostitutes
A staff of employees
A stand of flamingo
A stand of trees
A stash of weed (when hidden)
A stench of skunks
A storm of paratroops
A streak of tigers
A string of ponies
A superfluity of nuns
A swarm of bees
A tangle of tricksters
A team of athletes
A team of ducks (while flying)
A team of horses
A team of oxen
A tick tock of clocks
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A totter of giraffes
A tribe of goats
A tribe of monkeys
A tribe of natives
A trip of dotterel
A trip of goats
A troop of kangaroo
A troupe of performers
A ubiquity of sparrows
An unkindness of ravens
A visit of Jehovahs witnesses
A wake of vultures
A walk of snipe
A wealth of information
A wedge of geese (flying in a "V")
A wedge of swans (flying in a "V")
A wing of (fighter) aircraft
A wisdom of owls
A wisp of snipe
A wolf pack of submarines
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II.
According to Form
A. Gender
1. Masculine
refers to a male character or member of a species

E.g.:
Actor
Prince
Waiter
Widower
2. Feminine
refers to a female member of a species

E.g.:
Actress
Princess
Waitress
Widow
3. Common
refers to a member of species which can be a male

or a female
E.g.:
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Child
Student
Applicant
Candidate
4. Neuter
refers to a member of a species which is neither a

male nor a female
E.g.:
Chair
Table
Tree
Star
Examples of Masculine and Feminine Nouns
Male
Female
boy
girl
son
daughter
king
queen
actor
actress
nephew
niece
waiter
waitress
prince
Princess
Master
Mistress
Brother
Sister
Uncle
Aunt
Lord
Lady
Man
Woman
Husband
Wife
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Prince
Princess
Bull
Cow
Rooster
Hen
Stag
Doe
Drake
Duck
Fox
Vixen
Gander
Goose
Lion
Lioness
Ram
Ewe
Bachelor
Spinster/bachelorette/maid
Bullock
Heifer
Dog
Bitch
Drone
Bee
Horse
Mare
Jew
Jewess
Wizard
Witch
Heir
Heiress
Manager
Manageress
Poet
Poetess
Shepherd
Shepherdess
Benefactor
Benefactress
Hunter
Huntress
Emperor
Empress
Traitor
Traitress
Ox
Cow
Mayor
Mayoress
Tiger
Tigress
Monk
Nun
Gentleman
Lady
Duke
Duchess
Abbot
Abbess
Adulterer
Adulteress
Author
Authoress
Monitor
Monitress
Baron
Baroness
Murderer
Murderess
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Enchanter
Enchantress
Prophet
Prophetess
God
Goddess
Host
Hostess
Sorcerer
Sorceress
Host
Hostess
Canon
Canoness
Patron
Patroness
Count
Countess
Peer
Peeress
Dauphin
Dauphiness
Poet
Poetess
Deaconess
Deaconess
Proprietor
Proprietress
Prior
Prioress
Giant
Giantess
Heir
Heiress
Shepherd
Shepherdess
Hunter
Huntress
Priest
Priestess
Songster
Songstress
Instructor
Instructress
Inventor
Inventress
Executor
Executrix
Testator
Testatrix
Administrator
Administratrix
Hero
Heroine
Landgrave
Landgravine
Margrave
Margravine
Don
Donna
Infant
Infanta
Signor
Signora
Sultan
Sultana
B. Number
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A noun number shows whether the noun names

one or more than one person or thing. A noun is singular
if it names one person or thing. A noun is plural if it
names more than one person/thing.
1. Regular
follows the normal plural rule of adding es or s to

form a plural, or changing y to I and adding es
The majority of English count nouns are
regular and predictable in the spelling of the plural
form. Add -s to the end of the singular form or -es
to those singulars that end in a sibilant sound (/s/,
/z/, /ts/, /dz/).
E.g.:
-s
-es
Minute
Minutes
Box
Boxes
Ship
Ships
Witness
Witnesses
Tree
Trees
Church
Churches
Boat
Boats
Dish
Dishes
Doll
Dolls
Fox
Foxes
Bay
Bays
Buzz
Buzzes
Key
Keys
Quiz
quizzes
2. Irregular
not follow the normal plural rules
changes form or doesnt change at all

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Some nouns that end in -f or -fe are changed

to -ves in the plural
E.g.
Knife
Wife
Half
Leaf
Calf
Wolf
Thief
Life
Shelf
Self
Loaf
Elf
Sheaf
Scarf
Hoof
Some nouns
-f or fe changed to -ves
Knives
Wives
Halves
Leaves
Calves
Wolves
Thieves
Lives
Shelves
Selves
Loaves
Elves
Sheaves
Scarves
hooves
change the vowel sound in
becoming plural:
E.g.:
singular plural
fireman firemen
foot
feet
goose
geese
louse
lice
man
men
mouse
mice
tooth
teeth
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woman women
Some Old English plurals are still in use:

E.g.:
singular
child
ox
-o becomes -os
plural
auto
autos
children
kangaroo kangaroos
oxen
kilo
kilos
-o becomes -oes
hero
heroes
memo
memos
potato
potatoes
photo
photos
tomato
tomatoes
piano
pianos
torpedo torpedoes
pimento
pimentos
veto
pro
pros
solo
solos
soprano
sopranos
studio
studios
tattoo
tattoos
video
videos
zoo
zoos
echo
echoes
embargo embargoes
vetoes
Some nouns ending in -o take -s as the plural,

while others take -es.
E.g.:
24
Some nouns ending in -o take either -s or -es:

E.g.:
singular
plural
buffalo
buffalos/buffaloes
cargo
cargos/cargoes
halo
halos/haloes
mosquito mosquitos/mosquitoes
motto
mottos/mottoes
no
nos/noes
tornado
tornados/tornadoes
volcano
volcanos/volcanoes
zero
zeros/zeroes
Some nouns do not change at all

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E.g.:
singular plural
cod*
cod*
deer
deer
fish*
fish*
offspring offspring
perch*
perch*
sheep
sheep
trout*
trout*
*Notice that these are names of fish. Many fish have irregular plural
forms. Salmon, pike, halibut and tuna are further examples, but
one shark becomes two sharks.
These include nouns that are traditionally

plural, but are also used for singular forms:
E.g.:
singular
plural
barracks
barracks
crossroads
crossroads
dice/die
dice
gallows
gallows
headquarters headquarters
means
means
series
series
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species
species
Other nouns retain foreign plurals. Note that

some of these have adapted a regular English
plural form as well.
E.g.:
singular
alga
English plural in
plural
use
algae
amoeba amoebae
amoebas
antenna antennae
antennas
formula formulae
formulas
larva
larvae
nebula
nebulae
vertebra
foreign
nebulas
vertebrae
Nouns ending in -us with plural -a (only in

technical use):
E.g.:
singular
plural
corpus
corpora
genus
genera
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Nouns ending in -us with plural -i:
E.g.:
singular
foreign
English plural in
plural
use
alumnus alumni
bacillus
bacilli
cactus
cacti
focus
foci
fungus
fungi
nucleus
nuclei
octopus
octopi
radius
radii
cactuses
funguses
octopuses
stimulus stimuli
syllabus syllabi
terminus
syllabuses
termini
Nouns ending in -um with plural -a:
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singular
Foreign plural English plural in use
addendum
addenda
bacterium
bacteria
curriculum
curricula
datum
data
erratum
errata
medium
media
memorandum memoranda
ovum
ova
stratum
strata
symposium
symposia
curriculums
memorandums
symposiums
Nouns ending in -ex, -ix becoming plural

-ices:
E.g.:
singular
apex
Foreign
English plural
plural
in use
apices
apexes
appendix appendices
appendixes
cervix
cervices
cervixes
index
indices
indexes
matrix
matrices
matrixes
vortex
vortices
Nouns ending in -is becoming -es in plural:

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singular
plural
analysis
analyses
axis
axes
basis
bases
crisis
crises
diagnosis
diagnoses
emphasis
emphases
hypothesis
hypotheses
neurosis
neuroses
oasis
oases
parenthesis parentheses
synopsis
synopses
thesis
theses
Nouns ending in -on becoming -a:
singular
plural
criterion
criteria
Other
phenomenon phenomena
irregular
automaton
plurals,
automata
retained from different languages:

E.g.:
30
singular plural
Italian
libretto
libretti
tempo
tempi
virtuoso virtuosi
Hebrew
Greek
cherub
cherubim
seraph
seraphim
schema schemata
3. Compound
made up of two or more words used together
can be:
-
One word
E.g.:
Shoelace
Keyboard
Flashlight
Applesauce
Notebook
Bedroom
-
Hyphenated:
Sky-scraper
Boy-friend
31
Baby-sitter
Editor-in-chief
Great-grandfather
-
Two words:
Police officer
Seat belt
High school
Word processor
Post office
C. Cases
1. Nominative/ Subjective
if it is the subject of a verb
Answers the question "who?" or "what?"
The subject of a sentence will generally

appear in this case.
E.g.:
My sister walks.
The dog barks.
32
2. Objective
if they are the direct objects of verbs or if they

are the objects of preposition
Answer the question Whom? or What?

E.g.:
I met your sister
The vendor sells mangoes.
3. Dative
if it is the indirect object of the verb
There should not be a preposition before the

indirect object because in that case it will be
the object of that preposition.
answers the question "(to/for) whom?" or

"(to/for) what
E.g.:
The teacher gave the students few
exercises.
Get him a pen.
4. Possessive
denotes possession or ownership
all singular nouns form the possessive form

by adding apostrophe and s
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E.g.:
Rias shoes
Singers microphone
exception: singular nouns that end in s form the possessive by

adding either an apostrophe and s or an apostrophe only. Both
forms of the possessive are considered correct.
E.g.:
Charless book
Charles book
Plural nouns that end in s form the possessive by adding an

apostrophe.
E.g.:
The witches' brooms were hidden
in the corner.
The babies' beds were all in a
row.
Plural nouns that do not end in s form the possessive by

adding an apostrophe and s.
E.g.:
She plans to open a women's
clothing boutique.
34
The
geese's
food
supply
was
endangered.
In cases of joint possession, only the last word shows

possession
E.g.:
Miguel and Cecilia's new cars are
in the parking lot.
Lewis and Clark's expectations
were very much the same.
In compound noun only the last word show possession

E.g.:
The
queens
lady-in-waitings
birthday was yesterday.

The
president-elects
finance
troubles were typical.
III.
According to Function
A. Subject of the Sentence
tells us what the sentence is about

E.g.:
35
The cake is delicious.

Joe is a gourmet.
B. Object of the Preposition
Answers the "whom" or "what" after a preposition in

a prepositional phrase.
E.g.:
With his friends
Under the table
C. Direct Object
answers "whom" or "what" after an action verb
"receives" or is the "object" of the action.
E.g.:
The children ate all the cookies.
My professor recommended a good book.
D. Subjective Complement/ Predicate Nominative/Predicate

Noun
follows a copular or linking verb such as be and

become and refers back to the subject
E.g.:
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My grandfather is a farmer.
The woman whom you are looking for is she.
E. Objective Complement/Object Complement
directly follow and modify the direct object
E.g.:
We consider our puppy our baby.
My aunt calls my uncle sweetheart.
F. Indirect Object
answers "to whom/what" or "for whom/what" after

an action verb
E.g.:
The salesperson sold the company new computers.
The child drew his mother a picture.
G. Appositive
modifies or explains another noun or noun phrase
If the appositive is needed to identify the

noun (restrictive appositive) then no comma
is used.
E.g.:
37
The musician Stevie Nicks is a

singer in Fleetwood Mac.
The tragedy Romeo and Juliet is
a tearjerker.
If the appositive provides only additional,

accompanying information about the noun
it is called nonrestrictive appositive and it
should be set off from the rest of the sentence
with commas (dashes, colons and
parentheses can also be used).
E.g.:
The teacher, my uncle, assigns a
lot of homework.
Carlo, my cousin, won the
student government election.
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PRONOUN
A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use
pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences
less cumbersome and less repetitive.
Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the
personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative
pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive
pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.
Types of Pronoun:
Personal Pronouns
represent specific people or things
is used depending on number, person, gender and case

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Person
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
Number
Singular
Plural
Familiar
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Relative
Subject
we
thou
you
you
he, she,
they
who
them
whom
their, theirs
whose
it
Object
me
us
thee
you
you
him, her,
it
Possessive* my, mine
our, ours
thy, thine
your,
your, yours
yours
Reflexive/
myself
ourselves
Thyself
yourself yourselves
Intensive
his,
hers, its
himself, themselves
herself,
itself
Types of Personal Pronouns:

I.
Subjective Personal Pronoun
used as the subject of the sentence or as a predicate noun
the subjective personal pronouns are the following:

I
You
He
She
It
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We
They
Who
In the following sentences, the highlighted words

are the subjective personal pronouns.
I own this website.
He went to the market to shop.
She enjoyed her dance lessons
We bought some canned goods to prepare for
a disaster.
They travelled to Europe last week.
II.
Objective Personal Pronouns
Used as the direct object of a verb, the indirect object of a

verb or the object of the preposition.
The objective personal pronouns are the following:

Me
You
Him
Her
41
It
Us
Them
In the following sentences, the highlighted words

are the objective personal pronouns.
Seamus stole the selkie's skin and forced her
to live with him.
After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it
into the garbage can.
The agitated assistant stood up, faced the
angry delegates, and said, Our leader will
address you in five minutes.
Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the
newest caf in the market.
Give the list to me.
III.
Possessive Personal Pronouns
substitute a group of words that are indicating a

possession relation
acts as a subject complement or a subject of the

sentence
The possessive personal pronouns are the following:

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Mine
Yours
His
Hers
Its
Ours
Theirs
In the following sentences, the highlighted words are the

possessive personal pronouns.
The smallest gift is mine.
This is yours.
His is on the kitchen counter.
Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
Ours is the green on the counter.
Demonstrative Pronouns
pronouns that point to specific things
indicate whether they are close or far, in space or time, from the
speaker in the moment of speaking
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Singular
Plural
Near
Far
This
That
These those
N.B.: "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
In the following sentences, the highlighted words are the

demonstrative pronouns.
This tastes good.
Have you seen this?
These are bad times.
Do you like these?
That is beautiful.
Relative Pronouns
used to join two or more sentences
used to add information in defining relative clauses and nondefining relative clauses
Defining relative clauses the relative pronoun can be
either the subject or the object of the relative clause
44
When it is the subject, the word order is subject +

verb + object:
I have a friend who/that plays guitar. ( a
friend = subject, plays = verb, guitar = object)
When the relative pronoun is the object, the word
order is object + subject + verb:
He showed me the rocks (which/that) he had
collected. (the rocks =object, he = subject, had
collected = verb)
Adding information about things
Relative
Which
That
No relative
pronoun
Subject
Object
pronoun
Adding information about people

Relative
Who
That
No
pronoun
Subject
object
relative Whom
pronoun
When we add information about things, we can use

that
(or
no
relative
pronoun)
as
object
in
conversation and which in more formal contexts:

Decorating is a job (that) I hate. (rather than
which in this informal context)
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When
we
add
information
about
people,
we
generally prefer that (or no relative pronoun) as

object in informal contexts rather than who or
whom:
Thats the man (that) I met at Allisons party
(rather than who/whom I met )
Whom is very formal and rarely used in spoken
English:
The boy whom Elena had shouted at smiled.
(less formally that, no relative pronoun or
who)
We use that as subject after: something and
anything; words such as all, little, much, and
none used as pronoun; and noun phrases that
include superlatives. Which is also used as subject
after something and anything, but less commonly:
These walls are all that remain of the city. (not
which remain of the city)
Note that we can use that (or no relative pronoun)
as object after something/anything; all, etc.; and
noun phrases with superlatives. For example:
She is one of the kindest people (that) I know.
(not one of the kindest people who I know.)
46
Adding information about things

Relative pronoun
Subject
Object
Which
That
Adding information about people

Relative pronoun
Who
Whom
Subject
Object
Notice that we must include a relative pronoun in a
non-defining relative clause.
We can use who or whom as object, although whom
is very formal:
Professor Johnson, who (m) I have long
admired, is to visit the University next week.
When we add information about things, we can use
which as subject or object. That is sometimes used
instead of which, but some people think that this is
incorrect:
The Masters course, which I took in 1990, is
no longer taught. (or that I took )
Indefinite Pronoun
pronoun
that
refers
to
one
or
more unspecified
or
indefinite person, place, or thing
47
pronoun
meaning
example
an additional
That ice cream was good. Can I
or different
have another?
singular
another
person or thing
anybody/anyone
anything
no matter what
Can anyone answer this
person
question?
no matter what
The doctor needs to know if
thing
you have eaten anything in the

last two hours.
each
every one of
Each has his own thoughts.
two or more
people or
things, seen
separately
either
one or the
Do you want tea or coffee? / I
other of two
do not mind. Either is good for
people or
me.
things
enough
as much or as
Enough is enough.
many as
needed
everybody/everyone all people
We can start the meeting

because everybody has
arrived.
everything
all things
They have no house or

48
possessions. They lost

everything in the earthquake.
less
little
a smaller
"Less is more" (Mies van der
amount
Rohe)
a small amount Little is know about his early

life.
much
a large amount
Much has happened since we

met.
neither
not one and not I keep telling Jack and Jill but
the other of two neither believes me.
people or
things
nobody/no-one
no person
I phoned many times but

nobody answered.
nothing
one
no single thing,
If you do not know the answer
not anything
it is best to say nothing.
an unidentified
Can one smoke here? | All the
person
students arrived but no one is

missing.
other
a different
One was tall and
person or thing
the other was short.
from one
already
mentioned
somebody/someone
an unspecified
Clearly somebody murdered
or unknown
49
something
person
him. It was not suicide.
an unspecified
Listen! I just heard something!
or unknown
What could it be?
thing
you
an unidentified
And you can see why.
person
(informal)
plural
both
two people or
John likes coffee but not tea. I
things, seen
think both are good.
together
few
a small number Few have ever disobeyed him

of people or
and lived.
things
fewer
a reduced
Fewer are smoking these days.
number of
people or
things
many
a large number
Many have come already.
of people or
things
others
several
they
other people;
I am sure that others have
not us
tried before us.
more than two
They all complained
but not many
and several left the meeting.
people in
They say that vegetables are

50
general
good for you.
(informal)
singular or plural
all
the whole
All is forgiven.
quantity of
All have arrived.
something or of
some things or
people
any
no matter how
Is any left?
much or how
Are any coming?
many
more
a greater
There is more over there.
quantity of
More are coming.
something; a
greater number
of people or
things
most
none
the majority;
Most is lost.
nearly all
Most have refused.
not any; no
They fixed the water so why is
person or
none coming out of the tap.
persons
I invited five friends but none

have come.*
some
an unspecified
Here is some.
quantity of
Some have arrived.
something; an
51
unspecified
number of
people or
things
such
of the type
He was a foreigner and he felt
already
that he was treated as such.
mentioned
Some people say that "none" should always take a singular verb,
even when talking about countable nouns (e.g. five friends).
They argue that "none means no one and "one" is obviously
singular. They say that "I invited five friends but none has come"
is correct and "I invited five friends but none have come" is
incorrect. Historically and grammatically there is little to
support this view. "None" has been used for hundreds of years
with both a singular and a plural verb, according to the context
and the emphasis required.
Reflexive Pronoun
to indicate that the person who realizes the action of the verb is
the same person who receives the action
Subject Reflexive
Singular
Plural
myself
You
yourself
He
himself
She
herself
It
itself
We
ourselves
52
You
yourselves
They
themselves
For example:
I cut my hair myself.
* In this example "I" does the action of cutting the hair
and at the same time "I" gets the action of the hair being
cut.
We defended ourselves brilliantly.
* In this example the reflexive pronoun "ourselves" refers
back to the subject of the sentence.
John talks to himself when he is nervous.
* In this example "Himself" refers to John.
act as objects not subjects, and they require an interaction

between the subject and an object.
For example:
Because she was not hungry when the cake
was served, Ellen saved herself a piece.
* In the independent clause, "Ellen" is the
subject and "herself" is a reflexive pronoun
acting as the indirect object. This sentence
is grammatically correct.
John and myself are going to the movie.
* In this sentence, "John" and "myself" are
the subjects. Reflexive pronouns cannot be
53
subjects. This sentence is grammatically

incorrect.
Care must be taken to identify whether the noun is singular or

plural and choose the pronoun accordingly.
For example:
Nor is she shy about giving herself credit for

it.
We gave ourselves a second chance to

complete the course.
Did they lock themselves out of the house

again?
Give yourselves a pat on the back for a job

well done.
Note: The reflexive pronoun can also be used to give more

emphasis to the subject or object (intensive pronoun).
For example:
I did it myself.
* I want to emphasize the fact that I did it.
Examples:
He washed himself.
She looked at herself in the mirror.
54
Diabetics give themselves insulin shots

several times a day.
After the party, I asked myself why I had
faxed invitations to everyone in my office
building.
Richard usually remembered to send a copy
of his e-mail to himself.
Intensive Pronouns
used to emphasize the subject
used when the subject isn't performing the action
usually next to the subject

Intensive Pronouns
Myself
Ourselves
We
Themselves
Them
Yourselves
You
Herself
She
Himself
He
Examples:
55
My sister herself is going to teach the

undergraduate class.
I myself have two bachelors degrees.
We ourselves studied for the test.
VERB
A verb tells about an action or a state of being. It connects the
subject with information about that subject. In syntax, a verb is a
word belonging to the part of speech that usually denotes an action
(bring, read), an occurrence (decompose, glitter), or a state of being
(exist, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form
according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood
and voice. It may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number
of some of its arguments (subject, object, etc.).
56
I.
Types of Verb:
A. Action Verbs
verbs that show the performance of an action.
To find out whether a word is an action verb, ask yourself

whether that word expresses something you can do
E.g.:
Muskrats swim in marshes.
We built a fantastic sandcastle.
B. Linking Verbs
link a subject to a complement
connect the subject of a sentence with an adjective, noun, or

pronoun that follows the linking verb
List of Most Common Linking Verbs:

appear
John appeared happy when the company promoted

him.
be
The graduate students are in Classroom South,

Room 106.
feel
She felt happy with the new baby.
lie
The pieces lay scattered over the floor.
look
This person looks tired.
remain
Everybody remained silent for a few minutes.
seem
This secretary seems (to be) very efficient.

