Curriculum Development U1

UNIT 1 i
Evolution and perspectives
Unit 1
EED 505/05
Curriculum Development
Evolution and
Perspectives
ii WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

EED 505/05 Curriculum Development
COURSE TEAM
Course Team Coordinator: Professor Dr. Rahil Mahyuddin
Content Writer: Dr. Farah Dina Yusop
Instructional Designer: Ms. Michelle Loh Woon Har
Academic Member: Mr. S. Vighnarajah P. K. Selvarajah
COURSE COORDINATOR
Professor Phalachandra Bhandigadi
EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

Dr. Saedah binti Siraj, Universiti Malaya
PRODUCTION
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UNIT 1 iii
Contents
Unit 1 Evolution and Perspectives
Course overview
Unit overview
Unit objectives
1.1 Defining curriculum
Objectives
Introduction
Definition of curriculum
Perspectives (or approaches) of curriculum
Classifications of curriculum
Suggested answers to activities
10
1.2 Historical development of curriculum
11
Objectives
11
Introduction
11
The three major historical periods
11
The debates over classical curriculum
20
European influences in curriculum development
21
The impact of the historical English curriculum

development on the Malaysian curriculum
23
24
Suggested answer to self-assessment exercise
25
iv WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

1.3 The Malaysian curriculum
27
Objectives
27
Introduction
27
The history of Malaysian curriculum development
27
The National Education Philosophy (NEP)
33
Educational programmes implemented in Malaysian

schools
36
40
Suggested answers to self-assessment exercise
41
1.4 Trends and current issues in modern

curriculum studies
43
Objectives
43
Introduction
43
Preparing students for the real world
43
Developing civic-minded professionals
46
Standardised testing
48
Integration of technology to improve teaching and

learning
50
53
54
Summary of Unit 1
55
References
57
UNIT 1 1
Course Overview
his course provides you with the knowledge and skills in curriculum design and
development. Throughout this course, you will learn theories of curriculum
development and examine the application of curriculum development models. The
effects of different choices in curriculum content emphasis and design will also be
examined.
The units introduced in this course begin with the introduction to curriculum
its definition and conception, introduction to the philosophical foundation
of curriculum and types of curriculum. You will also learn about the impact of
culture on curriculum development with a focus on the Malaysian context. In
Unit 2, you will explore the various aspects of curriculum planning, including
the roles of stakeholders in curriculum planning and the concept of schoolbased curriculum development (SBCD). This is followed by an introduction to
curriculum design and development including topics such as models of curriculum
development, techniques of assessment, and crucial elements in creating effective
learning environments. More in-depth discussions on curriculum assessment
will be discussed in Unit 4, in which you will explore major approaches in
curriculum evaluation and important aspects of curriculum improvement. Finally,
you will connect the whole concept of curriculum design and development
with society in Unit 5. In this unit, you will critically reflect on some issues
related to curriculum and human development including the issue of developing
world-culture curriculum, and designing curriculum for multicultural society.
Thus, after successful completion of this course, you are expected to be able to:
1. Discuss the major theories related to curriculum development and content
choice.
2. Analyse past and present curriculum development and designs, and the
strengths and weaknesses of these designs and content choices.
3. Analyse the necessary skills to plan, design and evaluate a curriculum.
4. Predict the effects of decisions on curriculum content and design on
learners.
5. Critically examine the current curriculum issues.
2 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Each of the course objectives is covered in the following units:

Course objectives
Unit 1
Discuss the major theories

related to curriculum
development and content
choice
Unit 2
Predict the effects of

decisions on curriculum
content and design on
learners
Critically discuss current
curriculum issues
Unit 4
Unit 5
Analyse past and present

curriculum development
and designs, and the
strengths and weaknesses
of these designs and
content choices
Exhibit the necessary
skills to plan, design and
evaluate a curriculum
Unit 3
UNIT 1 3
Unit Overview
elcome to Unit 1 of EED 505/05 Curriculum Development. In this unit, you

are invited to explore the term curriculum as proposed by many curriculum
theorists. All of these definitions are constructed based on their personal beliefs
of what constitute knowledge and how best knowledge is acquired. Through
the learning activities, you too, will have the opportunity to construct your own
definition of curriculum based on your personal beliefs and experiences.
This is followed by the historical development of curriculum. Here you will
explore the American education system as the main case study and comparecontrast it to the Malaysian system. You will explore more on the Malaysian
curriculum development in subsequent units, from its historical contexts, and
the various policies implemented to support the Malaysian National Education
Philosophy (NEP). Finally, you will explore some major issues related to
curriculum development, namely the issue of preparing students for real-world
problems, the need to produce civic-minded professionals, the constant debates
on standardised testing, and the utilisation of technology to improve teaching and
learning.
Unit Objectives
By the end of Unit 1, you should be able to:
1. Define curriculum from students personal perspectives.
2. Explain the historical development of curriculum.
3. Critically examine the impact of culture on Malaysian curriculum.
4. Discuss at least three main issues related to curriculum development.

UNIT 1 5
1.1 Defining Curriculum

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Construct personal definition of curriculum.
2. Discuss the four main perspectives of curriculum.
3. Differentiate the main classification of curriculum.
Introduction
In this section, you will explore the many definitions of curriculum proposed by
many scholars in the field based on their personal ideas of what education should
look like. You will have the opportunity to introduce your own personal definition.
Then, you will read about the four main approaches to education that shape
scholars thinking of curriculum and education. Finally, you will read about the
five main classifications of curriculum and reflect on your own teaching or learning
experiences.
Definition of curriculum
What is a curriculum? The term curriculum comes from the Latin word currere
which means to run the course. As many experts define curriculum differently,
one may have difficulties in determining the exact definition of curriculum. Lets
look at some of the definitions provided by some scholars.
Wiles and Bondi (1998, 3) define curriculum as a set of global intentions, formal
plan or organisational structure and delivery mediums. On the other hand, Caswell
and Campbell (1935) see curriculum as cumulative experiences guided by the
school. It is with this idea that other definitions develop.
Other scholars, such as Ornstein and Hunkins (2009), view curriculum more
broadly. They propose curriculum to be seen from two perspectives: curriculum
approach and definition. To them, the term curriculum itself is subjective and
can be defined as:
1. A plan for achieving specific goals.
2. Learners experiences (planned either in or outside school settings).
3. A system for dealing with people (i.e., Linear or non-linear).

4. A field of study.
5. A subject matter or content.
Additional definitions by scholars are:

1. A curriculum is a plan for learning (Taba, 1962).
2. Curriculum is all the experiences learners have under the guidance of the
school (Doll, 1996).
3. Curriculum consists of subjects that are most useful for living in contemporary
society (Marsh, 2009).
4. Curriculum is all the experiences that learners have in the course of living
(Marsh and Willis, 2007).
In summarising the many definitions of curriculum, Marsh (2009) offers six major
conceptions of curriculum:
1. Curriculum is permanent subjects such as grammar, reading, mathematics
and the great books of the Western world that best embody essential
knowledge.
2. Curriculum is those subjects that are most useful for contemporary living
such as subjects that encourage higher-order thinking and problem-solving
skills.
3. Curriculum embodies the total learning experiences that allow students to
acquire general knowledge and skills at different learning sites such as
schools and workplaces.
4. Curriculum is the personal knowledge constructed by individual students
through interaction with computer and its network such as the Internet.
5. Curriculum is the search for the meaning of life by questioning the
authority and analysing the complex views of human situations.
These definitions are still broad. Thus, Marsh and Willis (2007) suggest a useful
starting point when discussing curriculum, based on three main levels: the planned
curriculum, the enacted curriculum, and the experienced curriculum. In brief,
planned curriculum refers to the pre-defined set of goals that one needs to achieve,
while the enacted curriculum refers to how the planned curriculum is enacted.
Enacting a curriculum is not a simple task because it depends on the curriculum
planners, for instance, a teachers philosophy of learning, judgement and how
he or she views knowledge. At some points, these can cause conflict as he or she
may or may not agree with the planned curriculum but still need to deliver it to
UNIT 1 7
the learners. For example, a teacher enacts a planned curriculum and uses some
pedagogical approaches he or she views as appropriate, but then the students
may have different understanding of the curriculum content which consequently
causes different interpretations of the curriculum content. To other scholars,
what matters is the experienced curriculum, that is, what actually happens in the
teaching and learning processes.
Activity 1.1
Now that you have explored a variety of definitions proposed by scholars in the
field, try to construct your own definition of curriculum.
Perspectives (or approaches) of curriculum

Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) propose curriculum to be viewed based on four
major philosophies. They are idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism.
Idealism
The process of learning from the perspective of idealism involves the interrelation
between ideas and concepts. Reasoning, intuition and religious revelations are all
necessary in finding the truth, though achieving absolute truth is impossible to
certain experts. To idealists, students are passively involved in the learning processes
by memorising information given by teachers. They also believe that subjects such
as mathematics, philosophy and theology are important in moulding abstract
thinking among students. Plato and Augustine are among the most influential
idealists whose ideas still dominate current education systems in many countries.
Realism
Realism, also known as empiricism, believes that knowledge is acquired through
perception and reasoning. There are reasons behind all events, and therefore
education should stress on these reasons. Education, as viewed by realists, should
focus on guiding students towards logic and abstract thinking.
Pragmatism
Pragmatists view reality to be constantly changing over time and that the
learning process is more of problem-based using the scientific method. The
aim is to promote critical thinking among students that allows them to explore
knowledge rather than receiving information blindly. Teaching technique is more
important than the subject itself and questions that lead to an exploration are
encouraged by pragmatists in the teaching process. This philosophy holds the

principle that education is a form of preparation for life and is crucial to enhance
ones condition. Therefore, schools are responsible for providing a specialised
environment for the process of learning. The American philosopher, John Dewey,
is among the proponents of pragmatism.
Existentialism
To existentialists, the learners have freedom to decide on the type of knowledge
to be acquired and how they perceive it. The role of teachers, then, is to guide
students towards their personal choices and individual self-definition. Experts from
other philosophies, especially traditionalists and conservatives debated against the
concept of freedom given to students. To them existentialism limits the function
of schools to disciplining students with the supervision of adult authorities.
Since existentialists believe in the individuals freedom, they are not supportive
of any rigid curriculum imposed on students. Existentialists value subject matters
such as arts, literature, theatre and music, in which students have the opportunities
and are encouraged to illuminate their emotions and insights.
Reading
For further reading on the differences between these four philosophies, refer to
Ornstein and Hunkins (2009, 37).
Activity 1.2
You should realise now that each definition proposed by scholars is closely related
to how they view education. Looking back at your constructed definition earlier,
which perspectives of approaches in curriculum are represented in the definition?
Classifications of curriculum
There are five classifications of curriculum that significantly affect education.
According to Posner (2004), these curricula include official, operational, hidden,
null and extra curriculum.
UNIT 1 9
Official curriculum
Also known as written or planned curriculum. This type of curriculum is the
backbone of the teachers teaching plan. Official curriculum acts as guidelines
to teachers on how and what to teach and provide evaluation on both students
and teachers. Syllabi, curriculum guides, course outlines, standards, and lists of
objectives are part of this type of curriculum.
Operational curriculum
Operational or enacted curriculum can be seen from both the teachers and
students perspectives. One important feature is the teachers teaching content.
This can be evaluated from the time allocated for each syllabus and the methods
of teaching. Another important aspect is the students performance in tests and
exams. Students participation distinguishes between this type of curriculum and
official curriculum.
Hidden curriculum
The content of teaching in this type of curriculum is not officially planned, enacted
or taught by the schools. Most of the time, hidden curriculum is unexpected and can
be a result of official curriculum or students life experiences. Well-taught hidden
curriculum is encouraged and important for the development of students for it is
expected to have a bigger impact on students. Issues concerning gender, class and
race, authority, ethics or moral values, and school knowledge are examples of such
curriculum.
Null curriculum
This type of curriculum is not taught in schools. This curriculum is simply left
out or excluded from the official curriculum since it is technically impossible
to teach everything in schools. However, some scholars such as Eisner (1994)
argues that by leaving certain subjects or topics out of the official curriculum,
school personnel are sending faulty messages to students that these subjects are
not important in their educational experiences or in society. Music and arts are
examples of this curriculum.
Extra curriculum
Extra curriculum is concerned with activities not included in school subjects,
but formally acknowledged by the administrators. Development of soft skills and
whole-rounded personality of students starts here, which are not taught in official
curriculum. Extra curriculum gives chances for students to participate in activities
of their interest to a deeper level. School clubs are examples of extra curriculum.

Activity 1.3
Think about the five classifications of curriculum and reflect on your teaching (or
learning) experiences so far. Which curriculum has become your priority? Which
one receives least attention and focus? Why is that so?
Summary
This section introduces you to some definitions of curriculum. You have also
explored how ones educational philosophy influences their definitions of
curriculum. Finally, you have been exposed to the five main classifications
of curriculum proposed by curricularists. In the next section, you will be
introduced to the origins of curriculum studies.
Activity 1.1
Some of the possible answers are:
A set of rules and guidelines for teaching mandated by the education
authorities.
The school syllabus that guides teaching.
The educational content that needs to be taught to learners.
Activity 1.2
Depending on students self-constructed definition of curriculum, the answers could
fall into any of the four curriculum approaches: idealism, realism, pragmatism and
existentialism.
Activity 1.3
Based on the Malaysian education system, expected answers will be official
curriculum as the first priority and hidden curriculum as the least priority. This is
because of the standardised nature of the curriculum in Malaysia.
UNIT 1 11
1.2 Historical Development of

Curriculum
Objectives
1. Identify the major historical development of curriculum during the
colonial periods.
2. Compare and contrast the curriculum development in the New England,
Middle and Southern colonies.
3. Discuss the differences of curriculum in the transitional period.
4. Explain the European influences in the curriculum development.
5. Discuss the impact of historical English curriculum development on the
Malaysian curriculum.
Introduction
In this section, you will explore some important historical development of
curriculum studies in the United States as a case study: the colonial and
transitional periods as well as the impact of European influences in their
curriculum development. These historical periods are summarised based on
Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) discussion on the historical foundations of
curriculum. Understanding of the history will provide you with the basis to
compare the impact of the English and European with the Malaysian curriculum
development.
The three major historical periods

The Colonial period (1642 1776)
Life during the colonial period can be characterised as simple and orthodox. People
lived in small villages and the majority worked as farmers. Because of the small
size of the community, everybody knew almost everyone in the village. Family was
the most important unit of community. Men and fathers were head of the family
and had the authority to decide on family and community matters. People in the
colonial period were very religous: they spent time at Puritan churches and sent
their children to learn the Bible. The characteristics of this society became the basis
of the curriculum at that time.

The historical development of curriculum during the colonial period will be

discussed based on the three colonial regions, namely the New England Colonies,
Middle Colonies and Southern Colonies. Lets first discuss the characteristics
of each region, in order to gain a better understanding of the chronology of the
colonial schools later.
The foundations of curriculum in this era were largely rooted in colonial
Massachusetts, which was under the New England Colonies. The majority of the
people were Puritans, who were strictly religious, thus the first schools were closely
tied to the Puritan church. No religious freedom existed in the New England
colonies. The curricula were more focused on communities and religion. The
Puritans believed in the original sin and children had to learn to behave and grow
up to be good people.
Characteristics of the Early New England Schools
Primary purpose of education: To teach children to read scriptures and
common civil matters.
Curriculum focused on:
(According to order)
Reading (The most important subject)
Writing
Spelling
We know now that the Puritans were English Protestant settlers during the 16th
and 17th centuries in the New England colonies. Now lets move on to the Middle
colonies with a more diverse population, which consisted of various religions and
not dominated by only one faith. This differed from the New England colonies
they had more religious freedom, thus there in that was no single system of school.
Parochial and independent schools, which were related to the different ethnic
groups and religions were built and controlled locally. The boys learned certain
set of skills or trade and might also study classical languages, history, literatures,
mathematics and natural science, depending on their social classes. On the
other hand, girls were home tutored in a variety of household and social skills
(Cheek, n.d.).
For the Southern colonies, the decision to provide education for children were
generally left in the hands of the family. However, in general, the white children
of plantation owners would receive private tutoring while the poor received no
formal education. According to the law of the Southern colonies, it was a crime for
slaves to learn reading and writing. This was because they do not want the poor
to rebel and pose a threat to the elite, thus they were denied any kind of formal
education. The poor whites would follow the footsteps of their ancestors and
became farmers.
UNIT 1 13
The Colonial Schools

Various types of schools existed during the colonial days, namely town schools,
parochial and private schools, Latin Grammar schools, academies and colleges. Lets
take a look at each of the colonial schools.
Town Schools
1. Focused on primary education.
2. Existed in the New England colonies.
3. Locally controlled, mainly by religious groups.
4. Students age range: Between 5 to 6, and 13 to 14 years old.
5. Simple one-roomed structure with the teachers pulpit at the front.
6. Focus: Reading, writing and religious sermons.
Latin Grammar Schools

1. Focused on secondary education.
2. Established by the Puritans.
3. Attended by the upper-class boys as a preparation for higher learning.
4. The main curriculum was Latin.
5. Focus: Reading, writing and arithmetic.
Parochial and Private Schools

Middle Colonies
2. The schools were set up by various religious and ethnic groups.
Southern Colonies
2. The upper-class children attended private schools.

