and 1 would indicate a perfect correlation), spelling in the elementary grades is usually taught as an isolated skill, often as a
visual task.*
Collectively, the authors of this paper have eight decades of
experience helping preservice and inservice teachers improve
their instruction in spelling, reading, and writing. One common
perception we have encountered is that visual memory, analogous to taking a mental picture of the word, is the basis of spelling
skill. Teachers often tell us that they teach spelling by encouraging whole-word memorization (e.g., using flashcards and having
students write words 5 or 10 times) or by asking students to close
their eyes and imagine words. Weve encountered this perception that spelling relies on visual memory so many times that we
became curious about when and how it originatedafter all, its
a far cry from Websters spellers. We traced it back to the 1920s:
one of the earliest studies to stress the role of visual memory in
spelling was published in 1926, and it found that deaf children
spelled relatively well compared with normal children of similar
reading experience.4 Based on this study, and the perception that
the relationship between sounds and the letters that spell them
is highly variable, many people concluded that learning to spell
is essentially a matter of rote memorization. Thus, researchers
recommended that spelling instruction emphasize the development of visual memory for whole words.5
More recent studies, however, do not support the notion that
visual memory is the key to good spelling.6 Several researchers
have found that rote visual memory for letter strings is limited to
two or three letters in a word.7 In addition, studies of the errors
* Throughout this article, the research and instructional strategies discussed are
about spelling in English; they may not apply to other languages.
words, its no surprise that many teachers teach spelling by writing words on flashcards and exposing students to them many
times or by having students write words 5 to 10 times. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of such methods is not well established.
In contrast, studies show that spelling instruction based on the
sounds of language produces good results. For example, to test
whether a visual approach or language-based method is better,
researchers taught spelling to typical second graders using two
different methods: a visual method and a method in which students focused on correspondences between sounds and letters.10
After administering lists of words as spelling tests, these investigators drew the attention of the visual group to their errors, wrote
the correct spellings on flashcards, and showed children the correct spellings. In contrast, the children in the language-based
group were given instruction on the sounds involved in their
misspellings. The group that received the language-based spelling instruction showed significantly greater progress than the
visual group. Similarly, another researcher, after examining five
successful spelling instructional approaches for children with
learning disabilities, observed that the successful programs had
one thing in common: they were all based on structured language instruction that explicitly taught principles like soundletter correspondences.11 Researchers also have found that
second and third graders at risk of literacy problems improved
their spelling (as well as their word recognition, handwriting,
and composition skills) after structured spelling instruction
based on the concept that speech sounds are represented by
letters in printed words (i.e., the alphabetic principle).12 And a
series of studies showed that training in phonological awareness
(i.e., awareness of the sounds that make up language) improved
the spelling and reading of children in low-income, inner-city
schools. The training was especially effective among the lowestperforming children.13 In sum, these and other studies have
found that effective spelling instruction explicitly teaches students sound-spelling patterns. Students are taught to think about
language, allowing them to learn how to spellnot just memorize words.
As a result, linguistically explicit spelling instruction improves
spelling of studied words and novel words. Two exploratory
spelling intervention studies contrasted linguistically explicit
spelling instruction with implicit spelling instruction, and found
that the explicit instruction gave students the knowledge of spelling patterns that they needed to more accurately spell novel
words. In the first study, second- through fourth-grade students
the pattern that would determine the spelling of /k/ (e.g., after a
consonant or two vowels, /k/ is spelled k; after a short vowel, /k/
is spelled ck; after a long vowel, /k/ is spelled k with a final e). The
students in the second group spelled the words more accurately
and read them faster.
There are two common types of syllables, called closed and open,
that are very helpful in spelling.19 A closed syllable has one vowel
followed by at least one consonant and the vowel is short (e.g.,
cat, ball, and pencil). An open syllable ends in one vowel and the
vowel is long (e.g., he, go, and the first syllable in hotel). Learning
about open and closed syllables is especially helpful for deciding
whether or not to double a consonant in the middle of a word. If
students have been taught about closed and open syllables, then
they know why rabbit is spelled with two bs in the middle while
label is spelled with only one. The word rabbit divides between
the two consonants, rab/bit. The first syllable, rab, is closed, and
the vowel is pronounced as a short a. The word label divides
before the consonant, la/bel. The first syllable, la, is open, and
the vowel is pronounced with a long a sound. Known as the rabbit rule, its a simple formula to remember: in a two-syllable
word, theres a double consonant in the middle after a short
vowel.20 Instead of memorizing whether to use one or two consonants in the middle of words like cotton, tennis, sudden, muffin,
and happen, students can use the rabbit rule. Of course, there
are exceptions, such as cabin, robin, lemon, and camel, but these
words are not as frequent as words that follow the rabbit rule.
