Chemical Residues in Meat and its Health Effects

Dr. Shalima Shukoor A, MVSc Scholar

Department of Livestock Products Technology & Meat Technology Unit
College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, KVASU

Introduction
A large number of drugs used to control or prevent infections or to promote growth, are
considered essential by some authorities in modern animal production systems. Additional
chemicals may be added to food to ensure maximum utilization and to delay deterioration.
However, there is growing consumer resistance to the presence of unwanted residues in food.
The principal consumer concerns are drug resistance, toxicity and potential allergy. Drug
resistance has been postulated as a problem both from the effect that trace residues may have in
stimulating resistance in, or transferring resistance from non-pathogenic bacteria in the meat to,
pathogenic bacteria within the consumer's digestive system. Drugs are intended to be toxic to
various forms of parasite and as such may have inherent toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic or
carcinogenic effects. Penicillin ranks highly among the known allergens and can invoke an
allergic reaction in consumers eating food containing sufficient residual drug.
Residues can occur for a variety of reasons. Clearance rates for drugs can vary.
Conditions that prolong the process can lead to tissue residues at slaughter. Other parameters e.g.
disease conditions, age of animal and husbandry practices, can result in violative tissue residues.
Veterinary surgeons can administer drugs, approved for use in one country but not in another, to
deal with local disease problems. Successful responses to these treatments may lead to further
use in areas where information on withholding times is not readily available. When drugs are
used in the prevention or treatment of diseases for which they are not approved, appropriate
guidelines may not be available. To reduce these problems, the USDA Extension Service has
developed a computer databank, the Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank (FARAD), to
compile a single source of veterinary pharmaceuticals, pharmacokinetics and other properties of
drugs or chemicals used in livestock.
The pharmacokinetics (movement of drugs in the body) of specific preparations has a
major effect on persistence in the animal tissue and is dependent on several factors. Formulations
can give slow or rapid release. Current trends favour the use of slow-release formulations, both
to prolong therapeutically-active concentrations of therapeutic drugs in tissues and to minimize

the stress involved in repeated handling of animals. The chemical composition of some drugs
prevents rapid metabolism and, in some animals in which the metabolic processes are reduced as
result of disease, persistence can occur. The route of administration, e.g. by injection, orally or
other means, also affects the rate of excretion. An injection into poorly vascularized tissue can
result in slower absorption than expected from studies on normal tissues. The recommended
withholding time for the residue to fall into the acceptable range should be based on the tissue
with the slowest decay rate.
The therapeutic products that cause concern fall into a number of categories. The major
ones are antimicrobials, which are a diffuse group containing several classes of compounds used
to treat or prevent bacterial infection. The pesticides are also a diffuse group including
anthelmintic used for their activities against roundworms, tapeworms, and fluke, ectoparasiticides used to kill external parasites such as mange, sheep scab mites or lice, and
antiprotozoals which are most commonly used for the control and treatment of coccidiosis and
babesiosis. Hormones are used for therapeutic purposes in various fertility treatments or for
growth promotion and are administered as injection or implant. One general category includes
tranquilizers and beta-agonists.
Animals are exposed to many environmental contaminants including herbicides, heavy
metals and fungicides. Some of these substances find their way into animal tissues via the feed.
In the preservation and processing of food, additives are employed to prevent the onset of
spoilage, to promote binding properties and to enhance flavour and nutritive value. These
additives include antioxidants, emulsifiers, humectants, firming agents, sequestrants, colouring
agents, stabilisers, sweeteners, tenderizers, etc. At both production and processing stages,
residues or contaminants may enter the food chain from intentional or accidental exposure to
these chemicals.
For all chemicals which may produce residues it is essential to establish an acceptable level in
the diet. Calculation of this acceptable daily intake (ADI) depends on the toxicology of the
compound. These toxicological effects are determined by acute and chronic studies involving
genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, neurotoxicity, and effects on the
immune and reproductive systems.
A residue is defined as substances having a pharmacological action, of their metabolites
and of other substances transmitted to animal products and which are likely to be harmful to

human health. Almost all chemicals administered knowingly or unknowingly to animals result
in some trace residue remaining in the carcass. Increasingly, laboratory technology is able to
detect these minute traces. It is therefore important to differentiate between safe and unsafe
residual concentrations rather than to insist on zero residues.
Antibiotic maximum residue levels for bovines
Compound