3. Focus: Reading (to read the Bible), writing and arithmetic.

4. The lower-class children attended charity schools.
5. Focus: Three Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic), recite religious hymns
and vocational skills.
Academies
1. The curriculum was more diverse and practical.
2. Catered to those who were not going to college.
3. Latin was no longer the main important subject.
4. The skills taught were more on practical and manual skills, which later became
the foundation of vocational curriculum.
Colleges
1. Established based on the Puritans view that ministers needed to be thoroughly
educated in religious classics and scriptures.
2. Those from Latin Grammar schools were prepared to take an entrance test in
order to enter Harvard or Yale University.
By now, you should notice that the main driving force for people to learn and
establish schools during the colonial period was religion. It was obvious that religion
played an important part in the development of this earliest education system.
The rise of universal education (1820 1920)

After the American Revolution (1763 1783) in which the first thirteen colonies in
North America joined together to create the United States of America, new trends in
education emerged. Educationists began to advocate the concept of mass education
and public schooling. They believed in the need to provide equal educational
opportunity to all regardless of their social class as mentioned in an excerpt from
the Declaration of Independence in 1776:
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.
Source: Morgan (2004)
UNIT 1 15
The Declaration expressed the concept of equality, in which every person

regardless of his/her social class was important. This brings to the fore the issue
of the importance of education and the necessity of school for everyone. There
was progress in creating a public universal education for everyone as well as the
advancement of gender equity. Various types of schools, namely the monitorial
schools, common schools, elementary schools, secondary schools, academies
and high schools emerged to realise the mission of education for all.
Monitorial Schools (1820s)
1. It was also known as the Lancasterian System.
3. The system was based on John Lancasters idea that students should be
segregated based on their abilities. Students with higher abilities would be
elected as monitors in which they were taught directly by the teachers, and
later took turns to teach their lower ability peers in small groups.
4. Type of instruction: Highly-structured, based on rote learning.
5. Focus: Three Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic) and good citizenship.
Activity 1.4
What do you think were the issues surrounding the monitorial school system?
Common Schools (1826)

1. The term was coined by Horace Mann.
3. Established in Massachusetts when there was a law requiring every town to
choose a school board which will be responsible for all local schools.
4. 11 years later, the first state board of education was established. This was the
beginning of the central authority system for public common schools.
5. The aim was to provide equal opportunity in education and establish a
common classroom for all.
6. Focus: Three Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic).

Activity 1.5
Education, then, beyond all other devices of human origin, is the great equaliser
of the conditions of men, the balance wheel of the social machinery.
Source: Horace Mann Educators Corporation (2002)
The excerpt above was quoted by Horace Mann. Read more about Horace Mann
from the textbook and web. Explain why he was called the Father of American
Education and his contributions to society based on the above quote.
Elementary Schools (1825)

1. The schools were locally controlled.
2. The curriculum of elementary schools was not standardised among schools.
3. Essential subjects: Reading, spelling, grammar and arithmetic.
4. A few changes were made, such as, religious studies were changed to manners
and moral studies.
5. As the years progressed, more subjects were added to the educational system,
such as Geography and History (1850), Science, Visual Art, Physical
Education (1875), Nature Study, Music, Home Economics and manual
training (1900).
Secondary Schools (1880)

1. The schools were locally controlled and tax-supported.
2. It was basically advanced elementary common schools.
3. This later became the basis for the establishment of high schools in the United
States.
UNIT 1 17
Academies (1850)
1. Academies replaced Latin Grammar schools which were popular during the
colonial period.
2. Academies offered preparatory courses for those who intended to enter
college.
3. They also provided students with practical subjects and skills which
prepareed students for life, such as the subject of modern nature.
4. In 1870s, academies were replaced by public high schools.
High Schools (1874)

1. The rapid growth of high schools began in 1874 after they were publicly
funded. Many states in the United States made school attendance compulsory.
2. One major feature of the high school system was the elimination of students
segregation in that they provided curriculum options for every student
regardless of their social class.
3. High schools focused on college preparatory course but the curriculum was
more diverse compared to the courses offered by the academies.
4. In 1900, high schools began to offer vocational, industrial, commercial and
clerical courses in order to produce skilled workers for the country.
Transitional period (1893 1918)

So far, we have discussed the evolution of curriculum throughout the years, from
the colonial period (1642 1776) until the era of the rise of universal education
(1820 1920). In this section, we will look at the curriculum development during
the transitional period. During the colonial period until the twentieth century,
education was based on classical curriculum that emphasised mental discipline.
During the transitional period, the curriculum differed according to school and
states, thus there was a need to have uniform curriculum especially at secondary
school level.

Reformers proposed that two types of curriculum should be offered in schools;

one for children who aimed to go to high school after they completed elementary
level, while the other is for those who have no intention to continue their education
after elementary level.
School
Elementary School
Do students plan to continue?
Yes
No
Curriculum: Track 1
The curriculum will prepare
them for high school subjects
Curriculum: Track 2
The curriculum will cover only
aspects considered important
for elementary school learners
Three committees were established by the National Education Association (NEA)

between 1893 until 1895 to come up with a standardised curriculum for schools.
This was because during that time, the curriculum differed for every school and
region. Each committee had different focuses and produced several reports, as
explained in the figure at the following page.
UNIT 1 19
National Education Association
The Committee
of Fifteen
The Committee
of Ten
1. Focused on elementary
education.
1. Focused on secondary
schools.
2. Two of the members

were Charles Eliot
and William Harris.
2. Chaired by Charles
Eliot.
3. Some of the ideas

suggested were:
a. To retain the
traditional
curriculum.
b. Reduce grades
from 10 to 8.
c. Main subjects:
3 Rs, grammar,
literature,
geography and
history.
d. Rejected the idea
of adding new
subjects to the
curriculum.
3. The committee
proposed:
a. Nine academic
subjects as the
main focus.
b. Four different
tracks of learning.
c. Subjects such as
art, music, physical
education and
vocational
education are not
included.
* Reason: These subjects
are not contributing
much to the childrens
mental discipline.
The Committee on
College Entrance
Requirements
1. Members: College and
university presidents,
including Charles
Eliot.
2. The report includes:
a. Reaffirm the
curriculum in high
schools where they
emphasise
preparation for
college as well as
classical subjects.
b. Credit requirements
in certain subjects
for college entrance.
This was later
named as Carnegie
units or Carnegie
hours, which are
the number of
hours per unit in
which a course is
taught (LAVC,
2003).
Reading
Charles William Eliot (1834 1926) plays a significant part in all three committees,
namely The Committee of Fifteen, The Committee of Ten and The Committee
on College Entrance Requirements. Read more about the American educator from
your textbook on pages 84 85.
You may also follow this link to get more information about Eliot: http://education.
stateuniversity.com/pages/1951/Eliot-Charles-1834-1926.html

During the transitional period, the establishment of vocational education was

much supported by the NEA Committee. In the report, they suggested that
manual activities were to be taught at elementary level, while training was to
be done for some high school students after they sat for their aptitude testing.
However, some issues were debated regarding the establishment of vocational
education concept. Lets have a look at what had been said about the concept of
vocational education:
The promotion of vocational education hinders the democratic common school
movement. (Jane Addams, John Dewey and William H. Kilpatrick)
Concerned that child of immigrants will be steered into the system. (Jane
Addams)
Working-class students were being placed in non-academic vocational program.
(Micheal Apple, Alfie Kohn and Jeannie Oaks)
Based on the above arguments, you may notice that the educators were concerned
with one issue, which was the segregation of students according to their social
status and bias which might happen in the vocational education program.
The debates over classical curriculum

