Powder

Technolo,?.

Measurements

33 (1982)

219

249 - 256

of The Failure Properties

of Granular

Materials

and Cohesive

Powders
H_ TSUNAKAWA
Department
240 {Japan)

of

Chemical

Engineering.

Yokohama

National

University.

156

Tokiwadai.

Hodogaya-ku,

Yokohama

and R. AOKI
Department

(Received

of Chemical

December

Engineenng,

4.1979;

University

of

Tokyo

(Japan)

in revised form April 1. 1982)

A direct shear tester equipped with a press

loading system has been employed
to measure
the failure properties of granular maten-als
and cohesive powders
An advantage of this
tester is that a yield locus for such materials
can be obtained from one shear test by a
continuous line_
The yield Iocus for granular materials has
been directiy drawn as a straight line on an
X-Y recorder chart having the normal stress as
the abscissa and the shear stress as the ordinate_
Yield loci for cohesive powders have also
been drawn as convex curves on the recorder
chart, having reduced shear and reduced
normal stress axes. They are therefore reduced
yield Zoci_
The shapes of the loci obtained for a range
of initial consolidation stresses of 10 to 350
g/cm
are satisfactorily described by the
Warren Spring equation_ When this equation is
rewritten with reduced stresses, it can be
expressed in terms of three dimensionless
parameters. The ualues of these parameters,
which are determined from the measured loci,
seem to depend on the bulk density of the
sample.

Types of shear apparatus now extensively

used for obtaining yield loci are the Jenike
flow factor tester and the Portishead annular
shear cell [3] _ But when using these and other
types of shear cell, to obtain a yield locus
[4], one must plot the points obtained and
join them by a smooth line_ One purpose of
this work is to eliminate such a procedure.
Williams and Birks [S] have observed from
the lifting of the lid of a Jenike cell that the
sample was failing in shear with volume expansion It is deduced from this that when a
shear strain is applied to the sample, a force
develops against the lid; the resulting normal
load occurs at the shear plane of the sample
and transfers through the sample to the top
level touching the lid.
The lid of the present shear cell has been
connected to a device for measuring loads, so
that the load exerted against the lid can be
continuously
measured during shearing. When
this measured load approximates
to the
normal load at the shear plane, the yield locus
of the sample can be directly drawn on a
recorder chart as a continuous line.
The present shear cell, however, allows a
limited shear strain, so that a new sample has
to be prepared for each test. It is inferior in
this respect to the annular shear cell_

1NTRODUCT:ON

APPARATUS

The failure properties of bulk solids, which

are obtained from their yield loci according to
the method proposed by Jenike [l, 23, are
important in the design of bunkers, hoppers
and other equipment to handle such materials_

The present apparatus, which is shown in

Fig. 1 and schematically
in Fig. 2, has a shear
cell of type similar to the Jenike cell; it
consists of an X-Y pen recorder, two dynamic
strain amplifiers and a hand press on which a

SUMMARY

@ Ekevier Sequoia/Printed

in The Netherlands

FmmR

RING

ISIAL mul
BASE tXJ_G
GUIGE RISG
SmfT

_ *
Fig. 1_ Direct shear tester

loading system_

Fig_ 3. Schematic

H
I
J
K
L
n

PEssRasE
LOXJtNG PIN
LOAD TRANSDUCER
scB3!3%Fr
EDKTI~
@Xl
sY!iLR@Nus mire7

LO8J T!WSWCER

diagram af the direct shear tester.