Target tissue

Concentration (g/g)

Sulphonamides

Muscle, liver, kidney, fat

Muscle, liver, kidney, fat
Milk
Muscle, liver, kidney, fat

100
50
4
50

Benzyl penicillin
Ampicillin

Cefquinone

Cloxacillin
Erythromycin

Florenicol

Spiramycin

Streptomycin

Tetracyclines

Trimethoprim

Milk

Kidney
Liver
Muscle

200
100
50

Fat
Muscle, liver, kidney, fat
Milk
Liver, kidney, muscle, fat
Milk

50
300
30
400
40

Milk

40

Muscle
Kidney

200
300

Liver
Liver, kidney, fat
Muscle

3000
300
200

Milk
Kidney

200
1000

Muscle, fat, liver

Milk
Kidney

500
200
600

Liver

300

Muscle

100

Milk

100

Muscle, kidney, liver, fat,

milk

50

Acceptable daily intake (ADI)

The term acceptable daily intake was first used by the joint EAO/WHO Expert
Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) in 1958. The most recent definition is an estimate of the
amount of a food additive, expressed on a body weight basis that can be ingested daily over a
lifetime without appreciable health risk (FAO/WHO, 1987).
Calculation of the ADI depends on the toxicological effects as determined by acute and
chronic animal studies involving genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity,
neurotoxicity and effects on the immune and reproductive systems. These result in a defined
maximum quantity which may be consumed daily by even the most sensitive group in the
population without any untoward effects. For some groups, e.g. hormones, these studies aim to
determine the concentration at which there is no observable effect (NOEL).
Maximum residue levels (MRLs)
No chemical is safe under all conditions of use. It is therefore important that all are fully
evaluated for safety, as the parent compound and/or as its metabolites, and that the results of
these evaluations determine acceptability. Toxicological studies involve both acute toxic effects
of the chemicals and more chronic effects including carcinogenesis and mutagenicity.
Increasingly, studies of fertility and fetal development and the effect on the immune system have
been added to these assessments of safety.
As international markets become increasingly harmonized, standardization of acceptable
residue levels is required. The maximum residue level (MRL) is a concept developed to estimate
the maximum acceptable human intake over a lifetime. It is adjusted to accept dietary intakes
which are at the extremes of expected consumption of tissues containing the highest residue
concentrations. It is generally accepted that the MRL of an analyte of any foodstuff is determined
by three factors:
1. A minimum dose which produces detectable effects in experimental animals or which, in
a therapeutic preparation used in human medicine, produces a recognizable effect.
2. A safety factor in the range 10:1000 and which is lower (1:10) if a preparation is already
acceptable in human medicine or higher (1:1000) if there is any evidence to indicate a
special risk from experience with chemically similar compounds.
3. A series of factors to balance the proportions of the particular tissues in the average diet.