During the late 19th and early 20th century, the classical curriculum began to be
questioned by educators and thinkers. They rejected the idea of emphasising
mental discipline in learning. Instead, they emphasised on vocational, technical and
scientific subjects. Some of the important figures leading this movement are:
Period: Late nineteenth and early twentieth century

Charles Peirce
William James
Pragmatic Theories
Charles Darwin
Johann Friedrich Herbart
Herbert Spencer
Social Theories
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Friedrich Froebel
Maria Montessori
Pedagogical Theories
UNIT 1 21
In the twentieth century, various theories influenced the progress of curriculum

development. We will discuss this based on the ideas of theorists, such as John Dewey,
Abraham Flexner, and many others. They argued that the traditional curricula with
major emphasis on mental discipline had no advantages over other learning styles.
What did the educators and psychologists say?
Abraham Flexner
Traditional curriculum does not have the ability to justify the subject matter and
curriculum needs to evolve with societal changes. He proposed a school where
the pedagogy offers more flexibility towards childrens development.
John Dewey
I believe that they are not special studies which are to be introduced over and above
a lot of others in the way of relaxation or relief, or as additional accomplishments.
Dewey believes in educating children through experience and there is no subject
better than another. This means that all subjects are equal and they are able to
provide knowledge to students as long as they are engaged in the situation.
Based on the ideas of Flexner and Dewey, the NEAs Commission on the
Reorganisation of Secondary Education issued the Cardinal Principles of Secondary
Education report in 1918. The commission stressed the whole development of the
child, education for all youths, more diverse areas of study and study of common
culture, instead of religious studies (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009).
European influences in curriculum development

European ideas had a huge influence on the U.S . education history. The Europeans
acknowledged the limitations of the traditional curriculum and their thoughts
provided new ideas about pedagogical practices in the education system. We will
discuss the European educators in the nineteenth century who made significant
contributions in curriculum studies.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746 1827)
1. Pestalozzi rejects the idea of traditional curriculum and believes that
education should revolve around the children.
2. He believes that every individual is different and teachers should
guide students to develop their potentials instead of implanting
knowledge.
3. Children learn through their senses and natural environment.

4. He came up with two methods of teaching, which are general

method and special method.
5. General method: Provide children with emotional security.
6. Special method: Use sensory learning.
7. Developed the idea of object lesson where students determine the
object form, draw and name the object.
8. His ideas provide a base for modern elementary education.
Friedrich Froebel (1782 1852)

1. Student of Pestolazzi and very much influenced by his ideas.
2. Came out with the concept of kindergarten which means childrens
garden where he implies that children learn by playing and interacting
with nature.
3. He believes that learning should be student-centred and done in a
free, loving as well as affectionate environment.
Activity 1.6
What are the similarities between Pestolazzis and Froebels concepts of education?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776 1841)

1. According to Herbart, traditional curriculum is too rigid.
2. He calls for a more diverse and balanced curriculum.
3. Proposed the five formal steps of instruction (i.e., The Five Formal
Steps of the Recitation)
4. Preparation: Consider students prior experience and prepare them to
receive new lesson.
5. Presentation: Presenting new lesson to the students.
UNIT 1 23
6. Association: Associate and relate new ideas with previous knowledge.

7. Generalisation: Students use their mind to go beyond the abstract and
concept. Provide example to demonstrate and generalise ideas.
8. Application: Apply what they have learned in new situation.
The impact of the historical English curriculum development on the

Malaysian curriculum
In what way is the historical English and European curriculum development
similar or different to our own Malaysian curriculum development? To start with,
you should have realised that the aim of education in the colonial period was to
prepare children to be religious. They believed that by being religious, children
would become more obedient, respectful and good men. The main focus of their
curriculum was on the 3Rs: reading, writing and arithmetic. Such skills were crucial
to enable them to read and write the Bible.
This approach to curriculum was similar to our own educational goals especially
during the colonial period. As you will learn in the next section, Islamic studies
such as al-Quran reading and Fardhu Ain were given the priority in the early
Malaysian education system.
Additionally, schools were established and managed by a variety of special interest
groups such as the religious groups, private organisations and the town community
itself. Each of these groups had their own educational perspectives and implemented
it in their schools. Consequently there was no uniform curriculum for all schools.
Such situation also existed during the earliest educational era in Malaysia. There
were mainly three types of schools: the Malay, Chinese and Tamil vernacular schools.
Each school carried its own mission and educational goals. As you will learn later
on, these schools were purposefully established by the British administration under
the divide and rule policy to serve their own political agenda.
Finally, you should also notice the criticism over the rote learning techniques as
applied in the traditional curriculum. Such criticism then led some influential
curriculum reformers and philosophers to propose various other teaching techniques,
which emphasises childrens critical and creative thinking skills. The educational
reformers philosophies continue to influence the design and development of
curriculum in many other countries today, including our own Malaysian education
system.
Self-assessment exercise
In your opinion, why do you think you need to know about the history of
education? What effect does it have on your perspectives towards teaching?

Summary
So far we have discussed the evolution of the curriculum and the education
system based on the case study of the United States. Looking back at the historical
development in the US, we can see some aspects of their education system that
are in line with our own Malaysian system. Next you will learn in-depth the
historical development of the Malaysian curriculum and how does the National
Educational Philosopy (NEP) guides the development of our curriculum and
other educational-related programmes in Malaysia.
Activity 1.4
Many critics say that although the system could cater for mass education by electing
students to be monitors, the efficiency was questionable when poorly informed
students were chosen. The curriculum was also considered too mechanical and
structured.
Activity 1.5
Horace Mann led the public school system movement in which every child could
attend school without a cost and to all children are provided with equal educational
opportunity. Mann argued that public education would enhance public good, as
well as political and economic well-being. The idea of a common school would be
an equaliser in society.
Activity 1.6
Both scholars are of the view that children learn best through their life experiences
and senses. The curriculum, then, should be student-centred and active, instead
of teacher-centred as proposed by the traditionalists. They also advocated the
concept of learning with concrete objects before proceeding with abstract
concepts. Additionally they emphasise the design of safe and stimulating learning
environments for better learning experiences.
UNIT 1 25
Suggested answer to self-assessment exercise
Possible answers depend on personal views. If one is a strong proponent of a single

philosophy, he/she may be able to explore specific instructional strategies in-depth
whereas applying a mixture of philosophies may allow one to explore various
instructional strategies in his/her teaching.

UNIT 1 27
1.3 The Malaysian Curriculum

Objectives
1. Briefly explain the major historical development of Malaysian curriculum.
2. State the reasons for curriculum change in the Malaysian curriculum.
3. Discuss the importance of the National Education Philosophy towards
Malaysian curriculum development.
4. Identify the purposes of various educational programmes implemented in
Malaysian schools since 1970.
Introduction
In this section, you will explore the historical development of our Malaysian
curriculum. You will also explore the Malaysian National Education Philosophy,
its goals and importance. Finally, you will be introduced to some important
educational programmes implemented by the government in Malaysian schools
since 1970.
The history of Malaysian curriculum development

The Malaysian curriculum can be traced back to before the independence of Malaysia
in 1957. We will discuss the history of Malaysian curriculum development in three
phases, starting right before the colonial period (1400 1786), before the Second
World War (1786 1941) and after the Second World War (1946 1956). Take note
of the progress and evolvement of curriculum over the years.
Phase 1: Education before the British Colonial Period (1400 1786)

The earliest form of education started before the British Colonial period in the form
of Islamic education. The evidence can be found in the literary work of Abdullah
bin Abdul Kadir, or Munshi Abdullah in Hikayat Abdullah. Lets take a look at the
three phases of education during this period.
Phase 1: Teachers home
Islamic education was taught informally in the teachers or Imams house.
Learned to read the Quran and basic Islamic knowledge such as Fardhu Ain.

