AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
Electronics and Communication Dept.

LTE Planning Tool

Supervised by: Prof. Ismail Hafez
DR. Hussein Abd ElAtty
Eng. Theodora Mamdouh

Team members:
1-Amr Khaled Mohamed
2- Islam Ashraf Farag
3- Mahmoud Gamal El-dein Mahmoud
4-Mennat-Allah Mohamed Mahmoud
5-Mustafa Ahmed Hussein
6-Nayel Mohsen Ali
7-Rehab Sayed Mohamed
8-Yasmine Mohamed Gamal Fouad

Acknowledgement
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our
graduation project supervisor DR . Hussein Abd El Atty and
Prof. Ismail Hafez for their guidance, continuous patience
encouragement and support during the project. Moreover, it is
our duty to thank all the members for their generous
discussions and encouragement. It has been a great
opportunity to gain lots experience in real time projects,
followed by the knowledge of how to actually design and
analyze real projects. For that we want to thank all the people
who made it possible for students like us.

Abstract
The wireless cellular communications sector is witnessing
a huge market penetration combined with a high demand for
new mobile services with strict quality requirements. Given the
high cost of network infrastructure investments and spectrum
Licenses, it is essential for network operators to make informed
decisions on network deployment to satisfy their performance
requirements in the most cost-efficient way. In this project, we
aim at developing a new methodology for radio network
planning that meets the specifications and enhanced features
of next generation OFDMA-based radio access technologies
with particular emphasis on LTE-Advanced. The proposed
methodology will capture system design components such as
number of sites needed in the network , rate adaptation,
proportional-fair multiuser scheduling, MIMO multiplexingdiversity tradeoffs, cooperative base station transmissions,
relaying among mobile stations, and multi-layered cell design
with femto and micro cells.
The work scope will involve: statistical modeling of
interference in multi-cell OFDMA networks, development of
dimensioning and link budget analysis procedures and
implementation of a prototype professional network planning
tool customized to LTE-Advanced

Contents
LTE Planning Tool....................................................................................................................... 1
Team members:..................................................................................................................... 1
Acknowledgement................................................................................................................. 2
Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 3
Contents .................................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter (1) Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems............................................. 10
1.1

Introduction: ............................................................................................................ 11

1.2

Wireless Communication Systems: ......................................................................... 11

1.2.1

Wireless Communication Applications: ........................................................... 12

1.2.2

Advantages & Disadvantages of Wireless Communication:............................ 12

1.3

Modes of Transmission in Wireless Communication Systems: ............................... 13

1.4

Duplex Transmission Techniques: ........................................................................... 13

1.4.1

Frequency Division Duplex (FDD): ................................................................... 13

1.4.2

Time Division Duplex (TDD): ............................................................................ 14

1.5

Multiple Access Techniques: ................................................................................... 14

1.5.1

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): .................................................. 14

1.5.2

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):........................................................... 15

1.5.3

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): .......................................................... 16

1.5.4

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA): ............................ 17

1.6

Cellular Concepts: .................................................................................................... 17

1.6.1

Cellular Telephone Systems: ........................................................................... 17

1.6.2

Frequency Reuse: ............................................................................................ 18

1.7

Switching Terminologies: ........................................................................................ 20

1.7.1

Circuit switching (CS): ...................................................................................... 20

1.7.2

Packet switching (PS): ...................................................................................... 20

1.8

Wireless Transmission Problems: ............................................................................ 21

1.8.1

Fading: ............................................................................................................. 21

1.8.2

Path-loss: ......................................................................................................... 23

1.8.3

Time Delay: ...................................................................................................... 24

1.8.4

Time Dispersion: .............................................................................................. 24

1.8.5

Interference: .................................................................................................... 24

Chapter (2) Introduction to Mobile Communication ............................................................. 26

2.1

Earlier Systems: ....................................................................................................... 27

2.2

GSM Global System for Mobile Communications ................................................ 27

2.2.1

Historical Overview: ........................................................................................ 27

2.2.3

The Modulation Technique: ............................................................................ 30

2.2.4

Structure of a Timeslot: ................................................................................... 31

2.2.5

Circuit-Switched Data Transmission: ............................................................... 32

2.2.6

Identity Numbers:............................................................................................ 32

2.2.7

Identification of a Mobile Subscriber: ............................................................. 33

2.3

GPRS (General packet radio services) 2.5G: ............................................................ 33

2.3.1

GPRS service: ................................................................................................... 33

2.3.2

GPRS Architecture: .......................................................................................... 34

2.4

EDGE (enhanced data rates for GSM evolution) 2.75G:.......................................... 35

2.5

UMTS (3G): .............................................................................................................. 35

2.5.1

Introduction to Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS): ..... 35

2.5.2

UMTS Services: ................................................................................................ 38

2.5.3

UMTS Architecture Overview: ......................................................................... 38

Chapter (3) LTE (Long Term Evolution).................................................................................... 48

3.1

DRIVERS FOR LTE: .................................................................................................... 49

3.2

LTE main objectives: ................................................................................................ 50

3.3

LTE SAE (System Architecture Evolution): ............................................................... 50

3.3.1

The core network: ........................................................................................... 51

3.3.2

The access network: ........................................................................................ 53

3.4

LTE air interface: ...................................................................................................... 54

3.4.1

LTE air interface principles: ............................................................................. 57

3.4.2

LTE channels structure : .................................................................................. 60

3.3.3

Time domain frame structure : ....................................................................... 63

3.4.4 LTE downlink physical resources : .......................................................................... 64

3.4.5

LTE uplink physical resources: ......................................................................... 67

3.4.6

LTE UE capabilities: .......................................................................................... 69

3.5 Frequency Bands for LTE ............................................................................................. 69

Chapter (4) LTE planning process ............................................................................................ 71
4.1

Planning process: ..................................................................................................... 72

4.1.1

Pre-planning: ................................................................................................... 72

4.1.2

Planning: .......................................................................................................... 72

4.1.3

Detailed Planning: ........................................................................................... 73

4.1.4

Testing and optimization: ................................................................................ 73

4.1.5

Concepts and Terminology: ............................................................................. 73

4.1.6

Limitations: ...................................................................................................... 75

4.1.7

Assumptions: ................................................................................................... 75

4.2

Dimensioning process: ............................................................................................ 75

4 .2.1

Coverage Dimensioning (UPLINK): .................................................................. 76

