Schlumberger

Contents
A1.0 INTRODUCTION TO OPENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION ...................................1
A.1 USES OF LOGS.......................................................................................................................1
A.2 BASIC PETROLEUM GEOLOGY..............................................................................................2
A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION CONCEPTS...........................................................................4
A.4 RESISTIVITY AS A BASIS FOR INTERPRETATIONTHE ARCHIE EQUATION.......................5
A.5 DEFINITIONS ...........................................................................................................................7
a) Formation Porosity ()...........................................................................................................8
b) Formation Resistivity (R)........................................................................................................8
c) Formation Factor (F)..............................................................................................................8
d) Water Saturation: Sw ...........................................................................................................8
e) Hydrocarbons Saturation (Shy )...............................................................................................9
f) Clean Formations ..................................................................................................................9
g) Shaly Formations..................................................................................................................9
h) Key Formulas ....................................................................................................................11
i) Key Symbols........................................................................................................................11
A.6 LOG SCALES AND PRESENTATIONS ..................................................................................12

(05/96)

Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96)

Schlumberger

A1.0 Introduction to Openhole Log

Interpretation
A.1 USES OF LOGS
A set of logs run on a well will usually mean
different things to different people. Let us examine the questions askedand/or answers
sought by a variety of people.
The Geophysicist:
Are the tops where you predicted?
Are the potential zones porous as you have
assumed from seismic data?
What does a synthetic seismic section
show?
The Geologist:
What depths are the formation tops?
Is the environment suitable for accumulation of hydrocarbons?
Is there evidence of hydrocarbons in this
well?
What type of hydrocarbons?
Are hydrocarbons present in commercial
quantities?
How good a well is it?
What are the reserves?
Could the formation be commercial in an
offset well?

The Drilling Engineer:

What is the hole volume for cementing?
Are there any keyseats or severe doglegs
in the well?
Where can you get a good packer seat for
testing?
Where is the best place to set a whipstock?
The Reservoir Engineer:
How thick is the pay zone?
How homogeneous is the section?
What is the volume of hydrocarbons per
cubic meter?
Will the well pay-out?
How long will it take?
The Production Engineer:
Where should the well be completed (in
what zone(s))?
What kind of production rate can be expected?
Will there be any water production?
How should the well be completed?
Is the potential pay zone hydraulically isolated?
Will the well require any stimulation?
What kind of stimulation would be best?

(05/96) A-1

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Log evaluation can be many things to many

people. As the answers are sought each individual will possibly use the available data in a
different manner. The common approach will
be in reading the logs and understanding the
various reactions produced by formation characteristics on our logging devices. The factors
influencing log reading and the information
they provide are what we wish to introduce to
you in this course.

deposition is such that crossbedding structures,

channel patterns and gradational rock types are
common. In areas of freshwater deposition
coal beds may occur, indicating non-marine
conditions.

A.2 BASIC PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

In order to better understand log responses,
we should first review the types of rocks that
are found in the boreholes.

Carbonate Deposition
Carbonate deposition occurs in marine conditions by the precipitation of limestone from
organisms as fine particles, shells or massive
growths. Limestones are deposited either as
flat-lying beds on the ocean floor or as
mounds or pinnacle reefs.

Common sedimentary rocks are

sandstone, siltstone, shale, limestone,
dolomite and anhydrite
In general, sedimentary rocks are deposited
as either clastic sequences containing sandstone, siltstones and shales or carbonate sequences of limestone, dolomite, anhydrite and
shale. (Figure A1).
Clastic Deposition
Clastic rocks are formed from rock fragments and weathered particles of preexisting
rocks. These sediments are transported by
wind and water and are usually deposited in
rivers, lakes and oceans as relatively flat-lying
beds. Current and wave action later sorts the
sediments such that in high-energy environments coarse-grained sands are deposited and
in low energy environments fine-grained silts
and clays are deposited. The nature of the

(05/96) A-2

After deposition and with deeper burial of

the sequence, compaction occurs and the clastic grains can become cemented together to
form sedimentary rock.

Barrier reef chains that grow in this manner

may form restricted ocean basins landward, in
which dolomite and anhydrite are precipitated
by the evaporation of seawater.
When limestones form near shore, there
may be mixing of limestone and eroded clastic
material. In deeper ocean basins, limestone
and shale mixtures are common.
After deposition, later burial may cause
dolomitization of the limestone in which the
actual composition of the rock is changed to
dolomite.
Because of their brittle nature compared with
other sediments, limestones tend to fracture
with deformation, which increases permeability and helps in the dolomitization process.