Phase 2: Mosques, Surau and Madrasah

Islamic education was taught informally in institutions such as mosques, surau
and madrasah by Ulama.
This was due to the increasing number of students and the institutions could
accommodate more students.
Common goal: To produce virtuous Muslims who would obey the religious
commandments and be a useful person to the society (Ashraf,
1995).
Phase 3: Religious schools or pondok

The term pondok was derived from the Arabic funduq, which means hotel. This
means that this institution was also a boarding institution in which the students
stayed in simple huts built around the teachers house (Aljunied and Hussin, 2005).
Pondok schools were more organised and founded by mostly ulama or the local
community.
There was no standardised curriculum among the schools.
Curriculum focused on: Tauhid, Al-Quran, Fiqh, Hadith, Nahu, Sufi, Tasawwuf
and Akhlaq, Arabic language and Jawi.
Common goal: To produce virtuous Muslims who would obey the religious
commandments and be a useful person to society (Ashraf, 1995.)
Phase 2: Education during the British Colonial Period: Before the Second
World War (1786 1941)
The traditional Islamic education established before the British Colonial period
continued to evolve until the British came to Malaya in the late 18th century.
English schools were established by the missionaries as early as 1816 (Ashraf,
1995). Most of the schools were built in the town areas and were not accessible to
the Malays, the majority of whom were located in the remote and rural areas.
The English school system was rejected by the Malays due to several factors:
1. The school did not include Islamic teachings to its curriculum. The
Malays feared that going to English schools will result in their children
converting to Christianity.
2. Religious schools were already established to educate the children. The
Malays thought that the schools were not only adequate but also of higher
value compared to the English education (Ashraf, 1995).
UNIT 1 29
Vernacular school system was introduced by the British based on the Divide and
Rule policy. The policy aimed to segregate the three main ethnic groups: Malay,
Chinese and Indians in Malaya as well as maintaining their power. Each school
offered differed curriculum and was taught in their respective languages.
The British Divide and Rule Policy
Malays: They were segregated in the villages; continued cultivating the fields
and became farmers.
Chinese: They were segregated in the town areas; continued to run businesses
and mining fields.
Indians: They were segregated in the estates and plantations; continued to run
the estates.
Up to this point, there were four vernacular schools in Malaya during this period,
which were the Malay schools, Chinese schools, Tamil schools and English schools.
Malay Vernacular Schools
Level
: Primary school
Medium of instruction
: Malay
Primary purpose of the school : For the Malays to become literate, but not too
advanced up to the point that they might pose
a threat to the British administration.
Curriculum focused on
: Three Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic)

Malay history
Geography
Malay schools received poor response from the Malays as they were more
interested in religious studies. Besides, the subjects taught were seen as less
connected and helpful to their everyday village life.
Due to the poor response, A.M. Skinner, the first Inspector of Schools
re-established the Malay vernacular schools in 1871. Quranic teaching was
added into the new curriculum as an effort to attract the Malays to attend the
schools (Aljunied and Hussin, 2005).
The new curriculum received some positive response from the Malays. More
parents sent their children to attend the Malay vernacular schools. However, the
response was still low and the British administration decided to make attendance
to school compulsory for all children.
There were no secondary Malay schools.

Activity 1.7
Follow the link below to read more about the Malay vernacular schools during the
British Colonial Period.
Link: http://www.teo-education.com/teophotos/albums/userpics/053_Early_
Education_in_Malaysia.pdf
Unit:
6.2. Education during British Colonisation
Based on your reading, why do you think the British did not want the Malays to
receive a higher education and stop at the primary school level?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Chinese Vernacular Schools

Level
: Primary school
Medium of instruction : Chinese (according to dialects such as Hakka,

Hokkien or Cantonese)
Characteristics
: 1. The syllabus, textbooks and teachers were all

imported from China.
2. The Chinese schools ran by the Chinese
community.
Curriculum focused on : History, culture and geography of China

Due to heavy use of teaching and learning materials from China, the schools
had directly or indirectly instilled nationalistic sentiments towards China. The
British government had to intervene with the existing school system in order to
avoid any future threats to their administration.
Consequently, the British government started monitoring the Chinese schools
to ensure that the schools were free from any controversial and political matters.
Thus the schools were converted into semi-aided government schools.
UNIT 1 31
Tamil Vernacular Schools

Level
: Primary school
Medium of instruction : Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu

Location
: Rubber estates, sugar and coconut plantations
Curriculum focused on : History, Geography and culture of India

Characteristics
: 1. Books were imported from India.

2. The curricula were ill-structured, not focused and
poorly developed.
School attendance rate among the Indians was very low.

The British government had to intervene by setting up a law in which plantation
owners were required to open a school for their employees children.
There were no secondary Tamil schools.
Web Reference
Follow the link below to read more about the Tamil vernacular schools during the
British Colonial Period. The weblink below is also available in WawasanLearn.
Link: http://www.teo-education.com/teophotos/albums/userpics/053_Early_
Education_in_Malaysia.pdf
Unit:
6.2. Education during British Colonisation
Activity 1.8
After learning about the four vernacular schools based on the Divide and Rule
policy by the British government, what do you think the effects were on the people
of Malaya?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Phase 3: Education during the British Colonial Period: After the Second
World War (1946 1956)
During this period, the education system was still not standardised and there was
a need to unite the multiracial people of Malaya as well as to establish a uniform
school system. Legislative reforms played an important part in the development
of curriculum. Below is a concise summary of the legislative reforms during the
British Colonial Period which helped shape the Malayan/Malaysian education
system.
The Holgate Report
1949
Proposed:
English as medium of instruction in all
schools.
The proposal was rejected by the Federal
Legislative Council.
Barnes Report
1950
Proposed:
Standardised national schools using
bilingual languages (English and Malay)
in primary schools.
For secondary schools, English continued
to be the medium of instruction.
Fenn-Wu Report
1952
Proposed:
Supported the development of a national
school system.
Suggested that Chinese schools should be
maintained.
Education Ordinance
1952
Proposed:
Based on Barnes and Fenn-Wu Report.
Chinese and Tamil schools were not
included in the national schools. However,
the Chinese and Tamil languages would
be taught as the third language in schools
(apart from English and Malay).
UNIT 1 33
Razak Report
Proposed:
1956
Two types of primary schools:

1. National schools: Malay language as the
medium of instruction.
2. National-type schools:
a. English, Chinese or Tamil as medium
of instruction.
b. Malay language as a compulsory
subject.
Secondary schools:
1. One common syllabus.
2. Malay and English are compulsory.
Teachers were required to attend teacher

training colleges.
The National Education Philosophy (NEP)

What is National Education Philosophy (NEP)?
The National Education Philosophy was formulated in 1988. Developed by the
Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), the NEP guides and provides the direction
as well as the goal of education in Malaysia. It acts as a pillar for the Malaysian
education system. The NEP states that:
Education in Malaysia is an ongoing effort towards further developing the
potential of the individual in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally, and physically
balanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such
an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and
competent, who possess high moral standards, and who are responsible and
capable of achieving a high level of well-being to contribute to the betterment of
the family, society and the nation at large.
Source: Curriculum Development Centre (1990)

What are the goals of the National Education Philosophy?

The National Education Philosophy aims to achieve the following objectives:
Goals of National Education Philosophy
1. To achieve unity among Malaysians.
2. To produce individuals with faith, knowledge and vision.
3. To enable all Malaysians to have opportunity to receive education.
4. To instil positive values among Malaysians.
5. To produce human resources for development needs.
6. To produce a balanced Malaysian in terms of knowledge and character.
What are the elements of the National Education Philosophy?

Let us take a look at the main elements of the National Education Philosophy and
the implications it has for learners as well as educators.
Elements
Implications
Education is
an on-going
effort
Education is for lifelong purposes. Early education

is crucial as it helps shape the childrens lifelong
development.
Throughout their learning journeys, various
knowledge, skills and characters will be learned,
developed and enhanced continuously.
Development
of individual
potential and
intellectual
element
Every individual has his/her own potentials and

talents which need to be nurtured, developed
and enhanced.
Education can help develop and nurture ones
hidden talents, potentials and abilities.
UNIT 1 35
Elements
3
Spiritual
element
Implications
Being aware of Gods existence and believing in
God.
Possess noble values.
The importance of religion as part of being a
balanced person.
Emotional
element
Possess and nurture love as well as unity among

people.
Physical
element
Keep up with health and physical fitness.

Use physical energy and skills to benefit the
community.
Knowledgeable
citizen
Love knowledge and education.

Utilise the knowledge for own benefits as well as
others.
Competent
citizen
Citizens who possess various skills will provide

productive and innovative manpower.
Responsible
citizen
Hold responsibility towards God as well as the

country.
Citizens who
are able to
contribute to
the harmony
and betterment
of society and
country
A tolerant citizen who strives to live in harmony

and prosperity, thus achieving unity.