4.2.2 DOWNLINK COVERAGE: ........................................................................................ 87

4 .2.3 UPLINK CAPACITY: ................................................................................................. 92
4.2.4 DOWNLINK CAPACITY: .......................................................................................... 92
Chapter (5) Implementation of the tool .................................................................................. 96
5.1 Getting started with java: .............................................................................................. 97
5.1.1 What is java ?.......................................................................................................... 97
5.1.2 Introduction to java : .............................................................................................. 97
5.1.3 Why java ? .............................................................................................................. 97
5.1.4 System implementation : ....................................................................................... 99
5.1.5 Program snapshots : ............................................................................................. 100
5.2 Illustrative Charts ........................................................................................................ 106
5.2.1 Chart 1: ................................................................................................................. 106
5.2.2 Chart 2: ................................................................................................................. 106
5.2.3 Chart 3: ................................................................................................................. 107
5.2.4 Chart 4: ................................................................................................................. 108
5.2.5 Chart 5: ................................................................................................................. 108
5.2.6 Chart 6: ................................................................................................................. 109
5.2.7 Chart 7: ................................................................................................................. 109
5.3 Future Work ................................................................................................................ 110
5.3.1 Introduction to the Classification and Generation of Non-Uniform User
Distributions: ................................................................................................................. 110
5.3.2 SPATIAL BINNING: ................................................................................................ 111
5.3.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA METRIC : ........................................................................... 112
5.3.4 GENERATING NON-UNIFORM USER DISTRIBUTIONS: .......................................... 112
5.3.5 MAPPING BETWEEN THE SCALING FACTOR
AND THE MOMENT OF INERTIA
METRIC :...................................................................................................................... 114
5.3.6 User Distribution with Multi Hop: ........................................................................ 115
5.3.7 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................... 116

5.4 How to compare between planning tools ? ................................................................ 116

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... 117
LIST OF REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 121

Table of Figures
FIGURE 1.1 MODES OF TRANSMISSION IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS .................................... 13
FIGURE1.2 FREQUENCY DIVISION DUPLEX (FD 1) ............................................................................. 14
FIGURE 1.3 TIME DIVISION DUPLEX (TDD) 1 ................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 1.4 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (FDMA)............................................................ 15
FIGURE 1.5 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA) ..................................................................... 16
FIGURE 1.6 CDMA ...................................................................................................................... 17
FIGURE 1.7 ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS .................................................... 17
FIGURE 1.8 ILLUSTRATES THE CONCEPT OF CELLULAR FREQUENCY REUSE, WHERE CELLS LABELED WITH THE
SAME LETTER USE THE SAME GROUP OF CHANNELS. THE FREQUENCY REUSE PLAN IS OVERLAID UPON A
MAP TO INDICATE WHERE DIFFERENT FREQUENCY CHANNELS ARE USED. ........................................ 20
FIGURE 1.9 FADING...................................................................................................................... 22
FIGURE 1.10 FAST FADING ............................................................................................................ 22
FIGURE 1.11 ANTENNA DIVERSITY .................................................................................................. 23
FIGURE 1.12 PATH LOSS ............................................................................................................... 23
FIGURE 2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM. IN THIS FIGURE:
ADC, ADMINISTRATION CENTER; NMC, NETWORK MANAGEMENT CENTER; OSI, OPERATOR SYSTEM
INTERFACE .......................................................................................................................... 29
FIGURE 2.2 PHASE DIAGRAM FOR THE BIT SEQUENCE 1011011000 FOR GAUSSIAN MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING
WITH BGT = 0.3 (SOLID LINE) AND PURE MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING (DASHED LINE) ........................... 31
FIGURE 2.3 FUNCTIONS OF THE BITS OF A NORMAL TRANSMISSION BURST ............................................. 31
FIGURE 2.4 GPRS SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE ....................................................................................... 34
FIGURE 2.5 IMT2000 .................................................................................................................. 36
FIGURE 2.6 IMT-2000 ROAD MAP ................................................................................................. 36
FIGURE 2.7 WCDMA, CDMA ...................................................................................................... 37
FIGURE 2.8 UMTS DEVELOPMENT 3GPP FOUNDATION ..................................................................... 37
FIGURE 2.9 UMTS ARCHITECTURE. ................................................................................................ 39
FIGURE 2.10 COMPARISON BETWEEN FMDA, TDMA AND CDMA. .................................................... 41
FIGURE 2.11 FREQUENCY REUSE BY USING REUSED DISTANCE.. .......................................................... 41
FIGURE 2.12 SPREAD SPECTRUM.................................................................................................... 42
FIGURE 2.13 WCDMA SPREAD SPECTRUM ..................................................................................... 43
FIGURE 2.14 RAKE RECEIVER. ........................................................................................................ 43
FIGURE 2.15 CLOSED LOOP POWER CONTROL .................................................................................. 44
FIGURE 2.16 COMPARISON BETWEEN SOFT AND SOFTER HAND OVER. ................................................. 44
FIGURE 2.17 HSPA TARGETS. ....................................................................................................... 46