57
smell
That perfume smelled so fresh.
sound
She sounded very surprised when she heard the

news.
stay
Everybody stayed calm when the fire alarm went off.
taste
This grapefruit tastes very bitter.
C. Auxiliary Verbs
verbs that are used to assist the verb
cannot be used without a main verb
used in the sentence structure of the verb sentence
E.g.:
Ms. Sothros is reading our stories.
We should dig for buried treasure.
II.
Forms
A. Regular and Irregular Verbs
1. Regular Verbs
If a verb is regular, the past simple and past
participle end in -ed.
E.g.:
Clean: cleaned
finish: finished
58
use: used
paint: painted
stop: stopped
carry: carried
2. Irregular Verbs
if a verb is irregular the past simple and past

participle do not end in -ed.
Irregular Verb Dictionary
A
Infinitive
Simple Past
Past Participle
arise
arose
arisen
awake
awakened / awoke
awakened / awoken
backslide
backslid
backslidden /
backslid
be
was, were
been
bear
bore
born / borne
beat
beat
beaten / beat
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
59
bend
bent
bent
bet
bet / betted
bet / betted
bid (farewell)
bid / bade
bidden
bid (offer amount)
bid
bid
bind
bound
bound
bite
bit
bitten
bleed
bled
bled
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
breed
bred
bred
bring
brought
brought
broadcast
broadcast /
broadcasted
broadcast /
broadcasted
browbeat
browbeat
browbeaten /
browbeat
build
built
built
burn
burned / burnt [?]
burned / burnt [?]
burst
burst
burst
bust
busted / bust
busted / bust
buy
bought
bought
60
cast
cast
cast
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
cling
clung
clung
clothe
clothed / clad
clothed / clad
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
creep
crept
crept
crossbreed
crossbred
crossbred
cut
cut
cut
daydream
daydreamed /
daydreamt [?]
daydreamed /
daydreamt [?]
deal
dealt
dealt
dig
dug
dug
disprove
disproved
disproved /
disproven
dive (jump head-first)
dove / dived
dived
dive (scuba diving)
dived / dove
dived
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
61
dream
dreamed / dreamt
dreamed / dreamt
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
dwell
dwelt / dwelled
dwelt / dwelled
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fit (tailor, change size)
fitted / fit
fitted / fit
fit (be right size)
fit / fitted
fit / fitted
flee
fled
fled
fling
flung
flung
fly
flew
flown
forbid
forbade
forbidden
forecast
forecast
forecast
forego (also forgo)
forewent
foregone
E
eat
F
62
foresee
foresaw
foreseen
foretell
foretold
foretold
forget
forgot
forgotten / forgot
forgive
forgave
forgiven
forsake
forsook
forsaken
freeze
froze
frozen
frostbite
frostbit
frostbitten
get
got
gotten / got
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grind
ground
ground
grow
grew
grown
hand-feed
hand-fed
hand-fed
handwrite
handwrote
handwritten
hang
hung
hung
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hew
hewed
hewn / hewed
63
hide
hid
hidden
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
inbreed
inbred
inbred
inlay
inlaid
inlaid
input
input / inputted
input / inputted
interbreed
interbred
interbred
interweave
interwove /
interweaved
interwoven /
interweaved
interwind
interwound
interwound
jerry-built
jerry-built
keep
kept
kept
kneel
knelt / kneeled
knelt / kneeled
knit
knitted / knit
knitted / knit
know
knew
known
J
jerry-build
K
64
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
lean
leaned / leant
leaned / leant
leap
leaped / leapt
leaped / leapt
learn
learned / learnt
learned / learnt
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie
lay
lain
lie (not tell truth)

REGULAR
lied
lied
light
lit / lighted
lit / lighted
lip-read
lip-read
lip-read
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
miscast
miscast
miscast
misdeal
misdealt
misdealt
65
misdo
misdid
misdone
mishear
misheard
misheard
mislay
mislaid
mislaid
mislead
misled
misled
mislearn
mislearned /
mislearnt
mislearned /
mislearnt
misread
misread
misread
misset
misset
misset
misspeak
misspoke
misspoken
misspell
misspelled /
misspelt
misspelled /
misspelt
misspend
misspent
misspent
mistake
mistook
mistaken
misteach
mistaught
mistaught
misunderstand
misunderstood
misunderstood
miswrite
miswrote
miswritten
mow
mowed
mowed / mown
N
No irregular verbs beginning with "N."
O
offset
offset
offset
66
outbid
outbid
outbid
outbreed
outbred
outbred
outdo
outdid
outdone
outdraw
outdrew
outdrawn
outdrink
outdrank
outdrunk
outdrive
outdrove
outdriven
outfight
outfought
outfought
outfly
outflew
outflown
outgrow
outgrew
outgrown
outleap
outleaped / outleapt
outleaped / outleapt
outlie (not tell truth)

REGULAR
outlied
outlied
outride
outrode
outridden
outrun
outran
outrun
outsell
outsold
outsold
outshine
outshined /
outshone
outshined /
outshone
outshoot
outshot
outshot
outsing
outsang
outsung
outsit
outsat
outsat
outsleep
outslept
outslept
67
outsmell
outsmelled /
outsmelt
outsmelled /
outsmelt
outspeak
outspoke
outspoken
outspeed
outsped
outsped
outspend
outspent
outspent
outswear
outswore
outsworn
outswim
outswam
outswum
outthink
outthought
outthought
outthrow
outthrew
outthrown
outwrite
outwrote
outwritten
overbid
overbid
overbid
overbreed
overbred
overbred
overbuild
overbuilt
overbuilt
overbuy
overbought
overbought
overcome
overcame
overcome
overdo
overdid
overdone
overdraw
overdrew
overdrawn
overdrink
overdrank
overdrunk
overeat
overate
overeaten
overfeed
overfed
overfed
68
overhang
overhung
overhung
overhear
overheard
overheard
overlay
overlaid
overlaid
overpay
overpaid
overpaid
override
overrode
overridden
overrun
overran
overrun
oversee
oversaw
overseen
oversell
oversold
oversold
oversew
oversewed
oversewn /
oversewed
overshoot
overshot
overshot
oversleep
overslept
overslept
overspeak
overspoke
overspoken
overspend
overspent
overspent
overspill
overspilled /
overspilt
overspilled /
overspilt
overtake
overtook
overtaken
overthink
overthought
overthought
overthrow
overthrew
overthrown
overwind
overwound
overwound
overwrite
overwrote
overwritten
69
P
partake
partook
partaken
pay
paid
paid
plead
pleaded / pled
pleaded / pled
prebuild
prebuilt
prebuilt
predo
predid
predone
premake
premade
premade
prepay
prepaid
prepaid
presell
presold
presold
preset
preset
preset
preshrink
preshrank
preshrunk
proofread
proofread
proofread
prove
proved
proven / proved
put
put
put
quick-freeze
quick-froze
quick-frozen
quit
quit / quitted
quit / quitted
read (sounds like

"red")
read (sounds like

"red")
R
read
70
reawake
reawake
reawaken
rebid
rebid
rebid
rebind
rebound
rebound
rebroadcast
rebroadcast /
rebroadcasted
rebroadcast /
rebroadcasted
rebuild
rebuilt
rebuilt
recast
recast
recast
recut
recut
recut
redeal
redealt
redealt
redo
redid
redone
redraw
redrew
redrawn
refit (replace parts)
refit / refitted
refit / refitted
refit (retailor)
refitted / refit
refitted / refit
regrind
reground
reground
regrow
regrew
regrown
rehang
rehung
rehung
rehear
reheard
reheard
reknit
reknitted / reknit
reknitted / reknit
relay (for example tiles)
relaid
relaid
relay (pass along)

REGULAR
relayed
relayed
71
relearn
relearned / relearnt
relearned / relearnt
relight
relit / relighted
relit / relighted
remake
remade
remade
repay
repaid
repaid
reread
reread
reread
rerun
reran
rerun
resell
resold
resold
resend
resent
resent
reset
reset
reset
resew
resewed
resewn / resewed
retake
retook
retaken
reteach
retaught
retaught
retear
retore
retorn
retell
retold
retold
rethink
rethought
rethought
retread
retread
retread
retrofit
retrofitted / retrofit
retrofitted / retrofit
rewake
rewoke / rewaked
rewaken / rewaked
rewear
rewore
reworn
reweave
rewove / reweaved
rewoven / reweaved
72
rewed
rewed / rewedded
rewed / rewedded
rewet
rewet / rewetted
rewet / rewetted
rewin
rewon
rewon
rewind
rewound
rewound
rewrite
rewrote
rewritten
rid
rid
rid
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
roughcast
roughcast
roughcast
run
ran
run
sand-cast
sand-cast
sand-cast
saw
sawed
sawed / sawn
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
seek
sought
sought
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
set
set
set
73
sew
sewed
sewn / sewed
shake
shook
shaken
shave
shaved
shaved / shaven
shear
sheared
sheared / shorn
shed
shed
shed
shine
shined / shone
shined / shone
shit
shit / shat / shitted
shit/ shat / shitted
shoot
shot
shot
show
showed
shown / showed
shrink
shrank / shrunk
shrunk
shut
shut
shut
sight-read
sight-read
sight-read
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank / sunk
sunk
sit
sat
sat
slay (kill)
slew / slayed
slain / slayed
slay (amuse)
REGULAR
slayed
slayed
sleep
slept
slept
slide
slid
slid
74
sling
slung
slung
slink
slinked / slunk
slinked / slunk
slit
slit
slit
smell
smelled / smelt
smelled / smelt
sneak
sneaked / snuck
sneaked / snuck
sow
sowed
sown / sowed
speak
spoke
spoken
speed
sped / speeded
sped / speeded
spell
spelled / spelt
spelled / spelt
spend
spent
spent
spill
spilled / spilt
spilled / spilt
spin
spun
spun
spit
spit / spat
spit / spat
split
split
split
spoil
spoiled / spoilt
spoiled / spoilt
spoon-feed
spoon-fed
spoon-fed
spread
spread
spread
spring
sprang / sprung
sprung
stand
stood
stood
steal
stole
stolen
75
stick
stuck
stuck
sting
stung
stung
stink
stunk / stank
stunk
strew
strewed
strewn / strewed
stride
strode
stridden
strike (delete)
struck
stricken
strike (hit)
struck
struck / stricken
string
strung
strung
strive
strove / strived
striven / strived
sublet
sublet
sublet
sunburn
sunburned /
sunburnt
sunburned /
sunburnt
swear
swore
sworn
sweat
sweat / sweated
sweat / sweated
sweep
swept
swept
swell
swelled
swollen / swelled
swim
swam
swum
swing
swung
swung
took
taken
T
take
76
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
telecast
telecast
telecast
tell
told
told
test-drive
test-drove
test-driven
test-fly
test-flew
test-flown
think
thought
thought
throw
threw
thrown
thrust
thrust
thrust
tread
trod
trodden / trod
typecast
typecast
typecast
typeset
typeset
typeset
typewrite
typewrote
typewritten
unbend
unbent
unbent
unbind
unbound
unbound
unclothe
unclothed / unclad
unclothed / unclad
underbid
underbid
underbid
undercut
undercut
undercut
underfeed
underfed
underfed
77
undergo
underwent
undergone
underlie
underlay
underlain
undersell
undersold
undersold
underspend
underspent
underspent
understand
understood
understood
undertake
undertook
undertaken
underwrite
underwrote
underwritten
undo
undid
undone
unfreeze
unfroze
unfrozen
unhang
unhung
unhung
unhide
unhid
unhidden
unknit
unknitted / unknit
unknitted / unknit
unlearn
unlearned /
unlearnt
unlearned /
unlearnt
unsew
unsewed
unsewn / unsewed
unsling
unslung
unslung
unspin
unspun
unspun
unstick
unstuck
unstuck
unstring
unstrung
unstrung
unweave
unwove / unweaved
unwoven / unweaved
78
unwind
unwound
unwound
uphold
upheld
upheld
upset
upset
upset
V
No commonly used irregular verbs beginning with "V.".
W
wake
woke / waked
woken / waked
waylay
waylaid
waylaid
wear
wore
worn
weave
wove / weaved
woven / weaved
wed
wed / wedded
wed / wedded
weep
wept
wept
wet
wet / wetted
wet / wetted
whet REGULAR
whetted
whetted
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
withdraw
withdrew
withdrawn
withhold
withheld
withheld
withstand
withstood
withstood
wring
wrung
wrung
79
write
wrote
written
X
No irregular verbs beginning with "X."
Y
No irregular verbs beginning with "Y."
Z
No irregular verbs beginning with "Z."
B. Gerund
forms of verbs that act like nouns
can follow adjectives and other verbs
can follow prepositions

Gerunds as the Subject of the Sentence
Any activity that can be expressed with the "-ing"

form of a verb can be the subject of a sentence. All
gerunds can be the subject of a sentence.
Breathing is necessary.
Driving a car requires good vision.
Helping other people feels good.
Gerunds as the Object of a Preposition
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Prepositions (for, with, about, in, etc.) must be followed

by an object.
The object can be a noun or a gerund (a verb acting as
a noun).
I am tired of waking up too early.
I look forward to meeting your friend.
I am interested in learning baseball.
She is responsible for implementing the new
policy.
Gerunds as the Object of a Verb
When it comes to gerunds as the object of a verb, not

all verbs are equal. That is, some verbs can take a
gerund as their objects, but other verbs cannot. (Some
verbs can take infinitives as their objects. Some verbs
never take an object at all.) These differences can only
be learned as individual vocabulary items.
C. Participle
a word formed from a verb that can function as part

of a verb phrase
Forms:
a) Present participle
- formed by adding "-ing" to the base form of a
verb
b) Past participle
- formed by adding "-ed" to the base form,
unless it is an irregular verb
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E.g.:
The cars produced in Japan are nice.
I saw the man coming to the shop.
Going to Texas they expected a better
job.
D. Infinitive
form which follows "to"

E.g.:
He claimed to be an expert.
I managed to reach the top of the hill.
Do not pretend that you know the
answer.
She failed to explain the problem
clearly.
The customs man demanded to
search our luggage.
I cannot afford to go out tonight.
III.
Tenses and Aspects
Tenses- relates to time
Aspects-which has to do with the internal structure

of the action occurring at any time
Aspects
simple
perfect
progressive
Perfect
progressive
Tenses
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Present
Sing/Sings
have + en
Sang
Read
Future
will sing
am/is
sung
singing
singing
am/is/are
has/have been
read
reading
reading
had sung
was/were
had
singing
singing
was/were
had
reading
reading
had read
will
have will
sung
will read
be + ing
has/have
Read/reads has/have
Past
be + ing
have + en
will
singing
have will
read
reading
are has/have been
been
been
be will have been

singing
be will have been
reading
A simple aspect refers to events that are conceptualized as a complete

whole.
Simple present tense
Shows an action presently or habitually happening, or a fact or
general truth
The simple present tense or the ordinary form is the base form
of the verb with the addition of s or es. Verbs ending in s or es are

singular.
Conventional uses of the simple present or ordinary form:
1.
Habitual actions in the present:

He takes the jeepney to school every day.
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They go to church every Sunday.

2.
General timeless truths, such as physical laws or customs:

Water freezes at 0 degrees centigrade.
All men die.
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
3.
To express present action or state of being:

Christine is absent.
The boys are in the gymnasium.
4.
Permanent condition:
Zamboanga is in Mindanao
The President lives in Malacanang.
Tokyo is the capital of Japan.
5.
Expresses future when a scheduled event is involved, usually
with a future-time adverbial):

I have a meeting next Wednesday at that time.
6.
Present speech acts (where the action is accomplished in the
speaking of it):
I resign from the commission.
7.
Conversational historical present (used to refer to certain past
events in narration):
Suddenly,
German
plane
dives
vertically
through
our
formation firing as he goes. He misses.
Simple past tense
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The past tense denotes past action. A regular verb forms its past
tense by adding -d or ed. An irregular verb forms its past tense in

some other way than by adding d or ed.
-The storm caused much damage.
-They had no time to spare.
-She passed the examination.
-Carlos bought a new car last week.
Past tense can be apply in:
1.
A definite single completed event/ actions in the past:

I went to Cebu for a workshop last week.
2.
Habitual or repeated action/event in the past:

It snowed almost every weekend last winter.
3.
An event with duration that applied in the past with the
implication that it no longer applies in the present:

Professor Marie taught at UP for 20 years.
4.
With states in the past:

He appeared to be a creative genius.
5.
Imaginative conditional in the subordinate clauses:

If he took better care of himself, he would not be absent so
often.
6.
Social distancing:
Did you want to sit down and stay a while?
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Simple future tense (with will or contrasted ll)
Simple future is used when the event is conceptualized as a
whole.
Future time cannot be factually knowable in the same way as
those in the past and the present.
Since future cant be reported on factually, will is said to be
used for strong predictions, not factual reports:

-We will cover the first half of the book this term.
Future tense can be applied in:
1.
An action to take place at some definite future time

I shall meet my high school classmates this summer.
2.
A future habitual action or state:

After September, Nicole will ride a bus to Quezon City every day.
3.
A situation that may obtain the present and will obtain in the
future but with some future termination in sight.

Denice will live in Japan until she improves her Japanese.
4.
In the main (result) clause of future conditional:

If you go, you will be sorry.
PERFECT ASPECT
The core meaning of the perfect is prior and it is used in
relation to some other point in time.
Present perfect
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Present perfect is used retrospectively to refer to a time prior to
now.
Formed by adding has or have to the past participle of the verb.
Uses of present perfect tense:
1.
A situation that began at a prior point in time and continues
into the present:

We have lived in Cavite for 7 years.
2.
An action occurring or not occurring at an unspecified prior
time that has current relevance:

I have already seen that movie.
3.
A very recently completed action (often with just):

Abigail has just finished his homework.
4.
An action that occurred over a prior time and that is completed
at the moment of speaking.

5.
With verbs in subordinate clauses of time or condition:

If you have done your homework, you can surf the net.
Past perfect
Past perfect offers a retrospective point of view on some past
time
Formed by adding had to the past participle of the verb.
Uses of past perfect:
1.
An action completed in the past prior to some other past event
or time:
He had already left before I could offer him a ride.
2.
Imaginative conditional in the subordinate clauses:

If Dessa studied harder, she would have passed the exam.
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Future perfect
Future perfect offers a retrospective point of view on some
future time.
Formed by adding will have or shall have to the past participle of
the verb.
Uses of future perfect:
1.
A future action that will be completed prior to a specific future
time:
I will have finished all this editing by 10 in the evening.
2.
A state of accomplishment that will be completed in the future
prior to some other future time or event:

At the end of the March, my parents will have been married for
21 years.
PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS
The core meaning of progressive is being imperfective.
Present progressive
Shows continuing action, something going on now. It may also
show something will happen in the future.
Formed by combining the present tense of the verb to be with
the present participle of another verb.
Uses of present progressive:
1.
Activity in progress:
He is attending a meeting now.
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2.
Extended present (action will end and therefore lacks the
permanence of the simple present tense:

Im studying English in Philippine Normal University.
3.
A temporary situation:
Gracelle is living with her foster parents.
4.
Repetition or iteration in a series of similar ongoing actions.