Web Reference
Proceed with the link below and read about the Roles of School in Realisation
of the National Education Philosophy. The weblink below is also available in
WawasanLearn.
Link: http://teachinginmalaysia.blogspot.com/2011/02/malaysia-nationaleducation-philosophy.html
Unit:
5.0 Roles of School in Realisation of the FPK (Falsafah Pendidikan

Kebangsaan)
Activity 1.9
How can a teacher translate the elements in the National Education Philosophy
(NEP) into his/her teaching and learning?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Educational programmes implemented in Malaysian schools

So far we have discussed the education system and development of curriculum
before independence in 1957. In this section, we will look into the progress of
Malaysian education system starting from the year 1970 until 2010, with the goal
of increasing the access as well as improving the quality of education.
The school system in Malaysia consists of three levels of learning: primary, lower
secondary and upper secondary levels. In lieu with the National Education
Policy (NEP), Bahasa Malaysia has become the main medium of instruction since
1970. Special schools were established to cater for children with special needs,
such as visually-impaired or hearing-impaired children. Let us take a look at the
structure of schools in Malaysia in the figure below.
UNIT 1 37
Structure of Malaysian Schools

Primary School
Duration
: 6 years
Curriculum focus : Emphasis on the acquisition of reading and writing

skills, as well as foundation in mathematics and basic
sciences.
Two types
: 1. National school (Sekolah Kebangsaan)

Medium of instruction: Bahasa Malaysia
2. National-type school (Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan)
Medium of instruction: Tamil or Chinese, with
Bahasa Malaysia as a compulsory subject.
Lower Secondary School

Duration
: 3 years
After successful completion at the lower secondary level, children will

proceed to upper secondary level.
Upper Secondary School

Duration
: 2 years
There is a range of subject options to choose from at this level.
Activity 1.10
State the reasons of establishments of the national and national-type primary
schools.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

National educational programmes

The Malaysian government has implemented various educational programmes and
opportunities to achieve universal primary education for all. Lets take a look at the
major programmes implemented so far.
The First Malaysian Plan (1966 1970)
Programmes implemented:
1. Mobilising resources in order to enhance the number of school-going
children.
2. Two school sessions in a day.
3. (1962) School fees were abolished.
4. (1967) School health programme was implemented.
Goal: To improve access to education.
The New Economic Policy (1971 1990): Second until Fifth Malaysian Plan
1. (1972) Hostel facilities for children in rural areas.
2. (1975) Textbook-on-loan scheme to provide textbooks for qualifying
children.
3. (1976) Supplementary food programme.
4. (1983) School milk programme.
Goal: The schemes were aimed to provide access and facilities for the lowerincome pupils.
UNIT 1 39
The National Development Policy (1991 2000): Sixth and Seventh

Malaysian Plan
1. (1995) Special education to cater for children with special needs.
2. (1999) Upgrading teachers education by encouraging them to enrol in
special degree programme for teachers.
3. (1999) Smart school pilot project launched.
The National Vision Policy (2001 2010): Eighth Malaysian Plan

1. (2003) Primary schooling was made compulsory.
2. Improvement in the school environment and infrastructure to provide a
conducive learning environment.
Goal:
a. To address performance gap between the schools in rural and urban areas.
b. Enhance accessibility and provide a better learning environment.
Source: http://www.undp.org.my/uploads/mdg2.pdf
Various efforts have been made by the government throughout the years to
reform the Malaysian school system. Based on your readings, what were the aims
of the education system reform?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Summary
So far we have looked at the historical development of our own Malaysian
education system. We have covered the time before the British colonial period
till after the Second World War. We have also discussed the utilisation of our
Malaysian National Education Philosophy (NEP) in the present system and how
various programmes were administered to realise the goals stated in the NEP.
Next, you will explore some of the trends and issues of curriculum studies that
are of interest to the scholars and curricularists worldwide.
Activity 1.7
The British administration did not want the Malays to pursue their education higher
than primary level because they wanted to ensure the Malays were not exposed to
the outside world, to continue living in the villages and accept their roles and place
in society. The British also did not want the Malays to rise and pose a threat to
them.
Activity 1.8
1. The policy segregated the various ethnic races in Malaya and this resulted in
lack of unity among them.
2. There were issues of nationalism related to their country of origin.
3. The education system was not uniform and varied among the four types of
schools.
Activity 1.9
To translate this philosophy into teaching and learning, the aims of the curriculum
should be formulated to reflect the NEP. The method of teaching should also be
directed towards emphasising the values as stated in the NEP.
UNIT 1 41
Activity 1.10
1. To meet the needs of the countrys multiracial population, particularly to
achieve unity and integration.
2. To come up with one common and standardised curriculum.
Some possible answers include:

1. To improve accessibility of education to all children.
2. To enhance the quality of the education system.

UNIT 1 43
1.4 Trends and Current Issues in Modern

Curriculum Studies
Objectives
1. Discuss at least three main issues related to the curriculum.
2. Describe the concept of civic-minded professionals.
3. State the advantages and disadvantages of standardised testing.
4. Briefly explain how the integration of technology can improve teaching and
learning.
Introduction
In this section, you will learn about three main issues related to curriculum. They
are: preparing students for the real world, preparing civic-minded professionals
and standardised testing. Each of these issues impact the way curriculum to be
designed, developed and implemented. The following is the discussion of each
issue.
Preparing students for the real world

Are our students prepared to face the real world?
There have been many critics of our current education system. One of the main
issues is the inability of the system to produce highly knowledgeable and skilful
people to satisfy market demands. Such critiques are voiced by future employers who
often find that school and college graduates are lacking in terms of their ability to
carry out the jobs offered. Graduates are often said to be very academic, unable to
apply their classroom learning to real-world situations and incompetent in certain
areas of soft skills such as communication, ability to manage and work well with
others on a project.
Much of these critiques are attributed to the failure of the current education system:
overemphasis on academic achievement, teacher-centred, rather than learner-centred,
teaching approaches; rote learning, memorisation of facts and figures rather than
implementation of active and reflective teaching and learning strategies; and the
utilisation of the one size fits all approach in designing curricula rather than
personalising instruction based on individual needs.

Preparing students for real-world involves shifting our current views of structural
and cultural change (Ornstein and Hunkins 2009, 311). We need to constantly
question the structure of schools in relation to its role in society, and the roles of
teachers, students and staffs in the system. It also requires reinvention of school
cultures to become ... one of learning, knowing, and doing (Ornstein and
Hunkins 2009, 312). Curriculum components need to be carefully selected and
organised in order to establish a higher standard. There is also a need to shift
the traditional pedagogy to a constructivist way of learning where students learn
actively and are required to be more engaged as well as creative in their thinking.
Students also should be given more freedom to voice out their opinions and
accept their responsibilities and roles in the scholarly community. This enables
students to gain a deeper sense of self-understanding as well as towards others.
Customisation of the curriculum is another way to expand students learning in
which the contents and materials can be tailored by students to best meet their
needs and abilities.
Scholars differ in their proposals on how education should look like. Let us take a
look at what had been said by the reformers about the education system and what
it should be about:
John P. Miller
Miller advocates holistic education. The aim is to nurture the development of
a person as a whole intellectually, emotionally, physically, socially, aesthetically
and spiritually (Miller, 2005). Miller believes that schools should be the place to
nurture joy, wholeness, awe, and a sense of purpose in students (Ornstein and
Hunkins, 2009).
Larry Cuban
Larry criticised current school system in that schools are always viewed as
factories. From his point of view, students are often seen as products and thus,
need to be molded to meet up with certain standards. Such perspective fails to
acknowledge students individuality as well as personal abilities.
Thomas Armstrong
Schools should allow children to make choices freely, explore and enjoy the
learning processes. This will make them enjoy going to school more instead of
the feeling that they have to go to school.
UNIT 1 45
Deborah Meier
Aligned with Ornsteins (2009, 313) view of the dangerously safe schools,
Meier listed 7 ways of reinventing school culture:
1. Students are kept safe from any physical and mental harm.
2. There is a proportionate number of experts and students in the learning
community.
3. Students learn collaboratively instead of individually.
4. Applying a variety of approaches towards learning.
5. Students are given ample time to develop ideas.
6. The schools are organised and make learning engaging as well as fun.
7. The school exists in a community, where students learn and apply their
knowledge based on real-life issues.
Alexander Sidorkin
Sidorkin proposes the concept of carnival where the school atmosphere can be
described as carefree, full-spirited, full of joy, fun, fantasy and community, and
the people have no commitments or concerns (Ornstein and Hunkins 2009,
314) or what Ornstein and Hunkins referred to as dangerously fun culture
(2009, 313).
Another way to promote students all-round success is to implement an applied

and integrated curriculum. Lets take a closer look at the definition of applied
and integrated curriculum as defined by the North Central Regional Educational
Laboratory (NCREL).
Integrated curriculum
Curriculum that involves:
1. making connection across subject-matter.
2. emphasises diverse and interrelated concepts, contents and/or processes.
3. establishes relationship between students past, present and future learning
experiences.