An MRL can give no more than a conservative indication of levels that are considered
unlikely to pose any toxicological hazard to humans. It is a figure set for acceptable or tolerable
intakes believed, on the evidence available, to be safe for man but which may be modified
upwards or downwards in the light of any new toxicological findings. Since any acceptable daily
intake is set at a conservative figure and increased by a safety factor, then exceeding the MRL
occasionally may not be regarded as undesirable.
In the case of banned substances there is no permitted limit. Detection of any residue
confirms that an abuse has occurred and the product must be excluded from the food chain.
Detection limit
Residues of drugs can be considered in two groups: (1) banned substances, e.g:
diethylstilboestrol or (2) permitted substances, e.g: sulphonamides. In the case of banned
substances there is no permitted limit. In practical terms the decision criterion becomes the limit
of sensitivity of the analytical procedure. With permitted substances a risk assessment will be
carried out prior to a making authorization being granted and the acceptable daily intake will
have been identified. For these permitted substances the detection limit of an analytical
procedure is regarded as being the lowest concentration of the analyte that can be distinguished
with reasonable confidence from a sample blank containing zero concentration of the analyte.
Principles of sample collection for analyses
It is both economically and practically impossible to sample all carcasses for all residues.
Quality assurance is therefore based on sampling procedures. These are of two types: structured
surveys initiated to provide quantitative information on the quantities of any drugs which are in
the food chain and targeted testing designed to detect and penalise producers or processors who
use drugs illegally.
Meat inspection
When suspicious ante-mortem signs or post-mortem lesions are observed during meat
inspection, samples are also taken by meat inspection staff for laboratory tests. These signs vary
with the drug which is suspected and are described later with each drug group.
In order that regulatory controls can be effective, it is necessary to have secure control
and proof of continuity from sample collection to the issue of the test result. This is achieved by
ensuring that the authorized officers who collect and despatch the samples from the plant record
their activities on a form which will accompany the sample until the final report is issued. At all

subsequent stages those who handle the samples must also record their activities on a similar
form. This paper chain must allow trace-back of all individual samples, confirming the link
between the animal sampled and the result reported, should regulatory action be required.
Samples may be sent through normal transport or mail only if in a secure container. These are
sealed by tamperproof labels or seals which are opened only within the laboratory.
Sample handling
The pattern of distribution of a residue depends on the drug used, the time since
administration and the species of animal. At the time of collection the specific drug involved may
not be readily identified and the time from administration may be unclear. In addition,
metabolism of a number of commonly used drugs continues in tissues for a period after death. It
is, therefore, important to preserve the residue in the samples by carefully managing all stages
from collection to analysis. For example, to provide the greatest flexibility in laboratory analyses
in NSS testing, a complete set of samples should contain the following:
1. 50 ml of whole blood,

5. 50

of

2. 250 g of rectal faeces,

3. 50 g of liver,
4. 50 g of kidney,

muscle,
6. 50 ml of bile,
7. 50 ml of urine.

diaphragmatic

Where the samples are being taken from suspect carcasses which are detained after
slaughter, these should at least, contain a specimen from the suspect lesion, the kidney and the
diaphragm. It is important that these three specimens are packed separately so that diffusion of
the drug cannot occur. After collection, samples should be cooled rapidly, placed in an insulated
container containing a frozen Freezella pack and despatched to the laboratory. When received in
the laboratory, the samples are recorded and then placed in a 20C freezer for storage prior to
sub-sampling or testing. These procedures reduce deterioration in the samples to a minimum. In
other national surveys the selection of sample is predetermined by the product selected for the
survey. In meat inspection, it is also necessary to include a sample of the suspicious lesion(s) for
testing.
Antimicrobials
In mammals the most numerous and most frequently used drugs in this group are the
antibiotics. An antibiotic is a chemical substance, produced wholly or partly by a microorganism
(usually a fungus or a bacterium), which has the capacity to inhibit the growth of or to kill
bacteria. These drugs can be used therapeutically in short courses of treatment to control disease
in animals or, at lower concentrations but over a longer time, to promote growth. The latter use
occurs most frequently in young calves, pigs and poultry. In the adult ruminant, alterations in the
ruminal flora may reduce efficiency of digestion, growth and weight gain. When used
therapeutically, antibiotics can reduce the symptoms of disease and may result in unhealthy
animals being accepted at ante-mortem inspection.
Antimicrobials are a difficult group to detect chemically because they are diverse and
show great variation in their chemical structure and molecular weights. They are also used in a
wide range of formulations and are administered by many routes. A common characteristic is
their antimicrobial activity and this has been used to develop test systems. However, not all
antibiotic residues retain activity after metabolism in animal tissues and in a significant number
of cases the drug continues to be metabolized by tissue enzymes during cold storage.
Particular attention must be paid to suspect casualty animals, which should be sampled as
a matter of routine. Recent injection sites may appear as an area of discoloration or bruising, but
frequently deep intramuscular injections can only be detected as a very slight swelling or lack of