Henry is kicking the soccer ball around the backyard.
5.
Expresses future:
My aunt with her husband is coming this summer.
6.
Emotional comment on present habit:

He is always delivering in a clutch situation.
7.
A change in progress:
She is becoming more and more like her mother.
Past progressive
Shows continuing action, something that was happening at
some point in the past.
Formed by combining the past tense of the verb to be with the
present participle of another verb.
Uses of the past progressive:
1.
An action in progress at a specific point of time in the past:

She was walking to school at 6:45 this morning.
2.
Past action simultaneous with some other event that is usually
stated in the simple past:

Richelle is reading the book when the phone rang.
3.
Repetition or iteration of some ongoing past action:

My mother was coughing all night long.
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4.
Social distance:
I was hoping you could lend me 130 pesos.
Future progressive
Shows continuing action, something that will be happening at
some point in the future.
Formed by combining the future tense of the verb to be with the
Uses of future progressive:
1.
An action that will be in progress at a specific time in the
future:
He will be taking a test at 8 AM tomorrow.
2.
Duration of some specific future action:

Fritzie will be working on her thesis for the next three years.
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
This aspect implies the sense of prior of the perfect with the
meaning of incompleteness inherent in the progressive aspect.
Present perfect progressive
Shows a continuous action that has been finished at some point
in the past or that was initiated in the past and continues to happen.
Formed by combining the present perfect tense of the verb with
the present participle of another verb.
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Uses of present perfect progressive:
1.
A situation or habit that began in the past and that continues
up to the present:
Kenneth has been going out with Lizette.
2.
An action in progress that is not yet completed:

I have been reading this magazine.
3.
A state that changes over time:

The students have been getting better and better.
4.
An evaluative comment on something observed over time
triggered by current evidence:

You have been drinking again.
Past perfect progressive
Shows a continuous action completed at some point in the past.
Formed by combining the past perfect tense of the verb and the
Uses of past perfect progressive:
1.
An action or habit taking place over a period of time in the past
prior to some other past event or time:

Ate Luisa had been trying to finish her degree that year.
2.
A past action in progress that was interrupted by a more recent
past action:
My family had been planning to go on vacation in Hong Kong,
but changed our minds after receiving the brochure on Macau.
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3.
An ongoing past action or state that becomes satisfied by some
event:
I had been longing to see that movie, so I was pleased when I
won tickets.
Future perfect progressive
Shows a continuous action that will be completed at some point
in the future.
Formed by combining the future perfect tense of the verb to be
with the present participle of another verb.
On Jeffreys birthday next month, he will have been teaching at

the learning center for thirty-five years
IV.
Voices of Verbs
Voice is used to tell whether the subject of the sentence is acting
or is receiving the action by the verb.
A. Active Voice
In sentences written in active voice, the subject

performs the action expressed in the verb; the
subject acts.
Example:
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In each example above, the subject of the sentence

performs the action expressed in the verb.
With active voice, the action of the verb is linear and

straightforward.
The movement of the sentence is
subject > verb > rest of idea.

Example: "The report [subject] summarizes
[verb] our findings [object and rest of
idea]."
B. Passive Voice
In sentences written in passive voice, the subject

receives the action expressed in the verb; the
subject is acted upon. The agent performing the
action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may
be omitted.
Example:
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(agent performing action has been

omitted.)
With passive voice, the verb acts upon the subject. What
would be the subject in a sentence using an active verb
becomes the object.
Example:
"Our findings are summarized by
the report."
You
can
recognize
passive-voice
expressions
because the verb phrase will always include a form

of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The
presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily
mean that the sentence is in passive voice.
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Here are some suggestions:
1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then

shifting to passive.
Unnecessary shift in voice

Many customers in the
restaurant found the coffee too
bitter to drink, but it was still
ordered frequently.
He tried to act cool when he
slipped in the puddle, but he
was still laughed at by the
other students.
Revised
Many customers in the restaurant
found the coffee too bitter to drink, but
they still ordered it frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in

the puddle, but the other students still
laughed at him.
2. Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive

voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that
modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.
Dangling modifier with passive

voice
To save time, the paper was
written on a computer. (Who
was saving time? The paper?)
Seeking to lay off workers
Revised
To save time, Kristin wrote the paper

on a computer.
Seeking to lay off workers without
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without taking the blame,

consultants were hired to break
the bad news. Who was seeking
to lay off workers? The
taking the blame, the CEO hired

consultants to break the bad news.
consultants?)
3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in

word-processing software. Many grammar checkers
flag all passive constructions, but you may want to
keep some that are flagged. Trust your judgment, or
ask another human being for their opinion about
which sentence sounds best.
C. Verb Moods
Mood - form of the verb that shows the mode or

manner in which a thought is expressed
Types of Moods:
1. Indicative Mood
expresses an assertion, denial, or question
E.g.:
Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas.
Ostriches cannot fly.
Have you finished your homework?
2. Imperative Mood
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expresses command, prohibition, entreaty, or

advice
Do not smoke in this building.
Be careful!
Do not drown that puppy!
3. Subjunctive Mood
expresses doubt or something contrary to fact
describes the state of affairs as speakers wish

or hope them to be
Speakers signal the subjunctive by beginning

subordinate clauses with an auxiliary or by
if.
The subjunctive for the present tense third

person singular drops the -s or -es so that it
looks and sounds like the present tense for
everything else.
The subjunctive mood of the verb to be is be

in the present tense and were in the past
tense, regardless of what the subject is.
E.g.:
Incorrect: If I was you, I would run.
Correct: If I were you, I would run.
(The verb follows if and expresses a
non-factual condition.)
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Incorrect: I wish he were able to type

faster.
Correct: I wish he were able to type
faster.
(The second verb is in a clause following
a verb
expressing a wish. It also
suggests a non-factual or doubtful condition.)
Incorrect: His requirement is that

everyone is computer literate.
Correct: His requirement is that
everyone be computer literate.
(Subordinate clause follows main clause
with a demand.)
Incorrect: He recommended that each

driver reports his tips.
Correct: He recommended that each
driver report his tips.
4. Interrogative Mood
Indicates a state of questioning
starts with an auxiliary verb or an

interrogative pronoun
E.g.:
Will you leave me alone?
Can Liz do that?
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V.
Verb Usage
A. Using Forms of Be
Often, be verbs is used as a linking verb. Other time it

is use as an auxiliary verb.
Example:
Nina is a student. (Verb be is used as a linking verb)
Nina is dancing. (Verb be is used as an auxiliary verb)
Different Forms of Be that are Used in the Present and Past Tense
Be Verbs
Present
Past
Am
is
was
are
were
The verbs am and is are singular and used only with singular
subjects. The verb are is used with plural subjects and with the
pronoun you.
Example:
I am very happy.
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The kitten is cute.
Once, the air we breathe was
clean.
The kittens are cute.
The spectators were ready.
Be: Introductions and Greetings

A. Introduction
1. Introducing ones self
Hello! I am Maria Gomez.
2. Introducing another person
Id like you to meet my
friend. She is
Andrea Chi.
3. Meeting someone for the first
Good
morning! How
are
you? What is
time.
your name?
Pronouns with Be
Pronoun
Verb Be
am
He
She
is
It
You
We
are
100
They
Contractions of Be
Pronoun +
Be
Be
Cont
racti
on
I am
Im
You are
Youre
He is
Hes
She is
Shes
It is
Its
We are
Were
They are
Theyre
Yes/No Questions and Short Answers Using Be Verbs

Yes/no Question
Short Answers
Affirmative
Negative
Contractions
Am I Overweight?
You are.
You arent/ You are

not.
Are you nervous?
I am.
Im not.
Is she lonely?
She is.
She isnt/ Shes not.
Is English difficult?
It is.
It isnt/ Its not.
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Are we out of shape?
We are.
We arent/ Were not.
Are verbs difficult?
They are.
They arent/ Theyre

not/
B. Using Form of Have

The verb have can be an auxiliary verb or a main verb.
Its forms are: have, has, and had.
Example:
Libraries have many books. (Serves as the main
verb)
The Library has bought more books. (Serves as an
auxiliary verb)
Forms
HAVE / HAS
HAD
Example:
Example:
How long have you lived
He had eaten by the time I
here?
arrived.
I have been working since
Maria and Ann had been
seven this morning.
studying for two hours when

their mother arrived.
In the present tense, the verbs have and has are used.
The verb has is used in singular subject. The verb have is
used in plural subjects or with I and you. In the past tense,
only the verb had is used whether the subject is singular or
plural.
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Contractions of Have
Has + not
Hasnt
Have + not
Havent
I + have
Ive
They +
Theyve
have
Had + not
Hadnt
C. Using Forms of Do
Like the verb have, do verb can be an auxiliary verb or
main verb.
Example: The janitors do the work. (Act as a main verb)
The janitor did fix the table. (Act as an auxiliary
verb)
Forms
DO / DOES
DID
Used in simple present question
Used in simple past question and
and negative forms:
negative forms:
Example:
Example:
What time does he get up?
When did they arrive yesterday?
They don't drive to work. They
He didn't finish his homework last
take the bus.
week.
In the present tense, the forms do and does are

used. The form does is used with singular subjects. The
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form do is used with plural subjects or with I and you.

The form did is used with all singular and plural subjects.
D. Uses of Modals
Modals
Meaning/Usage
Example
(be) able to
Ability
Im not able to come to the

game on Friday.
can
Ability
Can you play the piano?

Mom, can I go the cinema
asking for and giving

permission
tonight?
No, you cant. You have
homework to do
Offer
request, instruction
capability
can + be, to make criticisms
cant
ability
Can I help you?

Can you switch on the light
for me?
Moods can be really
unpredictable.
Susan can be a real pain in
the neck at times.
I cant come to the game on
Friday.
when you feel sure something The tennis match cant be

is not possible (opposite of
over yet. (Im sure it isnt).
must)
could
possibility or uncertainty
He could be the one for you!
(can also use might)

request (more polite than
can)
Could you switch on the light

for me?
104
suggestion
permission
unwillingness
We could go on a picnic this

afternoon.
Could I use your phone?
Yes, of course you can
I couldnt possibly leave Tom
alone while hes in this state.
with comparative adjectives I could be fitter.

to express possibility or
impossibility
when you dont need to do
dont have
to
dont
need to
He couldnt study harder.

You dont have to go to school
something (but you can if you if you dont want to.

want)
not necessary to do
You dont need to come to the
something (more used than party if you dont want to.

neednt)
Youd better do the washing
strong advice (less used than up now.
had better
should)
Id better not go out tonight,

because I have to get up early
tomorrow.
necessity, impersonal, not for I have to get up early

personal feelings, but for a tomorrow to catch the train to
have (got)
rule or situation.
the office.
to
If you are unsure whether to
use must or have to, it is
usually safer to use have to.
may
to express although in
clauses
I may be married to you, but

that doesnt give you the right
to treat me like dirt.
There may be a cure for AIDS
105
(formal)
permission (less usual, more
formal)
may as
well/
might as
well
within the next ten years.

May I use your phone?
Yes, of course you may
describes the only thing left Im so bored; I may as well do

to do, something which the some housework.
speaker is not enthusiastic
about
There might be a cure for
might
years.
unreal situation
must
AIDS within the next ten
If I knew her better, I might

invite her to the ball.
when you feel sure something The tennis match must be

is true (opposite of cant)
necessity, personal feelings
order, strong suggestion
over by now. (Im sure it is).

I havent spoken to Liz for
ages. I must give her a call.
You must stop smoking or
youll get lung cancer.
You must not leave the table
must not
need
prohibition (negative order) until you have finished your

dinner.
as a normal verb
in questions (less usual)
neednt
Do you need me to help you?

Need you make so much
mess?
not necessary to do
You neednt come to the party
something (unusual)
if you dont want to.
If you like Picasso, you ought

ought to expectation (can use should) to enjoy the exhibition.
106
recommendation (can use

should)
criticism (can use should)
shall
certainty or desire (mainly

British English)
in formal rules and
You ought to have more

driving lessons before you
take the test.
You ought not to shout at
your mother like that.
I shall give up chocolate for
Lent.
Racism shall not be tolerated
regulations (mainly British in this building.

English)
in questions to ask for
What shall I do?
instructions and decisions, When shall we come and see

and to make offers and
suggestions (mainly British
English)
should
you?
Shall we go to the cinema this
evening?
expectation (can use ought If you like Juan Luna, you

to)
suggestion, advice, opinion
(can use ought to)
when something is not right

or as you expect it
criticism (can use ought to)
Uncertainty
should enjoy the exhibition.

You should have more driving
lessons before you take the
test.
The price on this can of
beans is wrong. It should say
P 23, not P 53.
You shouldnt shout at your
mother like that.
Should I ask her out on a
date?
should + words of thinking, I should think he could find a

to make an opinion less
more compatible match.
107
direct
should + be and adjectives Its odd that he should ask
describing chance, including you so many personal
odd, strange, typical, natural, questions.
interesting, surprised,
surprising, funny (=odd) and
What a coincidence.
after in case to emphasise
unlikelihood
Im not going out tonight in

case she should call me.
If Jane should drop by when I
If..should
am out, tell her to come back

later.
polite order or instruction
will
Assumption
Applications should be sent

by 3rd January.
Oh, thatll be John on the
phone.
request (can and could are Will you go to the shop for
more common)
me?
Ill take grans pearls then.
intention or willingness
You wont!
I will!
Order
Insistence
habits and typical behaviour

Criticism
Will you please shut up!

I wont clean my room!
Yes you will!
Sarah will sit and gaze at the
stars all night.
She will drink too much when
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she goes out.

emphatically forbid an action,
in response to a will
wont
expression
Refusal
Ill take Grans pearls then.

You wont!
I will!
I wont clean my room!
request (can and could are Would you go to the shop for
would
more common)
me?
would like - offer/invitation Would you like a cup of tea?

after be, followed by
Its doubtful that he would be
adjectives doubtful, unlikely, there in time of need.

to emphasise a tentative
action
Annoying habit, typical of a She would ask me for money,
person
certainty in a suppressed
conditional sentence
wouldnt
certainty in a suppressed
conditional sentence
wouldnt she?
I would never agree to that.
(even if he asked me)
I wouldnt agree to that. (even
if he asked me.)
E. Verb Forming Suffixes

Suffix
Meaning
Example
-ate
to become associated with
animate, calculate
-fy
Make, do
fortify, simplify
-en
make or become
deepen, harden
-ise, -ize
to become like
motorize, computerize
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F. Other Issues Concerning Verbs
Distinguishing Verbs from Verbal
Sometimes verb forms are not used as verbs but are used as
other parts of speech. A verb form that is used as another part of
speech is called a verbal. There are three kinds of verbal.
Using Other Troublesome Verbs Correctly
1. Bring or take? Bring indicates movement toward you. Take

indicates movement away from you.
E.g.:
Bring the newspaper inside.
Take the hamburgers out to the patio.
2. Can or may? Can refers to ability. May refers to
permission.
E.g.:
Can you play tennis very well?
May I play awhile before dinner?
3. Learn or teach? Learn means to obtain knowledge. Teach

means to give instruction.
E.g.:
Learn as much as you can.
110
You are being taught very well.
4. Let or leave? Let means to allow. Leave means to go

away from or to cause to remain
E.g.:
Let me help you.
Leave the car in the garage.
5. Sit or set? Sit means to be seated. Its principal

parts are sit, sitting, sat and (have) sat. (The verb sit
rarely requires an object.)
E.g.:
Lets sit near the front.
The monkey sat on the limb.
The campers are sitting in the shade.
We have sat here long enough.
Set means to put or place something. Its
principal parts are set, setting, set, (have) set. (The
verb set usually requires an object.)
E.g.:
Set the bowl on the table. (Bowl is the
subject)
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They are setting the props in place. (Props is

the object)
Joe carefully set hit project on the floor.
(Project is the object)
They have set the date for the performance.
(Date is the object)
6. Rise or raise? Rise means to go up or to get up. Its
principal parts are rise, rising, rose, (have) risen. (The
verb rise never requires an object.)
E.g.:
The dead in Christ shall rise first.
All Christians will be rising to meet the Lord
in the air.
Christ died and rose again.
He has risen as He said.
Raise means to lift something or to push up
something. Its principal parts are raise, raising,
raised, (have) raised. (The verb raise usually
requires an object.)
E.g.:
Each morning we raise the windows.
(Windows is the object)
Our neighbors are raising vegetables.
(Vegetables is the object)
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Confederate forces raised the sunken
Merrimac. (Merrimac is the object)

My friend has raised an ant colony. (Colony is
the object)
7. Lie or lay? Lie means to recline. Its principal parts are

lie, lying, lay, (have) lain. (The verb lie never requires an
object.)
E.g.:
Do not lie down on the job.
The turtle lay asleep under the bush.
The lion is lying in wait.
He had lain motionless for hours.
Lay means to put or place something. Its principal

parts are lay, laying, laid, (have) laid. (The verb lay
usually requires an object.)
E.g.:
Lay your briefcase on the table. (Briefcase is
the object)
We are laying new carpet in the den. (Carpet
is the object)
He laid his notes aside. (Notes is the object)
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The girl has laid her apron back into the
drawer. (Apron is the object)

G. Avoiding Common Errors in Verb Usage
1. Do not use aint and arent I.
E.g.:
He aint here (incorrect)
I am here, arent I? (incorrect)
He isnt here (correct)
I am here, am I not? (correct)
2. Do not use better for had better.

E.g.:
We better leave now. (incorrect)
We had better leave now. (correct)
3. Do not use didnt go to for didnt mean to or didnt intend to.

E.g.:
Billy didnt go to break Moms vase.
(incorrect)
Billy didnt mean to break Moms vase.
(correct)
4. Do not use took sick for became ill.

E.g.:
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Debbie took sick and went to the clinic.

(incorrect)
Debbie became ill and went to the clinic.
(correct)
5. Do not use used to could for used to be able to.

E.g.:
He used to could memorize easily. (incorrect)
He used to be able to memorize easily.
(correct)
6. Do not use want in, want out, want on, want off, or want
through.
E.g.:
Jack wants in. (incorrect)
Stop. I want off. (incorrect)
Jack wants to join. (correct)
Stop. I want to get off. (correct)
H.
Observing Verb Tense Consistency
The tense of a verb indicates the time

expressed by the verb. When you are writing, select
one tense and do not change to a different tense
without good reason. If you begin writing in the past
tense, do not switch to the present. If you begin with
the present, do not switch to the past.
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Not consistent: Chuck caught the ball and throws it

over the first basemans head.
(Caught is past tense; throws is present tense.)
Consistent: Chuck caught the ball and threw it over
the first basemans head.
(Both verbs are in the past tense.)
Not consistent: When he spoke, he wins the approval of
the audience.
(Spoke is past tense; wins is present tense.)
Consistent: When he spoke, he won the approval of
the audience.
(Both verbs are in the past tense.)
Consistent: When he speaks, he wins the approval of
the audience.
(Both verbs are in present tense.)
I.
Using Exact and Vivid Verbs

The surest way to attract and hold a readers
interest is to use exact and vivid verbs. Choose verbs with
action and color to create mental pictures in the readers
mind.
Notice the following sentence: He went down the road.
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The verb went is a general word that does not show

any specific action. Observe how the mental pictures
change when exact verbs are substituted for the word
went.
E.g.:
He strutted down the road.
He stumbled down the road.
He plodded down the road.
He sprinted down the road.
He staggered down the road.
He rambled down the road.
ADVERB
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a
phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause,
or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how
much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly"
suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical
relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an
117
adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the

sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The PNU Chorale sang the Philippine National Anthem beautifully.
In this sentence, the adverb "beautifully" modifies the verb "sang" and
indicates in what manner the PNU Chorale sang the Philippine
National Anthem.
The midwife waited patiently through a long labor.
Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb
"waited" and describes the manner in which the midwife waited.
The boldly-spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.
In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."
We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.
Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."
Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.
In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire
sentence.
Adverbs modifying verbs
Where?
inflation zoomed upward.
In what manner? She was graciously helping.