Schlumberger

Figure A1: Clastic Deposition vs. Carbonate Deposition

(05/96) A-3

Introduction to Openhole Logging

In many parts of the world multiple sequences of clastic rocks overlie older carbonate
sequences. Between each of the clastic and carbonate groups, erosional inconformities are
common and the nature of deposition within
each group is unique.

d.

e.

RW = water resistivity: the electrical resistance of the water filling the pore
space in the rock. This value varies
with water salinity and temperature.
k = permeability: the ability of the rock
to pass fluids through it.

A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION

CONCEPTS
Any given rock formation has numerous
unique physical properties associated with it.
Only those that can be measured and are useful
will be considered in this course. They are

Consider the following unit cubes (Figure

A2):

= porosity: the void space between

grains that is generally filled with liquids or gases.
b. Sw = water saturation: the percentage
of the pore space filled with water (as
opposed to hydrocarbons or air).
c. R = resistivity: the resistance to electrical current flow presented by a unit
volume of rock.

Cube B
If the porosity is 70% filled with water and
30% hydrocarbons, then, the water saturation

a.

Cube A
If the porosity () is filled with water then, by
definition, the water saturation SW = 100%.

70
SW =
70 + 30
and hydrocarbons saturation

Cube A:
porosity = waterfilled
SW = 100%

Cube B:
porosity = hydrocarbons and
water in
SW = 70%

Figure A2

(05/96) A-4

% = 70%

Schlumberger

Shy = 1 - Sw = 30%
Therefore the percentage volume of water
saturation
= Sw

The usefulness of resistivity logging rests on

the facts that
- water is a conductor (low resistivity)
- hydrocarbons and rocks are insulators
(high resistivity)
Consider the following unit cubes (Figure A3):

For example: if = 20% and Sw = 70%, then

14% of the bulk volume is water and 70% of
the pore space is water filled.

A.4 RESISTIVITY AS A BASIS FOR

INTERPRETATIONTHE ARCHIE
EQUATION
In the previous section we introduced a number of parameters used to evaluate rock formations. If we could build on the effects of
resistivity in conjunction with the other parameters to develop a mathematical relationship, we would have an extremely useful tool
for our work with potential hydrocarbon zones.

Cube C
The resistivity Rt of the cube will vary with
water resistivity Rw (i.e. as Rw increases, Rt increases and vice versa).
Therefore: Rt Rw.

(1)

Cube D
Replace 25% of the cube with rock (hence
= 75%) but maintain a constant Rw. Resistivity
Rt increases with decreasing porosity (i.e. as
decreases, Rt increases).

The remainder of this section is devoted to

developing such a formula.

Cube C
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 100%
- Sw = 100%

Cube D
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 75%
- Sw = 100%

Cube E
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 75%
- Sw = 70%

Figure A3

(05/96) A-5

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Therefore: Rt 1/.

(2)

Cube E
Replace 30% of remaining porosity with
hydrocarbons. Resistivity Rt increases with
decreasing water saturation Sw (i.e. as Sw decreases, Rt increases).
Therefore: Rt 1/Sw.

Ro

Rw
(5)

Now, let = 1, then Ro Rw .

Now, let F = constant of proportionality
defined as the formation factor.
Therefore: Ro = FRw

(3)
Ro

By combining the above observations (1, 2

and 3), we can say
Rt Rw

1
Sw

F
Rw
(4)
Sw

To solve for the constants of proportionality

let us first limit the equation as follows:
Let Sw = 100% (i.e. there is no hydrocarbon present and the porosity is 100%
water filled).
Then, define Ro = Rt (ie: Ro is the wet resistivity of the formation for the condition Sw =
100%):

(05/96) A-6

(6)
Rw

Returning to Equation 5 and introducing porosity as a variable, it is clear that

or
Rt

or F =

This is intuitively obvious as the relationship

between Ro and Rw is related to that particular
unit cube of rock and its porosity characteristics.
Through empirical measurements, it was
determined that
a
F=

(7)
m

where
a = constant
m = cementation factor

Schlumberger

The cementation factor m relates to the porosity type and how it will transmit electrical
current to the actual rock (also called tortuosity).

aRw
or S

n
w

(9)
Rt
m

Using the above equations

Recall Ro = FRw (Equation 6)
aRw
when Sw = 100%
m

Rt = Ro =
if Sw 100%, then

aRw

Rt

Sw

or Rt Ro

a) Formation Porosity ()
Defined as the fraction of total volume occupied by pores or voids, where