symmetry in the muscle. If there is any suspicion, the carcass must be retained until samples
prove negative to laboratory investigation.
Commonly used antimicrobial agents include the penicillins, aminoglycosides
(dihydrostreptomycin,

streptomycin

and

neomycin),

tetracyclines

(chlorotetracycline,

oxytetracycline and tetracycline), tylosin, cephalosporins and sulphonamides. The use of

chloramphenicol, furazolidone and dimetridazole in farm animals is now strictly controlled in
some countries. Nystatin and griesofulvin are useful fungicides and a range of other agents,
avoparcin, virginiamycin, polymixin, bacitracin and some sulphonamides have been used as
additives in feed. The latter result in growth promotion and are considered economically
worthwhile when incorporated at non-therapeutic concentrations.
In addition, antibiotic residues are considered undesirable for several other reasons. They
produce unsightly lesions when administered by injection. The site of the injection is
discoloured, and may be haemorrhagic if treatment was administered shortly before slaughter. In
many of these cases the antibiotic is still present in an unmetabolised form. Long-standing
injection sites, particularly those that incorporate an oily base, may be hard, fibrous nodules
within a muscle. The tetracyclines, when given as long acting preparations, may leave a
yellowish stained area with a distinctive odour. Deep- seated injections can be particularly
difficult to detect and require the experienced eye of the inspector detecting a slight lack of
symmetry in the carcass. Since these lesions must result in trimming by the inspection staff, it is
prudent to administer injectable antibiotics always in non-edible or low-value parts of the
carcass.
Antibiotics may also interfere with further food processing if this depends on a
fermentation reaction. They may cause allergic reactions in highly sensitized consumers. A small
number of antimicrobials are suspected of having carcinogenic properties. There is also
considerable concern regarding the creation of resistant bacteria in farm animals which may then
pass to the consumer. An additional factor, seldom considered during these discussions, is the
additional cost of production which results from the inclusion of unnecessary antibiotics in feed.
Sub-therapeutic levels of antimicrobials in feed are most commonly used in poultry, pigs and
young cattle, but, as early lamb production becomes more intensive, the potential for extension
to sheep systems will also increase. Tissue residues that result from sub-therapeutic use can arise
from a variety of sources including failure to observe withdrawal periods, cross-contamination

between animals on the farm during transport or in the lairage and cross-contamination of
feeding stuffs during the milling process.
Cross-contamination of feeding stuffs during milling has been recognized as a factor in
the frequency with which sulphadimidine isolations occur in pig meat. Incorporation in feed
poses particular problems for the meat inspection services for several reasons. First, there are no
injection sites to be detected by visual observation. Second, the residue levels are likely to be
low, probably close to or below the maximum residue level.
Tests for antimicrobial agents
The most frequently used tests for antimicrobial agents are based on the detection of
residual antimicrobial activity. The basic microbiological method is the four-plate test (FPT).
This test has the advantage of requiring simple apparatus and limited training for analysts, and of
having rapid turnaround and broad spectrum detection. It is an agar diffusion test. Meat samples
are applied to four plates of agar medium, three of which are inoculated with Bacillus subtilis
spores at pH 6, 7.2, and 8 or with Micrococcus luteus at pH 8 (Bogaerts and Wolf, 1980).
Trimethoprim is incorporated into the pH 7.2 medium to enhance the sensitivity of the test for
sulphonamide residues. Diffusion of the active antibiotic is detected by the formation of clear
zones of inhibition on one or more plates after overnight incubation. The reliability and
sensitivity of the tests arc monitored by applying 6 mm diameter filter-paper discs containing
standard quantities of known antibiotics in each run.
Further evidence of the identity of the specific antibiotic can be obtained using highvoltage electrophoresis (HVE,) bioautography, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
of extracts from the tissue.
GROWTH PROMOTERS (HORMONES AND ANTIBACTERIALS)
Natural sex steroid hormones - Oestradiol, progesterone, testosterone.
Synthetic steroid androgens - Nandrolone, norethand rolone, nortestosterone,
phenylpropionate, ethinyloestradiol, laurate.
Synthetic non-steroidal oestrogens - Stilbene oestrogens (diethylstilboestrol (DES),
hexoestrol), zeranol, trenbolone acetate.
Synthetic steroidal progestens - Melengestrol acetate (MCA).
Peptide hormones - Growth hormone (GH), growth hormone-releasing factor
thryotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH).
(3-Adrenoceptor agonists (beta-agonists) - clenbuterol, cimateratol.