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To what extent?
I.
He always did it right.
Kinds of Adverbs According to Meaning

A. Adverbs of Time
tell us when an action happened, but also for how

long, and how often
E.g.:
Goldilocks
went
to
the
Bears'
house yesterday.
I am going to tidy my room tomorrow.
My mother lived in France for a year.
B. Adverbs of frequency or number
answer the question "How often?" or "How

frequently?"
tell us how often somebody does something
come before the main verb (except the main verb "to
be")
E.g.:
We usually go shopping on Saturday.
I have often done that.
She is always late.
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C. Adverbs of Place
tell us where something happens
usually placed after the main verb or after the

object
E.g.:
They built a house nearby.
She took the child outside.
I looked everywhere.
D. Adverbs of Manner
tell us how something happens or is done

E.g.:
She walked slowly.
John drove carefully.
The soldiers fought bravely.
E. Adverbs of Degree or Quantity
tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an

adjective or another adverb
E.g.:
She does not quite know what she will
do after university.
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They are completely exhausted from

the trip.
I am too tired to go out tonight.
F. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation
used to answer the questions raised by others
modifies and reinforces the positive and negative

aspects of something
E.g.:
Surely you are mistaken.
He certainly went.
I do not know him.
G. Adverbs of Reason
Indicates reason
E.g.:
Therefore he left.
Hence we agreed.
H. Adverbs of Interrogation
used in asking questions

E.g.:
Why did you not come?
When do you need it?
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Where did he halt?
I. Adverbs of Relation
relates or refers back to its antecedent

E.g.:
This the place where we met him.
He does not tell me the reason why he
was absent.
II.
Forms of Adverbs
a. Regular adverbs adjective + ly
As you noticed in our study of verbs, adverbs are the most

common kind of verb modifiers. They are usually grouped into
adverbs of manner and frequency and adverbs of place and time. By
far the most numerous adverbs in English are those ending in ly,
derived from adjectives. Almost any adjective in the language can be
turned into an adverb by the addition of this suffix as in prettily,
beautifully, happily, and quietly.
Examples:
She dresses prettily.
He lives quietly.
They sing beautifully.
We cheered happily.
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b. Irregular adverbs
Adverbs that do not end in -ly
Some adverbs of the types that do not end in-ly are always, in,
later, once, away, up, often, and ever.
Examples:
He is in.
You are often absent.
You go up.
He will come later.
They went out.
I met her once.
Adverbs that function both as adverbs or as adjectives without

change in form
The following words often called flat adverbs, function both as

adverbs or as adjectives without change in form: fast, hard, late,
straight, deep, well, first, slow, and fair.
Adjective
Adverb
Examples: Compare
Raul is a fast worker.
Raul works fast.
This is hard assignment.
Father works hard.
She was late.
She came late.
The pathway is straight.

straight.
He couldnt walk
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There is a small group of adverbs ending in-ward or-wards

that express destination of direction of movement, such as forward.
(s), afterward (s), backward (s), upward (s), and downward (s). Like
the flat adverbs, these forms may be used as adverbs or as
adjectives. The ward form can be used either before or after nouns;
the wards from can only be used after a noun or a verb.
Examples:
He took a backward step.
Can you write backward (s)?
The homeward journey (s) was pleasant.
They traveled homeward (s) by boat.
He believes in forward buying.
Please move forward (s).
III.
Position of Adverbs
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1. The adverb occupies various positions in the sentence as follows:

1) Adj. + Adv. Pattern. The adverb ending in-ly
generally comes before
an adjective.
Examples:
I read an amazingly interesting book.
He is exceptionally brilliant man.
2) LV + Adv. Pattern: The adverb comes after a linking
verb as in:
Examples:
She is unusually tall.
This is terribly difficult.
3) Following Direct Object:

Examples:
We consider the speech needless long.
I think the show unnecessarily expensive.
IV.
Types of Adverbs According to Function
1. Conjunctive Adverb - These words help to join two clauses in a

sentence.
125
Examples:
Still, meanwhile, then, finally, also, and however.
One can usually identify a conjunctive adverb by its use immediately
after a semi-colon as a way of joining the two clauses. An example of a
sentence using a conjunctive adverb to join two discrete elements is:
Example:
It seemed as though time had stopped in anticipation; finally,
in a sudden
flurry, the storm came.
2. Interrogative Adverb Adverbs used in asking questions are called

interrogative
adverbs. These are why, where, how, and when.
They are usually placed at the beginning of a question.

Examples:
Why are you so late?
Where is my passport?
How are you?
How much is that coat?
When does the train arrive?
Notice that how can be used in four different ways:
1. Meaning 'in what way?':
How did you make this sauce?
How do you start the car?
126
2. with adjectives:
How tall are you?
How old is your house?
3. with much and many:
How much are these tomatoes?
How many people are coming to the party?
4. with other adverbs:
How quickly can you read this?
How often do you go to London?
3. Relative Adverbs - relates or refers back to its antecedent.
Examples:
This place where we met him.
He does not tell me the reason why he was absent.
Explanation: The adverb where joins two clauses and it relates or
refers back to the antecedent place; the adverb why also joins two
clauses and relates to the antecedent reason. They are relative
adverbs.
4. Independent Adverbs - modifies a verb, an adjective, another
adverb, phrasal modifier and sentence modifier.
Examples:
1. The woman laughed heartily.
The adverb heartily is modifying the verb laughed.
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2. The gun was barely concealed.
The adverb barely is modifying the adjective
concealed.
3. His partner told him he should walk more cautiously in the
future.
The adverb more is modifying another adverb,
cautiously, which in turn is modifying the verb walk.

4. Sadly, he never listened to her advice.
The adverb sadly modifies the entire sentence that follows.
V.
Functions of Adverbs
a. Intensifier
Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser

emphasis to something. Intensifiers are said to have three different
functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or tone down. Here are some
examples:
Emphasizers:
I really don't believe him.

He literally wrecked his mother's car.
She simply ignored me.
They're going to be late, for sure.
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Amplifiers:
The teacher completely rejected her proposal.
I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty

meetings.
They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
I so wanted to go with them.
We know this city well.
Downtoners:
I kind of like this college.
Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.
His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
We can improve on this to some extent.
The boss almost quit after that.
The school was all but ruined by the storm.
b. Adjuncts
Regardless of its position, an adverb is often neatly integrated into the

flow of a sentence. When this is true, as it almost always is, the
adverb is called an adjunct. (Notice the underlined adjuncts or
adjunctive adverbs in the first two sentences of this paragraph.)
129
c. Disjuncts
When the adverb does not fit into the flow of the clause, it is called a
disjunct or a conjunct and is often set off by a comma or set of
commas. A disjunct frequently acts as a kind of evaluation of the rest
of the sentence. Although it usually modifies the verb, we could say
that it modifies the entire clause, too. Notice how "too" is a disjunct in
the sentence immediately before this one; that same word can also
serve as an adjunct adverbial modifier: It's too hot to play outside.
Here are two more disjunctive adverbs:
Frankly, Martha, I don't give a hoot.

Fortunately, no one was hurt.
d.
Conjuncts
Conjuncts, on the other hand, serve a connector function

within the flow of the text, signaling a transition between ideas.
Examples;
If they start smoking those awful cigars, then I'm not staying.
130
We've told the landlord about this ceiling again and again, and
yet he's done nothing to fix it.
At the extreme edge of this category, we have the purely conjunctive

device known as the conjunctive adverb (often called the adverbial
conjunction):
Jose has spent years preparing for this event; nevertheless, he's
the most nervous person here.
I love this school; however, I don't think I can afford the tuition.
ADJECTIVE
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing,
identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the
noun or the pronoun, which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wallpaper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coalmines are dark and dank.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.
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A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.

The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
Forms
Adjectives related to nouns and verbs
A lot of adjectives are closely related to nouns or verbs.

beautiful: beauty (noun)
dangerous: danger (noun)
drinkable: drink (verb)
talkative: talk (verb)
These adjectives often have one of the following endings or suffixes.

Sometimes, as in the case of impeccable, the adjective survives long
after the noun or verb it has been related to is forgotten.
-able
-al
-ent
impeccable
-ful
paternal
outrageous-ate
-ory
intelligent
immaculate
-ous
truthful
-ist
obligatory
Communist
-some
winsome
-an
-ant
Anglican
fragrant -less
-ive
-wise
impressive
useless
-y
streetwise
misty
Words which are not adjectives can also have these endings.
132
We can attach non-, pro- and anti- to the beginning of some nouns,
and like and friendly to the end to create adjective forms, e.g. a
pro-/anti-democracy movement, a business-like manner, a user-friendly
computer manual.
Participle Forms
In the following examples boring and bored are parts of the verb (to)
bore.
Am I boring you? I havent bored you, have I?
Boring is the present participle and bored is the past participle. Many
adjectives have the same form as participles (e.g. boring, bored,
broken, closed, exciting, excited).
Multiword Adjectives
Many adjectives are made up of two parts (usually connected by a
hyphen). These two-part adjectives are multiword adjectives.
The second part of multiword adjectives is often a past participle form.

adverb and past participle:
well-liked, well-intentioned, beautifully
written
noun and past participle:
feather-brained, self-centered, people-
oriented
133
We also derive adjectives from multiword verbs (e.g. wear someone

out, tie someone up). In this case the first part is usually a past
participle form (e.g. worn-out, tied-up).
Other multiword adjectives dont involve participle forms at all, e.g.

two-piece, birds-eye and slip-on in the following description.
His two-piece birds-eye suit is impressive; his blue shirt with its
rounded collar immaculate, his thin, faintly European slip-on shoes is
impeccable.
Adjectives dont change before plural nouns, e.g. two green

books NOT *two greens books.
Comparative-Superlative Forms
Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, namely: positive,
comparative, and superlative. We add er to the end of most short
adjectives to make the comparative from, and to make the superlative
form we add est or st.
Group 1
The regular adjectives
Examples:
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
134
pretty
prettier
thick
prettiest
thicker
long
thickest
longer
Group 2
longest
The irregular adjectives
Examples
bad
worse
worst
good
better
best
little
less
many
more
most
much
more
most
least
NOTE: This group is limited to only the above five adjectives.
Group 3
Comparisons with more and most
Examples:
careful
more careful
most careful
stupid
more stupid
most stupid
honest
more honest
most honest
Negative comparisons are made using: less, least
135
Types
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective (``my,'' ``your,'' ``his,'' ``her,'' `ìts,''
`òur,'' ``their'') is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun;
however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun
phrase, as in the following sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``my'' modifies `àssignment''
and the noun phrase ``my assignment'' functions as an object. Note
that the possessive pronoun form ``mine'' is not used to modify a noun
or noun phrase.
What is your phone number.
Here the possessive adjective ``your'' is used to modify the noun
phrase ``phone number''; the entire noun phrase ``your phone
number'' is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun
form ``yours'' is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective ``his'' modifies the noun
phrase ``favourite type of bread'' and the entire noun phrase ``his
favourite type of bread'' is the direct object of the verb ``sold.''
After many years, she returned to her homeland.
136
Here the possessive adjective ``her'' modifies the noun ``homeland''

and the noun phrase ``her homeland'' is the object of the preposition
``to.'' Note also that the form ``hers'' is not used to modify nouns or
noun phrases.
We have lost our way in this wood.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective `òur'' modifies ``way'' and
the noun phrase `òur way'' is the direct object of the compound verb
``have lost''. Note that the possessive pronoun form `òurs'' is not used
to modify nouns or noun phrases.
In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.
Here the possessive adjective ``their'' modifies ``parents'' and the noun
phrase ``their parents'' is the object of the preposition ``by.'' Note that
the possessive pronoun form ``theirs'' is not used to modify nouns or
noun phrases.
The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective `ìts'' modifies ``ball'' and the
noun phrase `ìts ball'' is the object of the verb ``chased.'' Note that
`ìts'' is the possessive adjective and `ìt's'' is a contraction for `ìt is.''
Demonstrative Adjectives
The demonstrative adjectives ``this,'' ``these,'' ``that,'' ``those,''
and ``what'' are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used
as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following
sentences:
137
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of
books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective ``that'' modifies the noun
``cord'' and the noun phrase ``that cord'' is the object of the
preposition `òver.''
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here ``this'' modifies `àpartment'' and the noun phrase ``this
apartment'' is the subject of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.
In the subordinate clause, ``those'' modifies ``plates'' and the noun
phrase ``those plates'' is the object of the verb ``preferred.'' In the
independent clause, ``these'' is the direct object of the verb ``bought.''
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a
demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a
possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a
interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.
Interrogative Adjectives
An interrogative adjective (``which'' or ``what'') is like an
interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase
rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and
possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
138
Like other adjectives, ``which'' can be used to modify a noun or a noun

phrase. In this example, ``which'' modifies ``plants'' and the noun
phrase ``which paints'' is the subject of the compound verb ``should
be watered'':
What book are you reading?
In this sentence, ``what'' modifies ``book'' and the noun phrase ``what
book'' is the direct object of the compound verb `àre reading.''
Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun,
except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the
following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective ``many'' modifies the noun ``people'' and the
noun phrase ``many people'' is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective `àny'' modifies the noun ``mail'' and the noun
phrase `àny mail'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``will
send.''
They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun ``goldfish''
and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb ``found'':
139
The title of Kelly's favourite game is `Àll dogs go to heaven.''

Here the indefinite pronoun `àll'' modifies ``dogs'' and the full title is a
subject complement.
Preposition
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other
words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition
introduces is called the object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical
relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as in the following
examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
140
She read the book during class.

In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun
"book" in space or in time.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and
any associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can
function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Each of the
highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:
The children climbed the mountain without fear.
In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun "fear."
The prepositional phrase "without fear" functions as an adverb
describing how the children climbed.
There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was
defeated.
Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the noun phrase "the
land." The prepositional phrase acts as an adverb describing the
location of the rejoicing.
The spider crawled slowly along the banister.
The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the banister" and
the prepositional phrase "along the banister" acts as an adverb,
describing where the spider crawled.
The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be
punished for chewing up a new pair of shoes.
141
Here the preposition "under" introduces the prepositional phrase

"under the porch," which acts as an adverb modifying the compound
verb "is hiding."
The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was
somewhere in his office.
Similarly
in
this
sentence,
the
preposition
"in"
introduces
prepositional phrase "in his office," which acts as an adverb

describing the location of the missing papers.
List of the Most Common Prepositions
aboard
about
above
across
after
against
along
amid
among
anti
around
as
142
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
concerning
considering
despite
down
during
except
excepting
excluding
following
143
for
from
in
inside
into
like
minus
near
of
off
on
onto
opposite
outside
over
past
per
plus
regarding
144
round
save
since
than
through
to
toward
towards
under
underneath
unlike
until
up
upon
versus
via
with
within
without
145
Prepositions of Direction: To, On(to), In(to)
1. The basic preposition of a direction is 'to'.

TO: signifies orientation toward a goal
When the goal is physical, such as a destination, "to" implies
movement in the direction of the goal.
(1) Sa'id returned to his

apartment.
When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an action, "to"
marks a verb; it is attached as an infinitive and expresses purpose.
The preposition may occur alone or in the phrase in order.
(2) Li Ling washed her dog (in order) to rid it of fleas.

The two uses can also occur together in a single sentence:
146
2. The other two prepositions of direction are compounds formed

by adding "to" to the corresponding prepositions of
location.
The preposition of location determines the meaning of the preposition
of direction.
ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a
surface
IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward the

interior of a volume
("To" is part of the directional preposition toward, and the two mean
about the same thing.)
3. With many verbs of motion, "on" and "in" have a directional

meaning and can be used along with "onto" and "into".
(See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.) This is why
"to" is inside parentheses in the title of the handout, showing that it is
somewhat optional with the compound prepositions. Thus, the
following sentences are roughly synonymous:
(4) Tai-shing jumped in/into the

pool.
147
(5) Porfirio fell on/onto the floor.
(6) The crab washed up on/onto

the shore.
To the extent that these pairs do differ, the compound preposition

conveys the completion of an action, while the simple preposition
points to the position of the subject as a result of that action. This
distinction helps us understand how directional and locational
prepositions are related: they stand in the relationship of cause and
effect.
Completion
Position
of an
of
Action
Subject
(7) Jean fell
Jean is
on(to) the
on the
floor.
floor.
(8) Susumu
Susumu
dived in(to)
is in the
the water.
water.
148
Uses of "to"
To occurs with several classes of verbs.

1. verb + to + infinitive
Verbs in this group express willingness, desire, intention, or
obligation.
willingness: be willing, consent, refuse
desire: desire, want, wish, like, ask, request, prefer
intention: intend, plan, prepare
obligation: be obligated, have, need
Examples:
(9) I refuse to allow you to intimidate me with your threats.
(10) I'd like to ask her how long she's been skiing.
(11) I plan to graduate this summer.
(12) Henry had to pay his tuition at the Bursar's office.
2. In other cases "to" is used as an ordinary preposition.
verbs of communication: listen, speak (but not tell), relate,
appeal (in the sense of 'plead,' not 'be attractive')
verbs of movement: move, go, transfer,
walk/run/swim/ride/drive/ fly, travel
Except for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as well as to.
However, "to" suggests movement toward a specific destination, while
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"toward" suggests movement in a general direction, without

necessarily arriving at a destination:
(13) Drive toward the city

limits and turn north.
(Drive in the direction of the city

limits; turnoff may be before arriving
there.)
(14) The plane was headed

toward a mountain.
(It was headed in the direction of a

mountain; it may not have reached or
hit the mountain.)
(15) Take me to the airport,

please.
(I actually want to arrive at the

airport.)
Uses of "onto"
150
1. Onto can generally be replaced by on with verbs of motion.
(16) Dietrich jumped on(to) the

mat.
(17) Huan fell on(to) the floor.
(18) Athena climbed on(to) the

back of the truck.
2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject causes
itself or some physical object to be situated in a certain
place (compare #15-17 above).
Of these verbs, some take only "on". Others take both on and onto,
with the latter being preferred by some speakers.
(19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)
(20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto
the tree)
(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)
(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)
(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.
151
(24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.

(25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.
Verbs taking only "on" are rare: set may be another one, and so
perhaps is put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise, scatter
(when it takes a direct object), pour, and add.
(26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground.
(27) We're adding on a wing at the back of the building.
(28) We're adding a porch onto the house.
In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is a simple
preposition. This contrast points to a fairly important and general
rule:
Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compound

prepositions cannot.
Note also that in (27), the word "on" has its ordinary meaning of a
position on a surface, but in this case the surface is vertical rather
than horizontal-- the side of a building. The use of "onto" in (28) is like
its use in (24) and (25) above.
3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations which are

formally like "add on" but have the meaning "of continuing
or resuming an action" when used in the imperative mood.
(Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for hang, which
takes both on and onto, they all occur only with on. The meanings of
these combinations, some of which are idiomatic, are given in
parentheses.
Hang on(to the rope)! ('continue to grasp tightly')
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carry on ('resume what you were doing')
sail on ('resume or continue sailing')
dream on ('continue dreaming'; a humorous way of saying 'that
is an unattainable goal')
lead on ('resume or continue leading us')
rock on ('continue playing rock music')
Uses of "into"
1. With verbs of motion, "into" and "in" are interchangeable

except when the preposition is the last word or occurs
directly before an adverbial of time, manner, or frequency.
In this case only in (or inside) can be used.
(29) The patient went into the doctor's office.
(30) The patient went in. (not into)
(31) Our new neighbors moved into the house next door
yesterday. ('to take up residence in a new home')
(32) Our new neighbors moved in yesterday.
In (32), the last word is the time adverbial yesterday, so the object of
the preposition in (32) can be omitted. Of course, in an information
question, "into" also can be last word except for an adverbial when its
object is questioned by a wh- word:
(34) Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into?
(35) Now what sort of trouble is she in?
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2. Verbs expressing stationary position take only "on" or "in" with

the ordinary meanings of those prepositions.
If a verb allows the object of the preposition to be omitted, the
construction may have an idiomatic meaning.
(36) The cat sat on the mat.
(37) The doctor is in his office.
(38) The doctor is in. ('available

for consultation')
In(to) has two special uses with move.