Applied curriculum
Curriculum that emphasises on practical application of concepts, in which
students apply their knowledge and skills to demonstrate competencies in
real-world tasks.
Implementation of an applied and integrated curriculum will result in more

meaningful learning as all subject matters are interconnected and applicable in
real-life situations. Such curriculum does not only focus on students academic
achievements, but also on development of practical and vocational skills. A
classroom designed with the applied and integrated curriculum is more studentcentred, encourages students to be more responsible towards their own learning,
emphasises on authentic and contextual learning in which learning simulates the
situation which happens in real life, encourages collaborative learning, and more
practical and hands-on.
Activity 1.11
Suggest one way you could implement the applied and integrated curriculum in
your classroom.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Developing civic-minded professionals

Whilst many scholars advocate the idea of equipping students with a variety of
skills relevant to the workplace, another group of scholars advocate the need to
produce civic-minded professionals. In this section, we will discuss the characteristics
that describe civic-minded professionals.
What are civic-minded professionals?

Before we discuss civic-minded professionals, we need to know the concept of
civic-mindedness. Civic-mindedness can be defined as the attitude and behaviour
of an individual that are beneficial to society, as well as the belief that it is an
individuals responsibility to actively participate in and contribute to his or her
societys life (Smart, Sanson, Da Silva and Toumbourou, 2000).
UNIT 1 47
Technical vs. civic professionalism

William Sullivan (2004; 2005) proposes two concepts of professionalism:
technical and civic professionalism. Refer to the chart below to differentiate between
the two concepts.
Sullivans concept of professionalism
Professionalism
Technical
Civic
Professionals are experts with

specific knowledge and skills,
and are considered the source
of expertise.
Professionals who contribute

their skills and expertise to
improve public life.
Sullivan argues that professionals are bounded by an implicit pledge and social
contract with the public. An individual professional is a social trustee of knowledge,
who implicitly professes to deploy their skills and expertise to advance the social
values in the interest of those they serve (Sullivan 2004, 15). A lawyer, for instance,
is publicly assumed to always stand up for justice while a medical officer has the
implicit responsibilities to save peoples lives.
Along the same line, Yusop and Correia (2011) propose a change in our view
of education. Instead of mainly focusing on cultivation of students technical
skills, they call for the emphasis on civic values in the design of a curriculum.
They argue that an overemphasis on career preparation will lead us to produce
technical professionals who value only commercialisation of their knowledge and
skills, professionals who are looking for economic benefits and enjoying better
social status in society. Consequently, they assert, we will overlook another critical
aspect of education and/or training, that is, the why aspect of the profession
and the meaning of being professionals. What will happen to the members of
society if our doctors are only concerned with monetary gains? Perhaps some of
the consequences will be increasing numbers of doctors who are highly selective
in treating patients, and insufficient numbers of doctors who are willing to serve
in remote and rural areas, poorly equipped and low-paid health institutions.
Similarly, what will then happen to our school system if our education system fails
to educate civic-minded teachers?
Producing civic-minded professionals require changes to the way we teach our
students. Focusing on developing civic-minded instructional designers, Yusop and
Correia (2011) outline several aspects of education that can assist in nurturing
civic-minded professionals.

There are four qualities of civic-minded professionals: belief, knowledge, skills

and dispositions.
Qualities of Civic-Mindedness in Instructional Designers
Belief
Social interdependence believe that his or her work

may have implications for the larger community.
Social trustee of knowledge believe that he or she
has the knowledge and expertise to solve communitys
problems.
Agent of change believe he or she has the ability to
produce positive changes for the community.
Knowledge
Knowledgeable about social issues in micro, macro

and mega contexts.
Knowledgeable about issues of cultural diversities.
Possesses various skills, including:

3
Skills
a. interpersonal skills
b. leadership skills
c. teamwork skills
d. technical skills
Dispositions
Public-spiritedness, that is having an interest in issues

related to public welfare.
Motivated to help others.
Supports public role of his/her profession.
Source: Adapted from Yusop and Correia (2011)
A standardised testing is a means to evaluate students mastery of knowledge
based on predetermined standards pre-identified by the state, national and/or
international organisations.
UNIT 1 49
National Standards Tests in Malaysia

In Malaysia, there are four types of national standards tests. They are:
1. Primary School Achievement Test or Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah
(UPSR).
2. Lower Secondary Assessment or Penilaian Menengah Rendah (PMR).
3. Malaysia Certificate of Education or Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM).
4. Malaysia Higher School Certificate or Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia
(STPM).
There are various responses and debates surrounding the issue of standardised
testing. Some critics suggested that instead of relying too much on high-stakes
tests, we too should seek other means of assessment in order to determine the
quality and depth of students intellectual, physical and spiritual competencies
(Ornestein, 2009). There is also an issue where teachers are teaching to the test in
which teachers are focusing only on getting students ready for the assessment itself,
and not teaching the subject matter for deeper understanding (Firestone, 2001).
Consequently, teachers fail to acknowledge each students individual needs.
Web Reference
Follow the links below to read more about standardised testing in schools. The
weblink below is also available in WawasanLearn.
1. http://www.education.com/reference/article/standardized-testing/
2. http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Test_Problems_Seven/
3. https://www.msu.edu/~youngka7/testing.html

Activity 1.12
Based on you readings, discuss two advantages and disadvantages of standardised
testing.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Integration of technology to improve teaching and learning

The advancement of technology offers many opportunities and possibilities to
the educational field when it is integrated into teaching and learning. What does
technology integration mean? Technology integration means viewing technology
as an instructional tool for delivering the subject matter in the curriculum already
in place (Woodbridge, 2004). When properly planned and implemented, teaching
and learning with technology makes learning more joyful and meaningful, improves
patterns of social interaction, changes teachers teaching styles, and increases
students and teachers motivation to teach and learn (Earle, 2002). Students will be
able to experience a simulated volcanic landscape with its bubbling lava, spewing
eruptions, and colliding rivers of fire; travel and visit a tourist attraction or virtual
museum; interact and perhaps conduct research with their counterparts in other
countries via the internet; write an e-book and Wikipedia together; self-publish
their own school projects, movies and songs via YouTube; read news from all over
the world within a very short period of time, and much more.
UNIT 1 51
Below are some guidelines on how teachers can integrate technology into our
classrooms.
Factors to be considered before integrating technology into teaching and
learning
The use of technology should be based on how people learn best. This can be
based on Howard Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligence which suggests that
individuals learn in a multitude of ways and there are many ways to facilitate
learning (Jackson et. al, 2009).
Teachers should not put too much focus on technology and ignore other
important aspects, such as pedagogy and the content of instruction. This is
because technology alone does not promote learning, more important is how the
technology is incorporated into the pedagogy and content to create a stimulating
as well as an engaging learning environment for the students. He or she should
ask how technology is supporting the pedagogy.
Teachers also should keep in mind that there is no best or ideal technology,
however, technology is malleable and they need to choose what they have and
repurpose it to best fit their learning environment and content.
Cautionary notes on technology uses

Despite the benefits of using technology in the teaching and learning processes,
curricularists and educators warn teachers to be thoughtful about how technology
is employed. Decisions to employ certain technologies should be based on learning
theories and educational practices (Jackson, Gaudet, McDaniel and Brammer, 2009).
Teachers need to keep in mind not to be too focused on the technical aspects of
technology so much so that they ignore the pedagogical aspects.
Technology alone does not necessarily promote learning nor could it provide
knowledge to learners, but well-integrated practices could. Technological
advancement such as simulations do not mean ignoring hands-on learning in which
students can learn from the real world. Students too should be facilitated to become
actively engaged learners instead of passive recipients of knowledge who are
able to make sense out of information received in order to gain new knowledge.
Additionally, teachers need to encourage students to use available technologies to
broaden their knowledge sphere by encouraging them to read diverse resources
from various media. This is important because current technologies and media
have made it possible for individuals to select only information they wish to hear,
see, and consider (Ornstein and Hunkins 2009, 330). This may result in the
inability to respect, tolerate and consider others views. This is a challenge teachers
have yet to manage.