L..

equippedwith a press

shear cell, two load transducers, a synchronous

motor with reduction gears and a dial-gauge
have been mounted. The shear cell consists of
a stainless steel dish having an internal diameter of 10 cm and a depth of 6 cm which has
been horizontally split in half. The upper half
has been screwed to the top of a guide ring,
forming the fixed part of the cell_ The lower
half has been inserted into a base mould with
a shaft across the diameter, forming the
movable part of the cell. The base mould
rests on a large number of steel ball bearings
which can move smoothly on the base plate
of the cell. The movable part has a rough
inner bottom. There is a gap of about O-03
mm between the fured and the movable part
of the cell. The frictional coefficient between
the movable part and the ball bearings is less
than O-003_
A load transducer for measuring shear loads
is fised at one end of a screw shaft which has
been connected to the synchronous motor,
moving horizontally at l-75 mm/min.
Another load transducer for measuring
normal loads is fixed to one arm of the press.
The arm can be moved vertically by means of
two handles which can be smoothly rotated
by hand_ A disc of stainless steel has been
connected to the loading pin of the load
transducer, which becomes the lid of the shear
cell. The lower surface of the lid has been
made rough_ There is a gap of about 0.10 mm
between the edges of the lid and the side walls
of the fixed p& of the cell.

The outputs of the two load transducers

are displayed through the two dynamic strain
amplifiers on the X-Y pen recorder of variable
sensitivity_ The loads measured are converted
into stresses by being divided by the crosssectional area of the cell.

EXPERZMENTAL,

RESULTS

AND

DISCUSSION

Shear tests for grantrlar materials

The granular material for *&sting was introduced into the shear cell, the movabIe part of
the cell being concentric with the fixed part.
Care was taken to ensure uniform height of
the sample throughout the cell_ The lid was
then lowered on to the top of the sample and
a chosen consolidation stress was applied in
the normal direction in order to obtain a
desired state of compaction_ This stress \V~S
then removed by liiting the lid and a small
normal stress was again applied by lowering
thelid to the sample, at which time the height
of the sample was measured by the dial-gauge.
The lid was left as it was_
The synchronous motor was then switched
on to fail the sample in shear_ As the shear
strain increased, the volume of the sample
tended to expand and the shear stress increased.
Accordingly, the resuIting normal stress
eserted against the lid increased also_ These
stresses were continuously measured simultaneously from the outputs of the two load
transducers and displayed on the X-Y recorder
chart having the normal stress as the X toordinate and the shear stress as the Y coordinate.

251

0
0.2

20
norcl~l

stress

40
exerted

60
against

the

80
lid

TOO
(o/cnl

Fig_ 3. Typical S-Y recorder chart of shearing tests:

Effect of bed height upon the relationship between
the shear stress and the normal stress exerted against
the lid. [Material: glass beads (average size O-10 cm):
bulk density: 1.545 glcrn3; height of beds in the fixed
part of the cell: (a) 1.453, (b) 0.941, (c) 0.452 crz~].

Figure 3 shows a typical recording of shear

tests for glass bead samples with different
heights at the same bulk density. Linear
reiationships have generally been established
between the shear stress and the normal stress
exerted against the lid. But the slope of the
straight lines, .u,, increases with increasing
sample height, h, above the shear plane,
between the fixed part of the cell and the
movable part. As shown in Fig_ 4, linear
relations have been obtained
when the
logarithm of p, was plotted against the ratio
h/D, where D is the diameter of the cell
emp!oyed_ The coefficient
of internal friction
of the material is therefore indicated as a
value where the straight iine intercepts the
ordinate_ This procedure,
however, required
some shear tests for samples having different
heights.
For a shear cell having an interna.! diameter
of 10-O cm, ~depth of 1-O cm and smooth
inside walls so es to minimize any influence
due to the cell walls, it was possible to measure
the coefficient
of internill friction for granuhir
materials from one shear test with an accuracy
of about 5% The shear displacement
applied
for each shear test was less than 1 mm. An
esample of the yield loci for four granular
materials used is showu in Fig_ 5_ The coefficient of internal friction for the gnmuiar
materials used is given in Table 1 together
with the particle density, size and other properties.
Figure 6 shows shear test results of time
yield loci for soya bean cake. The sample was
subjected during a given period of time in the

cm

0.1

0.2

C-1

Fig. 4. Relationship between the slope of lines as

shown in Fig_ 3 and the ratio of bed height to cell
diameter. [Material: glass beads (average size 0.1 cm);
bulk density: (a) 1.545, (b) 1.465 g/cm3].

shear cell, to a consolidation

stress of 200 g/
cm2 by means of applied weights. At the end
of this period, the consolidation
stress was
removed and a small normal stress was again
applied by lowering the lid on to the top of
the sample. Shearing was carried out as described above_ For soya bean cake, the shear
test results confirm the empirical fact that the
critical blocking aperture for hoppers increased
with time for storing that material.