Knowledge of the meaningful parts of wordsprefixes, suffixes, and rootsis of great help in the development of spelling
(and vocabulary). Technically, what were talking about here are
known as morphemesthey are the smallest meaningful units
in words. When the units have meaning by themselves, such as
the words cat and play, they are referred to as free morphemes.
An excellent reference for words from various languages, words from Greek and
Latin roots, and words from names is R. L. Venezky, The American Way of Spelling:
The Structure and Origins of American English Orthography (New York: Guilford
Press, 1999).
* For more on the history of English, see How Spelling Supports Reading by Louisa
10
it. For example, researchers asked kindergartners and first graders to tell which item looked more like a real word: nuss or nnus.21
A majority of children were able to identify correctly that nuss
looks more like a real word. As noted in this and other studies,
first graders do not often begin words with ck or with letter combinations like bc.22
Students need not learn all of the possible letter patterns, but
they should learn the letter patterns that frequently represent
speech sounds. For instance, /k/ in initial or medial position can
be spelled with c or k. Before a, o, u, or any consonant, /k/ is
spelled c (e.g., cat, cot, cut, clasp, crust). Before e, i, or y, /k/ is
spelled k (e.g., keep, kite, sky). (One mnemonic device that is helpful involves the four criteria that are used for evaluating diamonds.
The four cs stand for carat, color, cut, and clarity or, when applied
to spelling, /k/ is spelled with c before a, o, u, or any consonant.)
Of course, there are exceptions to this pattern, such as kangaroo,
skunk, and skate. By discovering exceptions, students can demonstrate and reinforce their understanding of patterns. Students
may discover the exceptions on their own, or teachers may point
them out and teach these words through mnemonic sentences
(e.g., The kangaroo and the skunk like to skate) rather than asking
students to visually memorize these words.
Clearly, there is a great deal for students to learn, but it is
manageable when spread over several years. The next two sections provide an overview of what to teach in the elementary and
middle grades, and suggestions for how to deliver languagebased instruction. In addition, the sidebar on page 14 shows
samples from two carefully developed, well-sequenced spelling
programs.
11
12
dock
lock
brick
music
seek
brook
book
block
keg
meek
lilac
hook
keep
kettle
public
thick
trunk
crash
pack
luck
track
cure
shook
kindle
kilt
culvert
week
crater
speck
quick
kept
duck
carpet
sulk
shellac
attic
crook
kin
cord
combat
elk
peck
frantic
rock
look
task
deck
Initial position
k
Final position
k
ck
Table 2.
List of words with ch or tch.
beach
witch
pouch
preach
starch
church
batch
notch
crunch
clutch
hitch
march
hutch
sketch
finch
scratch
botch
punch
perch
switch
ch
tch
13
Teaching Spelling
These Language-Based Programs Provide the Grade-by-Grade,
Well-Sequenced Instruction That Students Need
language-based spelling instruction (e.g., that focuses on sound-letter
correspondences) to be more effective than instruction that relies
heavily on visual memorization of words (e.g., that uses flashcards).
The two programs shown herePrimary Spelling by Pattern, for early
elementary students, and Spellography, for upper elementary
studentsoffer explicit, carefully sequenced instruction in the structure
and history of the English language. They both emphasize sound-letter
correspondences and provide an array of activities to help students
understand and remember the regularities and patterns in English.
Spelling Patte
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Lesson 10 Sing,
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The
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Lesson 10 Paren
Home Supp
editors
8/3/07
9:19:29
AM
Sing, Sang
, Song
37
8/3/07
9:32:05
AM
Spellography
by combining shorter words. Compound words can be joined together (himself), separated
(White House), or hyphenated (dog-eat-dog).
ise 9
Exerc
Stage Fright Congratulations! You are at the stage in life when its just
right for you to find compound words built with the word stage. List four of
them here.
_____________________
____________________
_____________________
____________________
Posttest
Pretest and
word list for
as needed.
in the lesson
rds
rds
wo
wo
of
e
tat
er
mb
Dic
nu
n. Modify the
administratio
Phone
words,
me Su
the ends of
Exercise 1
bstituti
these inst
ncept: At
on and
-ge. In
Co
g
ructions.
