Wing

Airfoil selection
Aerodynamic characteristics (Kmax, CLmax,
stall characteristics)
Structural reasons;

Airfoil geometry

Airfoil geometry
Camber line
Leading
edge

Maximum
thickness

Chord

Trailing
edge
Maximum
thickness
position

Maximum
camber
Maximum camber
position

Angle of attack definition

AoA

Stall
AoA=0
Separation point

AoA=10

AoA=15

AoA=20

Airfoil aerodynamic characteristics

Lift coefficient (Cz or CL)
C L MAX

Drag coefficient (Cx or CD )

Stall

dC l /d a
0

KR

Airfoil aerodynamic characteristics

Design Cz

Airfoil aerodynamic characteristics

Gliding ratio (Cz / Cx)

Power factor
(Cz3 / Cx2 lub Cz1,5 /Cx)

Airfoil aerodynamic characteristics

Pitching moment coefficient Cm
Derivative dCm/dCz
is an indicator of
stability.
It is negative for
stable aeroplanes
and positive for
unstable aeroplanes.

Maximum thickness t/c

Maximum
thickness - t

Chord - c

Effect of airfoil thickness on lift coefficient

6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%

18%

20%

Effect of airfoil thickness on lift coefficient

Effect of airfoil thickness on drag coefficient

6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%

18%

20%

Effect of airfoil thickness on gliding ratio

6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%

18%

20%

Effect of airfoil thickness on power factor

6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%

18%

20%

Camber
Camber line

Maximum
camber

Effect of airfoil camber on lift coefficient

0%

0,5%
1%
1,5%
2%

2,5%

3%
3,5%

Effect of airfoil camber on drag coefficient

0%

0,5%
1%
1,5%
2%

2,5%

3%
3,5%

Effect of airfoil camber on gliding ratio

0%

0,5%
1%
1,5%
2%

2,5%

3%
3,5%

10

Effect of airfoil camber on power factor

0%

0,5%
1%
1,5%
2%

2,5%

3%
3,5%

Effect of airfoil camber on moment coefficient

0%

0,5%
1%
1,5%
2%

2,5%

3%
3,5%

11

Position of maximum thickness

Maximum
thickness

Position of
maximum
thickness

Boundary layer development

laminar

turbulent
separated

transition
separation

12

Effect of airfoil laminarity on drag coefficient

15%

20%

25%

30%
35%

40%
45%

50%

Effect of airfoil laminarity on lift coefficient

15%

20%

25%

30%
35%

40%
45%

50%

13

Effect of camber line shape on moment coefficient

35%

2
4

28%

22%

15%

Effect of camber line shape on gliding ratio

35%

0%

2%
4%

6%

28%

22%

15%

14

Reynolds
number effect on
aerodynamic
coefficients

Effect of
Mach
number on
lift
coefficient

15

Effect of
Mach
number
on drag
coefficient

Effect of Mach number on moment

coefficient

16

Critical Mach
number

Historical values of an aeroplane airfoil thickness

as a function of Mach number

17

Critical Mach
number

Critical Mach
number

18

Calculate Reynolds number for design airspeed

Re>3 000 000

Calculate Mach number
for maximum airspeed

Airfoil selection

3 000 000>Re>500 000

Wortmann catalogue
Stuttgarter
Profilkatalog Vol.1 i 2

500 000>Re
Selig catalogue
Summary of low speed
airfoil data Vol.1-3
Airfoils at low speeds

Mmax>0,75

Mmax<0,75

Supercritical airfoil eg. NASA SC(2) 714

NASA TM X-1109
NASA TM X-2977
NASA TP 2969

Abbot catalogue Theory of the wing section, raport NACA 824, NASA TN D-7428

Calculate Reynolds number for design

airspeed

Airfoil
selection

Find characteristics for Redes i Mdes

Calculate CL for design airspeed
Compare CD for CLdes of available airfoils and select few best airfoils

Compare CLmax of selected airfoils

Compare stall character of selected airfoils
Compare CM of selected airfoils
Select an airfoil with a combination of above features best suiting to the
aeroplane mission

19

Remaining wing features

Wing incidence;
Mean aerodynamic chord mac, c
Wing area (reference area) S;
Wing span b;
Wing aspect ratio A;
Wing dihedral;
Wing sweep angle (leading edge LE,
quarter chord c/4);
Taper ratio ;
Geometrical and aerodynamic twist;
Winglets
Leading edges extensions;

Wing incidence angle

An angle between root chord and fuselage
longitudinal axis

20

Taper ratio
b/2

cR

cT

S=

W
W/S

cT
cR

Straight wings:

b = AS
cR =

=0.40.5

2S
[b (1 + )]

Swept wings:
=0.20.3

cT = cR

Mean aerodynamic chord mac, c

1 + + 2
2
c = c ROOT
;
(1 + )
3
cR
cR

0,25mac

b
Y = [(1 + 2 )(1 + )];
6

c
cT
cT

21

Vortices generated by a wing

Vortices generated by a wing and effect

of aspect ratio on drag coefficient

b2
A=
S

CL2
CD = CD0 +
Ae

22

Effect of aspect ratio (A, AR) on lift

coefficient
CL = Cl

A
Cl

Cl

+ A 2

Helmbolt equation

b2
A=
S

Wing dihedral

b1

b2
b3<b1=b2<b4

b3
b4
Wing position

Wing dihedral angle

an angle between
chords plane and
horizontal plane

low

mid

high

Unswept

57

24

02

Subsonic swept

37

-2 2

-5-2

Supersonic swept

05

-5 0

-5 0

23

Wing sweep LE , c / 4 , t / c
tan LE = tan c / 4 + [(1 ) / A (1 + )]

LE

c/4

Line connecting quarter

chords along the wing span

Wing sweep
Meff=Mcos(
LE)
Mkryt~1/cosm(
LE)
Wing sweep reduces
effective Mach number.
M
LE

LE)
qeff=qcos2(

Mcos
LE

t/c

W~tan2(
LE)

24

Wing sweep effect on dCL/d

dCL
=
d

2 A

tan 2 ( t / c )

2 + 4 + (A ) 1 +
2

2
= 1 M eff

M eff = M cos LE

Wing sweep effect on separation

25

Wing sweep at supersonic speeds

Winglets

26

Wing twist

Aerodynamic twist
Geometric twist

Wing twist

Aerodynamic twist
Geometric twist

27

Delta wings
AoA

Leading
Edge
eXtensions

28

LEX effect on lift coefficient

Vortex generators

RAF Museum Hendon

29

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