3. When "move in" is followed by a purpose clause, it has the
sense of "approach".
(39) The lion moved in for the kill.
(40) The police moved in to rescue the hostages inside the
building.
In (39) and (40) "in" is part of the verb, so "into" cannot be used; we
cannot say: "The lion moved into for the kill."
154
4. When "into" is used with move, it functions as an ordinary

preposition to convey the idea of moving something from
one place to another.
(41) We'll move your brother's old

bed into your room.
This use of "into" is like the use of onto illustrated in (24)-(27) and
(29).
Prepositions of Location: At, In, On
Prepositions expressing spatial relations are of two kinds:

prepositions of location and prepositions of direction. Both kinds may
be either positive or negative. Prepositions of location appear with
verbs describing states or conditions, especially be; prepositions of
direction appear with verbs of motion.
Dimensions and Prepositions
Prepositions differ according to the number of dimensions they refer

to. We can group them into three classes using concepts from
geometry: point, surface, and area or volume.
Point
Prepositions in this group indicate that the noun that follows
them is treated as a point in relation to which another object is
positioned.
155
Surface
Prepositions in this group indicate that the position of an object
is defined with respect to a surface on which it rests.
Area/Volume
Prepositions in this group indicate that an object lies within the
boundaries of an area or within the confines of a volume.
Notice that although in geometry surface and area go together because

both are two-dimensional, in grammar area and volume go together
because the same prepositions are used for both.
In light of these descriptions, at, on, and in can be classified as

follows:
at ....... point
on ....... surface
in .......
area/volu
me
The meanings of the three prepositions can be illustrated with some

sample sentences:
156
1) My car is at
the house.
2) There is a new
roof on the
house.
3) The house is
in Tippecanoe
county.
4) There are five

rooms in the
house, which
has a lovely
fireplace in the
living room.
dimensional structure that can be divided into smaller volumes,
namely, rooms, inside one of which is an object, the fireplace All of
these sentences answer a question of the form, "Where is _______?"
but each gives different information.
Using "at"
157
At calls for further comment. Because it is the least specific of the

prepositions in its spatial orientation, it has a great variety of uses.
Here are some of them:
location
5a) Tom is waiting for his sister at
the bank.
5b) Sue spent the whole afternoon
at the fair.
destination
6a) We arrived at the house.
6b) The waiter was at our table

immediately.
Direction
7a) The policeman leaped at the
assailant.
7b) The dog jumped at my face and
really scared me.
In 5a), the bank can be understood as a point defining Tom's location,

much as in 1) above. It makes less sense to think of a fair as a point in
5b) since fairs are usually spread out over a fairly large area. Probably
at is used in this case just because it is the least specific preposition;
158
it defines Sue's location with respect to the fair rather than some
other place. In 6a), at exhibits its cause/effect relationship with to,
which cannot be used here: arrival at a place is the result of going to
it. 7a) and 7b) show that with certain verbs of motion at may be used
with the same meaning as its directional counterpart to, that is,
direction toward something.
"in" and "on"
1. Nouns denoting enclosed spaces, such as a field or a window, take

both on and in. The prepositions have their normal meanings with
these nouns: on is used when the space is considered as a surface, in
when the space is presented as an area:
Three players are

practicing on the field.
(surface)
Three cows are grazing in

the field. (area)
The frost made patterns
on the window. (surface)
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A face appeared in the

window. (area)
Notice that in implies that the field is enclosed, whereas on implies

only that the following noun denotes a surface and not necessarily an
enclosed area:
The sheep are grazing in the

pasture. (enclosed by a
fence)
The cattle are grazing on

the open range. (not
enclosed by a fence )
Three players are on the

basketball court. (not
enclosed)
Three players are on the
soccer field. (not enclosed)
Two boxers are in the ring.

(enclosed by ropes)
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2. When the area has metaphorical instead of actual boundaries, such

as when field means "academic discipline," in is used:
She is a leading researcher in the bioengineering field.
3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street. The first two
follow the general pattern of in and on usage. The third is an idiom
that must be learned as a unit.
a) The children are playing in the

street.
b) Our house is on Third Street.
c) He declared bankruptcy last week, (This is an idiom meaning that

and now he's out on the street.
he's poor.)
In a) the street is understood as an area enclosed by the sidewalks on

either side. Compare b) with the discussion of sentence 3) in the first
section. Here on locates the house on either side of Third Street: it
doesn't mean that the street is a surface on which the house sits.
Because the street is understood as a line next to which the house is
situated, on functions much like at in its normal use: it locates the
house in relation to the street but does not specify the exact address.
For that purpose, at is used because the address is like a particular
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point on the line. Compare: "Our house is at 323 Third Street." In c)

out on the street is an idiom meaning "poor" or "destitute."
4. In and on are also used with means of transportation: in is used

with a car, on with public or commercial means of transportation:
162
in the car
on the bus
on the plane
on the train
on the ship
Some speakers of English make a further distinction for public modes of

transportation, using in when the carrier is stationary and on when it is in
motion.
My wife stayed in/on the bus while I got out at the rest stop.
The passengers sat in/on the plane awaiting takeoff.
Prepositions of Time, of Place, and to Introduce Objects
One point in time

On is used with days:
I will see you on Monday.
The week begins on Sunday.
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
My plane leaves at noon.
163
The movie starts at 6 p.m.
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:
He likes to read in the afternoon.
The days are long in August.
The book was published in 1999.
The flowers will bloom in spring.
Extended time
To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for,
by, fromto, from-until, during,(with)in
She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not
returned.)
I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and

ending in October.)
The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in spring and
ending in fall.)
I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the evening.)
We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)
164
Place
To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk
about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about
the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at
.
There is a wasp in the room.
Put the present inside the box.
I left your keys on the table.
She was waiting at the corner.
Higher than a point

To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the
following prepositions: over, above.
He threw the ball over the roof.
Hang that picture above the couch.
Lower than a point

To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the
following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below.
The rabbit burrowed under the ground.
165
The child hid underneath the blanket.
We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.
The valley is below sea-level.
Close to a point
To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the
following prepositions: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite.
She lives near the school.
There is an ice cream shop by the store.
An oak tree grows next to my house
The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.
I found my pen lying among the books.
The bathroom is opposite that room.
To introduce objects of verbs

English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following
verbs.
At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare
She took a quick glance at her reflection.

(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)
You didn't laugh at his joke.
I'm looking at the computer monitor.

166
We rejoiced at his safe rescue.
That pretty girl smiled at you.
Stop staring at me.
Of: approve, consist, smell
I don't approve of his speech.
My contribution to the article consists of many pages.
He came home smelling of alcohol.
Of (or about): dream, think
I dream of finishing college in four years.
Can you think of a number between one and ten?
I am thinking about this problem.
For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish
Did someone call for a taxi?
He hopes for a raise in salary next year.
I'm looking for my keys.
We'll wait for her here.
You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train.
If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.
167
Prepositions of Spatial Relationship
Above
Write your name above the line.
Across
Draw a line across the page.
Against
She leans against the tree.
ahead of
The girl is ahead of the boy.
along
among
There is lace along the edge of

the cloth.
He is among the trees.
around Draw a circle around the answer.
behind
The boy is behind the girl.
168
below
Write your name below the line.
beneath
He sat beneath the tree.
beside
The girl is standing beside the

boy.
between
She is between two trees.
From
He came from the house.
In front
of
Inside
The girl is in front of the boy.
He is inside the house.
nearby There is a tree nearby the house.
off
His hat is off.
169
out of
He came out of the house.
through
She went through the door.
toward
under
within
She is walking toward the

house.
He is hiding under the table.
Please mark only within the

circle.
CONJUNCTION
170
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the
following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
Coordinating Conjunctions
You use a coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or
"yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you
can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a coordinating
conjunction:
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the coordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns.
This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the

screenplay was written by Mae West.
In this example, the coordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two
independent clauses.
Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and
swallowing goldfish.
171
Here the coordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases ("dancing
on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs describing the
verb "spends."
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the
nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent
clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as,"
"because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till,"
"until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating
conjunction:
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After
she had learned to drive."
If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause
"If the paperwork arrives on time."
Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
172
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when

his computer crashed."
Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and
baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are
exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the subordinating
conjunction "because."
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link

equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are
"both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and
"whether...or."
(Technically correlative
conjunctions consist
simply of a
coordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)

The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative conjunctions:
Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the two
noun phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my
grandfather" and "my father".
Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
173
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello
salad" and "a potato scallop."
Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law
school.
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive
phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school."
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.
In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the two
noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as direct
objects.
Note: Some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as
prepositions or as adverbs.
174
DETERMINERS
Determiners are words that are used with nouns to clarify the noun. They can
clarify:
o
to define something or someone
to state the amount of people, things or other nouns
to state possessives
to state something or someone is specific
to state how things or people are distributed
to state the difference between nouns
to state someone or something is not specific
175
There are different types of determiners. There type of determiner depends on

the type of noun. Singular nouns always need a determiner. Plural nouns the
determiner is optional. Uncountable nouns the determiner is also optional.
There are about 50 different determiners in the English language they include:
o
Articles: a, an, the
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those, which etc.
Possessives: my, your, our, their, his, hers, whose, my friend's, our
friends', etc.
Quantifiers: few, a few, many, much, each, every, some, any etc.
Articles
In English Grammar, articles are including two types: Indefinite articles: a / an

and Definite article: the.
The use of these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any
member of a group, or to a specific member of a group:
Definite article: THE
"THE" is used before singular and plural nouns that refer to a particular
member of a group.
Example: The man standing near the window is my uncle.
The is not used with noncountable nouns referring to something in a general
sense:
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[no article] Coffee is a popular drink.
[no article] Japanese was his native language.
[no article] Intelligence is difficult to quantify.
The is used with noncountable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting
modifying phrase or clause:
The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.
The Japanese he speaks is often heard in the countryside.
The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable.
The is also used when a noun refers to something unique:
the White House
the theory of relativity
the 1999 federal budget
Notice that people do not use the before:

a. names of countries (Italy, Mexico, Bolivia) except the Netherlands and the
US
b. names of cities, towns, or states (Seoul, Manitoba, Miami)
c. names of streets (Washington Blvd., Main St.)
d. names of lakes and bays (Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie) except with a group of
lakes like the Great Lakes
e. names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except with ranges of
mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual
177
f. names like the Matterhorn

g. names of continents (Asia, Europe)
h. names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island
chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands
And people Do use the before:
a. names of rivers, oceans and seas (the Nile, the Pacific)
b. points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole)
c. geographical areas (the Middle East, the West)
d. deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the
Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula)
Indefinite articles: A / AN
A or AN is used before singular nouns that refer to any member of a group.
Example:
A boy is walking toward me.
A dog can bark. A bird can fly.
The use of A / AN:
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy
178
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like

'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used)
an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant
an + singular noun beginning with voiceless h (ex. hour, honor, honest,

etc )
If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends

on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
a broken egg
an unusual problem
a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant

'y' sound)
Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate
membership in a profession, nation, or religion.
I am a teacher.
Leo is an Australian.
Yuko is a practicing Shintoist.
Demonstratives are words that are use to indicate which entities a speaker
refers to, and distinguishes those entities from others.
The demonstratives in English are this, that, these, and those, possibly
followed by one(s) in case of pronouns
179
Demonstratives
Demonstratives can be used as pronouns or adjectives. They are sometimes
referred to as demonstrative adjectives or demonstrative pronouns. When they
are used as adjectives they modify the noun.
"This" is used for singular nouns that are close to the speaker.
"That" is used for singular nouns that are far from the speaker.
"These" is used for plural nouns that are close to the speaker.
"Those" is used for plural nouns that are far from the speaker.
This - That - These - Those - Here - There

Read the conversations below:
David: Could you give me that book on the table over there?
Frank: Do you mean this book here?
David: Yes, that book.
Frank: Here you are. Oh, could you give me those magazines on the table over
there?
David: These? Sure, here you are.
David: Is there an apple on that table over there?
Frank: Yes, there is. Here it is.
David: Great, are there any oranges?
Frank: No, there aren't.
David: Oh, here they are, next to me on this table.
180
Look at the chart below:
We use "here" for

something that is near
to us. Example: Here is
the pencil in my hand.
We use "this" for one

object (singular) that is
here (near to us).
Example: This is a
book in my hand.
We use "these" for more
than one object (plural)
that are here (near to
us). Example: These
are my friends next to
me.
We use "there" for

something that is far from
us. Example: There is
the pen next to the
lamp.
We use "that" for one

object (singular) that is
there. Example: That is
his car over there.
We use "those" for more

that are there. Example:
Those are his toys over
there.
We use "there" for one
We use "there" for more
object (singular) that
exists - or "is" (near to
that exist - or "are".
us). Example: There is
Example: There are
(There's) a table next
(There're) many of my
to the window.
friends at the party
181
tonight.
Quantifiers
Quantifiers are words that are used to state quantity or amount of something
without stating the actually number.
Quantifiers answer the questions "How many?" and "How much?"
Quantifiers can be used with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.
Quantifiers must agree with the noun. There are 3 main types of quantifiers;
quantifiers that are used with countable nouns, quantifiers that are used with
uncountable nouns and quantifiers that are used with either countable nouns
or uncountable nouns.
The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:
many trees
a few trees
few trees
several trees
a couple of trees
none of the trees
The following quantifiers will work with non-count nouns:

182
not much dancing

a little dancing
little dancing
a bit of dancing
a good deal of dancing
a great deal of dancing
no dancing
The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:
all of the trees/dancing
some trees/dancing
most of the trees/dancing
enough trees/dancing
a lot of trees/dancing
lots of trees/dancing
plenty of trees/dancing
a lack of trees/dancing
In formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather
than phrases such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of.
There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with noncount words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words). If I say
that Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that although
Tashonda is no great expert she does have some experience and that
experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that Tashonda has
183
little experience in management that means that she doesn't have enough
experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin American literature
that means that he has some books not a lot of books, but probably enough
for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books on Latin American
literature that means he doesn't have enough for our purposes and we'd better
go to the library.
Unless it is combined with of, the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions
and negative statements:
Much of the snow has already melted.
How much snow fell yesterday?
Not much.
Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the
when it modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun:
"most of the instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water has
evaporated." With a general plural noun, however (when you are not referring to
a specific entity), the "of the" is dropped:
Most colleges have their own admissions policy.
Most students apply to several colleges.
An indefinite article is sometimes used in conjunction with the quantifier

many, thus joining a plural quantifier with a singular noun (which then takes
a singular verb):
Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.
Many an apple has fallen by October.

184
185
INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not
grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.
You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are

uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:
Ouch, that hurts!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!
I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"
I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!
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PUNCTUATION
The following sections will help you understand and use different types of
punctuation more effectively in your writing. This chapter begins with the
comma, the punctuation mark which usually causes writers the most trouble,
before turning to other types of punctuation.
The Comma
Comma usage is in some respects a question of personal writing style:
some writers use commas liberally, while others prefer to use them sparingly.
Most modern North American style guides now recommend using fewer
commas rather than more, so when faced with the option of using a comma or
not, you may find it wise to refrain.
For instance, the use of a comma before the "and" in a series is usually
optional, and many writers choose to eliminate it, provided there is no danger
of misreading:
We bought scarves, mittens and sweaters before leaving for Iceland.
(comma unnecessary before "and")
We ate apples, plums, and strawberry and kiwi compote. (comma needed
before "and" for clarity)
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Comma Usage
1.
Use a comma before a co-ordinating conjunction that joins independent
clauses (unless the independent clauses are very short):

I wrapped the fresh fish in three layers of newspaper, but my van still
smelled like trout for the next week. (commas with two independent
clauses)
She invited him to her party and he accepted. (comma unnecessary with
short clauses)
2.
Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause and, often, after an
introductory phrase (unless the phrase is very short):

After the hospital had completed its fund-raising campaign, an
anonymous donor contributed an additional $10,000. (after introductory
adverb clause)
From the east wall to the west, her cottage measures twenty feet. (after
introductory prepositional phrase)
In the bottom drawer you will find some pink spandex tights. (no comma
with short, closely related phrase)
3.
Use a comma to separate items in a series:

Playing in a band can be exciting, but many people do not realize the
hardships involved: constant rehearsals, playing until 2 a.m., handling
drunken audience members, and transporting heavy equipment to and
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from gigs. (the comma preceding "and" is optional unless needed to

prevent misreading)
4.
Use commas to set off non-restrictive elements and other parenthetical
elements. A non-restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that does not

restrict or limit the meaning of the word it is modifying. It is, in a sense,
interrupting material that adds extra information to a sentence. Even though
removing the non-restrictive element would result in some loss of meaning, the
sentence would still make sense without it. You should usually set off nonrestrictive elements with commas:
The people of Haiti, who for decades have lived with grinding poverty and
mind-numbing violence, are unfamiliar with the workings of a true
democracy.
A restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that limits the meaning of
what it modifies and is essential to the basic idea expressed in the sentence.
You should not set off restrictive elements with commas:
Those residents of Ottawa who do not hold secure, well-paying jobs must
resent the common portrayal of the city as a land of opportunity.
Note that you can use two other punctuation marks to set off non-restrictive
elements or other parenthetical information: parentheses and dashes.
Enclosing parenthetical information in parentheses reduces the importance of
that information:
Mr. Grundy's driving record (with one small exception) was exemplary.
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5.
Placing parenthetical information between dashes has the opposite effect:
it emphasises the material:

Mr. Grundy's driving record -- with one exception -- was exemplary.
Nevertheless, you should usually set off parenthetical information with
commas.
Superfluous Commas
Equally important in understanding how to use commas effectively is
knowing when not to use them. While this decision is sometimes a matter of
personal taste, there are certain instances when you should definitely avoid a
comma.
Do not use a comma to separate the subject from its predicate:

[WRONG] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15, will
save you thirty percent of the membership cost.
[RIGHT] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15 will
save you thirty percent of the membership cost.
Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its object or its subject
complement, or a preposition from its object:

[WRONG] I hope to mail to you before Christmas, a current snapshot of
my dog Benji.
She travelled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup
tent and a camera.
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[RIGHT] I hope to mail to you before Christmas a current snapshot of my

dog Benji.
[RIGHT] She travelled around the world with a small backpack, a bedroll,
a pup tent and a camera.
Do not misuse a comma after a co-ordinating conjunction:

[WRONG] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof but, the family was used to the
noise and paid it no attention.
[RIGHT] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family was used to the
noise and paid it no attention.
Do not use commas to set off words and short phrases (especially
introductory ones) that are not parenthetical or that are very slightly so:
[WRONG] After dinner, we will play badminton.
[RIGHT] After dinner we will play badminton.
Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements:

[WRONG] The fingers, on his left hand, are bigger than those on his
right.
[RIGHT] The fingers on his left hand are bigger than those on his right.
Do not use a comma before the first item or after the last item of a series:
[WRONG] The treasure chest contained, three wigs, some costume
jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.
[WRONG] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps, if
you want to improve in the martial arts.
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[RIGHT] The treasure chest contained three wigs, some costume jewellery
and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.
[RIGHT] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps if you
want to improve in the martial arts.
The Semicolon
You will usually use the semicolon to link independent clauses not
joined by a co-ordinating conjunction. Semicolons should join only those
independent clauses that are closely related in meaning.
Abdominal exercises help prevent back pain; proper posture is also important.
The auditors made six recommendations; however, only one has been adopted
so far.
Do not use a semicolon to link a dependent clause or a phrase to an
independent clause.
[WRONG] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical
fitness takes a good deal of time; the effort pays off in the long run.
[RIGHT] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical fitness
takes a good deal of time, the effort pays off in the long run.
Generally, you should not place a semicolon before a co-coordinating
conjunction that links two independent clauses. The only exception to this
guideline is if the two independent clauses are very long and already contain a
number of commas.
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[WRONG] The economy has been sluggish for four years now; but some
signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
[RIGHT] The economy has been sluggish for four years now, but some
signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
It may be useful to remember that, for the most part, you should use a
semicolon only where you could also use a period.
There is one exception to this guideline. When punctuating a list or
series of elements in which one or more of the elements contains an internal
comma, you should use semicolons instead of commas to separate the
elements from one another:
Henry's mother believes three things: that every situation, no matter how
grim, will be happily resolved; that no one knows more about human
nature than she does; and that Henry, who is thirty-five years old, will
never be able to do his own laundry.
The Colon
Writers often confuse the colon with the semicolon, but their uses are entirely
different.
When to Use a Colon
The colon focuses the reader's attention on what is to follow, and as a
result, you should use it to introduce a list, a summation, or an idea that
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somehow completes the introductory idea. You may use the colon in this way,
however, only after an independent clause:
He visited three cities during his stay in the Maritimes: Halifax, Saint
John and Moncton.
Their lobbying efforts were ultimately useless: the bill was soundly
defeated.
My mother gave me one good piece of advice: to avoid wasting time and
energy worrying about things I cannot change.
When Not to Use a Colon

You should not place a colon between a verb and its object or subject
complement, or between a preposition and its object:
[WRONG] His neighbor lent him a pup tent, a wooden canoe, and a
slightly battered Coleman stove. (colon between verb and objects)
[RIGHT] His neighbor lent him a pup tent, a wooden canoe, and a slightly
battered Coleman stove.
[WRONG] Her three goals are: to improve her public speaking skills, to
increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her sales techniques. (colon
between verb and subject complement)
[RIGHT] Her three goals are to find a job, to buy a house and to go to
grad school.
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[WRONG] We travelled to: Japan, China and Korea. (colon between

preposition and objects)
[RIGHT] We travelled to Japan, China and Korea.
End Punctuation
The punctuation marks that signal the end of a sentence are the period,
the question mark and the exclamation mark.
You use the period, by far the most common of the end punctuation
marks, to terminate a sentence that makes a statement. You may also use
periods with imperative sentences that have no sense of urgency or
excitement attached:
Without a doubt, Lady Emily was much happier after her divorce.
Turn right at the stop sign.
Bring me a cup of coffee and a cheese danish.
When you want to express a sense of urgency or very strong emotion, you may
end your imperative sentences and statements with an exclamation mark:
Look out below!
Leave this house at once!
I hate him!
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Exclamation marks are, however, rare in formal writing. Use them sparingly, if
at all.
You should use the question mark at the end of a direct question:
Who's on first?
Where is my flowered cape?
Be careful not to use a question mark at the end of an indirect question.
Indirect questions are simply statements, and therefore end with a period:
I wonder who was chosen as Harvest King in the county fair.
She asked if she could play pinball.
The teacher asked who was chewing gum.
Quotation Marks
The exact rules for quotation marks vary greatly from language to
language and even from country to country within the English-speaking world.
In North American usage, you should place double quotation marks (") before
and after directly quoted material and words of dialogue:
One critic ended his glowing review with this superlative: "It is simply the best
film ever made about potato farming."
May replied, "This is the last cookie."
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You also use quotation marks are used to set off certain titles, usually
those of minor or short works -- essays, short stories, short poems, songs,
articles in periodicals, etc. For titles of longer works and separate publications,
you should use italics (or underlined, if italics are not available). Use italics for
titles of books, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, films, plays, long poems,
long musical works, and television and radio programs.
Once when I was sick, my father read me a story called "The Happy
Flower," which was later made into a movie entitled Flower Child, starring
Tiny Tim.
Sometimes, you will use quotation marks to set off words specifically referred to
as terms, though some publishers prefer italics:
I know you like the word "unique," but do you really have to use it ten
times in one essay?
"Well" is sometimes a noun, sometimes an adverb, sometimes an adjective and
sometimes a verb.
Quotations Marks with Other Punctuation

One question that frequently arises with quotation marks is where to place
other punctuation marks in relation to them. Again, these rules vary from
region to region, but North American usage is quite simple:
1.
Commas and periods always go inside the quotation marks.
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I know you are fond of the story "Children of the Corn," but is it an
appropriate subject for your essay?
"At last," said the old woman, "I can say I am truly happy."
2.
Semicolons and colons always go outside the quotation marks.

