3a Earthquakes Note

1/9/2016
Earthquake
An earthquake is the motion
or trembling of the ground
produced by sudden
displacement of rock in the
Earth's crust. Earthquakes
result from:
Crustal strain
Volcanic eruption
landslides and collapse of
caverns
Nuclear blast
Construction of Reservoir
Where earthquakes happen?

Mostly at plate boundaries
Sometimes within a (broken) plate
Photo Credit:
National Geophysical Data Center
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/monitoring/gsn/
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/seismicity_maps/index.php
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Earth
Earth
What causes earthquake?
An earthquake is the
movement of Earths
crust resulting from the
release of built-up
potential energy
between two stuck
lithospheric plates
Tectonic forces
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North
American
Plate
Pacific
Plate
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1906/18april/reid.php
Different plates
North
American
Plate
Pacific
Plate
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1906/18april/reid.php
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GPS data
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/plate_tectonics/plates.php
Plate movement
Continental Drift Theory

Alfred Wegener January 1912
http://en.w ikipedia.org/w iki/File:Tectonic_plates_boundaries_detailed-en.svg
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Why plates move?

When do earthquakes happen?
The release of built-up potential energy causes
earthquakes.
An earthquake is a stress reliever for a lithospheric
plate.
Once a quake occurs, potential energy builds up again.
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What causes earthquakes
The point below the surface where the rock

breaks is called the earthquake focus.
What causes earthquakes?
As soon as the rock breaks, there is

movement along the broken surface causing
a split in the surface called a fault.
Plate Boundaries
Lithospheric plates have

many sections
A lithospheric plate
may be thousands of
km. across.
It takes a long time for
movement on one end
of the plate to affect a
section further away.
http://en.w ikipedia.org/w iki/File:Tectonic_plate_boundaries.png
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Oceanic-continental convergence
Convergent plate boundaries
Subduction Zones
Oceanic plate moves under a continental plate
Large elevation difference between mountains and water
level
Pressure of oceanic plate sliding underneath, causes the
folding of crust.
Results in adjacent lands being mountainous
Ex. the Chile trench is 8 km deep and the Andes are 7km tall
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seismic gap
http://earthquakesandplates.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/benioff.gif
The focal depth refers to the depth of an earthquake hypocenter.
Subduction zone
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Oceanic-oceanic convergence
Continental Collision
Two plates collide into each other
Both plates are continental
No subduction takes place since plates are the
same size and strength
Continual crushing of the plates create a
crumpling of land which create mountains
E.g. Himalayan mountains, Alps
Collision Faults
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Divergent Plate Boundary
Rift Valley
On land: this causes the land to either:

1) sinks as plates move away
- creates rivers and lakes
- e.g. Great Rift Valley in Africa,
Rocky Mountain trench
Block Mountains
2) Rises as plates move away

(Horst/block Mountains)
eg. Table Mountain in Africa,
Grand Teton in US
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Two plates pull away from one another
In the ocean - Molten rock fills in the seafloor as it
spreads apart
Ex. The mid-oceanic ridge is the longest
continuous landform region on Earth
http://www.platetectonics.com/book/page_5.asp
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Transform Fault Boundaries
Transform Fault Boundaries
Plates side laterally beside each other

Often sudden movements which cause
earthquakes
E.g. San Andreas fault
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FAULT
A fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume
of rock, across which there has been significant
displacement
Faults
FAULT LINE - is the surface trace of a fault, the

line of intersection between the fault plane
and the Earth's surface.
FAULT ZONE refers to the zone of complex
deformation associated with the fault plane
since faults do not usually consists of a
single, clean fracture.
http://www.data.scec.org/faults/faultmap.html
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Dip Slip Faults - These are faults where the major

movement is vertical.
NORMAL FAULT - occurs when the crust is extended. Also called as extensional
fault. The hanging wall moves downward, relative to the footwall
Strike-Slip Faults - These are faults where the major

movement is horizontal.
Oblique Faults
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REVERSE FAULT(Thrust Fault) - is the opposite of a normal fault

the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall. Reverse faults
indicate shortening of the crust.
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Tight Fold
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT/CONSERVATIVE PLATE BOUNDARIES
A tight fold is a sharp peaked

anticline or syncline.
It is just a regular anticline or
syncline, but was compressed
with a greater force causing the
angle to be much smaller.
Folds such as these occur to form
steep mountain slopes like those
in Whistler, British Columbia.
To the left is a photo of a tight
fold formed by extreme pressure
on these rocks.
Strike-Slip Fault
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Oblique Faults These are faults where the major

movements are both horizontal and vertical.
For all naming distinctions, it is the

orientation of the net dip and sense of slip
of the fault which must be considered, not
the present-day orientation, which may
have been altered by local or regional
folding or tilting.
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An asperity is an area on a fault that is stuck. The earthquake rupture usually begins
at an asperity.
NE Tibet
http://www.uni-muenster.de/GeoPalaeontologie/Geologie/Endogen/F1.html
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The fault scarp is the feature on the surface of the

earth that looks like a step caused by slip on the
fault.
San Andreas
http://www.smate.wwu.edu/teched/
geology/GeoHaz/eq-faults/eqfaults-02.JPG
http://www.smate.wwu.edu/teched/geology/GeoHaz/eq-faults/eq-faults-06.JPG
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Tree bisected by fault in Guatemala
Imperial fault
http://www.smate.wwu.edu/teched/geology/
GeoHaz/eq-faults/eq-faults-13.JPG
Fault scarp near Hebgen Lake, Montana
thrust fault scarp at El Asnam,

Algeria
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Under-thrust fault from nuclear test
A thrust fault that does not rupture all the way up to the surface so there is no
evidence of it on the ground.
Slow, more or less continuous movement occurring on faults due to ongoing

tectonic deformation. Faults that are creeping do not tend to have large
earthquakes.
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Foreshocks and Aftershocks?