FIGURE 2.18 COMPARISON BETWEEN UMTS NETWORK STRUCTURE AND HSDPA NETWORK STRUCTURE. 46
FIGURE 3.1 THE INCREASING DEMAND ON MOBILE BROADBAND SERVICES WITH COMPARED TO FIXED
BROADBAND SERVICES IN THE PAST FEW YEARS .......................................................................... 49
FIGURE 3.2 3GPP RELEASES .......................................................................................................... 50
FIGURE 3.3 LTE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE ....................................................................................... 51
FIGURE 3.4 LTE ACCESS NETWORK ................................................................................................. 53
FIGURE 3.5 RADIO INTERFACE STRUCTURE ....................................................................................... 55
FIGURE 3.6 UL AND DL ACCESS TECHNIQUES .................................................................................... 56
FIGURE 3.7 ORTHOGONAL SUBCARRIERS ......................................................................................... 57
FIGURE 3.8 INVERSE FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM (IFFT)..................................................................... 58
FIGURE 3.9 ADAPTIVE MODULATION .............................................................................................. 58
FIGURE 3.10 ADAPTIVE CODING .................................................................................................... 59
FIGURE 3.11 TX DIVERSITY V 2X2 MIMO ....................................................................................... 60
FIGURE 3.12 LTE CHANNEL STRUCTURE .................................................................................... 60
FIGURE 3.13 FDD FRAME STRUCTURE ............................................................................................. 63
FIGURE 3.14 TDD FRAME STRUCTURE............................................................................................. 64
FIGURE 3.15 LTE DL PHYSICAL RESOURCES ...................................................................................... 64
FIGURE 3.16 ............................................................................................................................... 65
FIGURE 3.17 MAXIMUM USER DATA RATE ....................................................................................... 66
FIGURE 3.18 MINIMUM USER DATA RATE ........................................................................................ 67
FIGURE 3.19 LTE UL PHYSICAL RESOURCES ...................................................................................... 68
FIGURE 3.20 UL DATA RATE .......................................................................................................... 68
FIGURE 3.21 LTE UE CATEGORIES .................................................................................................. 69
FIGURE 3.22 PAIRED FREQUENCY BANDS DEFINED BY 3GPP FOR LTE .................................................. 70
FIGURE 3.23 UNPAIRED FREQUENCY BANDS DEFINED BY 3GPP FOR LTE ............................................. 70
FIGURE 4.1 GENERAL WIRELESS CELLULAR NETWORK PLANNING PROCESS.............................................. 72
FIGURE 4.2 RESOURCE BLOCK DEFINITIONS IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN .................................................... 74
FIGURE 4.3 LTE DIMENSIONING PROCESS........................................................................................ 75
FIGURE 4.4 UPLINK CELL THROUGHPUT........................................................................................... 77
FIGURE 4.5 INTERFERING CELL UL BIT RATE PER RB.......................................................................... 78
FIGURE 4.6 LTE SEMI EMPIRICAL MODEL ........................................................................................ 78
FIGURE 4.7 AVERAGE UPLINK SYSTEM LOAD .................................................................................... 79
FIGURE 4.8 UPLINK INTERFERENCE MARGIN..................................................................................... 80
FIGURE 4.9 DIMENSIONING CELL UL RB THROUGHPUT ..................................................................... 81
FIGURE 4.10 ENODE B RECEIVER SENSITIVITY ................................................................................... 82
FIGURE 4.11 UPLINK LINK BUDGET ................................................................................................. 83
FIGURE 4.12 UPLINK CELL RANGE .................................................................................................. 86
FIGURE 4.13 SITE-TO-SITE DISTANCE & COVERAGE AREA .................................................................. 87
FIGURE 4.14 DL MAX SIGNAL ATTENUATION ................................................................................... 88
FIGURE 4.15 DL NOISE RISE AT CELL EDGE ...................................................................................... 89
FIGURE 4.16 DOWNLINK CELL EDGE SINR ....................................................................................... 90
FIGURE 4.17 DL CELL EDGE THROUGHPUT ...................................................................................... 91
FIGURE 4.18 UPLINK CAPACITY CALCULATION .................................................................................. 92
FIGURE 4.19 DOWNLINK AVERAGE NOISE RISE................................................................................. 93
FIGURE 4.20 DL AVERAGE SINR .................................................................................................... 94

FIGURE 4.21 DOWNLINK CAPACITY CALCULATIONS ........................................................................... 95

FIGURE 5.1 ................................................................................................................................. 99
FIGURE 5.2 RELATION BETWEEN CELL RADIUS AND BASE STATION HEIGHT. ......................................... 106
FIGURE 5.3 RELATION BETWEEN MAXIMUM PATH LOSS AND EQUIPMENT SENSTIVITY........................... 106
FIGURE 5.4 RELATION BETWEEN RX DL SENSITIVTY AND CHANNEL BANDWIDTH .................................. 107
FIGURE 5.5 RELATION BETWEEN DL CELL EDGE THROUGHPUT AND DL NETWORK LOAD ........................ 108
FIGURE 5.6 RELATION BETWEEN MAXMIMUM PATH LOSS AND DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO SITES.............. 108
FIGURE 5.7 RELATION BETWEEN UL CELL THROUGHPUT AND NUMBER OF SUBSCRIBERS PER CELL ........... 109
FIGURE 5.8 RELATION BETWEEN DL CELL EDGE THROUGHPUT AND DISTANCE FROM BASE STATION ........ 109
FIGURE 5.9 QUANTIZED REPRESENTATION OF CELL ......................................................................... 111
FIGURE 5.10 NON-UNIFORM USER DISTRIBUTION (= -10).............................................................. 113
FIGURE 5.11 NON-UNIFORM USER DISTRIBUTION ( = +10) ............................................................ 114
FIGURE 5.12 SCALING VALUE TO MOMENT OF INERTIA MAPPING ................................................. 115
FIGURE 5.13 MOMENT OF INERTIA METRIC VERSUS COVERAGE AND CAPACITY ..................................... 116

Table of tables
TABLE 1 COMPARISON BETWEEN PS AND CS .................................................................................... 21
TABLE 2 SEMI-EMPIRICAL PARAMETERS FOR UPLINK ......................................................................... 79
TABLE 3 LOG-NORMAL FADING MARGIN ......................................................................................... 84
TABLE 4 LINK BUDGET LOSSES......................................................................................................... 85
TABLE 5 SEMI -EMPIRICAL PARAMETERS FOR DOWNLINK ................................................................... 91
TABLE 6 RELATION BETWEEN BANDWIDTH AND NUMBER OF RESOURCE BLOCK ..................................... 107

Chapter (1)
Introduction to Wireless
Communication Systems

1.1

Introduction:

Mobile communications has become an everyday commodity. In the last decades, it has
evolved from being an expensive technology for a few selected individuals to todays ubiquitous
systems used by a majority of the worlds population. From the first experiments with radio
communication by Guglielmo Marconi in the 1890s, the road to truly mobile radio communication has
been quite long.
To understand the complex mobile-communication systems of today, it is important to
understand where they came from and how cellular systems have evolved. The task of developing
mobile technologies has also changed, from being a national or regional concern, to becoming an
increasingly complex task undertaken by global standards-developing organizations such as the Third
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) and involving thousands of people.