Web Reference
What is Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligence? Follow the link below to read
more about it. The weblink below is also available in WawasanLearn.
http://www.springhurst.org/articles/MItheory.htm
Activity 1.13
Based on your field of teaching, give an idea of how you would integrate technology
in teaching and learning.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Discuss the advantages of technology integration in teaching and learning.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Summary
This section presents some critical issues surrounding the field of curriculum
studies. They are the issue of preparing students for the real-world environment,
the current trend of developing civic-minded professionals, the continuous
controversy on standardised testing, and the integration of technology to improve
teaching and learning. Be conscious about the controversies surrounding these
issues will provide teachers with some critical perspectives related to curriculum
development and implementation.
UNIT 1 53
Activity 1.11
In vocational courses, the teacher can integrate more academic skills based on
workplace situations.
In academic courses, the teacher can teach concepts that relate to real-life
occupational situations. This could help students visualise the relationship between
what they learn and the skills needed in the real world. (North Central Regional
Educational Laboratory, 1998)
Activity 1.12
Advantages
1. A standardised test could ensure that students are assessed based on the
same criteria, regardless of schools, or states they are from. This could
lessen, if not remove any bias that could occur during testing.
2. Every student has an equal opportunity for advancement.
3. It can be a source of motivation to the students. The sense of competition
with peers may motivate them to double efforts to achieve good academic
results.
Disadvantages
1. Measuring students knowledge and mastery level with only one test is
insufficient, nor could it predict future performance.
2. There may be bias against a certain population, for instance, children in
rural areas may not have an idea of the situation in the urban areas, thus
making it difficult for them to relate to it.
3. Learning may involve rote memorisation and drill, as well as learning for
exams instead of learning for experience or life. Students may not be able
to internalise what they have learned.
4. The emotional impact it has on students such as anxiety and emotional
distress.

Activity 1.13
Some possible answers are:
1. Using Wiki to encourage students collaborative writing projects.
2. Using Facebook as class website in which students and teachers can share
resources and reflect on the knowledge gained.
3. Teachers encourage students to conduct research online.
4. Using simulations to explain complex concepts such as blood circulation.
1. The use of technology could facilitate the teaching and learning process as well
as provide a more enhanced learning experience.
2. Using technology, teachers could develop instructions that are motivationally
appealing to the learner, hence increasing their interest to learn.
UNIT 1 55
Summary of Unit 1
In this unit, we have explored some definitions, conceptions and approaches to
curriculum. We have also looked into the historical curriculum development in
the West and compared it with our own Malaysian history. We have also explored
the Malaysian National Education Philosophy (NEP) and how it influences the
design and implementation of various educational programmes. Finally, we have
discussed some of the issues pertaining to curriculum studies. Information in
this unit is fundamental to curriculum planning and implementation as will be
discussed in later units.

UNIT 1 57
References
Aljunied, S M K and Hussin, D I (2005) Estranged from the ideal past: Historical
evolution of Madrassahs in Singapore, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 25 (2).
Ashraf, S A (1995) Introduction, Educational Dualism in Malaysia, http://www.
scribd.com/doc/56615736/1 (Accessed 12 April 2012)
Campbell, D S and Caswell, H L (1935) Curriculum Development, New York:
American Book Company.
Cheek, K (nd) Schooling, Education, and Literacy in Colonial America, http://
schools.scusd.edu/owerlewine/room8/ColoniesQuest.htm (Accessed 12 April 2012)
Doll, R (1996) Curriculum Improvement: Decision Making and Process, 9th edn,
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Eisner, E W (1994) The Educational Imagination: on Design and Evaluation of School
Programs, 3rd edn, New York: Macmillan.
Earle, R S (2002) The Integration of Instructional Technology into Public Education:
Promises and Challenges, http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic87187.files/
Earle02.pdf (Accessed 12 April 2012)
Firestone, W A (2001) Issues in Education: Standardized Testing, http://ur.rutgers.
edu/focus/article/Issues%20in%20education%3A%20standardized%20testing/
851/p1 (Accessed 12 April 2012)
Horace Mann Educators Corporation (2002) Early American Education and Horace
Mann: An Integrated Unit of Study, http://www.reacheverychild.com/feature/
horace.html (Accessed 12 April 2012)
Ismail, H, Yunus, A S M, Ali, W Z W, Hamzah, R, Abu, R and Nawawi, H (2009)
Belief in God based on the national philosophy of education amongst Malaysian
secondary school teachers, European Journal of Social Sciences, 8 (1).
Jackson, A, Gaudet, L, McDaniel, L and Brammer, D (2009) Curriculum
integration: The use of technology to support learning, Journal of College Teaching
and Learning, 6 (7).
Kennedy, K J (2005) Rethinking teachers professional responsibilities: Towards a
civic professionalism, International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education,
1 (1).
Marsh, C J (2009) Key Concepts for Understanding Curriculum, New York: Routledge.
Marsh, C J and Willis, G (2007) Curriculum: Alternative Approaches, Ongoing Issues,
4th edn, Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Miller, J P (2005) Holistic Learning, http://www.sunypress.edu/pdf/61067.pdf

(Accessed 12 April 2012)
Morgan, K L (2004) The declaration of independence, equality and unalienable
rights, Unalienable Rights, Equality and the Free Exercise of Religion, http://www.
lonang.com/conlaw/7/c71c.htm (Accessed 12 April 2012)
North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (1998) Critical Issue: Developing
an Applied and Integrated Curriculum, http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/
envrnmnt/stw/sw100.htm (Accessed 12 April 2012)
Ornstein, A C and Hunkins, F P (2009) Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and
Issues, 5th edn, New York, NY: Allyn and Bacon.
Posner, George J (2004) Analyzing the Curriculum, 3rd edn, Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Smart, D, Sanson, A, Da Silva, L and Toumbourou, J (2000) The Development
of Civic Mindedness, http://www.aifs.gov.au/institute/pubs/fm2000/fm57/ds.pdf
(Accessed 12 April 2012)
Sullivan, W M (2004) Can professionalism still be a viable ethic?, The Good Society,
13 (1).
Sullivan,W M (2005) Work and Integrity: The Crisis and Promise of Professionalism
in America, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Taba, H (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, New York: Harcourt,
Brace and World.
Wiles, J and Bondi, J (1998) Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice, 5th edn,
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Woodbridge, J (2004) Technology Integration as a Transforming Teaching Strategy,
http://www.techlearning.com/article/2022 (Accessed 12 April 2012)
Yusop, F D and Correia, A P (2011) The civic-minded instructional designers
framework: An alternative approach to contemporary instructional designers
education in higher education, British Journal of Educational Technology,
doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01185.x

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UNIT 1 i

Evolution and perspectives

ii WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

2012 Wawasan Open University

Wawasan Open University

54, Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, 10050 Penang.

1.1 Defining curriculum

Perspectives (or approaches) of curriculum

Suggested answers to activities

1.2 Historical development of curriculum

The three major historical periods

The debates over classical curriculum

European influences in curriculum development

The impact of the historical English curriculum

Suggested answers to activities

Suggested answer to self-assessment exercise

iv WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

1.3 The Malaysian curriculum

The history of Malaysian curriculum development

The National Education Philosophy (NEP)

Educational programmes implemented in Malaysian

Suggested answers to activities

Suggested answers to self-assessment exercise

1.4 Trends and current issues in modern

Preparing students for the real world

Developing civic-minded professionals

Integration of technology to improve teaching and

Suggested answers to activities

Suggested answers to self-assessment exercise

2 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Each of the course objectives is covered in the following units:

Discuss the major theories

Predict the effects of

Analyse past and present

elcome to Unit 1 of EED 505/05 Curriculum Development. In this unit, you

4 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

1.1 Defining Curriculum

6 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Additional definitions by scholars are:

Perspectives (or approaches) of curriculum

8 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

10 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Suggested answers to activities

1.2 Historical Development of

The three major historical periods

12 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

The historical development of curriculum during the colonial period will be

Reading (The most important subject)

The Colonial Schools

Latin Grammar Schools

Parochial and Private Schools

14 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

3. Focus: Reading (to read the Bible), writing and arithmetic.

The rise of universal education (1820 1920)

The Declaration expressed the concept of equality, in which every person

Common Schools (1826)

16 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Elementary Schools (1825)

Secondary Schools (1880)

High Schools (1874)

Transitional period (1893 1918)

18 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Reformers proposed that two types of curriculum should be offered in schools;