She never liked the poem "Dover Beach"; in fact, it was her least favourite
piece of Victorian literature.
He clearly states his opinion in the article "Of Human Bondage": he
believes
that
television
has
enslaved
and
diminished
an
entire
generation.
3.
Question marks, exclamation marks, and dashes go inside quotation
marks when they are part of the quotation, and outside when they do not.
Where is your copy of "The Raven"?
"How cold is it outside?" my mother asked.
Note that in North American usage, you should use single quotation marks (')
only to set off quoted material (or a minor title) inside a quotation.
"I think she said Ì will try,' not Ì won't try,'" explained Sandy.
The Apostrophe
You should use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of a noun or to
show that you have left out letters in a contraction. Note that you should not
generally use contractions in formal, academic writing.
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The convertible's engine has finally died. (The noun "convertible's" is in

the possessive case)
I haven't seen my roommate for a month. (The verb "haven't" is a
contraction of "have not")

To form the possessive of a plural noun ending in "s," simply place an
apostrophe after the "s."
He has his three sons' futures in mind.
In many suburbs, the houses' designs are too much alike.
Possessive pronouns such as "hers," "yours," and "theirs" do not take
apostrophes. This is the case for the possessive pronoun "its" as well. When
you write "it's" with an apostrophe, you are writing a contraction for "it is."
The spaceship landed hard, damaging its radar receiver. ("its" is the
possessive pronoun)
It's your mother on the phone. ("it's" is the contraction of "it is")
The Dash
As noted in the section on commas, you can use a dash at the beginning
and end of parenthetical information. Usually, you will use dashes when you
want to emphasise the information, but you might also use them if the
parenthetical information is too long or abrupt to be set off with commas.
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I think you would look fine wearing either the silk blouse - the one with
the blue pattern -- or the angora sweater. (abrupt interruption)
The idea of returning to the basics in the classroom - a notion which,
incidentally, has been quietly supported for years by many respected
teachers - is finally gaining some currency with school administrators.
(lengthy interruption containing internal commas)
You can use a dash to conclude a list of elements, focusing them all toward one
point.
Chocolate, cream, honey and peanut butter -- all go into this fabulously
rich dessert.
Dashes also mark sharp turns in thought.
We pored over exotic, mouth-watering menus from Nemo Catering, Menu
du Jour, Taste Temptations, and three other reputable caterers -- and
rejected them all.
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MODIFIERS
A modifier can be an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase or clause acting
as an adjective or adverb In every case, the basic principle is the same: the
modifier adds information to another element in the sentence.
In this chapter, you will begin by working with single-word modifiers -adjectives and adverbs -- but the information here will also apply to phrases
and clauses which act as modifiers.
Using Adverbs and Adjectives
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and
sometimes clauses and whole sentences. Adjectives are words that modify
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nouns and pronouns. Be careful not to use an adjective where you need an
adverb. Consider the following sentences, for instance:
[WRONG] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slow out of the
classroom.
[RIGHT] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slowly out of the
classroom.
The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the verb "walked."
[WRONG] We tried real hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.
[RIGHT] We tried really hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.
The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the adjective "hard."
(Note that "really" is an informal substitute for "very", and you should avoid in
in formal essays.)
Using "good," "bad," "well," and "badly."
You might also note the distinctions between "good" and "bad" (which are
adjectives) and "well" and "badly" (which are adverbs):
Shelley plays the piano well and the drums badly.
The actor's performance was good even though he felt bad that night.
"Well" is an adjective only when it refers to health or condition:
She protested that she was well enough to start playing sports again.
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Using Adjectives with Linking Verbs

In the same vein, remember that adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Do
not mistakenly use an adverb to modify these parts of speech.
For example, after a linking verb you may be tempted to use an adverb
instead of an adjective. You will recall that the linking verb is a special kind of
verb because it links its subject to a subject complement. A subject
complement can be either a noun (renaming the subject) or a modifier
(describing the subject). When it is a modifier it must be an adjective because it
describes the subject (always a noun or pronoun). It does not modify the
linking verb itself and should therefore not be an adverb:
[WRONG] We felt badly about having caused the accident
[RIGHT] We felt bad about having caused the accident.
Using Conjunctive Adverbs
The conjunctive adverb is a special kind of adverb that often serves as a
transition between two independent clauses in a sentence. Some common
conjunctive adverbs are "therefore," "however," "moreover," "nevertheless,"
"consequently," and "furthermore." When using a conjunctive adverb at the
beginning of the second independent clause, be sure to precede it with a
semicolon not a comma.
My roommate usually listens to rock music; however, he also likes John
Coltrane and several other jazz musicians.
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Using the Comparative and Superlative

You should use the comparative form of an adjective or adverb to
compare exactly two things. You can form the comparative by adding the suffix
"-er" to the modifier (for some short words) or by using the word "more" with
the modifier:
Of the two designs, the architect is convinced that the city will select the
more experimental one. (comparing two designs)
Now that it is March, the days are getting longer. (longer now than
before)
You should use the superlative form to compare three or more things. You can
form the superlative by adding the suffix "-est" to the modifier (for some short
words) or by using the word "most" with the modifier:
This is definitely the smartest, wittiest, most imaginative comic strip I
have ever seen. (implying that I have seen more than two)
Note: if you are not certain, you should check a dictionary to see which words
take use "more" and "most" and which words take the suffixes "-er" and "-est".
Common Problems with the Comparative and Superlative
There are certain modifiers which you cannot logically use in the
comparative and superlative forms. Adjectives like "perfect" and "unique," for
instance, express absolute conditions and do not allow for degrees of
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comparison. Something cannot be more perfect than another thing: it is either

perfect or not perfect.
You should also avoid using a double comparison -- that is, using both a
suffix and an adverb to indicate the comparative or superlative:
[WRONG] I am convinced that my poodle is more smarter than your
dachshund.
[WRONG] Laurel and Hardy are the most funniest slapstick comedians
in film history.
[RIGHT] I am convinced that my poodle is smarter than your dachshund.
[RIGHT] Laurel and Hardy are the funniest slapstick comedians in film
history.
Similarly, although the double negative -- the use of two negative words
together for a single negative idea -- is common in speech and has a long
history in the English language, you should avoid using it in formal writing:
[WRONG] We decided there wasn't no point in pursuing our research
further.
[WRONG] I can't get no satisfaction.
[RIGHT] We decided there wasn't any point in pursuing our research
further. OR We decided there was no point in pursuing our research
further.
[RIGHT] I can't get any satisfaction. OR I can get no satisfaction.
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Double negatives involving "not" and "no" are fairly easy to spot and fix.
However, some other adverbs -- for example, "hardly," "scarcely," "barely" -imply the negative, and you should not use them with another negative:
[WRONG] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he does not
have hardly any friends there.
[RIGHT] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he has
hardly any friends there. OR Even though he has lived in Toronto for
four years, he does not have many friends there.
Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

You have a certain amount of freedom in deciding where to place your modifiers
in a sentence:
We rowed the boat vigorously.
We vigorously rowed the boat.
Vigorously we rowed the boat.
However, you must be careful to avoid misplaced modifiers -- modifiers that
are positioned so that they appear to modify the wrong thing.
In fact, you can improve your writing quite a bit by paying attention to basic
problems like misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.
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Misplaced Words
In general, you should place single-word modifiers near the word or
words they modify, especially when a reader might think that they modify
something different in the sentence. Consider the following sentence:
[WRONG] After our conversation lessons, we could understand the
Spanish spoken by our visitors from Madrid easily.

Do we understand the Spanish easily, or do the visitors speak it easily?
This revision eliminates the confusion:
[RIGHT] We could easily understand the Spanish spoken by our visitors
from Madrid.
It is particularly important to be careful about where you put limiting
modifiers. These are words like "almost," "hardly," "nearly," "just," "only,"
"merely," and so on. Many writers regularly misplace these modifiers. You can
accidentally change the entire meaning of a sentence if you place these
modifiers next to the wrong word:
[WRONG] Randy has nearly annoyed every professor he has had. (he
hasn't "nearly annoyed" them)
[WRONG] We almost ate all of the Thanksgiving turkey. (we didn't
"almost eat" it)
[RIGHT] Randy has annoyed nearly every professor he has had.
[RIGHT] We ate almost all of the Thanksgiving turkey.
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Misplaced Phrases and Clauses

It is important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as close as
possible to the word or words it modifies:
[WRONG] By accident, he poked the little girl with his finger in the eye.
[WRONG] I heard that my roommate intended to throw a surprise party
for me while I was outside her bedroom window.
[WRONG] After the wedding, Ian told us at his stag party that he would
start behaving like a responsible adult.
[RIGHT] By accident, he poked the little girl in the eye with his finger.
[RIGHT] While I was outside her bedroom window, I heard that my
roommate intended to throw a surprise party for me.
[RIGHT] Ian told us at his stag party that he would start behaving like a
responsible adult after the wedding.
Squinting Modifiers
A squinting modifier is an ambiguously placed modifier that can modify
either the word before it or the word after it. In other words, it is "squinting" in
both directions at the same time:
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[WRONG] Defining your terms clearly strengthens your argument. (does

defining "clearly strengthen" or does "defining clearly" strengthen?)
[RIGHT] Defining your terms will clearly strengthen your argument. OR
A clear definition of your terms strengthens your argument.
Split Infinitives
The infinitive form of the verb consists of the word "to" followed by the
base form of the verb: "to be," "to serve," "to chop," etc. Inserting a word or
words between the "to" and the verb of an infinitive creates what is known as a
split infinitive. Prescriptive grammarians, who knew Latin grammar better
than English, once decreed that a split infinitive was an error, but now it is
growing increasingly acceptable even in formal writing. Nevertheless, some
careful writers still prefer to avoid splitting infinitives altogether.
In general, you should avoid placing long, disruptive modifiers between
the "to" and the verb of an infinitive. However, you must use your judgement
when it comes to single-word modifiers. Sometimes a sentence becomes
awkward if a single-word modifier is placed anywhere but between the elements
of the infinitive:
[WRONG] The marketing team voted to, before they launched the new
software, run an anticipatory ad campaign. (disruptive -- the infinitive
should not be split)
[RIGHT] The marketing team voted to run an anticipatory ad campaign
before they launched the new software.
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Dangling Modifiers
The dangling modifier, a persistent and frequent grammatical problem
in writing, is often (though not always) located at the beginning of a sentence. A
dangling modifier is usually a phrase or an elliptical clause -- a dependent
clause whose subject and verb are implied rather than expressed -- that
functions as an adjective but does not modify any specific word in the
sentence, or (worse) modifies the wrong word. Consider the following example:
Raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea.
The introductory phrase in the above sentence looks as if it is meant to
modify a person or persons, but no one is mentioned in the sentence. Such
introductory adjective phrases, because of their position, automatically modify
the first noun or pronoun that follows the phrase -- in this case, "it." The
connection in this case is illogical because "it" was not raised in Nova Scotia.
You could revise the sentence in a number of ways:
For a person raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea.
(the phrase no longer functions as an adjective)
Raised in Nova Scotia, I often miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase functions
as an adjective but now automatically modifies "I," a logical connection)
A dangling modifier can also appear when you place an elliptical clause
improperly:
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Although nearly finished, we left the play early because we were worried
about our sick cat.
The way this sentence is structured, the clause "Although nearly finished"
illogically modifies "we," the pronoun directly following the clause. An easy way
to rectify the problem is to re-insert the subject and verb that are understood
in the elliptical clause:
Although the play was nearly finished, we left early because we were worried
about our sick cat.
Building Phrases
A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words without a
subject and predicate -- a group of grammatically-linked words with a subject
and predicate is called a clause.
The group "teacher both students and" is not a phrase because the words have
no grammatical relationship to one another. Similarly, the group "bay the
across" is not a phrase.
In both cases, the words need to be rearranged in order to create phrases. The
group "both teachers and students" and the group "across the bay" are both
phrases.
You use a phrase to add information to a sentence and it can perform the
functions of a subject, an object, a subject complement or object complement,
a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
The highlighted words in each of the following sentences make up a phrase:
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She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately,
squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
PHRASES
A phrase may function as a verb, noun, an adverb, or an adjective.
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Verb Phrases
A verb phrase consists of a verb, its direct and/or indirect objects, and
any adverb, adverb phrases, or adverb clauses which happen to modify it. The
predicate of a clause or sentence is always a verb phrase:
Lorraine is trying to decide whether she wants to go to grad school
or to go to law school.
He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he
decided to make something else.
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.
Noun Phrases
A noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any associated
modifiers, including adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses, and other
nouns in the possessive case.
Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the object of a verb or
verbal, as a subject or object complement, or as the object of a preposition, as
in the following examples:
Subject
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
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Object of a verb
To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal.
Object of a preposition
The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the spring breakup.
Subject complement
Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster.
Object complement
I consider Loki my favorite cat.
Noun Phrases using Verbals
(By David Megginson)
Since some verbals -- in particular, the gerund and the infinitive -- can act as
nouns, these also can form the nucleus of a noun phrase:
Ice fishing is a popular winter pass-time.
However, since verbals are formed from verbs, they can also take direct objects
and can be modified by adverbs. A gerund phrase or infinitive phrase, then,
is a noun phrase consisting of a verbal, its modifiers (both adjectives and
adverbs), and its objects:
Running a marathon in the summer is thirsty work.
I am planning to buy a house next month.
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Adjective Phrases
An adjective phrase is any phrase which modifies a noun or pronoun.
You often construct adjective phrases using participles or prepositions together
with their objects:
I was driven mad by the sound of my neighbors constant piano
practicing.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of my neighbors constant piano
practicing" acts as an adjective modifying the noun "sound."
My father-in-law locked his keys in the trunk of a borrowed car.
Similarly in this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of a borrowed car" acts as
an adjective modifying the noun "trunk."
We saw Peter dashing across the quadrangle.
Here the participle phrase "dashing across the quadrangle" acts as an

adjective describing the proper noun "Peter."
We picked up the records broken in the scuffle.
In this sentence, the participle phrase "broken in the scuffle" modifies the
noun phrase "the records."
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Adverb Phrases
A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning as an
adverb, as in the following sentences.
She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "to the corner store" acts as an
adverb modifying the verb "went."
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night sky" functions as a
adverb modifying the verb "flashed."
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately,
squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in early October" acts as an adverb
modifying the entire sentence.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 P.M.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "at 3:30 P.M." acts as an adverb
modifying the verb phrase "will meet."
The dogs were capering about the clown's feet.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "about the clown's feet" acts as an
adverb modifying the verb phrase "were capering."
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CLAUSES
Building Clauses
A clause is a collection of grammatically related words including a
predicate and a subject (though sometimes the subject is implied). A collection
of grammatically related words without a subject or without a predicate is
called a phrase.
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of one or
more clauses.
Recognizing Clauses
Consider these examples:
Clause
Cows eat grass
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This example is a clause, because it contains the subject "cows" and the
predicate "eat grass."
Phrase
Cows eating grass
This noun phrase could be a subject, but it has no predicate attached to it: the
adjective phrase "eating grass" show which cows the writer is referring to, but
there is nothing here to show why the writer is mentioning cows in the first
place.
Clause
Cows eating grass are visible from the highway
This is a complete clause again. The subject "cows eating grass" and the
predicate "are visible from the highway" make up a complete thought.
Clause
Run!
This single-word command is also a clause, even though it does seem to have a
subject. With a direct command, it is not necessary to include the subject,
since it is obviously the person or people you are talking to: in other words, the
clause really reads "[You] run!" You should not usually use direct commands in
your essays, except in quotations.
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Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs

If a clause can stand alone as a sentence, it is an independent clause, as in
the following example:
Independent
the Prime Minister is in Ottawa
Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they are
dependent clauses or subordinate clauses. Consider the same clause with
the subordinating conjunction "because" added to the beginning:
Dependent
when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa
In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself, since the conjunction
"because" suggests that the clause is providing an explanation for something
else. Since this dependent clause answers the question "when," just like an
adverb, it is called a dependent adverb clause (or simply an adverb clause,
since adverb clauses are always dependent clauses). Note how the clause can
replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the following examples:
Adverb
The committee will meet tomorrow.
Adverb clause
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The committee will meet when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa.
Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for nouns and for
adjectives.
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another
clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a
verb or the object of a preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or
"what?" Consider the following examples:
Noun
I know Latin.
Noun clause
I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.
In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of the verb
"know." In the second example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct
object.
In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:
Noun
Their destination is unknown.
Noun clause
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Where they are going is unknown.
The question "Where are they going?" with a slight change in word order,
becomes a noun clause when used as part of a larger unit. Like the noun
"destination," the clause is the subject of the verb "is."
Here are some more examples of noun clauses:
About what you bought at the mall
This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and answers the
question "about what."
Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it.
This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay," and answers the
question "who will have to pay."
The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.
This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers the question
"what do the fans hope."
Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an
adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause
modifies a noun or pronoun, answering questions like "which?" or "what kind
of?" Consider the following examples:
Adjective
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The red coat
Adjective clause
The coat which I bought yesterday
Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause "which I bought
yesterday" in the second example modifies the noun "coat." Note that an
adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an adjective usually
comes before.
In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative pronouns
"who(m)," "that," or "which." In informal writing or speech, you may leave out
the relative pronoun when it is not the subject of the adjective clause, but you
should usually include the relative pronoun in formal, academic writing:
Informal
The books people read were mainly religious.
Formal
The books that people read were mainly religious.
Informal
Some firefighters never meet the people they save.
Formal
Some firefighters never meet the people whom they save.
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Here are some more examples of adjective clauses:

The meat which they ate was tainted
This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the question "which meat."
About the movie which made him cry
This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the question "which movie."
They are searching for the one who borrowed the book
The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the question "which one."
Did I tell you about the author whom I met?
The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the question "which
author."
Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an
adverb in another clause or phrase. An adverb clause answers questions such
as "when," "where," "why.", "with what goal/result," and "under what
conditions."
Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following example:
Adverb
The premier gave a speech here.
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Adverb clause
The premier gave a speech where the workers were striking.
Usually, a subordinating conjunction like "because," "when(ever)," "where(ever),"

"since," "after," and "so that," will introduce an adverb clause. Note that a
dependent adverb clause can never stand alone as a complete sentence:
Independent clause
They left the locker room
Dependent adverb clause
After they left the locker room
The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but the second cannot.
The reader will ask what happened "after they left the locker room". Here are
some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause,
effect, space, time, and condition:
Cause
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had murdered
Hamlet's father.
The adverb clause answers the question "why."
Effect
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's murder would be
avenged.
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The adverb clause answers the question "with what goal/result."

Time
After Hamlet's uncle Claudius married Hamlet's mother, Hamlet
wanted to kill him.

The adverb clause answers the question "when." Note the change in word order.
An adverb clause can often appear either before or after the main part of the
sentence.
Place
Where the whole Danish court was assembled, Hamlet ordered a play
in an attempt to prove his uncle's guilt.