Deletio
th -dge or
Spellin
wi
ed
ell
n Create
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we did
un
rk
so
word mag
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/j/
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t
th
th
Say dot.
ic by follo
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review
gs
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or
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sp
n,
Change th
wing
15
+ -ge
t
an
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on
e
/t/
ns
Lesson
to /j/.
d a few
e
ge or co
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s
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ve
th
plu
,
.
th
13
wi
Say batc
epodge
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dg
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e. Change
Change th
sson 10
d study
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Le
un
so
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/j/
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e
e
e
/ch/ to /j/
/j/ to /s/.
kles to th
14. plun
.
more wrin
Say refu
ain.
Say verg
ge. Chan
2. bulge
to your br
e. Change
ge
ge the /j/
hopefully
the /j/ to
15. dred
to /s/.
/s/.
no
ge
that
Say wre
Say larg
3. pa
elling fact
ckage. Ch
e. Change
, it is a sp
16. refuge
ange the
letter j. So
the /j/ to
First of all
/j/ to /n/.
/k
d in a plain
/.
en
at
sh
Th
4. ridge
gli
tion.
ge
Say stra
words in En
NOT an op
nge. Say
17. smud
with a j is
it withou
ed by an e
spelling /j/
a g follow
t the /j/.
:
5. forge
g
e
oft
lg
s
with
18. indu
Exercise
Mark th
leaves us
d /j/.
e vowel
t the soun
6. huge
ge
s in thes
short (S),
to represen
2a
e wo
19. messa
v + -r (R
you
if
n
ge
), or silen rds from this less
tio
ec
ed
7. pl
tra prot
ons stud
t (/) (a di
e
ex
ag
a
ed
m
ne
er
y list as
agonal lin
-ge aft
20. da
d
ort vowels
ad
long (L),
u
e).
Sh
yo
er them. If
dodge
lts. For
8. fringe
add -ge aft
elling resu
fo
sp
l
rg
e
66
Spellography A Student Road Map to Better Spelling
we
21. village
e
ic
g vo
mag
lon
a
a
l,
ju
s
e
dg
we
ha
dg
vo
e
ge
9. ju
verge
ledge*
the word wa a short vowel
22. know
example,
ell
smudge
bulge
help
-ge. To sp
page
eds some
huge
e
10. stage
followed by
the -ge ne
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st
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un
. wreckag
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so
m
23
e
/j/
e
ea
ep th
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pl
wi
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rg
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add a
11. la
ar
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we
gu
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le
a
pl
du
al
wh
m
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lge
fro
ats
ge
24. ch
cage
largely
gh away. Th
there is
e far enou
dredge
ls, unless
12. cage
short vowe
een the
ridge
-dge after
, of, some
onant betw
by
ns
s
ht,
co
fr
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r
ug
in
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so
ge
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:
this
r words
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ttern.
Irregula
These
the -ge. Th
low the pa
words
vowel and
does not fol
patterns:
also
and then
word that
have these
underline have schwa vo
* Marks a
spelling list
e)
wels. M
the schw
ge, plung
ark the vo
a vowels.
-nge (frin
wels as in
short v +
Exercise
ge)
e)
#2a, E
(verge, for
e
dge, dodg
-g
(ri
xercise
+
ge
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-d
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short v +
indulge)
,
g
ge
2b
tin
ul
(b
en
kn
owledge
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repres
is
it
s:
short v +
o job
challenge
is doing tw
e silent e
Th
e.
-g
tly by
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/j/journal
Speed Read
This
describes Professor Thunkers life among the
than e
c
-ge =
dreaded sc
or i, do ept: The g
nted vin+Anchorage.
Speed-read this absolutely fascinating account57
n
e Com
of g, w
11 unaccenatives
hich is t drop the e
p
from -g lex If a wor
/j/.
out loud, and record your time and errors on three different
d endi
e words
ng begi
. The w
58
days.
ns w
or
N 15
LESSOmudge
S
Huge
6a
Add th
e giv
en su
ffixes
and w
rite th
e
gorge
+ ous
age +
less
outrag
e + ou
s
Page trudges to the barn and gives Georgia a huge hug. Georgia nudges
arrang
e+m
ent
Page gently with her bulging baggage. Page then indulges Georgia, feeding her tonnage of
organic wheat and corn porridge. Since Georgia gorges on porridge, her poundage is outra-
huge +
ly
geously outstanding. Standing outside the hermitage, I often spot that huge cow and the
grungy dog Bess near the garbage, bingeing on compost. Page thinks this is funny and is
knowle
dge +
able
Day 2
Day 3
Time:
_________
Time:
_________
Time:
_________
dodge
+ ing
Challenge Activity
Errors:
_________
Errors:
_________
Errors:
_________
Finally: Take the Posttest, and record your score here. Number Correct: ___________
68
manag
e + ab
le
62
new sp
ellings
in the
blanks
.