1.2

Wireless Communication Systems:

Wireless communications is one of the most active areas of technology development of our
time. This development is being driven primarily by the transformation of what has been largely a
medium for supporting voice telephony into a medium for supporting other services, such as the
transmission of video, images, text, and data. Thus, similar to the developments in wire line capacity
in the 1990s, the demand for new wireless capacity is growing at a very rapid rate. Although there
are, of course, still a great many technical problems to be solved in wire line communications,
demands for additional wire line capacity can be fulfilled largely with the addition of new private
infrastructure, such as additional optical fiber, routers, switches, and so on
On one hand, the traditional resources that have been used to add capacity to wireless
systems are radio bandwidth and transmitter power. Unfortunately, these two resources are among
the most severely limited in the deployment of modern wireless networks. Radio bandwidth because
of the very tight situation with regard to useful radio spectrum, and transmitter power because
mobile and other portable services require the use of battery power, which is limited. These two
resources are simply not growing or improving at rates that can support anticipated demands for
wireless capacity.
On the other hand, one resource that is growing at a very rapid rate is that of processing
power. Moores Law, which asserts a doubling of processor capabilities every 18 months, has been
quite accurate over the past 20 years, and its accuracy promises to continue for years to come. Given
these circumstances, there has been considerable research effort in recent years aimed at developing
new wireless capacity through the deployment of greater intelligence in wireless networks. A key
aspect of this movement has been the development of novel signal transmission techniques and
advanced receiver signal processing methods that allow for significant increases in wireless capacity
without attendant increases in bandwidth or power requirements.

1.2.1

Wireless Communication Applications:

Wireless communications today covers a very wide array of applications. The largest and
most noticeable part of the telecommunications business is telephony. The principal wireless
component of telephony is mobile (i.e., cellular telephony). The worldwide growth rate in cellular
telephony is very aggressive, and analysts report that the number of cellular telephony subscriptions
worldwide has now surpassed the number of wire line (i.e., fixed) telephony subscriptions.
Moreover, the number of cellular telephony subscriptions worldwide is reportedly on the
order of a very rapid rate. that makes cellular telephony a very important driver of wireless
technology development, and in recent years the push to develop new mobile data services, which go
collectively under the name third-generation (3G)cellular, has played a key role in motivating research
in new signal processing techniques for wireless.
However, cellular telephony is only one of a very wide array of wireless technologies that are
being developed very rapidly at the present time. Among other technologies are wireless piconetworking (as exemplified by the Bluetooth radio-on-a-chip) and other personal area network (PAN)
systems (e.g., the IEEE802.15 family of standards), wireless local area network (LAN) systems
(exemplified by the IEEE802.11 and HiperLAN families of standards, called WiFisystems), wireless
metropolitan area network (MAN) systems (exemplified by the IEEE 802.16 family of standards, called
WiMax systems), other wireless local loop (WLL) systems, and a variety of satellite systems.
These additional wireless technologies provide a basis for a very rich array of applications,
including local telephony service, broadband Internet access, and distribution of high-rate
entertainment content such as high-definition video and high-quality audio to the home, within the
home, to automobiles, and so on Like 3G, these technologies have spurred considerable research in
signal processing for wireless.
These technologies are supported by a number of transmission and channel-assignment
techniques, including time-division multiple access (TDMA), code-division multiple access (CDMA),
and other spread-spectrum systems, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) and other
multicarrier systems, and high-rate single-carrier systems. These techniques are chosen primarily to
address the physical properties of wireless channels, among the most notable of which are multipath
fading, dispersion, and interference.
In addition to these temporal transmission techniques, there are spatial techniques, notably
beam forming and space-time coding that can be applied at the transmitter to utilize the spatial and
angular diversity of wireless channels. To obtain maximal benefit from these transmission techniques,
to utilize the diversity opportunities of the wireless channel, and to ease the impairments of the
wireless channel, advanced receiver signal processing techniques are of interest. These include
channel equalization to combat dispersion, RAKE combining to utilize resolvable multipath, multiuser
detection to ease multiple-access interference, suppression methods for co-channel interference,
beam forming to utilize spatial diversity, and space-time processing to jointly exploit temporal and
spatial properties of the signaling environment. These techniques are all described in later chapters.

1.2.2

Advantages & Disadvantages of Wireless Communication:

Advantages:
1) Reduced cost of installation.
2) Reconfiguration, improved speed of deployment and reconfiguration.
3) Mobility.

Disadvantages:

1) Spectrum availability (radio operates between 3k to 30G Hz Multipath interference

(MPI) leads to ghosting effect.
2) Low security compared to wired communications

1.3

Modes of Transmission in Wireless Communication Systems:

Simplex Communication System:
Its a one direction communication way between the transmitter and receiver on the same
channel. Example: Television & Radio.

Half-Duplex Communication System:

Its a two direction communication way between the transmitter and receiver on the same
channel at any given time a user can only transmit or receive. Example: Police radio.

Full-Duplex Communication System:

Its a two direction communication way between the transmitter and receiver on the same
channel at any given time a user can transmit and receive at the same time. Example: GSM
mobile radio communication.

Figure 1.1 Modes of transmission in wireless communication systems

1.4

Duplex Transmission Techniques:

1.4.1

Frequency Division Duplex (FDD):

Transmission and reception take place in different frequency ranges. The distance between
the Uplink and Downlink frequency range is designated as duplex distance.

Figure1.2 Frequency Division Duplex (FD 1)

1.4.2

Time Division Duplex (TDD):

Transmission and reception take place in the same frequency band. Uplink and Downlink
transmission take place at different times. There is fast switching between UL and DL transmission, so
that the user has the impression of simultaneous transmission and reception.

Figure 1.3 Time Division Duplex (TDD) 1

1.5

Multiple Access Techniques:

In wireless communication, limited or finite numbers of radio channels are available and to
share these channels simultaneously to many mobile users, Multiple Access Techniques are used.
There are three major access techniques.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

1.5.1

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

In FDMA technique individual or unique channels are assigning to those individual users, who
request for service. On demand two distant bands of frequencies are allocated for every user. One is
for forward channel and other is for reverse channel. Forward channel is used to transfer information
from Base Station to Mobile and Reverse channel transfer information from Mobile to Base Station.
FDMA includes the following features:
In FDMA, one phone circuit is carried by one FDMA channel at a time.

In FDMA, if an FDMA channel is not in use, it cannot be used by other users to increase the
channel capacity. It remains idle.
FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems, because, in FDMA, each channel supports
only one circuit per carrier so the bandwidth of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (30
KHz).
Inter symbol Interference is low in Narrowband systems because Narrowband signal has
large symbol time as compare to delay spread.
FDMA mobile systems are less complex as compare to TDMA mobile systems.
FDMA is a continuous transmission scheme as compare to TDMA because fewer bits are
needed for synchronization and framing.
In FDMA, as unique channels are assigned to each user, so FDMA systems have higher cell
site system cost as compared to TDMA system.
In FDMA, both the transmitter and receiver operates at the same time so FDMA
Mobile units require duplexers. These also increase the cost of FDMA subscriber units and
base station.