The adverb clause answers the question "where."
Condition
If the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve monetary union.
The adverb clause answers the question "under what conditions."
SENTENCE
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The Parts of the Sentence

The parts of the sentence are a set of terms for describing how people
construct sentences from smaller pieces. There is not a direct correspondence
between the parts of the sentence and the parts of speech -- the subject of a
sentence, for example, could be a noun, a pronoun, or even an entire phrase or
clause. Like the parts of speech, however, the parts of the sentence form part of
the basic vocabulary of grammar, and it is important that you take some time
to learn and understand them.
Subject and Predicate
Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate.
The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells
something about the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is
enclosed in braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted.
Judy {runs}.
Judy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}.
To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a
question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.
The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled
popcorn.
The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The
audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate
(which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject:
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what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and
spilled popcorn."
Unusual Sentences
Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ
from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is
understood rather than expressed.
Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.")
Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to
be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the true
subject will soon follow.
There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning.
If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is "three
stray kittens," the correct subject.
Simple Subject and Simple Predicate
Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun (or more) that, when
stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the simple subject.
Consider the following example:
A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.
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The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the
subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the
simple subject.
Likewise, a predicate has at its centre a simple predicate, which is always the
verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just considered,
the simple predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the verb of the
sentence.
A sentence may have a compound subject -- a simple subject consisting of
more than one noun or pronoun -- as in these examples:
Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the boy's
bedroom walls.
Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and
admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there.
The second sentence above features a compound predicate, a predicate that
includes more than one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this case,
"walked" and "admired").
Objects and Complements
Objects
A verb may be followed by an object that completes the verb's meaning.
Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To
determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate the verb and make it into a
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question by placing "whom?" or "what?" after it. The answer, if there is one, is
the direct object:
Direct Object
The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche.
Direct Object
Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.
The second sentence above also contains an indirect object. An indirect object
(which, like a direct object, is always a noun or pronoun) is, in a sense, the
recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an indirect object,
isolate the verb and ask to whom?, to what?, for whom?, or for what? after it.
The answer is the indirect object.
Not all verbs are followed by objects. Consider the verbs in the following
sentences:
The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest.
After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Verbs that take objects are known as transitive verbs. Verbs not followed by
objects are called intransitive verbs.
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Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on

the context:
Direct Object
I hope the Blue Eagles win the next game.
No Direct Object
Did we win?
Subject Complements
In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third kind
of verb called a linking verb. The word (or phrase) which follows a linking verb
is called not an object, but a subject complement.
The most common linking verb is "be." Other linking verbs are "become,"
"seem," "appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell," "taste," and "sound," among
others. Note that some of these are sometimes linking verbs, sometimes
transitive verbs, or sometimes intransitive verbs, depending on how you use
them:
Linking verb with subject complement
He was a radiologist before he became a full-time yoga instructor.
Linking verb with subject complement

Your homemade chili smells delicious.
Transitive verb with direct object

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I can't smell anything with this terrible cold.
Intransitive verb with no object

The interior of the beautiful new Buick smells strongly of fish.
Note that a subject complement can be either a noun ("radiologist",

"instructor") or an adjective ("delicious").
Object Complements
An object complement is similar to a subject complement, except that
(obviously) it modifies an object rather than a subject. Consider this example of
a subject complement:
The driver seems tired.
In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired" modifies the noun "driver,"
which is the subject of the sentence.
Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the following example:
I consider the driver tired.
In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb "consider," but the
adjective "tired" is still acting as its complement.
In general, verbs which have to do with perceiving, judging, or changing
something can cause their direct objects to take an object complement:
Paint it black.
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The judge ruled her out of order.

I saw the Prime Minister sleeping.
In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of the sentence into a
sentence of its own using a subject complement: "it is black," "she is out of
order," "the Prime Minister is sleeping."
Building Sentences
Some English sentences are very basic:
Shakespeare was a writer.
Einstein said something.
The Inuit are a people.
You could write an entire essay using only simple sentences like these:
William Shakespeare was a writer. He wrote plays. It was the Elizabethan age.
One play was Hamlet. It was a tragedy. Hamlet died. The court died too.
It is not likely, however, that your essay would receive a passing grade. This
chapter helps you learn to recognise different types of sentences and to use
them effectively in your own writing.
Why Sentence Structure Matters
Although ordinary conversation, personal letters, and even some types of
professional writing (such as newspaper stories) consist almost entirely of
simple sentences, your university or college instructors will expect you to be
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able to use all types of sentences in your formal academic writing. Writers who
use only simple sentences are like a truck drivers who do not know how to shift
out of first gear: they would be able to drive a load from Montral to Calgary
(eventually), but they would have a great deal of trouble getting there.
If you use phrases and clauses carefully, your sentences will become
much more interesting and your ideas, much clearer. This complex sentence
develops
major,
central
idea
and
provides
structured
background
information:
Since it involves the death not only of the title character but of the entire royal
court, Hamlet is the most extreme of the tragedies written by the Elizabethan
playwrite William Shakespeare.
Just as a good driver uses different gears, a good writer uses different types of
sentences in different situations:
a long complex sentence will show what information depends on what
other information;
a compound sentence will emphasise balance and parallelism;
a short simple sentence will grab a reader's attention;
a loose sentence will tell the reader in advance how to interpret your
information;
a periodic sentence will leave the reader in suspense until the very end;
a declarative sentence will avoid any special emotional impact;
an exclamatory sentence, used sparingly, will jolt the reader;
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an interrogative sentence will force the reader to think about what you
are writing;
an imperative sentence will make it clear that you want the reader to act
right away.
The Structure of a Sentence
Remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A simple
sentences contains only a single clause, while a compound sentence, a complex
sentence, or a compound-complex sentence contains at least two clauses.
1.
The Simple Sentence
The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only
one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word.
E.g.
Run!
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both
the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are
simple sentences, because each contains only one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
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Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts
quickly under the warm March sun.
As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to
think that you can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a
complex sentence simply by its length.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first
kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common
sentence in the spoken language of people of all ages. In written work, simple
sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader's attention or for summing
up an argument, but you have to use them with care: too many simple
sentences can make your writing seem childish.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to
connect them to the surrounding sentences.
2.
The Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple

sentences) joined by coordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or."
E.g.
Simple
Canada is a rich country.
Simple
Still, it has many poor people.
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= Compound
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.
Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers; small
children learn to use them early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing
(and allowing an adult to interrupt).
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it to
the class, and I got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured pictures of
it, and it ate part of my carrot at lunch, and ...
Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use compound sentences
in written work, your writing might seem immature.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of
balance or contrast between two (or more) equally-important pieces of
information.
E.g.
Montal has better clubs, but Toronto has better cinemas.
Special Cases of Compound Sentences
There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to
note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together, a coordinating
conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence
and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compoundcomplex sentence.
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3.
Compound-complex
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could
check the contents.

The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two
originally separate sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon
instead of a co-ordinating conjunction:
Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking problem; when sober,
however, he could be a formidable foe in the House of Commons.

Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or "consequently" will appear near
the beginning of the second part, but it is not required:
The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.
4.
The Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. Unlike a compound sentence, however, a complex sentence

contains clauses which are not equal. Consider the following examples:
Simple
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
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Compound
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
Complex
Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.
In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My friend
invited me to a party" and "I do not want to go." The second example joins them
together into a single sentence with the co-ordinating conjunction "but," but
both parts could still stand as independent sentences -- they are entirely equal,
and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the third example,
however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first clause, "Although my
friend invited me to a party," has become incomplete, or a dependent clause.
A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a
compound sentence because it makes clear which ideas are most important.
When you write, My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go, or
even, My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go. The reader
will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to you.
When you write the subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning of
the first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited
you is less important than, or subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to
go.
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The Order of a Sentence

Not all sentences make a single point. Compound sentences, especially,
may present several equally-important pieces of information but most of the
time, when you write a sentence, there is a single argument, statement,
question, or command which you wish to get across.
When you are writing your sentences, do not bury your main point in the
middle; instead, use one of the positions of emphasis at the beginning or end
of the sentence.
The Loose Sentence
If you put your main point at the beginning of a long sentence, you are writing
a loose sentence.
Loose
I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in
Canada, considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low
crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful
winters.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in
Canada, and the writer makes the point at the very beginning: everything
which follows is simply extra information. When the readers read about the free
health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive
social programs, and the wonderful winters, they will already know that these
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are reasons for living in Canada, and as a result, they will be more likely to
understand the sentence on a first reading.
Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost
always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers
tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences. While a
periodic sentence can be useful for making an important point or for a special
dramatic effect, it is also much more difficult to read, and often requires
readers to go back and reread the sentence once they understand the main
point.
Finally, it is important to remember that you have to structure a loose
sentence as carefully as you would structure a periodic sentence: it is very easy
to lose control of a loose sentence so that by the end the reader has forgotten
what your main point was.
The Periodic Sentence
If your main point is at the end of a long sentence, you are writing a periodic
sentence.
Periodic
Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime
rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, I

am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in
Canada.
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The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in
Canada. At the beginning of this sentence, the reader does not know what
point the writer is going to make: what about the free health care, cheap tuition
fees, low crime rate, comprehensive social programs, and wonderful winters?
The reader has to read all of this information without knowing what the
conclusion will be.
The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing
over the past hundred years, and it has never been common in informal spoken
English (outside of bad political speeches). Still, it is a powerful rhetorical tool.
An occasional periodic sentence is not only dramatic but persuasive: even if the
readers do not agree with your conclusion, they will read your evidence first
with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with hostile readers, the readers
will probably close their minds before considering any of your evidence.
Finally, it is important to remember that periodic sentences are like
exclamatory sentences: used once or twice in a piece of writing, they can be
very effective; used any more than that, they can make you sound dull and
pompous.
The Purpose of a Sentence
The other classifications in this chapter describe how you construct your
sentences, but this last set describes why you have written the sentences in
the first place. Most sentences which you write should simply state facts,
conjectures, or arguments, but sometimes you will want to give commands or
ask questions.
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1.
The Declarative Sentence

The declarative sentence is the most important type. You can, and often
will write entire essays or reports using only declarative sentences, and you
should always use them far more often than any other type. A declarative
sentence simply states a fact or argument, without requiring either an answer
or action from the reader. Punctuate your declarative sentences with a simple
period.
E.g.
Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
The distinction between deconstruction and post-modernism eludes me.
He asked which path leads back to the lodge.
Note that the last example contains an indirect question, "which path leads
back to the lodge." An indirect question does not make a sentence into an
interrogative sentence -- only a direct question can do that.
2.
The Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a direct question and always ends in a

question mark.
E.g.
Who can read this and not be moved?
How many roads must a man walk down?
Does money grow on trees?
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Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence interrogative:

Direct/Interrogative
When was Lester Pearson prime minister?
Indirect/Declarative
I wonder when Lester Pearson was prime minister.
A direct question requires an answer from the reader, while an indirect
question does not.
3.
The Rhetorical Question

Normally, an essay or report will not contain many regular direct
questions, since you are writing it to present information or to make an

argument. There is, however, a special type of direct question called a
rhetorical question -- that is, a question which you do not actually expect the
reader to answer.
E.g.
Why did the War of 1812 take place? Some scholars argue that it was
simply a land-grab by the Americans ...
If you do not overuse them, rhetorical questions can be a very effective

way to introduce new topics or problems in the course of a paper; if you use
them too often, however, you may sound patronizing and/or too much like a
professor giving a mediocre lecture.
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4.
The Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence, or exclamation, is simply a more forceful version

of a declarative sentence, marked at the end with an exclamation mark.
E.g.
The butler did it!
How beautiful this river is!
Some towns in Upper Canada lost up to a third of their population
during the cholera epidemics of the early nineteenth century!
Exclamatory sentences are common in speech and (sometimes) in fiction,

but over the last 200 years they have almost entirely disappeared from
academic writing. You will (or should) probably never use one in any sort of
academic writing, except when you are quoting something else directly. Note
that an exclamation mark can also appear at the end of an imperative
sentence.
5.
The Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone. This type
of sentence can end either with a period or with an exclamation mark,

depending on how forceful the command is.
E.g.
Sit! Read this book for tomorrow.
You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word "please"
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Wash the windows!
not
Please wash the windows!
Normally, you should not use imperative sentences in academic writing.

When you do use an imperative sentence, it should usually contain only a mild
command, and thus, end with a period.
E.g.
Consider the Incas.
PARAGRAPH
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Writing Paragraphs
Start with an Outline
A brief outline will make it easier to develop topic sentences and to arrange
your paragraphs in the most effective order.
You should begin your outline by stating the thesis of your paper.
Example of a thesis statement:
The English Civil War was caused by a combination of factors, including
the empowerment and organization of Puritan forces, the absolutist
tendencies of James I and the personal ineptitude of his son Charles I.
Next, list the topic sentences for each of the paragraphs (or sections) of the
paper.
Possible topic sentences from the given thesis statement above:
1.
The war and its aftereffects lasted twenty years.
2.
Historically, the Protestants had believed themselves persecuted.
3.
In the 1620s Protestants dominated Parliament and attempted to enact
legislation which would provide guidelines for both religious worship and
political representation.
4.
During his reign in the early 1600s, James I had attempted to silence
Puritan protests and to solidify the role of the monarchy as unquestioned head
of state.
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5.
Charles I's lack of personal diplomacy and his advisers' desire for
personal power gave the Puritans the excuses they needed to declare war on
the monarchy.
You might notice that the topic sentences derive directly from the thesis, and
explain, prove, or expand on each of the thesis' claims.
Once you have an outline at hand, you can follow three steps to help you write
your paragraphs effectively:
1.
Use your thesis to help you organise the rest of your paper.
2.
Write a list of topic sentences, and make sure that they show how the
material in each paragraph is related to your thesis.

3.
Eliminate material that is not related to your thesis and topic sentences.
Writing a Strong Thesis Statement
A thesis statement:
tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject
matter under discussion.
is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to
expect from the rest of the paper.
directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation

of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an
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essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way
to understand the war or the novel.
makes a claim that others might dispute.
is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that

presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of
the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of
the logic of your interpretation.
How to Write a Strong Thesis Statement
1. A strong thesis statement takes some sort of stand.

Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject.
For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be
asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two thesis
statements:
There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana
Herb Tea Supplement.
This is a weak thesis statement. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the
phrase negative and positive aspects is vague.
Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight
loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it
poses a potential danger to customers.
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This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand, and because it's specific.
2. A strong thesis statement justifies discussion.
Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to
write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example, you
might come up with either of these two thesis statements:
My family is an extended family.
This is a weak thesis because it merely states an observation. Your reader
wont be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.
While most American families would view consanguineal
marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many
Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages
help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.
This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a
widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show
that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of
the essay to see how you support your point.
3. A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea.
Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your
thesis statement expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse your
readers about the subject of your paper. For example:
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Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the

Internet, and Web pages can provide both advertising and
customer support.
This is a weak thesis statement because the reader cant decide whether the
paper is about marketing on the Internet or Web pages. To revise the thesis, the
relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear. One way to
revise the thesis would be to write:
Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing
potential, companies should exploit this potential by using
Web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.
This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a
great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like because,
since, so, although, unless, and however.
4. A strong thesis statement is specific.
A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and will
help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you're writing
a seven-to-ten page paper on hunger, you might say:
World hunger has many causes and effects.
This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, world hunger cant
be discussed thoroughly in seven to ten pages. Second, many causes and
effects is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects. A
revised thesis might look like this:
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Hunger persists in Glandelinia because jobs are scarce and

farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.
This is a strong thesis statement because it narrows the subject to a more
specific and manageable topic, and it also identifies the specific causes for the
existence of hunger.
Writing Topic Sentences
A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence) encapsulates or
organises an entire paragraph, and you should be careful to include one in
most of your major paragraphs. Although topic sentences may appear
anywhere in a paragraph, in academic essays they often appear at the
beginning.
It might be helpful to think of a topic sentence as working in two
directions simultaneously. It relates the paragraph to the essay's thesis, and
thereby acts as a signpost for the argument of the paper as a whole, but it also
defines the scope of the paragraph itself. For example, consider the following
topic sentence:
Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient
called "forget sauce" to their foods.
If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all sentences in the
paragraph must relate in some way to fast food, profit, and "forget sauce":
Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment is never listed on
the menu.
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This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the
composition of "forget sauce."
In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason why ingredients
are never listed on the packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.
The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the composition of "forget sauce" to
secret fast-food industry practices.
"Forget sauce" has a chemical property which causes temporary amnesia
in consumers.
Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on consumers:
After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any
nutritional value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a
disagreeable experience.
This sentence describes its longer-term effects:
Within a short period, however, the chemical in "forget sauce" takes
effect, and they can be depended upon to return and spend, older but no
wiser.
Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in the topic
sentence, that many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special
ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.
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Analyzing a Topic Sentence

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis
statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis
statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be the
unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the case with the thesis
statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which
follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way. Topic sentences make a
point and give reasons or examples to support it.
Consider the last paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with the topic
sentence itself:
Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements.
This is my claim, or the point I will prove in the following paragraph. All the
sentences that follow this topic sentence must relate to it in some way.
Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As
the thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence
must be the unifying force in the paragraph.
These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis statements and
topic sentences: they both make a claim and they both provide a focus for the
writing which follows.
Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence
makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove it
in some way.
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Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to those preceding
it, I expand on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic sentence is related
to the sentences that follow it.
Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.
Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how topic sentences act
rather like tiny thesis statements.
Dividing your Argument
Starting a new paragraph is a signal to your reader that you are
beginning a new thought or taking up a new point. Since your outline will help
you divide the essay into sections, the resulting paragraphs must correspond to
the logical divisions in the essay. If your paragraphs are too long, divide your
material into smaller, more manageable units; if they're too short, find broader
topic sentences that will allow you to combine some of your ideas.
Look at the list of sentences below:
In preparation for study some students apportion a negligible period of
time to clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub all surfaces
and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters before the distraction of dirt
disappears.
Some eat or pace while they work.
Some work with deep concentration, others more fitfully.
Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare blankly at walls or at
computer screens.
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If asked what space is reserved for learning, many students would

suggest the classroom, the lab or the library.
The kitchen, and the bedroom function as study spaces.
Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity before
they can work successfully.
Being sedentary seems to inspire others.
Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some
students do their best work before the sun rises, some after it sets.
Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can sit
and not rise until their task is completed.
Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot produce
anything without much dust and heat.
When these sentences simply combined they would yield nothing but a long list
of facts, not obviously related to one another, except that they all refer to
students and the way we study. There is too much information here to include
in one paragraph. The solution is to develop two topic sentences under which
all (or most) of the above information will fit.
Topic Sentence:
For
most
students
the
process
of
studying
involves
establishing a complex set of rituals which come to be

repeated, with little variation, every time a task is assigned by
a professor.
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If we add the first five sentences to this topic sentence we have a unified
but general description of the types of "rituals" or study patterns which are
such an important part of academic life.
For
most
students
the
process
of
studying
involves
establishing a complex set of rituals which come to be repeated,

with little variation, every time a task is assigned by a professor. In
preparation for study some students apportion a negligible period
of time to clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub all
surfaces and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters before the
distraction of dirt disappears. Some eat or pace while they work.
Some work with deep concentration, others more fitfully. Students
might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare blankly at walls or at
computer screens.
The rest of the sentences are more specific. They concern the distribution of
individual time, space and effort, and relate the rituals involved in study to
those less commonly associated with school. A possible topic sentence for the
rest of the sentences is underlined in the paragraph below:
Work tends, therefore, to be associated with non-workspecific environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what
space is reserved for learning, many students would suggest the
classroom, the lab or the library. What about the kitchen? The
bedroom? In fact, any room in which a student habitually studies
becomes a learning space, or a place associated with thinking.
Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity
before they can work successfully. Being sedentary seems to
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inspire others. Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30

and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun rises,
some after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than others,
while a very few can sit and not rise until their task is completed.
Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot
produce anything without much dust and heat.
Some organization and a couple of topic sentences have transformed a long and
undifferentiated listing of student activities into two unified paragraphs with a
logical division between them.
Developing Unified and Coherent Paragraphs
A paragraph is unified when every sentence develops the point made in
the topic sentence. It must have a single focus and it must contain no
irrelevant facts. Every sentence must contribute to the paragraph by
explaining, exemplifying, or expanding the topic sentence. In order to determine
whether a paragraph is well developed or not, ask yourself: "What main point
am I trying to convey here?" (topic sentence) and then "Does every sentence
clearly relate to this idea?"
There are several ways in which you can build good, clear paragraphs.
This section will discuss three of the most common types of paragraph
structure: development by detail, comparison and contrast, and process.
Finally, it will suggest that most paragraphs are built of a combination of
development strategies.
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Paragraph Development by Detail