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
Spellogr
aphy
A Stud
ent Roa
d
Map to
Better
Spellin
g
15
d need
ith any
s the e
engage
to keep letter other
ment
the soft
Spellogra
arrange
sound
phy A
ment
Student Ro
damag
ad Map to
eable
Better Sp
knowle
elling
dgeab
le
Exercise
Strange Georgia
udge
Huge Sm
Lesson 15
16
15. Yolanda V. Post, Suzanne Carreker, and Ginger Holland, The Spelling of Final Letter
Patterns: A Comparison of Instruction at the Level of the Phoneme and the Rime, Annals
of Dyslexia 51 (2001): 12146.
Endnotes
1. Cited in Richard L. Venezky, From Webster to Rice to Roosevelt, in Cognitive
Processes in Spelling, ed. Uta Frith (London: Academic Press, 1980), 930.
2. Linnea C. Ehri, Learning to Read and Learning to Spell Are One and the Same,
Almost, in Learning to Spell: Research, Theory, and Practice across Languages, ed. Charles
A. Perfetti, Laurence Rieben, and Michel Fayol (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, 1997), 23769; R. Malatesha Joshi and P. G. Aaron, Specific Spelling
Disability: Factual or Artifactual? Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 2
(1990): 10725; R. Malatesha Joshi and P. G. Aaron, A New Way of Assessing Spelling
and Its Classroom Applications, in Literacy Acquisition, Assessment, and Instruction: The
Role of Phonology, Orthography, and Morphology, ed. R. Malatesha Joshi, Bozydar
Kaczmarek, and Che Kan Leong (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2003), 15361; and Louisa C.
Moats, How Spelling Supports Reading: And Why It Is More Regular and Predictable
Than You May Think, American Educator 29, no. 4 (2005-06): 1222, 423.
3. Linnea C. Ehri, The Development of Spelling Knowledge and Its Role in Reading
Acquisition and Reading Disability, Journal of Learning Disabilities 22 (1989): 35665.
4. Arthur I. Gates and Esther H. Chase, Methods and Theories of Learning to Spell Tested
by Studies of Deaf Children, Journal of Educational Psychology 17 (1926): 289300.
5. Leonard S. Cahen, Marlys J. Craun, and Susan K. Johnson, Spelling Difficulty: A Survey
of the Research, Review of Educational Research 41 (1971): 281301; Gates and Chase,
Methods and Theories; Ernest Horn, Spelling, in Encyclopedia of Educational
Research, ed. Chester W. Harris, 3rd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1960), 133754; and
Thomas Horn, Spelling, in Encyclopedia of Educational Research, ed. Robert L. Ebel, 4th
ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1969), 128299.
16. Paul R. Hanna, Jean S. Hanna, Richard E. Hodges, and Edwin H. Rudorf, Jr.,
Phoneme-Grapheme Correspondences as Cues to Spelling Improvement, USDOE
Publication No. 32008 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966).
17. Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle, The Sound Pattern of English (New York: Harper and
Row, 1968), 49.
18. Suzanne Carreker, Teaching Spelling, in Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language
Skills, ed. Judith R. Birsh, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, 2005), 21756; and
Marcia K. Henry, A Short History of the English Language, in Multisensory Teaching of
Basic Language Skills, ed. Judith R. Birsh, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, 2005),
11939.
19. Marcia K. Henry, Unlocking Literacy: Effective Decoding and Spelling Instruction
(Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, 2003); and Louisa C. Moats, Speech to Print: Language
Essentials for Teachers (Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, 2000).
20. Carreker, Teaching Spelling.
21. Marie Cassar and Rebecca Treiman, The Beginnings of Orthographic Knowledge:
Childrens Knowledge of Double Letters in Words, Journal of Educational Psychology 89
(1997): 63144.