Figure 1.4 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

1.5.2

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

In TDMA, a radio spectrum is divided into time slots. These time slots are allocated for each
user to transmit and receive information. The number of time slots is called a frame. Information is
transferred and received in form of frame. A frame is consists a preamble, an information message
and trial bits. Preamble contains the address and synchronization information of both subscriber and
Base Station to identify each other. Trial bits contain framing information. TDMA includes the
following features:
In TDMA, by using no overlapping time slots several users shares a single carrier frequency.
The number of time slots per frame depends upon several factors, such as modulation
techniques and bandwidth.
In TDMA, data transmission is not continuous and subscriber transmitter can be turned off
which result in low battery consumption.
In TDMA, handoff process is much simpler for a subscriber because of discontinuous
transmission.
In TDMA, duplexers are not required because different timeslots are used for transmission
and reception.
In TDMA, the rate of transmission is very high as compare to FDMA.
In TDMA, synchronization is required and the time for synchronization or guard time should
be minimum.

TDMA systems require large overheads (framing bits) as compare to FDMA because of
discontinuous or burst transmission.
In TDMA, bandwidth can be utilized on demand of different users as different numbers of
time slots are allocated to different users.

Figure 1.5 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

1.5.3

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

In CDMA, all users transmit information simultaneously by using the same carrier frequency.
Each user has its own codeword, which is orthogonal to other users. To detect the message, the
receiver should know the codeword used by the transmitter. A time correlation operation is
performed at receiver to detect the desired codeword and all other codeword appears as noise due to
de-correlation and to minimize this noise power at receiver station power should be high. CDMA
includes the following features:
In CDMA system many users share the same frequency.
In CDMA unlike FDMA and TDMA the number of users is not limited. It has a soft capacity.
But due to large number of users its performance degrades.
In CDMA, the spread spectrum or bandwidth is large so multipart fading is reduced.
In CDMA, the channels data rates are very high.
CDMA systems provides soft handoff and this handoff is performed by the MSC.
In CDMA systems, if spreading sequences of different users are not exactly orthogonal, the
Self-jamming problem is arises.
In CDMA systems, if a desired user has less power as compare to undesired users, the nearfar problem occurs. In CDMA, each user operates independently with no knowledge of the
other users.

Figure 1.6 CDMA

1.5.4

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA):

OFDMA is a multi-user
user version of the Orthogonal frequency
frequency-division
division multiplexing (OFDM)
digital modulation scheme which will be discussed in det
details
ails later. Multiple access technique is
achieved in OFDMA by assigning subsets of subcarriers to individual users as shown in the illustration
below. This allows simultaneous low data rate transmission from several users.

Figure 1.7 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access

1.6

Cellular Concepts:

1.6.1

Cellular Telephone Systems:

Radio telephone system should be structured to achieve high capacity with limited radio
spectrum while at the same time covering very la
large areas.

Older Systems:
Achieve a large coverage area by using a simple, high powered transmitter.
Put BS on top of mountains or tall towers, so that it could provide coverage for a large area.
The next BS was so far away that interference was not an iissue.

Severely limit the number of users that could communicate simultaneously.

Noise-limited system with few users.
The Bell mobile system in New York City in the 1970s could only support a maximum of
twelve simultaneous calls over a thousand square miles.

The number of simultaneous calls a mobile wireless system can accommodate is essentially
determined by the total spectral allocation for that system and the bandwidth required for
transmitting signals used in handling a call.
Example: Using a typical analog system, each channel needs to have a bandwidth of around
25 kHz to enable sufficient audio quality to be carried, as well as allowing for a guard band between
adjacent signals to ensure there are no undue levels of interference.
Using this concept, it is possible to accommodate only forty users in a frequency band 1MHz
wide. Even if 100 MHz were allocated to the system, this would enable only 4000 users to have access
to the system. Today cellular systems have millions of subscribers, and therefore a far more efficient
method of using the available spectrum is needed.
Cellular systems accommodate a large number of users over a large geographic area, within
a limited frequency spectrum:
High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of each base station transmitter to a small
geographic area called a cell so that the same radio channels may be reused by another base
station located some distance away.
The coverage area is divided into many cells.
Replace a single, high power transmitter (large cell) with many low power transmitters (small
cells) each providing coverage to only one cell area (a small portion of the service area).
A sophisticated switching technique called a handoff enables a call to proceed uninterrupted when the user moves from one cell to another.
The concept of cells was first proposed as early as 1947 by Bell Laboratories in the US, with a
detailed proposal for a \High-Capacity Mobile Telephone System" incorporating the cellular concept
submitted by Bell Laboratories to the FCC in 1971. The first AMPS system was deployed in Chicago in
1983.

1.6.2

Frequency Reuse:

Frequency reuse refers to the use of radio channels on the same carrier frequency to cover
different areas which are separated from one another by sufficient distances so that co- channel
interference is not objectionable. Frequency reuse is employed not only in mobile- telephone service
but also in entertainment broadcasting and most other radio services.
Most modern wireless systems are organized into geographic cells, each controlled by a base
station.

Exceptions:
Small area systems such as local area wireless networks and personal area networks.
Ad hoc and wireless sensor networks.

Cellular radio systems rely on an intelligent allocation and reuse of channels throughout a
coverage region.
Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be used within a small
geographic area called a cell.
Base stations in adjacent cells are assigned channel groups which contain completely
different channels than neighboring cells.

The base station antennas are designed to achieve the desired coverage within the particular
cell.
By limiting the coverage area within the boundaries of a cell, the same group of channel may
be used to cover different cells that are separated from one another by distances large
enough to keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
The distance between two cells that an use the same frequency channels is called the reuse
distance.
This reuse distance can be computed from link budgets.
Why can't we use each frequency in each cell?
Same reason as why we separate the BSs of the older system far away from one another.
Suppose user A is at the boundary of its assigned cell, so that distances from the "useful" BS
and from a neighboring BS are the same. If the neighboring BS transmits in the same
frequency channel (in order to communicate with user B in its own cell), then the signal-tointerference ratio (SIR) seen by user A is 0 dB.
So, reuse a frequency not in every cell, but only in cells that have a certain minimum distance
from each other.
Using different allocated frequency bands, adjacent cells can overlap without causing
interference.