Foreshocks are small bursts
of shaking that may
precede a large earthquake.
Aftershocks are small
tremors that follow an
earthquake, lasting for
hours or even days after
the earthquake.
Foreshocks and Aftershocks
about 23 hours ago 5.3 magnitude, 10 km depth Banepa, Nepal

about 23 hours ago 4.4 magnitude, 10 km depth Kirtipur, Nepal
about 23 hours ago 5.0 magnitude, 10 km depth Bharatpur, Nepal
a day ago 5.0 magnitude, 10 km depth Banepa, Nepal
a day ago 4.8 magnitude, 10 km depth Kathmandu, Nepal
a day ago 6.6 magnitude, 14 km depth Kathmandu, Nepal
a day ago 7.8 magnitude, 15 km depth Bharatpur, Nepal
24 days ago 4.6 magnitude, 63 km depth Banepa, Nepal
3 months ago 4.8 magnitude, 19 km depth Pokhara, Nepal
4 months ago 5.0 magnitude, 31 km depth Banepa, Nepal
5 months ago 4.4 magnitude, 18 km depth Bharatpur, Nepal
9 months ago 5.2 magnitude, 15 km depth Kathmandu, Nepal
2 years ago 5.0 magnitude, 54 km depth Banepa, Nepal

about 9 hours ago 5.6 magnitude, 10 km depth Kirtipur, Nepal
about 13 hours ago 4.1 magnitude, 10 km depth Lalitpur, Nepal
about 20 hours ago 4.5 magnitude, 10 km depth Kathmandu, Nepal
about 23 hours ago 5.7 magnitude, 10 km depth Khandbari, Nepal
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Can Earthquakes be Predicted?
There have been: (M1.5 or greater)

98 earthquakes today
721 earthquakes in the past 7 days
3,096 earthquakes in the past month
37,743 earthquakes in the past year
Earthquake Prediction Programs

include laboratory and field studies of rocks before, during,
and after earthquakes
monitor activity along major faults
produce risk assessments
The biggest earthquake:

today: 5.3 in Kokopo, East New Britain, Papua New Guinea
this week: 7.5 in Kokopo, East New Britain, Papua New Guinea
this month: 7.8 in Bharatpur, Nepal
this year: 7.9 in Rat Islands, Aleutian Islands
http://earthquaketrack.com/
Global Seismicity 1900-1990, Engdahl and Villasenor
1900-1963
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1964-1999
http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo5xx/geos577/projects/flesch/index.html
seismic gap
http://www.air-worldwide.com/PublicationsItem.aspx?id=18881
Billham et. al. (2001)
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Thank
You !
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1/9/2016

Where earthquakes happen?

What causes earthquake?

Continental Drift Theory

http://en.w ikipedia.org/w iki/File:Tectonic_plates_boundaries_detailed-en.svg

Why plates move?

What causes earthquakes

The point below the surface where the rock

What causes earthquakes?

As soon as the rock breaks, there is

Lithospheric plates have

Convergent plate boundaries

The focal depth refers to the depth of an earthquake hypocenter.

Divergent Plate Boundary

On land: this causes the land to either:

Divergent Plate Boundary

2) Rises as plates move away

Divergent Plate Boundary

Divergent Plate Boundary

Transform Fault Boundaries

Transform Fault Boundaries

Plates side laterally beside each other

FAULT LINE - is the surface trace of a fault, the

Dip Slip Faults - These are faults where the major

Strike-Slip Faults - These are faults where the major

REVERSE FAULT(Thrust Fault) - is the opposite of a normal fault

STRIKE-SLIP FAULT/CONSERVATIVE PLATE BOUNDARIES

A tight fold is a sharp peaked

Oblique Faults These are faults where the major

For all naming distinctions, it is the

The fault scarp is the feature on the surface of the

thrust fault scarp at El Asnam,

Under-thrust fault from nuclear test

Slow, more or less continuous movement occurring on faults due to ongoing

Foreshocks and Aftershocks?

Foreshocks and Aftershocks

about 23 hours ago 5.3 magnitude, 10 km depth Banepa, Nepal

about 3 hours ago 4.4 magnitude, 10 km depth Bharatpur, Nepal

Can Earthquakes be Predicted?

There have been: (M1.5 or greater)

Earthquake Prediction Programs

The biggest earthquake:

Global Seismicity 1900-1990, Engdahl and Villasenor

Billham et. al. (2001)

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