Ro
(8)
Rt

Through laboratory measurements, it was

found that this relationship (8) is dependent on
the saturation exponent n as
Ro
S

n
w

Rt
FR w
or S

n
w

The remainder of this course is dedicated to

measuring, evaluating and using porosity and
resistivity to calculate water saturation and
hence hydrocarbons reserves using the concepts of this equation.
A.5 DEFINITIONS

Sw
or Sw

Equation 9 forms the Archie relationship that

is the basis for all conventional log interpretation techniques. Enhancements and refinements may be applied for the more
complicated rock types.

pore volume

100%

total volume
When the pore space is intergranular it is
known as primary porosity. When the porosity is due to void space created after deposition,
(e.g., vugs or fractures in carbonates), the porosity is known as secondary porosity. When
shale is present, the pore space occupied by the
water in the shale is included with the pore
space in the rock to give total porosity ( T ). If
only the rock pore space is considered in a
shaly formation, the pore space is called effective porosity (e ).

Rt

(05/96) A-7

Introduction to Openhole Logging

b) Formation Resistivity (R)

Defined as the resistance offered by a formation to the flow of electrical current. It is
expressed in ohm-meter2/meter.
We use several terms to describe formation
resistivity under various circumstances of fluid
content.
Rt : Describes the resistivity of a formation undisturbed by the drilling
process.
Ro: Describes a special form of Rt . It
is the resistivity of a clean formation when all pore space is filled
with connate water (Rw).
Rw: Is the symbol for the resistivity of
formation (connate) water.

For Porosity
In a 1942 paper Gus Archie proposed that
the relationship between formation factor and
porosity could be described by the formula
a
F=

where
a = empirical constant.
m = cementation factor.
Some recommended F and relationships
are
0.62
F=

c) Formation Factor (F)

Ro
F=
Rw
F is a constant for the formation under consideration. The value of F for any particular
formation depends on:
- formation porosity
- pore distribution
- pore size
- pore structure.

(05/96) A-8

(for sands)
2.15

0.81
F=

For Resistivity
An important relationship exists between the
resistivity of a fully water saturated formation
and the resistivity of the contained water. The
ratio of these two values is called formation
resistivity factor (or more commonly, formation factor) where:

(for sands)
2

1
F=

(for carbonates)
2

Chart Por-1 (figure A4) in the Log Interpretation Chart book is based on several different F- relationships.
d) Water Saturation (Sw)
Defined as the fraction of pore volume filled
with water where
water filled pore volume
sw =
total pore volume

100%

Schlumberger

e) Hydrocarbons Saturation (Sh y)

Defined as the fraction of pore volume filled
with hydrocarbons where:
hydrocarbon-filled pore volume
Shy =

100%

total pore volume

or

Shy = 1 Sw.

g) Shaly Formations
This describes formations where some of the
formation void space (porosity) is filled with
shale.
Shale distribution is considered to be:
- Laminated: The formation is built up
of thin laminae of sand and shale.
- Dispersed: The shale particles are dispersed in the pore space.
- Structural: The shale replaces matrix.

f) Clean Formations
The term clean formation refers to those that
are shale free.

(05/96) A-9

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Formation Resistivity Factor versus Porosity

50 2.5

10

20

50

100

200

500

1000

2000

5000

10,000

40
30
25
20
15

, porosity (p.u.)

FR =
10
9
8
7

1
2

m
Vugs or
spherical pores

6
5

FR =

0.62
2.15

FR =

1
m

2.8
2.5

Fractures
2.2

3
1.8

2.0

2
FR =

0.81
2

1.6
1.4

1
2.5

10

20

50

100

200

500

1000

2000

5000

10,000

FR, formation resistivity factor

This chart gives a variety of formation resistivity factor-to-porosity conversions. The proper choice is best
determined by laboratory measurement or experience in the area. In the absence of this knowledge,
recommended relationships are the following:
0.62
For Soft Formations: Humble Formula: Fr =

2.15

0.81
or Fr =

0.62
For Hard Formations: Fr =

with appropriate cementation factor, m.