We use hexagonal cell shape as a simplistic model of the radio coverage for each base
station.
Universally adopted since the hexagon permits easy and manageable analysis of a cellular
system.
The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the footprint and is determined from field
measurements or propagation prediction models.
 In reality, it is not possible to define exactly the edge of a cell. The signal strength
gradually reduces, and towards the edge of the cell performance falls.
 As the mobiles themselves also have different levels of sensitivity, this adds a
further greying of the edge of the cell.
 It is therefore impossible to have a sharp cut between cells. In some areas they may
overlap, whereas in others there will be a hole in coverage.
 Although the real footprint is amorphous in nature, a regular cell shape is needed
for systematic system design and adaptation for future growth.
Why hexagon??
 Adjacent circles cannot be overlaid upon a map without leaving gaps or creating
overlapping regions.
 When considering geometric shapes which cover an entire region without overlap
and with equal area, there are three sensible choices: a square, an equilateral
triangle, and a hexagon.
 A cell must be designed to serve the weakest mobiles within the footprint, and
these are typically located at the edge of the cell.
 For a given distance between the center of a polygon and its farthest perimeter
points, the hexagon has the largest area of the three.
 By using the hexagon geometry, the fewest number of cells can cover a geographic
region
 Closely approximate a circular radiation pattern which would occur for an Omnidirectional base station antenna and free space propagation.
 Permit easy and manageable analysis of a cellular system.

Figure 1.8 illustrates the concept of cellular frequency reuse, where cells labeled with the same letter use the
same group of channels. The frequency reuse plan is overlaid upon a map to indicate where different
frequency channels are used.

1.7

Switching Terminologies:

There are two ways of transmitting data through a network: circuit switching and packet
switching.

1.7.1

Circuit switching (CS):

(CS) is a type of communications in which a dedicated channel (or circuit) is established

physically and doesnt change for the duration of a transmission. The most common circuit-switching
network is the telephone system, which links together wire segments to create a single unbroken line
for each telephone call.

1.7.2

Packet switching (PS):

(PS) is the other common communications method, which divides messages into packets and
sends each packet individually. The packets may take different routes and may arrive out of order.
Upon getting to their destination, the individual packets get put back into order by a packet
assembler. The Internet is based on a packet-switching protocol, TCP/IP.
Circuit-switching systems are ideal for communications that require data to be transmitted in
real-time. Packet-switching networks are more efficient if some amount of delay is acceptable.

Table 1 Comparison between PS and CS

1.8

Wireless Transmission Problems:

The air or radio interface, i.e. the connection between the MS and fixed network
components, represents the fundamental difference to a fixed network telecommunication system.
The radio interface has its specific advantages, but also shows problems and disadvantages inherent
to mobile communications.
The main advantage of mobile communications is the unrestricted mobility which can be
achieved only via a radio interface. Mobility was extremely restricted, especially in the early years of
mobile communications (one-cell systems).
There are many problems of radio transmission like fading, path loss, time dispersion, time
delay, interference, etc.

1.8.1

Fading:

Fading means that the signal strength received fluctuates around a mean value while
changing the mobile position.


Slow Fading = Log Normal Fading = Shadowing:

The reason for shadowing is the presence of obstacles like large buildings or hills in
the path between the site and the mobile. The distance between fading dips (minimum
values of signal strength) is from 10 to 20 meters.

Figure 1.9 Fading

Solution for the Slow Fading:

To overcome the fading problems, the fading margin should be large enough
that the lowest fading dip is still higher than the receiver sensitivity.

Fast Fading = Rayleigh Fading = Multipath Fading:

This occurs when a signal takes more than one path between the MS and BTS antennas.
The Signal is reflected off buildings, for example, and is received from several different
indirect paths.
Rayleigh fading occurs when the obstacles are close to the receiving antenna. The
received signal is the sum of many identical signals that differ only in phase (and to some extent
amplitude).

Figure 1.10 Fast Fading

Solution of Rayleigh Fading:

1) Antenna (Space) Diversity:
The cell transceiver will use two receiving antennas instead of one. A
distance of about Meters will separate them, and they will receive radio signals
independently, so they will be affected differently by the fading dips and the better
signal received will be selected.

Figure 1.11 Antenna Diversity

2) Frequency Hopping:
The fading effect may not be the same for all of the frequencies, so the
time slot of the subscriber will jump or hop between the frequencies of the cell
when it is repeated in each TDMA frame. If only one of the frequencies is affected
severely by fading, a small fraction of the signal will be lost. The hopping sequence
might be cyclic or random

1.8.2

Path-loss:

Path-loss is the reduction in power density (attenuation) of the signal as it propagates

through space.
Solution of Path-loss:
Increase The Transmitted Power But By Limits To Compromise The Frequency Reuse.

Figure 1.12 Path Loss

1.8.3

Time Delay:

Each MS on a call is allocated a time slot on a TDMA frame. This is an amount of time during
which the MS transmits information to the BTS. The information must also arrive at the BTS within
that time slot.
The time alignment problem occurs when part of the information transmitted by an MS does
not arrive within the allocated time slot. Instead, that part may arrive during the next time slot, and
may interfere with information from another MS using that other time slot.
A large distance between the MS and the BTS causes time alignment. Effectively, the signal
cannot travel over the large distance within the given time.

1.8.4

Solution of Time Delay:

Timing advance is a solution specifically designed to counteract the problem of
time alignment. It works by instructing the misaligned MS to transmit its burst earlier or
later than it normally would. In GSM, the timing advance information relates to bit
times.

Time Dispersion:

Time dispersion is another problem relating to multiple paths to the Rx antenna of either an
MS or BTS. Time dispersion causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) where consecutive symbols (bits)
interfere with each other making it difficult for the receiver to determine which symbol is the correct
one.
This problem does not occur if the Distance between the Ms and The Building as example
that cause the reflection not increases than 0.5 km as distance related to one bit processing.