20

SO

xon-a,

I
I

ill0

10.0

60
5:r*s5.

80
c(qicm!

10

Fig. 5. Yield Ioci for four granular materials. [Material: (a) crushed coal (b) granular sugar (c) wheat (d)
polyethylene pellets] _

Shear tests for cohesive powders

A typical recorder chart of shear test results
for a cohesive powder is shown in Fig. 7. The
two curves ABC and ADE represent relationships between the shear stress and the normal
stress measured
by different
procedures_
In each shear test, a predetermined
amount
of the powder was used. The sample was introduced into the cell, taking care to ensure
uniform height of the sample, and then packed
by means of the lid under a consolidation
stress as shown by the point A in Fig. 7. The
curve AB was measured when the sample was
failed in shear without change in the level of

253

Consolidation
time
72 III-.
24 hr.
8 hr.

b::

k
r

40

I
so
Nom1

5 loo-

0
N0nral

100
stress.

200
o(g/cm)

Fig. 6. Effect of consolidation

time upon yield loci of
soya bean cake. [Consolidation
stress: 200 gfcm;
moisture
content:
16.6%
(w/w)].

the lid, i.e. at a constant volume, until no

further change in the stresses occurred, as
shown by the point B where a steady state of
failure was reached. The bulk density of the
sample was therefore kept constant during
this stage_
The curve BC was then measured when the
normal stress exerted against the lid was gradually decreased during shearing from a value
indicated by the point B to zero_ This operation was performed
by gradually lifting the
lid by means of the handle which was slowly
rotated by hand. In this stage the sample was
failed in shear, being allowed a slight volume
expansion_ The shear displacement
was less
than 1 mm_
The point B therefore has been considered
to be an end-point of the yield locus of the
powder. A drop in the consolidation
stress,
which appeared in the first stage of the
shearing, is presumably due to a partial dense
packing resulting from a rearrangement
of
particles at and near the shear plane of the
sample. Thus the curve AB is a consolidation
locus [4,6],
and the curve BC a yield locus.
B.
On the other hand, during the change from
point A to point D in Fig. 7, when the consolidation
stress was kept as constant as
possible during shearing, the shear stress increased from zero to a critical value indicated
by the point D, at which a steady state of
failure was reached- This was achieved by
gradually lowering the lid by means of the
handle_ This stage of the shearing represented

Fig_ 7. Typical
for a cohesive
O.SS22
g/cm31

120
Strf5.S.

$4,

160
0 (g/cm~)

,
200

,
240

S-Y recorder
chart of shearing tests
powder.
[Bulk density:
(a) 0.9076,
(b)
_

a preconsolidation
of the sample, in which the
applied shear displacement was about 3 mm
and the bulk density of the sample increased
by about 3% as compared with its initial value.
At the point D the sample was failing in shear
without change in either the stresses or the
volume_ The curve DE was then measured in
the same way as the curve BC. It is therefore
taken as the yield locus of the powder with
the point D as its end-point_
Williams and Birks [ 51 have reported that
when their experimental
data for a family of
yield loci were replotted in the plane of the
reduced shear stress versus the reduced normal
stress, they fell on a single curve. Such a curve
has been called a reduced locus. In this work
the original loci have been easily converted
into their corresponding
reduced loci by
changing only the scale of the co-ordinate
system employed_ The present shear tester is
convenient for measurements
of a family of
reduced yield loci for a cohesive powder
subjected to various consolidation
stresses_
The five cohesive powders used are magnesium oxide, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, crushed fish and polyethylene
powders.
Their average particle sizes and densities are
given in Table 2. Figure 8 shows shear test
results of families of reduced yield loci for
the five powders.
Earlier studies [5 - S] show that the yield
locus obeys satisfactorily the so-called Warren
Spring equation that has been proposed by
Ashton et al_ [ 91 as follows:
r