 Antibacterials - Zinc bacitracin, flavomycin, virginiamycin, ionophore antibotics

(lasalocid Na, monensin Na, salinomycin), non-ionophore antibiotics (avoparcin,
flavophospholipol), arsanilic acid, gut active growth promoters (enzymes and probiotics).
Use of hormones
Hormones have been used for a variety of therapeutic and growth-modifying purposes in
animals. They are a particularly important group because of the reports from toxicological
experiments claiming to show that there may be associations with neoplasia. The most
commonly cited example is diethylstilbestrol (DES) therapy previously given to pregnant
mothers with threatened miscarriages
Testing
Screening tests for residues of hormonal growth promoter are based on immunoassays.
Initially, radioimmunoassays developed for the study of physiological variations in natural
hormones were employed. More recently, many of these assays have been modified to enzymelinked immunoassays. These tests are rapid, sensitive, selective and cost-effective. The critical
component of each assay is the antibody. These antibodies are prepared by linking the hormone
to a larger protein molecule, thereby creating an immunogen which, when injected into
laboratory animals, elicits an immune response. High-affinity antibodies can be produced which,
when diluted, result in very sensitive and selective tests. The synthetic hormones may be
confirmed by liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry or gas chromatography.
Typical limits of quantification for recognized growth-promoting hormones.

Post-mortem examinations need to be extended to include specific examinations for the

presence of implants and lesions that may have been caused by implants. These are normally

placed between the concha of an ear or into the muscle at the base of an ear. The presence of an
implant may be suspected if a small knot of granules or small plastic tube is palpated in that area.
Frequently abscesses form at a site of implantation.
Beta-Agonists
The Beta-agonists have the activities of neurotransmitters and of hormones and as such
have both physiological and metabolic activities. They act through binding to receptors on target
cells. Those which are important in residue analysis have major metabolic effects by
repartitioning energy from fat to lean meat production. They are detected in tissues by
immunoassay procedures and confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The most
commonly identified by residue analysis include clenbuterol, mabuterol, cimaterol, ractopamine
and salbutamol.
Testing:
The optimum tissue for detection for some of these drugs is the retina of the eye because
the drug residues persist in this location for very long periods after the abuse has occurred.
PESTICIDES
Pest control chemicals must be toxic to some living organisms to fulfil their role.
Depending on the pest being controlled, they may be termed insecticides, fungicides, etc. The
insecticides that are directly applied to food animals and the anthelmintics are regarded as the
most important subgroups.
Insecticides
The chlorinated hydrocarbons are extremely durable, persistent and bio-accumulating
compounds which find their way into the food chain usually through use in controlling
environmental or animal pests. The more recently-developed organophosphate pesticides are
excreted rapidly and do not persist to the same extent in the environment. They are, however,
frequently more toxic in small amounts as their biological activity is greater.
The organophosphates (e.g. Coumaphos, Malathion, Dichlorophos and Diazinon) are
extremely toxic to mammals but are highly efficient insecticides. They are less persistent in the
environment than organochlorines because they can be hydrolysed chemically and enzymically.
The organophosphate compounds therefore produce few tissue residues and have been used
successfully in cattle to eradicate warble fly with few adverse effects. A number of the members