EXAMPLE: is 6% in a carbonate in which a cementation factor, m of 2 is appropriate

Therefore, from chart, Fr = 280.
Chart Por-1

Figure A4
(05/96) A-10

Schlumberger

h) Key Formulas
FRw
Archies formula: Sw =

Formation Factor:
Ro

Rt

a. From deep resistivity

F =
Rw
Rxo

where n is usually taken as 2

b. From shallow resistivity

F =
Rmf
a

c. From porosity

F =

i) Key Symbols
BHT

di

h
RIDPH

RIMPH

RSFL

Rm
Rmf
Rmc
Rw
Rwa

Rt

Ro

Rxo

Rsh
F

Sw

bottom hole temperature in degrees

Celsius
average diameter of invaded zone
(Di)
bed thickness in meters
resistivity from the deep phasor induction
resistivity from the medium Phasor
induction
resistivity from the Spherically Focused Log
resistivity of the mud
resistivity of the mud filtrate
resistivity of the mudcake
resistivity of the formation water
apparent resistivity of the formation
water
resistivity of the formation
(uncontaminated zone)
resistivity of the formation when
100% water filled
resistivity of the flushed zone
(close to borehole)
resistivity of the shales
formation resistivity factor
porosity in percent
water saturation, percent of pore
space occupied by water in uncontaminated zone

Sxo

S hc

K
SSP

PSP

S
D
N

e
2
Vsh
Pe

water saturation, as above, in

flushed zone
hydrocarbons saturation as percent
of pore space occupied by water
coefficient in the sp formula
static spontaneous potential - the
maximum possible for a particular
Rmf / Rw
pseudostatic spontaneous potentialthe SP found in a thick shaly
sand
permeability in millidarcies
pore volume
porosity =
100%.
total volume
sonic porosity
density porosity
neutron porosity
N + D
total porosity
2
effective porosity
secondary porosity
volume of shale
photoelectric index

A complete list of symbols and subscripts is

included in Section J (Miscellaneous).

(05/96) A-11

Introduction to Openhole Logging

A.6 LOG SCALES AND PRESENTATIONS

a) Well logs provide a continuous graph of formation parameters versus depth.
Normal depth scales are
- 1:2401 m of log per 240 m of
measured hole depth. Each line
is 1 m, with heavy lines every 5
m, and heavier lines every 25 m
for ease of reading. Depths are
indicated every 25 m (Figures
A5 and A6).
- 1:6001 m of log per 600 m of
measured hole depth. Each line
is 5 m, with heavy lines every 25
m. Depths are indicated every 25
m (Figure A7).
- Other scales are available. These
include 1:1200, 1:120, 1:48 and
1:5.
- Log grids may be either logarithmic (resistivity logsFigure
A6) or linear (porosity logsFigure A5).
b) If a caliper device is present or the log being
generated is a type of sonic log, event markers
are placed on each side of the depth track integrating the quantity of hole volume or transit
time recorded.
1. Integrated hole volumerequires caliper
device (Figure A5)
- placed on the left side of the
depth track
3
- small marks indicate 0.1 m
whereas large marks represent
3
1.0 m .
2. Integrated cement volumeRequires
caliper device plus future casing size
- placed on the right side of the
depth track when space permits and if sonic not present
3
- small marks indicate 0.1 m
while large marks represent
3
1.0 m .

(05/96) A-12

3. Integrated transit timeRequires sonic

tool (Figure A5)
- placed on the right side of the
depth track
- small marks indicate 1 msec
whereas large marks represent 10
msec of time.
If the log is recorded using logging-whiledrilling methods, event markers on both sides
of the depth track (Figure A6) represent the
conversion from time-based sampling to a
depth-based presentation. The markers therefore indicate the number of data samples per
unit depth. In other words, the larger the concentration of markers over a depth interval, the
greater the number of data samples used to
make the log.
c) Logs also have headings and inserts.
- Log headings provide such information as
well depth, casing depth, mud params,
maximum temperature and other comments pertinent to the evaluation of log
data (Figures A8 and A9).
- Inserts provide such information as curve
scaling, coding, date/time of acquisition,
data curve first-reading points and constants pertinent to the logging run following the insert. Curve coding on the
log data indicates the deepest reading primary measurement (long dashed) to the
shallowest reading primary measurement
(solid) when two or more measurements
are combined (Figure A10).

Schlumberger

Figure A5: Linear Grid 1/240 Scale

(05/96) A-13

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Logarithmic Grid 1/240 Scale

Data Sample Event Markers for LWD Curves
Figure A6

(05/96) A-14

Schlumberger

Figure A7: Linear Grid 1/600 Scale

(05/96) A-15

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure A8: Log Heading (page 1)

(05/96) A-16

Schlumberger

Figure A9: Log Heading (page 2) and Log Tail

(05/96) A-17

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure A10: Log Insert

(05/96) A-18