Solution of time dispersion:

 Increase Carrier to reflection Ratio (C/R).
 Viterbi Equalizer:
This is an equalizer used to equalize the effect of at most four bits delay. A
bit pattern called the Training Sequence that is known to the mobile is
transmitted with every burst.
The equalizer compares the received pattern with the expected one and
creates a mathematical model of the channel that probably caused the difference
between the two patterns.
Then a probable transmitted bit sequence is fed to the channel model and
the output is compared with the received bits until reaching the most probable bit
sequence.

1.8.5

Interference:

Co-channel interference:
It is the interference caused by reusing the frequencies in near distances (decreasing
reuse distance).

Solution of co-channel interference:

1) The GSM specification recommends that the carrier-to-interference (C/I) ratio is greater
than 9 decibels (dB).
2) Sectorization of Cells, Then n can be reduced to be equal 1.

Adjacent Channel Interference:

Is the interference between Carrier frequency and adjacent frequency? Adjacent
frequencies (A), that are frequencies shifted 200 kHz from the carrier frequency (C), must be
avoided in the same cell and preferably in neighboring cells also so.

Solution of adjacent channel interference:

1) The GSM specification states that the carrier-to-adjacent ratio (C/A) must be larger than
-9dB.
2) Also Sectorization of Cells as in co-channel interference.

Chapter (2)
Introduction to Mobile
Communication

2.1

Earlier Systems:

Year 1921:
The Detroit Police Department in 1921 implemented a radio that system allowed the patrol cars
to communicate a central control point, although this system has little in common with todays
sophisticated modern communications systems; it was the first mobile communications system.

From Year 1939 To 1944 (World War II):

World War II proved that the mass production of VHF radios (Very High Frequency) was
possible, by the end of the 1940s there seems to be little standing in the way of the development of
mobile communications systems.

Year 1946:
By 1946 in St. Louis it became possible link a vehicle mounted mobile radio unit to a PSTN
(Public Switched Telephone Network).

PMR & PAMR (Private Mobile Radio & Private Access Mobile Radio):
These systems were developed by during the 1950s, usually utilizing vehicle mounted
units. These systems are mainly used by the emergency services, public utilities, road haulage and
taxis. To start with these systems were very basic single site and single channel.
However they have developed into much more complex systems, utilizing multi site, multi
channel, selective calling, connections PABXs/PSTNs and direct calling; TETRA(Terrestrial Trunked
Radio).

TACS (Total Access Communications System):

TACS was the first real mobile communications system. In 1985 when this system was
introduced it was mainly vehicle mounted units, but later developed into mobile units. Unlike the
other systems used around the world TACS used the 900 MHz band.

2.2

GSM Global System for Mobile Communications

2.2.1

Historical Overview:

The Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) is by far the most successful mobile
communication system worldwide. Its development started in 1982. The European Conference of
Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT), predecessor of the European
Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI), founded the Groupe Speciale Mobile, with the
mandate to develop proposals for a pan-European digital mobile communication system. Two goals
were supposed to be achieved:


First, a better and more efficient technical solution for wireless communications it had
become evident at that time that digital systems would be superior in respect to user
capacity, ease of use, and number of possible additional services compared with the thenprevalent analog systems.

Second, a single standard was to be realized all over Europe, enabling roaming across
borders. This was not possible before, as incompatible analog systems were employed in
different countries.

In the early 1990s, it was realized that GSM should have functionalities that had not been included in
the original standard. Therefore, the so-called phase-2 specifications, which included these functions,
were developed until 1995. Further enhancements, which include packet radio (General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS), and the more efficient modulation of Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE),
have been introduced since then. Because of these extensions GSM is often referred to as the 2.5th
generation system, as its functionalities are beyond those of a second-generation system, but do not
enable all third-generation functionalities (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS).

There are three versions of GSM, each using different carrier frequencies. The original GSM system
uses carrier frequencies around 900 MHz GSM1800, which is also called Digital Cellular System at the
1800-MHz band (DCS1800), was added later to support the increasing numbers of subscribers. Its
carrier frequencies are around 1,800 MHz, the total available bandwidth is roughly three times larger
than the one around 900 MHz, and the maximal transmission power of MSs is reduced. Apart from
this, GSM1800 is identical to the original GSM. Thus, signal processing, switching technology, etc. can
be reused without changes. The higher carrier frequency, which implies a smaller path gain, and
reduced transmission power reduce the sizes of the cells significantly. This fact, combined with the
bigger available bandwidth, leads to a considerable increase in network capacity. A third system,
known as GSM1900 or PCS-1900 (Personal Communication System) operates on the 1,900-MHz
carrier frequency, and is mainly used in the U.S.A.

GSM is an open standard. This means that only the interfaces are specified, not the implementation.
As an example, we consider the modulation of GSM, which is GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying).
The GSM standard specifies upper bounds for out-of-band emission, phase jitter, intermodulation
products, etc. How the required linearity is achieved (e.g., by feedforward linearization, by using a
class-A amplifier which is unlikely because of the small efficiency or by any other method) is up to
the equipment manufacturer. Thus, this open standard ensures that all products from different
manufacturers are compatible, though they can still differ in quality and price. Compatibility is
especially important for service providers. When using proprietary systems, a provider is able to
choose the equipment supplier only once at the beginning of network implementation. For GSM
(and other open standards), a provider can first purchase Base Stations (BSs) from one manufacturer
but later on buy BSs to extend the capacity of his network from a different manufacturer, which
might offer a better price. A provider may also buy some components from one company and other
components from another company.

2.2.2

System Overview:
A GSM system consists essentially of three parts namely,

1-The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

2- The Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
3- The Operation Support System (OSS)

Figure 2.1 Block diagram of a Global System for Mobile communication system. In this figure: ADC,
Administration Center; NMC, Network Management Center; OSI, Operator System Interface

2.2.2.1 Base Station Subsystem

The BSS consists of Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs) and the Base Station Controllers (BSCs)
(see Figure 2.1). The BTS establishes and maintains the connection to th
the
e MSs within its cell. The
interface between the MS and the BTS is the air interface, called the Um-interface
Um interface in the GSM
context. The BTS hosts, at a minimum, the antennas and the Radio Frequency (RF) hardware of a BS,
as well as the software for multiple access. Several or, rarely, one BTSs are connected to one BSC;
they are either colocated, or connected via landline, directional microwave radio links, or similar
connections. The BSC has a control functionality. It is, among other things, responsible for HandOver
HO) between two BTSs that are connected to the same BSC. The interface between BTS and BSC is
called the Abis-interface.
interface. Distribution of the functionalities between BTS and BSC may differ
depending on the manufacturer. In most cases, one BSC iiss connected to several BTSs. Therefore, it is
possible to increase the efficiency of implementation by shifting as much functionality as possible to
the BSC. However, this implies increased signaling traffic on the link between the BTS and the BSC,
which might
ight be undesirable (remember that these links are often rented landline connections). In
general, the BSS covers a large set of functionalities. It is responsible for channel assignment,
maintenance of link quality and handover, power control, coding, and encryption.