of this group can be taken up by plants and can enter the food chain unless proper pre-harvest
precautions are taken.
Concern about the long term safety of the handler using organophosphates, especially as
sheep dips, has led to the much wider use of the synthetic pyrethroid-containing products.
Although safer to handle, they are not as effective at eliminating the sheep scab mite and are
potentially very harmful to the environment.
Testing
These pesticides are detected by chemical techniques. In the laboratory, spectrographic
methods of pesticide analysis using colour- producing reactions were the first to reach
sensitivities at the ppm level but these methods have been replaced by chromatographic
techniques.
Anthelmintics
Pesticides used to remove internal parasites such as liver fluke and nematodes are
important in animal production systems. The salicylanide, flukecides, oxyclosanide, closantel
and rafoxanide, are active against Fasciola hepatica. They are commonly used to control
infections and are extensively bound to plasma proteins in treated animals. Nitroxynil injection is
a bright orange-red compound used widely in the treatment of fascioliasis. It is of particular
concern in meat hygiene since the brightly-coloured stain and tissue reaction which accompany
the subcutaneous administration persists long after the 60-day withdrawal period.
Thiabendazole was the first highly-effective broad-spectrum anthelmintic and has been
followed by the Benzimidazole and Probenzimidazole compounds which have improved efficacy
and provide a wider spectrum of activity (Parbendazole, Cambendazole, Mebendazole and
Oxibendazole). The introduction of the less- soluble Benzimidazoles, Fenbendazole,
Oxfendazole and Albendazole secured a leading place for this group in the treatment of
nematode infections. The Ivermectins have a broad range of activities against internal and
external parasites. Levnmisole has been associated with a number of undesirable side-effects in
animals (Hsu, 1980). Toxic effects have also been observed in man at oral doses of 2.5 mg/ml. In
general, these therapeutic drugs are used to strategically control helminth infections in farm
animals and are therefore unlikely to be administered close to the time of slaughter. The most
significant problem is with those administered by injection, where there may be an irritant
reaction. This may require trimming of the sites and laboratory checks for muscle residues.

Maximum residue levels for common anthelmintics

HEAVY METALS
Excessive intakes of heavy metals in food have caused intoxications in man. These are
most often caused by contaminated cereals or by accidental additions during processing.
Occasionally toxic concentrations occur in animal tissues and products. These can be associated
with soils naturally high in the element or through environmental contamination from local
industry and are cumulative in animal tissues. They may also occur from feeding grain treated
with the toxic metal or from excess amounts remaining in the environment following previous
use in paints, etc. These toxic chemicals are detected by atomic absorption spectrometry.
Lead
Lead can accumulate in the tissues of animals grazing close to smelting plants or in
animals ingesting paints or substances with high lead contents. Ruminants are more commonly
affected than other farm species. During chronic exposure, e.g. from low-level environmental

contamination, the metal accumulates in the bones. Acute cases are rare and occur most
commonly after ingestion of lead-containing paint. In these the highest concentrations are found
in liver and kidney. Acutely- affected animals should be detected during ante-mortem inspection.
At post-mortem the muscle of acutely-poisoned bovines is unusually pale. Special attention has
to be taken when dealing with the carcases of game animals, particularly fowl.
Arsenic
Although restrictions have been placed on the use of arsenic because of its toxicity, this
element was once widely used in farm practices and is persistent in the environment. It is
probably the second most important poisoning hazard for farm animals. The animals may be
exposed to inorganic or organic arsenic compounds when they are given feed, forage or liquids
contaminated with arsenical herbicides, rodenticides or insecticides. Arsenic-containing
compounds have been used for parasite control, and for the treatment and control of swine
dysentery, but these have largely been removed from the market.
Chronic toxicity can occur when arsenical compounds are fed at low levels because the
metal accumulates in the liver, kidney and bones. Arsenic is slowly excreted in the faeces, sweat
and milk. Although accumulation occurs in exposed animals, the risk to consumers is small
because the concentrations in the muscle are not above the maximum safe level for human
consumption.
Shellfish can accumulate particularly high concentrations if taken from polluted waters.
Bottom feeders from these areas also accumulate the metal but free-swimming fin fish are less
affected.
Mercury
Mercury preparations containing inorganic salts or organic mercurial compounds have
been used widely in agricultural and horticultural dressings and in veterinary medicines.
Although mercury is extremely toxic, cases of poisoning are rare. They have been most
frequently associated with feeding to animals of seed grain treated with mercury-containing
dressings to prevent fungal growth.
Absorbed inorganic mercury is stored in the liver and kidneys but organic preparations
are more widely distributed. The metal is excreted slowly in the urine, but to a smaller extent in
faeces, saliva, sweat and milk. Mercury-containing products have been replaced by less toxic