This is the most common and easiest form of paragraph development:
you simply expand on a general topic sentence using specific examples or
illustrations. Look at the following paragraph (you may have encountered it
before):
Work
tends
to
be
associated
with
non-work-specific
environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what space is

reserved for learning, many students would suggest the classroom,
the lab or the library. What about the kitchen? The bedroom? In
fact, any room in which a student habitually studies becomes a
learning space, or a place associated with thinking. Some people
need to engage in sports or other physical activity before they can
work successfully. Being sedentary seems to inspire others.
Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00,
some students do their best work before the sun rises, some after
it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very
few can sit and not rise until their task is completed. Some
students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot produce
anything without much dust and heat.
The topic sentence makes a general claim: that school work tends not to be
associated only with school. The rest of the sentences provide various
illustrations of this argument. They are organised around the three categories,
environment, activities, and schedules," enumerated in the topic sentence. The
details provide the concrete examples which your reader will use to evaluate the
credibility of your topic sentence.
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Paragraph Development by Comparison and Contrast

You should consider developing your paragraph by comparison and
contrast when you are describing two or more things which have something,
but not everything, in common. You may choose to compare either point by
point (X is big, Y is little; X and Y are both purple.) or subject by subject (X is
big and purple; Y is small and purple.). Consider, for example, the following
paragraph:
Although the interpretation of traffic signals may seem

highly standardized, close observation reveals regional variations
across this country, distinguishing the East Coast from Central
Canada and the West as surely as dominant dialects or political
inclinations. In Montreal, a flashing red traffic light instructs
drivers to careen even more wildly through intersections heavily
populated with pedestrians and oncoming vehicles. In startling
contrast, an amber light in Calgary warns drivers to scream to a
halt on the off chance that there might be a pedestrian within 500
meters who might consider crossing at some unspecified time
within the current day. In my home town in New Brunswick,
finally, traffic lights (along with painted lines and posted speed
limits) do not apply to tractors, all terrain vehicles, or pickup
trucks, which together account for most vehicles on the road. In
fact, were any observant Canadian dropped from an alien space
vessel at an unspecified intersection anywhere in this vast land, he
or she could almost certainly orient him-or-herself according to the
surrounding traffic patterns.
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This paragraph compares traffic patterns in three areas of Canada. It

contrasts the behaviour of drivers in the Maritimes, in Montreal, and in
Calgary, in order to make a point about how attitudes in various places inform
behaviour. People in these areas have in common the fact that they all drive; in
contrast, they drive differently according to the area in which they live.
It is important to note that the paragraph above considers only one
aspect of driving (behaviour at traffic lights). If you wanted to consider two or
more aspects, you would probably need more than one paragraph.
Paragraph Development by Process
Paragraph development by process involves a straightforward step-bystep description. Those of you in the sciences will recognise it as the formula
followed in the "method" section of a lab experiment. Process description often
follows a chronological sequence:
The first point to establish is the grip of the hand on the rod.
This should be about half-way up the cork handle, absolutely firm
and solid, but not tense or rigid. All four fingers are curved around
the handle, the little finger, third finger and middle finger
contributing most of the firmness by pressing the cork solidly into
the fleshy part of the palm, near the heel of the hand. The
forefinger supports and steadies the grip but supplies its own
firmness against the thumb, which should be along the upper side
of the handle and somewhere near the top of the grip. (from
Roderick Haig-Brown, "Fly Casting")
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The topic sentence establishes that the author will use this paragraph to
describe the process of establishing the "grip of the hand on the rod," and this
is exactly what he does, point by point, with little abstraction.
Paragraph Development by Combination
Very often, a single paragraph will contain development by a combination
of methods. It may begin with a brief comparison, for example, and move on to
provide detailed descriptions of the subjects being compared. A process
analysis might include a brief history of the process in question. Many
paragraphs include lists of examples:
The broad range of positive characteristics used to define

males could be used to define females too, but they are not. At its
entry for woman Webster's Third provides a list of "qualities
considered distinctive of womanhood": "Gentleness, affection, and
domesticity or on the other hand fickleness, superficiality, and
folly." Among the "qualities considered distinctive of manhood"
listed in the entry for man, no negative attributes detract from the
"courage, strength, and vigor" the definers associate with males.
According to this dictionary, womanish means "unsuitable to a
man or to a strong character of either sex."
This paragraph is a good example of one which combines a comparison

and contrast of contemporary notions of "manliness" and "womanliness" with
an extended list of examples.
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DICTION
Your diction is simply your choice of words. There is no single, correct diction
in the English language; instead, you choose different words or phrases for
different contexts:
To a friend
"a screw-up"
To a child
"a mistake"
To the police
262
"an accident"
To an employer
"an oversight"
All of these expressions mean the same thing. That is, they have the
same denotation -- but you would not likely switch one for the other in any of
these three situations: a police officer or employer would take "screw-up" as an
insult, while your friends at the bar after a hockey game would take "oversight"
as an affectation.
Catch Phrases
Under pressure to create (usually against a deadline), a writer will
naturally use familiar verbal patterns rather than thinking up new ones.
Inexperienced writers, however, will sometimes go further, and string together
over-used phrases or even sentences. Consider the following example:
When all is said and done, even a little aid can go a long way in a country
suffering from famine.
The argument is commendable, but its written expression is poor and
unoriginal. First, consider the phrase "when all is said and done." Once, this
phrase was clever and original, but so many millions of writers and speakers
have used it so many times over so many years that the phrase has become
automatic and nearly meaningless. This type of worn-out phrase is called a
catch phrase, and you should always avoid it in your writing, unless you are
quoting someone else: you own, original words are always more interesting.
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A particularly stale catch phrase -- especially one which was once

particularly clever -- is a clich. In the example given above, the phrase "a little
aid can go a long way" fits into the formula "a little *** can go a long way,"
seriously lowers the quality of the writing. Essentially, a clich is a catch
phrase which can make people groan out loud, but the difference between the
two is not that important. Just remember that neither usually belongs in your
writing.
Here are some more sample clichs and catch phrases from students' essays:
the dictionary defines *** as ...
key to the future
facing a dim future
drive a wedge between
starving students
enough (for ***) to handle
in today's world
the *** generation
the impossible dream
enough to worry about without ...
putting the cart before the horse
a bird in the hand
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glitzy, high-tech world

There is no simple formula that you can apply to decide what is a clich
or a catch phrase, but the more you read, the better your sense of judgement
will become. Remember, though if you think that a phrase in your writing is
clever, and you know that someone has used the phrase before, then you are
best rewriting it into your own words.
Special Considerations for Catch Phrases
While clichs and catch phrases have no place in academic essays, there
are some times of writing where you should use pre-existing formulas. Such
documents include scientific papers, legal briefs, maintenance logs, and police
reports (to name a few) -- these are highly repetitive and largely predictable in
their language, but they are meant to convey highly technical information in a
standard, well-defined format, not to persuade or entertain a reader -creativity in an auditor's report, for example, would not be highly prized.
On the other hand, catch phrases are not appropriate in less technical
areas. Journalists, especially, are under a pressure to produce a large amount
of writing quickly, and those who are less talented or unable to meet the
pressure will often end up writing entire articles made up of over-used catch
phrases like "war-torn Bosnia," "grieving parents," or "besieged capital."
Connotations and Denotations
The relationship between words and meanings is extremely complicated,
and belongs to the field of semantics. For now, though, what you need to know
265
is that words do not have single, simple meanings. Traditionally, grammarians

have referred to the meanings of words in two parts:
denotation
a literal meaning of the word
an association (emotional or otherwise) which the word
connotation
evokes
For example, both "woman" and "chick" have the denotation "adult female" in
North American society, but "chick" has somewhat negative connotations, while
"woman" is neutral.
For another example of connotations, consider the following:
negative
There are over 2,000 vagrants in the city.
neutral
There are over 2,000 people with no fixed address in the city.
positive
There are over 2,000 homeless in the city.
All three of these expressions refer to exactly the same people, but they will
invoke different associations in the reader's mind: a "vagrant" is a public
nuisance while a "homeless" person is a worthy object of pity and charity.
266
Presumably, someone writing an editorial in support of a new shelter would use

the positive form, while someone writing an editorial in support of anti-loitering
laws would use the negative form.
In this case, the dry legal expression "with no fixed address" quite deliberately
avoids most of the positive or negative associations of the other two terms -- a
legal specialist will try to avoid connotative language altogether when writing
legislation, often resorting to archaic Latin or French terms which are not a
part of ordinary spoken English, and thus, relatively free of strong emotional
associations.
Many of the most obvious changes in the English language over the past few
decades have had to do with the connotations of words which refer to groups of
people. Since the 1950's, words like "Negro" and "crippled" have acquired
strong negative connotations, and have been replaced either by words with
neutral connotations (ie "black," "handicapped") or by words with deliberately
positive connotations (ie "African-Canadian," "differently-able)
267
SPELLING
Spell checkers will catch some kinds of errors, but not all. For example,
they tend to miss homonyms -- words which are pronounced the same way
but spelled differently, such as site/ sight, there/ their/ they're, and its/ it's.
Most spell-checkers, for example, would report no error in the following
sentence, despite the fact that there are three serious spelling mistakes:
Their looking for a new sight when the gopher can build it's home.
The joint influence of British and American spelling on Canadian usage
has provided an additional challenge to Canadian students: Canadians tend to
follow standard British spelling for certain words (axe, cheque), to follow
American spelling for others (connection, tire), and to allow either for yet more
(programme/ program, labour/ labor, neighbour/ neighbor). The important thing
to remember is to be consistent in usage and to follow a regular pattern when
you spell. Don't mix neighbour with labor, for example. Choose one or the other
pattern, and follow it closely. The best way to avoid problems with mixed British
and American spelling is to keep a dictionary handy that shows Canadian
usage.
Although spelling correctly is largely a matter of practice and the
common-sense use of reference materials, there are four standard spelling
rules. Although each has exceptions, if you study these rules carefully, you will
be able to avoid most common errors, even without a spell-checker.
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Spelling words with "ei" and "ie"

When the sound is a long "e" (as in feed), write "i" before "e", except after "c".
After "c" reverse the spelling ("ei"):
After other letters
believe, yield, reprieve
After c
ceiling, perceive, conceit
The problem with this rule is that it works only when "ei"/"ie" sounds like the
"ee" in feet. If it has any other sound, you should write "ei" even after letters
other than "c":
foreign
vein
freight
Spelling final "y" before a suffix

When a word ends in "y" preceded by a consonant, you should usually change
the "y" to "i" before adding the suffix:
curly becomes curlier
party becomes parties
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thirty becomes thirties, thirtieth

However, if the suffix already begins with "i", keep the "y" (except before the
suffix "-ize"):
thirty becomes thirtyish
fry becomes frying
agony becomes agonize
memory becomes memorize
When the ending "y" is preceded by a vowel ("a" "e" "i" "o" or "u"), "y" does not
change to "i":
journey becomes journeying
trolley becomes trolleys
Final Silent "e"

If a word ends in a consonant followed by a silent "e", drop the "e" before
endings beginning with a vowel, but keep the "e" before endings beginning with
a consonant:
engage becomes engaging but engagement
care becomes caring but careful
fate becomes fatal but fateful
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scarce becomes scarcity but scarcely
Spelling Words with Double Consonants

Double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel if both of the
following are true: the consonant ends a stressed syllable or a one-syllable
word, and the consonant is preceded by a single vowel:
drag becomes dragged
wet becomes wetter
occur becomes occurred, occurring
refer becomes referral, referring
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MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
Word Formation
The basic part of any word is the root; to it, you can add a prefix at the
beginning and/or a suffix at the end to change the meaning. For example, in
the word "unflattering," the root is simply "flatter," while the prefix "un-" makes
the word negative, and the suffix "-ing" changes it from a verb into an adjective
(specifically, a participle).
English itself does not use prefixes as heavily as it once did, but many
English words come from Latin, which uses prefixes and suffixes (you can use
272
the word affix to refer either to a prefix or a suffix) quite extensively. For
example, the words "prefix," "suffix," and "affix" themselves are all formed from
"fix" by the used of prefixes:
"ad" (to) + "fix" (attached) = "affix"
"pre" (before) + "fix" = "prefix"
"sub" (under) + "fix" = "suffix"
Note that both the "-d" of "ad" and the "-b" of "sub" change the last letter.
Here are some of the most common Latin affixes :
Latin
prefix
Basic meaning
Example words
co-
together
coauthor, coedit, coheir
away, off; generally indicates
deactivate, debone, defrost,
reversal or removal in English
decompress, deplane
de-
dis-
not, not any
inter-
between, among
disbelief, discomfort, discredit,

disrepair, disrespect
international, interfaith, intertwine,
intercellular, interject
nonessential, nonmetallic,
non-
not
nonresident, nonviolence, nonskid,

nonstop
post-
after
postdate, postwar, postnasal, postnatal
pre-
before
preconceive, preexist, premeditate,
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predispose, prepossess, prepay

rearrange, rebuild, recall, remake,
re-
again; back, backward
sub-
under
trans-
across, beyond, through
Latin
suffix
rerun, rewrite
submarine, subsoil, subway,
subhuman, substandard
transatlantic, transpolar
Basic meaning
Example words
-able,
-ible
forms adjectives and

means capable or
worthy of
likable, flexible
-ation
forms nouns from verbs
creation, civilization, automation, speculation,

information
forms verbs and means

-fy, -ify to make or cause to
become
purify, acidify, humidify
-ment
entertainment, amazement, statement,

banishment
forms nouns from verbs
forms nouns from

-ty, -ity
adjectives
subtlety, certainty, cruelty, frailty, loyalty,

royalty; eccentricity, electricity, peculiarity,
similarity, technicality
Here are some of the most common Greek affixes:

Greek
prefix
Basic meaning
Example words
274
a-, an-
without
anti-, ant-
opposite; opposing anticrime, antipollution, antacid
auto-
self, same
bio-, bi-
geo-
hyper-
life, living
organism
Earth; geography
excessive,
excessively
achromatic, amoral, atypical, anaerobic
autobiography, automatic, autopilot

biology, biophysics, biotechnology, biopsy
geography, geomagnetism, geophysics,
geopolitics
hyperactive, hypercritical, hypersensitive
micro-
small
mono-
one, single, alone monochrome, monosyllable, monoxide
neo-
new, recent
pan-
all
thermo-,
therm-
heat
microcosm, micronucleus, microscope
neonatal, neophyte, neoconservatism,

neofascism, neodymium
panorama, panchromatic, pandemic,
pantheism
thermal, thermometer, thermostat
Greek
suffix
-ism
-ist
Basic meaning
forms nouns and means the act,
state, or theory of
forms agent nouns from verbs
Example words
criticism, optimism, capitalism
conformist, copyist, cyclist
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ending in -ize or nouns ending in

-ism and is used like -er
-ize
-gram
forms verbs from nouns and

adjectives
something written or drawn, a
record
something written or drawn; an
-graph
instrument for writing, drawing,

or recording
-logue,
-log
-logy
-meter,
-metry
speech, discourse; to speak

discourse, expression; science,
theory, study
measuring device; measure
formalize, jeopardize, legalize,

modernize, emphasize, hospitalize,
industrialize, computerize
cardiogram, telegram
monograph, phonograph,
seismograph
monologue, dialogue, travelogue
phraseology, biology, dermatology

spectrometer, geometry, kilometer,
parameter, perimeter
forms adjectives and nouns and

-oid
means like, resembling or
humanoid, spheroid, trapezoid
shape, form
-phile
-phobe,
-phobia
-phone
one that loves or has a strong

affinity for; loving
one that fears a specified thing;
an intense fear of a specified
thing
sound; device that receives or
audiophile, Francophile
agoraphobe, agoraphobia,
xenophobe, xenophobia
homophone, geophone, telephone,
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emits sound; speaker of a

language
Francophone
Apposition
When two words, clauses, or phrases stand close together and share the same
part of the sentence, they are in apposition and are called appositives.
In fact, an appositive is very much like a subject complement, only without the
linking verb:
Subject Complement
My brother is a research associate.
Appositive
My brother the research associate works at a large polling firm.
Subject Complement
Jean became a magistrate.
Appositive
I have never met Jean the magistrate.
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Noun and Pronoun Characteristics

In addition to their various classifications, nouns pronouns have three major
characteristics: case, number, and gender.
Noun and Pronoun Case
The case of a noun or pronoun determines how you can use it in a
phrase or clause. There are three cases in Modern English (as opposed to eight
in Classical Latin, four in German, and only two in French):
Subject
You use the subject case for a noun or pronoun which stands alone, is the
subject of a clause, is the subject complement, or stands in apposition to any
of these.
Object
You use the object case for the object of a preposition, a verb, or a verbal, or
for any noun or pronoun which stands in apposition to one of these.
Possessive
You use the possessive case for any noun or pronoun which acts an an
adjective, implicitly or explicitly modifying another element in the sentence.
Nouns always take the same form in the subject case and the object case, while
pronouns often change their form. Both nouns and pronouns usually change
their form for the possessive case:
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Subject Case
The man travelled to Newfoundland.
He travelled to Newfoundland.
Object Case
The taxi drove the man to the airport.
The taxi drove him to the airport.
Possessive Case
The baggage handlers lost the man's suitcase.
The baggage handlers lost his suitcase.
Noun and Pronoun Number

The number of a noun or pronoun is either singular, if it refers to one thing, or
plural, if it refers to more than one thing (if the noun or pronoun is the subject,
then its number will also affect the verb). Note the difference in number in the
following examples:
Singular
That woman is concerned about this issue.
She is concerned about this issue.
Plural
Those women are concerned about this issue.
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They are concerned about this issue.
It is important to note that the pronoun "they" is in the processing of becoming

singular as well as plural. For example, one might say
A person called and they did not leave their name.
This construction allows the speaker to avoid identifying the gender of a

person, and it has been common in speech for decades, if not for centuries. Be
aware, however, that some people still consider it unacceptable for formal
writing.
Noun and Pronoun Gender
Unlike the Romance languages (such as French, Spanish, and Italian),
English has three genders for nouns and pronouns: masculine, feminine, and
neuter.
Generally, the English language uses natural gender rather than
grammatical gender -- that is, the gender of a word is usually based on its
biology (so there is little need to remember whether a word is masculine or
feminine). A noun that refers to something with male sexual organs is
masculine, a noun that refers to something with female sexual organs is
feminine and most other nouns are neuter by default.
There was a time when you could use the masculine gender by default
when you did not know a person's natural gender, but very few people accept
this usage any longer.
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There are, moreover, a few tricky points. First, you may refer to all animals in
the neuter gender, or you may refer to them by their natural gender:
Neuter
What a beautiful dog! Does it bite?
Natural Gender
What a beautiful dog! Does she bite?
Second, you usually assign mythical beings (such as gods) to a natural gender,
even if you do not believe that the beings have actual sexual organs:
God is great. God is good. Let us thank her for our food.
Finally, people sometimes assign natural gender to inanimate objects,

especially if they live or work closely with them. When engineers were mostly
men, for example, they tended to refer to large machines in the feminine:
She is a fine ship.
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282
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TRADITIONAL

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and

E. Non-count/ Mass noun

a noun which does not have a plural form, and

always takes a singular verb in a sentence

a noun naming a group of things, animals, or

An abominable sight of monks

A bestiary of mythological creatures

A broadside of (artillery) shells (on

A cavy of extra cowboy mounts

A charlotte of web pages

A click of (computer) mice

A cluster of alpha computers

A covey of pheasants (while on the

A crash of rhinoceroses (in

A death row of turkeys

A fidget of altar boys

A gaggle of geese (wild or

A hug of teddy bears

A kettle of hawks (riding a thermal )

A network of computers (linked

A pad of (sheets of) paper

A paddling of ducks (while

A raft of canvass-back ducks

A raft of ducks (while idle in water)

A ring of keys (linked physically)

A salt substrate of potato chips

A salt substrate of pretzels

A salt substrate of saltines

A salvo of [artillery] shells

A sheaf of wheat (stalks of grain tied

A shock of corn (pile of stalks)

A skein of geese (in flight)

A stash of weed (when hidden)

A team of ducks (while flying)

A tick tock of clocks

A visit of Jehovahs witnesses

A wedge of geese (flying in a "V")

A wedge of swans (flying in a "V")

A wing of (fighter) aircraft

A wolf pack of submarines

refers to a male character or member of a species

refers to a female member of a species

refers to a member of species which can be a male

refers to a member of a species which is neither a

A noun number shows whether the noun names

follows the normal plural rule of adding es or s to

not follow the normal plural rules

changes form or doesnt change at all

Some nouns that end in -f or -fe are changed

Some Old English plurals are still in use:

Some nouns ending in -o take -s as the plural,

Some nouns ending in -o take either -s or -es:

Some nouns do not change at all

These include nouns that are traditionally

Other nouns retain foreign plurals. Note that

Nouns ending in -us with plural -a (only in

Nouns ending in -us with plural -i:

Nouns ending in -um with plural -a:

Foreign plural English plural in use

Nouns ending in -ex, -ix becoming plural

Nouns ending in -is becoming -es in plural:

Nouns ending in -on becoming -a: