3 Patterns in Nature
Notes
ANH NGUYEN
Unit 1: Organisms are made of cells that have similar structural
characteristics
1.2.1 Outline the historical development of the cell theory, in
particular, the contributions of Robert Hooke and Robert Brown
1600- The first compound microscope was invented by Hans and
Zacharias Janssen
Robert Hooke:
Born 1635
Further developed the compound light microscope
First to describe cells (i.e. plant cells using a slice of cork)
Described cork cells as little boxes distinct from one another
Coined the term cells
First to acknowledge the concept of a cell
Observed similarities of fossil shells with living mollusc shells
Robert Brown:
Born 1773
Studied orchid cells under the microscope, found the nucleus
Developed Brownian Motion (movement of suspended particles)
Noticed that the nucleus exists for both plant and animal cells
Rudolf Virchow:
Contributed to the 3rd cell theory
Walter Flemming:
Described the process of cell division (mitosis) from observations on
living and stained cells
The cell theory:
1. Cells are the smallest units of life
2. All living things are made up of cells
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells
Stains are used to help scientists see more clearly the components
that make up a cell. E.g. the nucleus is much easier to see if the
specimen has been stained.
1.2.4 Identify cell organelles seen with current light and electron
microscopes
UNIT 2 SUMMARY
1. Complete the table which shows the four main substances
found in cells and their functions.
Substance
Function in cell
Protein
Provides growth, development and maintains the cells
structure
Carbohydrate Provides and produces energy
s
Lipids
Store energy
Nucleic acid
Holds the cells genetic information in chromosomes,
located in the cells nucleus
2. What is the difference between inorganic and organic
molecules?
Organic molecules are found only in living things and made by living
things. Inorganic molecules are found in non-living things (soils, air etc.)
and in living things.
3. Name three organic molecules found in cells.
Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
4. What does it mean that a cell membrane is selectively
permeable?
It allows certain substrates to pass in or out of the cell while other
substances are not due to their size or charge.
5. Describe the experiment we did using dialysis tubing, iodine
and starch that modelled the selectively permeable nature of a
cell membrane.
The dialysis tubing was first tied at one end to form a tube-like bag in
which glucose and starch was fed from the other end. Next, the bag is
placed into a water bath where iodine is poured in the water to create a
dark yellow colour. After leaving the tube in the water bath overnight, it
turned into a dark purple colour. To confirm the presence of glucose,
Benedict solution is added to see if there would be a brown colour change.
6. Name some molecules that need to move and out of cells.
Water, oxygen, gases, sugars
7. What is the effect of the hydrophobic end of the phospholipids
facing both the outside and the inside of the cell?
The hydrophobic ends, since they hate water, would want to push the
water away. This forces the water either inside or outside the membrane.
8. How do small molecules like oxygen and carbon dioxide enter
and exit a cell?
They are able to seep through air gaps in the membrane.
9. How do larger molecules enter and exit a cell?
Through the process of active transport, specifically called endocytosis,
and when specific carrier proteins bind the larger molecules to bring them
inside or outside a cell.
10. Explain the difference between osmosis and diffusion.
Diffusion is the movement of various types of molecules from a region of
high concentration to lower concentrated region in order to balance the
concentration gradient. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules,
and/or dissolvable substances, from areas of high to low concentration
that does not follow the concentration gradient.
Unit 3: Plants and animals have specialised structures to obtain
nutrients from their environment
3.2.1 Identify some examples that demonstrate the structural and
functional relationships between cells, tissues, organs and organ
systems in multicellular organisms
Multi-cellular Organisms consist of:
Cells
A collection of similar cells that
make up a tissue. E.g. muscle
Tissue
A group of similar tissues that have
a particular function makes an
organ. E.g. liver
Organs
Organs working together to carry
out particular functions make an
organ system. E.g. endocrine
system
Organ System
Many organ systems make up an
organism.
3.2.2 Distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrophs in terms
of nutrient requirements
Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain their energy for living and the
material for building and repairing their structure from organic matter in
their surroundings. The organic matter is its food. To be food for a
heterotrophic organism, a substance must contain organic matter that can
Light energy
- Teeth grind and physically break up food in the mouth where the
digestive process begins
- Grinding food into smaller pieces increases the rate of reaction due to
smaller surface area and therefore saliva is absorbed faster, food can be
swallowed easier and will break down faster throughout the digestive
process.
Carnivore example: Dogs
- Digestive system relatively small and simpler compared to
herbivores
- Large stomach to produce enzymes for the breakdown of meats
- Fast and efficient digestion process
- Very little caecum
Herbivore example: Cows digestive system
- Fermentation occurs in caecum; it is very large
- Are a type of ruminant herbivore. It is as if they have four
stomachs
- More efficient than the hindgut fermentation in other herbivores
(e.g. rabbit)
Omnivore example: Human digestive system
- Digestive system proportionally larger than a carnivores but smaller
than a herbivores
- Teeth structure different (four molars and four incisors)
- Very small caecum
MAJOR ORGANS:
- The mouth (aids digestion)
- pH7
- The first part of the digestive system (mechanical digestion)
- The entry point of food (increases surface area for faster chemical
digestion)
- Teeth (cuts, tears, crush and grind food)
- Salivary glands (produce and secrete saliva into the oral cavity).
Saliva also moistens the food. It contains enzymes (ptyalin or
salivary amylase). Begins digestion of starch into smaller
polysaccharides.
3.2.8 Explain the relationship between the length and overall
complexity of digestive systems of a vertebrate herbivore and
vertebrate carnivore with respect to:
- the chemical composition of their diet
- the functions of the structures involved
HERBIVORES: why do they need a special adaptation for digestion?
Plants are more difficult to digest than animal tissue due to the tough
cellulose wall that must be broken down before the cell contents can be
released. The breaking down of cellulose is called fermentation.
The teeth of herbivores are large and flat (molars) which are suited to
grinding food. Cattle, kangaroos and sheep carry out cellulose digestion in
a chamber before the stomach, called the rumen. They are known as
foregut fermenters.
Cattle have a stomach made up of 4 chambers, the first is really the
rumen. Grass goes to the rumen first (without chewing). The grass is later
regurgitated, little at a time, into the mouth where it is chewed. The food
then goes to the other chambers of the stomach where it is further
processed.
Horses, rabbits, possums and koalas carry out cellulose digestion in a
chamber after the small intestine, called the caecum. They are known as
hindgut fermenters.
There are special bacteria that break down cellulose in the rumen and
caecum of herbivores.
Some hindgut fermenters (possums, rabbits) produce two types of solid
wastes. They release dry faeces in the daytime (to retain the water in
their body during the day) and soft, moist faeces at night. The soft, moist
faeces are re-eaten by the animal to ensure that all the nutrients released
by the bacteria in the caecum can be absorbed by the small intestine, and
are not wasted.
Eating patterns: herbivores spend most of the day eating because plant
matter releases less energy than animal tissue. So, to obtain the same
energy, they need to eat more. Plant matter spends much longer in the
digestive system because it takes longer time to break down.
CARNIVORES (meat eaters. E.g. dogs)
Animal cells do not have a cell wall and so can be digested much faster
than plant cells.
The teeth of a carnivore consist of large canines to tear and rip meat.
There is no need for a caecum or rumen. Food does not spend a long time
in the mouth of carnivores because there is no cell wall to break through.
The intestines are short and larger when compared to herbivores.
Carnivores do not spend much of the day eating (only about 15 minutes)
since meat has a high energy value and is digested quickly.
3.3.1 Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform first hand
investigations to gather information and use available evidence
to demonstrate the need for chlorophyll and light in
photosynthesis.
Examples
of animals
in this
group
Chemicals
common
in foods
ingested
by animal
Our system is
designed to digest and
absorb protein and
fats substances that
do not require long
time processes to
break down the
nutrients
Protein as
amino acids
Fats/Lipids as
fatty acids &
glycerol
Carbohydrates
as simple
sugars
(monsaccharide
s)
Ruminant animal
High carbohydrate
diet with lower
amounts of protein
the protein is less
concentrated than in
the flesh of an
animal
Farmers and protein
supplements
problems mad cow
disease
Diagram
of
digestive
system
(cut &
paste
from
internet)
Comparis
on of
system
parts
teeth
Teeth include:
Canines (small)
grabbing/ripping
Teeth include:
Nipping/cutting teeth
Molars - grinding
Mammalian Carnivore
Mammalian Herbivore
Incisors - cutting
Molars grinding
Monogastric 1
stomach
Comparis
on of
system
parts
stomach(s
)
Comparis
on of
system
parts
small
intestine
Comparis
on of
system
parts
Caecum
Comparis
on of
system
parts
Large
Intestine
Contains bacteria to
assist in breakdown of
foods extremely
small and of little
usage
Absorption of
Absorption of
Water
Vitamins
minerals
Mammalian Nectar
Feeder
Water
Vitamins
minerals
Gills
Frog
Lungs
and
skin
Mamm
al
Lungs
Thin, moist walls mean that gases diffuse across the respiratory surfaces
efficiently. Large surface area allows maximum exchange of gases to
occur in a given time.
4.2.3 Explain the relationship between the requirements of cells
and the need for transport systems in multicellular organs
Explain the relationship between the requirements of cells and the need
for transport systems in multicellular organisms:
In unicellular organisms, all nutrients needed can be diffused from the
external environment over their surface area
Wastes can just be removed from cells by diffusion as well
However, in multicellular organisms, the surface area is not great
enough to provide nutrients for all the organisms cells
Transport systems are used to carry nutrients to all the bodys cells, and
to carry wastes away
Transports systems provide all the needs of organisms
4.2.4 Outline the transport system in plants. Including:
Gas Exchange:
- Plants exchange gases (CO2 and O2) with the environment for
respiration and photosynthesis
- In land plants, the leaves and stems have specialised structures for
gas exchange
STOMATES:
- These are located on leaves of plants
- They are pores in the leaf which enable the diffusion of gases
They are present on the upper and lower sides of leaves, but mainly
on the lower side
- Stomates receive the gases needed for photosynthesis (not
respiration)
- Stomates can open and close: When open, gas exchange occurs in
the leaf and photosynthesis occurs, but when they close, the rate of
photosynthesis slows
- The opening and closing of Stomates is controlled by guard cells,
and this is dependent on stimuli such as: light, low CO2 levels, an
internal clock, water deficiency, and high temperatures.
LENTICELS:
- These are pores on the woody stems of plants.
- The gases needed for respiration are diffused through lenticels
- Carbon dioxide also diffuses out
Nutrients and Water:
In flowering plants, the transport system is called vascular tissue, or
conducting tissue
Vascular tissue is made up of xylem and phloem
Xylem and phloem together in the leaves are called veins
Xylem and phloem together in roots is called stele
In flowering plants, no plant cell is far from vascular tissue
XYLEM:
- Transport water and mineral ions up the plant stem to the leaves
- Consists of dead cells, whose cross-walls (connection between cell
walls) have been broken away, creating a continuous tube
- Xylem also gives strength and rigidity to the plant
PHLOEM:
- Transport the products of photosynthesis (sugars) throughout the
whole plant.
- Made of long columns of sieve tube cells, which have holes in their
cell walls, so that the cytoplasm is mixed and diffusion of sugars
occurs.
- Organic material in the phloem is transported up and down the plant
ROOT HAIRS:
- These structures are on the surface of the roots
- They provide a large surface area for water to diffuse into the plant
- Water enters the plant via the root hairs and then enters the xylem
Transpiration:
- Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant through the stomates
in leaves
- When stomates are open, gases flow in for photosynthesis.
However, at the same time, water is lost by evaporation. This water
loss is transpiration
- As water is lost, more water flows in through the roots
- The constant flow of water from roots, to vascular tissue, to leaves
and into the air is called the transpiration stream
- Some plants have adaptations to reduce transpiration, such as
sunken stomates, small leaves or hairy leaves
Performing means?
AIM:
To observe the movement of dye in the xylem and phloem of a piece of celery.
HYPOTHESIS:
I believe..I think..
MATERIALS:
Food dye
250ml beaker
Celery
Water
METHOD:
PART A
1. Pour approximately 100-150ml of water into a 250ml beaker.
2. Pour the same amount of water into another beaker, this time add five
drops of food dye to the water. Add more dye if necessary.
3. Place a stalk of celery into the beaker with the plain water.
4. Place a stalk of celery into the beaker with the water and dye.
5. Leave the celery overnight. (Till Friday)
PART B:
1. Take your celery and cut a cross section
2. Observe the xylem and phloem, and the movement of the dye.
3. Cut a thin section of the celery and prepare a wet mount slide of the
celery and view under the microscope.
4. Draw your observations.
RESULTS:
Drawing of your specimen. Indicate the xylem, phloem and any other
observations on your diagram.
4.3.3 Use available evidence to discuss, using examples, the role of
technologies, such as the use of radioisotopes in tracing the path of
elements through living plants and animals.
Things to consider:
-
Plants, insects and mammals are constantly undergoing mitosis in order for
growth and repair of tissue. In plants mitosis occurs just behind the root cap, just
below the shoot tip, buds along the stem and roots and in the cambium, which
lies between the xylem and phloem. Insects have various stages in which they
undergo mitosis. When a larva changes into a pupa, groups of cells form into
discs. These discs are the sites for cell division and mitosis. New cells are
produced here for growth and for the pupa to turn into an adult insect. Mammals
undergo mitosis for growth and repair. The main sites for mitosis in mammals
include the bone marrow and skin.
5.2.3 Explain the need for cytokinesis in cell division
Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and occurs during the telophase
stage of mitosis. In animal cells the cytoplasm constricts to the centre, breaks,
and then forms into two cells. In plants there is no constriction. A cell plate is
formed instead. The plate is a double membrane with a space between the two
layers. The process of cytokinesis is important during mitosis as the cells
stabilise the internal concentration of materials which is essential to produce two
functioning cells.
5.2.4 Identify that nuclei, mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA
-
Cells contain many organelles. These organelles enable the cell to function
efficiently. The organelles that contain DNA are the nuclei, mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
5.3.1 Perform a first - hand investigation with a microscope to gather
information from prepared slides to describe the sequence of changes
in the nucleus of plant or animal cells undergoing mitosis.
END