0+-T

c =-

When this equation is reduced, using the

normal stress at the end-point, cr,, it becomes

(1)

TABLE

Particle densities and

Powder

sizes

of cohesive powders

Calcium

carbonate

Particle
size*

Particle
density
(glcm3j

Magnesium oxide
Calcium carbonate
Calcium phosphate
Fish powder
Polyethylene

(b)

used

Wm)

3.65
a-70
2.34
l-10
0.960

0.30
3.45
4.67
36-4
5S-i

-0.2

0.2
0.4
0.6
O-8
1.0
Reduced normal stre*s.
(J I s+

(b)

*The particle sizes were calculated according to

Erguns equation from pressure drops of air passing
through beds of the powders.

where K is a ratio C/T, T/D, is the reduced

shear stress, cr/oe is the reduced normal stress
Inserting the conditions
at the end-point
of
the yield locus gives

-0.2

where 6 is the slope of the line joining the

end-point to the origin, i-e_ arctan (~,/cr,)_
Equation (1) can therefore be expressed in
terms of the three dimensionless parameters n,
K sand 6.
In this work the values of these parameters
were calculated from the co-ordinates
of the
three points on each reduced locus measured,
in which the reduced normal stress values of
the three points were 0,0_5 and 1. As shown
\vith broken lines in Fig. 8, eqn. (2) describes
satisfactorily
the shapes of the reduced yield
loci for the five powders.
In Figs. 9 to 11 the values of n, K and 6
for the five powders are plotted against the

:
0

cl.2
O-4
0.6
0-a
ReGuced noral
stress.
=I

1.0
o,

(a)

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Reduced norx.51 stre55.

f-r

(d)

Fish

1.0
D I ae

pmder

(cl

111

-0.2

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Reduced nomal
stress.

1.0
T f c,

Cd)

1.0
0
.

-0.2

-0.2

(el

Polyetbytene

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Reduced norm.31 stres..
a,

1.0
C+

(e)

Fig. 8. (aj - (e). Families of reduced loci for five

cohesive powders nsed. [The broken lines show results
calculated from eqn_ (2) with fitting values for R. K
and 6.]

255

D
a
0
o
.
+
r

Uzgnesium mono-oxide
Calcium carbonate
C4lcitnII phosphate
Polyethylene
Fish pc*deer
Titenilmn di-oxide(Ref.(S))
Alkrd @S 0472(Ref.(a))

D Nagnesium mono-oxide
* CalcisCarbonate
0 Cal&u-.
phosphate
A Polyethylene
. Fish powder
+Titanium
di-oxide(Fzef.fS))
* Alkad W 0472(Ref.(.V))

I
100
Non&t1 stress

200
at end point.

300
ue[g/cn)

Fig. 9_ Variation of vaiues of the shear ix7ex n with

the normal stress at the end-point of the yield locus.

Normal

100
stress

at

200
end point.

300
oe(g/cn?)

Fig. 11. Variation of values of the angle 6 with the

normal stress at the end-point of the yield locus.
-p------------------l

P Polyethrienh
-Fish
powder
i-Titanium
di-oxide(fIef.(5))
x Alkad IB 0472(Ref.(a))

I
0

normal

100
stress

200
at end Point.