compounds and therefore there is now only a very small risk to consumers from the meat of farm
animals.
Cadmium
Cadmium has received much attention because of its reported toxicity to humans. This
metal accumulates in body tissues and is said to cause kidney failure. In farm animals the
greatest concentrations occur in kidney and liver.
Copper
Copper-supplemented feeds are prepared for pigs. The metal tends to be accumulated in
the liver and kidney. However, there have been no reported cases of toxicity to humans due to
this source. Copper-supplemented feed prepared for pigs has accidentally been fed to sheep and
led to chronic copper poisoning in this species
Selenium
Selenium is an essential element for animals and man. Although it is widely distributed,
areas of deficiency and of toxicity occur. In some cases acute selenium poisoning may occur in
cattle grazing pasture that contains plants which accumulate this element (e.g. Astralagus
racemosus, USA; Neptunia amplexicaulis, Australia). Toxicity is unlikely to occur in the UK,
where many areas are known to be selenium deficient. The most common sign of selenium
deficiency is flaccid white muscle.

OTHER SUBSTANCES
Fluorine
Cases of fluorosis have been reported in cattle grazing pasture contaminated with
industrial discharges. This chronic disease is associated with staining of the teeth and excessive
wear and degenerative changes in the skeletal system and internal organs. It has not been
associated with illness in man.
NSAIDs especially phenylbutazone ('bute')
The NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) are a large group of compounds
which can be divided into two main groups - carboxylic acids (Salicylates, Aspirin, Propionic
Acid, Ibuprofen, Ketoprofen, Naproxen, Carprofen, etc.) and enolic acids (Phenylbutazone,
Oxyphenbutazone, Dipyrone, Isopyrin, etc.). Phenylbutazone is a powerful NSAID widely used

in the horse to provide symptomatic relief from muscle, bone and joint lesions. The drug can also
be used in ruminants and dogs. Its detection and that of its longer-acting metabolite
oxyphenbutazone in racing horse urine samples has given rise to the so-called eight-day rule. 8
days being the minimum period suggested between the last treatment and the commencement of
racing to ensure a negative urine test.
Because of its toxicity to man, phenylbutazone and similar NSAIDs are not normally
approved for use in food-producing animals (except for the horse in the USA), even though they
do not accumulate in high concentrations in tissues and are almost completely metabolized.
Horses undergoing treatment, however, should not be slaughtered for human consumption.
NATURAL TOXINS
Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins are products of toxigenic moulds (fungi) growing in food and foodstuffs.
These agents have caused many problems in livestock, and the potential for residues in meat,
poultry or dairy products is a cause for public concern. However, the risk to human health from
direct consumption of contaminated grain is much higher than that arising from animal products.
Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. There are four major
types of toxin labelled AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2. AFG1 is the most commonly produced and
the most toxic. Much of the ingested toxin is excreted within 24 hours and excretion is almost
complete within 96 hours after ingestion ceases. Liver and kidneys retain detectable quantities
for longer periods than other tissues.
Ochraloxins are produced by some Penicillium spp. and some Aspergillus strains. Ochra
toxin A is the most common and the most toxic to mammals, birds and fish. The kidney is the
primary target organ, but liver damage has also been recorded at high concentrations. The highest
risk for consumers is the potential for residues to accumulate in kidney. Lower concentrations
occur in liver, fat and muscle.
The presence of these toxins can be detected by a range of commercially-produced
immunoassay kits, and, if positive animals are identified, they should be retained on a toxin- free
diet for 4 weeks prior to slaughter to ensure that the levels in kidney have decreased. In poultry,
residues have been detected in liver, kidney and muscle but not in eggs. Testing for consumer
protection depends upon regular sampling for biological, immunological or chemical testing.
References

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