22. Treiman, Beginning to Spell.
23. Carreker, Teaching Spelling.
24. R. Malatesha Joshi, Assessing Reading and Spelling Skills, School Psychology Review
24 (1995): 36175.
25. Louisa C. Moats, Spellography for Teachers: How English Spelling Works; Language
Essentials for Teachers of Reading and Spelling (LETRS), Module 3 (Longmont, CO: Sopris
West, 2005); and Moats, How Spelling Supports Reading.
26. Darlene M. Tangel and Benita A. Blachman, Effect of Phoneme Awareness Instruction
on Kindergarten Childrens Invented Spelling, Journal of Reading Behavior 24 (1992):
23361.
27. Rebecca Treiman, Beginning to Spell in English, in Reading and Spelling:
Development and Disorders, ed. Charles Hulme and R. Malatesha Joshi (Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998), 37193.
28. Rebecca Treiman, Knowledge about Letters as a Foundation for Reading and
Spelling, in Handbook of Orthography and Literacy, ed. R. Malatesha Joshi and P. G.
Aaron (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006), 58199.
29. Shane Templeton and Darrell Morris, Spelling, in Handbook of Reading Research,
ed. Michael L. Kamil, Peter B. Mosenthal, P. David Pearson, and Rebecca Barr (Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000), 3:52543.
6. Marie Cassar, Rebecca Treiman, Louisa C. Moats, Tatiana Cury Pollo, and Brett Kessler,
How Do the Spellings of Children with Dyslexia Compare with Those of Nondyslexic
Children? Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 18 (2005): 2749; and
Rebecca Treiman and Derrick C. Bourassa, The Development of Spelling Skill, Topics in
Language Disorders 20 (2000): 118.
7. Guojun Zhang and Herbert A. Simon, STM Capacity for Chinese Words and Idioms:
Chunking and Acoustical Loop Hypotheses, Memory and Cognition 13, no. 3 (1985):
193201; and P. G. Aaron, Susan Wilczynski, and Victoria Keetay, The Anatomy of
Word-Specific Memory, in Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders, ed. Charles
Hulme and R. Malatesha Joshi (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998),
40519.
8. Rebecca Treiman, Beginning to Spell (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
9. Cassar et al., Children with Dyslexia; Linnea C. Ehri, Grapheme-Phoneme
Knowledge Is Essential for Learning to Read Words in English, in Word Recognition in
Beginning Literacy, ed. Jamie L. Metsala and Linnea C. Ehri (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 1998), 340; Linnea C. Ehri, Learning to Read and Learning to Spell:
Two Sides of a Coin, Topics in Language Disorders 20 (2000): 1949; Louisa C. Moats,
Spelling: Development, Disability, and Instruction (Baltimore, MD: York Press, 1995); and
Louisa C. Moats, Phonological Spelling Errors in the Writing of Dyslexic Adolescents,
Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 8 (1996): 10519.
10. Christopher T. Arra and P. G. Aaron, Effects of Psycholinguistic Instruction on Spelling
Performance, Psychology in the Schools 38, no. 4 (2001): 35763.
11. Steve Graham, Handwriting and Spelling Instruction for Students with Learning
Disabilities: A Review, Learning Disability Quarterly 22 (1999): 7898.
12. Virginia W. Berninger, Katherine Vaughan, Robert D. Abbott, Allison Brooks, Kristin
Begay, Gerald Curtin, Kristina Byrd, and Steve Graham, Language-Based Spelling
Instruction: Teaching Children to Make Multiple Connections between Spoken and
Written Words, Learning Disability Quarterly 23 (2000): 11735.
13. Eileen Wynne Ball and Benita A. Blachman, Does Phoneme Awareness Training in
Kindergarten Make a Difference in Early Word Recognition and Developmental Spelling?
Reading Research Quarterly 26 (1991): 4966; Benita A. Blachman, Eileen Wynne Ball,
Rochella Black, and Darlene M. Tangel, Kindergarten Teachers Develop Phoneme
Awareness in Low-Income, Inner-City Classrooms: Does It Make a Difference? Reading
and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 6 (1994): 118; and Benita A. Blachman, Darlene
M. Tangel, Eileen Wynne Ball, Rochella Black, and Colleen K. McGraw, Developing
Phonological Awareness and Word Recognition Skills: A Two-Year Intervention with
Low-Income, Inner-City Children, Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 11
(1999): 23973.
14. Yolanda V. Post and Suzanne Carreker, Orthographic Similarity and Phonological
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