300
oetg/cm)

Fig. 10. Variation of values of the ratio K ( = C/T)

with the normal stress at the end-point of the yield
IOCUS.

normal stress at the end-point of the yield

locus, together with those obtained from the
shear test results for titanium dioxide by
Williams and Birks [ 51 (using the Jenike
tester) and for Alkad MB 0472 powder by
Stainforth et al_ [S] (using the Portishead
annular shear cell). Magnesium oxide shows
nearly constant values for n, K and 6 over the
stresses investigated, similar to titanium dioxide. For calcium carbonate, calcium
phosphate, polyethylene and crushed
fish
powders, the values of the parameters vary
with the value of see- The same result was
observed in the case of Alkad MB 0472
powder_
The values of voidage of the samples used,
which were calculated from the weight and
volume of the sample under the steady state
of failure, are also shown in Fig_ 22.
It is concluded from Figs_ 9 to 12 that the
three parameters are generally related more
closely to the voidage or the bulk density
than the normal stress at the end-point_ When

P Polyethyiene
l
Fish pouder
0

100
Noms1

stre%

at

200
end point.

300

oe(gfon)

Fig. 12. Relationships between the voidage

of powder
beds under steady state failure and the normal stress
at the end-point of the yield locus.

the bulk density varies slightly with the

normal stress at the end-point, the three parameters are likely to be characteristic of the
cohesive powder.
Measurements

for wall frictional cfiaracteristics

This tester could also measure a wall yield

locus by substituting the movable mould for a
circular plate of wall material. The sample for
testing was packed in the cell under a consolidation stress. This stress was then removed
and a small normal stress was again applied
by
lowering the lid on to the top of the sampie.
When the applied normal stress was graduaUy
increased during shearing, the shear stress also
increased. These stresses were simultaneously,
continuously displayed on the X-Y recorder
chart from one shear test, as shown in Fig. 13.
The relationships between these stresses
depended slightly upon the cell diameter in

256

The values of these parameters seem to be

related to the bulk density or the voidage of
the sample_

L1k-T OF SYMBOLS

C
D
h
Fig. 13. Wall yield loci of Soma silica sand against two
different wall mn:eri&:
(it) rough surface wali. (b)
smooth surface wall.

the range 5.0 to 10.0 cm and on the sample

height up to 2.0 cm, so that they were taken
as wall yield loci_ The coefficients
of wall
friction for the granukr materials used are
given in Table I for various plates of iron,
stainless steel and concrete.

K
n
T
6
P,
(T
(J,
7

cohesion, g/cm
diameter of the shear cell, cm
height of the powder bed in the fixed
part of the cell, cm
ratio defined as C/T
shear index
tensile stress, g/cm2
slope of the line joining the end-point of
the yield locus to the origin, degree
slope of lines as shown in Fig_ 3
normal stress, g/cm
normal stress at the end-point of the
yield locus, g/cm
shear stress, g/cm

REFERENCES

The present shear tester equipped with a

press loading system is convenient
for measuring the failure properties of bulk solids.
The yield locus for granular materials can
be diret tly obtained as a straight line on the
ordinary co-ordinate system employed.
The reduced yield locus for cohesive
powders can be obtaked
for each consolidation stress by a continuous curve_ The shapes
of loci measured are satisfactorily
described
by the Warren Spring equation which when
rewritten with reduced stresses is espressed in
terms of the three parameters n, K and 6.

A. WT.Jenike, Bulletin lOS, Eng. Espt_ Sta., Utah

State Univ., 1961.
A_ W_ Jenike. Bulletin 123, Eng. Expt. Sta_, Utah
State Univ., 196-1.
J_ F_ Carr and D. AI. Walker. Powder TechnoL.
1
(196i/6S
j 369.
J_ Schwedes, Powder Techrzol.. I I (1975) 59.
J. C. WiIliams and A. H. Birks, Powder
Technol,
I (1967)
199_
R. Farley and F. H. H_ Valentin, Irons_ InsL
Chem. Engrs.. 13 (1965) T193.
S. Kocova and N. Pilpel, Powder
TechnoL.
5
(19iL/72)

SZ?_

P_ T_ Stainforth,

R. C. Ashley and J. N. B. Morley,

4 (1970171)
250.
M. D. Ashton, D. C. H. Cheng. R. Farley and F.
H. H. Valentin, Rheol. Acta. 4 (1965) 206_

Powder

Technol.,