2.2.2 .2 Network and Switching Subsystem

The main component of the NSS is the Mobile
Mobile-services
services Switching Center (MSC), which
controls the traffic between different BSCs (see Figure 2.1). One function of the MSC is mobility
management, which comprises
mprises all the functions that are necessary to enable true mobility for
subscribers. Another function of the MSC is the management of HOs that occur when an MS is
leaving the area of one BSC and moving into the area covered by another BSC. Other functions
functio are the
so-called
called paging and location update. All interactions with other networks especially the landline
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) are also performed by the MSC. The NSS includes some
databases, too. The Home Location Register (HLR) contains all the numbers of the mobile subscribers

associated with one MSC and information about the location of each of these subscribers. In the
event of an incoming call, the location of the desired subscriber is looked up in the HLR and the call is
forwarded to this location. Therefore, we can conclude that from time to time a traveling MS has to
send updates of its location to its HLR. The Visitor Location Register (VLR) of one MSC contains all the
information about mobile subscribers from other HLRs that are in the area of this MSC and are
allowed to roam in the network of this MSC. Furthermore, a temporary number will be assigned to
the MS to enable the host MSC to establish a connection to the visiting MS. The Authentication
Center (AUC) verifies the identity of each MS requesting a connection. The Equipment Identity
Register (EIR) contains centralized information about stolen or misused devices.

2.2.2.3 Operating Support System

The OSS is responsible for organization of the network and operational maintenance. More
specifically, the OSS mainly covers the following functions:
1. Accounting: how much does a specific call cost for a certain subscriber? There are also plenty of
different services and features, from which each subscriber may choose an individual selection
included in a specific plan. While this rich choice of services and prices is vital in the marketplace, the
administrative support of this individualism is rather complicated.
2. Maintenance: the full functionality of each component of the GSM network has to be maintained
all the time. Malfunctions may either occur in the hardware or in the software components of the
system. Hardware malfunctions are more costly, as they require a technician to drive to the location
of the malfunction. In contrast, software is nowadays administrated from a central location. For
example, new versions of switching software can be installed in the complete BSS from a central
location, and activated all over the network at a specific time. Revision and maintenance software
often constitutes a considerable part of the overall complexity of GSM control software.
3. MS management: even though all MSs have to pass a type approval, it may happen that bad
apple devices, which cause system wide interference, are operating in the network. These devices
have to be identified and their further activities have to be blocked.
4. Data collection: the OSS collects data about the amount of traffic, as well as the quality of the links.

2.2.3

The Modulation Technique:

GSM uses GMSK as a modulation format. GMSK is a variant of Minimum Shift Keying (MSK);
the difference is that the data sequence is passed through a filter with a Gaussian impulse response
(time bandwidth product BGT = 0.3) . This filtering is rather hard. Therefore, the spectrum is rather
narrow, but there is a significant amount of Inter Symbol Interference (ISI). On the other hand, the ISI
due to delay dispersion of the wireless channel is usually much more severe. Thus, some kind of
equalization has to be used anyway. Figure 2.2 illustrates a typical example of a phase trellis of this
kind of GMSK and of pure MSK for comparison. The detection method is not specified by the
standard. Differential detection, coherent detection, or limiterdiscriminator detection might be
employed.

Figure 2.2 Phase diagram for the bit sequence 1011011000 for Gaussian minimum shift keying with BGT = 0.3
(solid line) and pure minimum shift keying (dashed line)

2.2.4

Structure of a Timeslot:

Figure 2.3 illustrates the data contained in a timeslot with a length of 148 bits. However, not all of
these bits are payload data. Payload data are transmitted over two blocks of 57 bits. Between these
blocks is the so-called
called midamble. This is a known sequence of 26 bits and provides the training for
equalization. Furthermore, the midamble serves as an identifier of the BS. There is an extra control bit
between the midamble and each of the two data
data-containing
containing blocks; .Finally, the transmission burst
starts and ends with three tail bits. These bits are known, and enable termination of Maximum
Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE) in defined states at the beginning and end of the detection of
burst data. This reduces the complexity and increases the performance of decoding. The timeslots
end with a guard period of 8.25 bits. Apart from normal transmission bursts, there are other kinds
of bursts. MSs transmit access bursts to establish initial contact with the BS. Frequency correction
bursts enable frequency correction
ction of the MS
MSs.
s. Synchronization bursts allow MSs to synchronize to
the frame timing of BSs.

Figure2.3 Functions of the bits of a normal transmission burst

2.2.5

Circuit-Switched Data Transmission:

When the GSM standard was originally drafted, voice communication was envisioned as the
main application. Some data transmission like the Short Message Service (SMS) and a point-to-point
data transmission channel with a 9.6-kbit/s data rate were already included, but were not
considered sufficiently important to merit the introduction of much additional complexity. Thus, data
transmission was handled in a circuit-switched mode, just like voice transmission. In general, the
circuit-switched data transmission modes of GSM have severe disadvantages. A main issue is the low
data rate of less than 10 Kbit/s. Furthermore, the long time needed to set up a connection, as well as
the relatively high costs of holding a connection, make it very unattractive, e.g., for Internet browsing.
Only SMS text messaging proved to be successful. For these reasons, packet-switched (also known as
connectionless) transmission is preferred to be used.

2.2.6

Identity Numbers:

A MS or a subscriber can be localized within the network by using identity numbers.14 an

active GSM MS has multiple identity numbers.
1-Mobile Station ISDN Number (MS ISDN)
The MS ISDN is the unique phone number of the subscriber in the public telephone network.
The MS ISDN consists of Country Code (CC), the National Destination Code (NDC), which defines the
regular GSM provider of the subscriber, and the subscriber number. The MS ISDN should not be
longer than 15 digits.
2-International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
The IMSI is another unique identification for the subscriber. In contrast to the MS ISDN,
which is used as the phone number of the subscriber within the GSM network and the normal public
phone network, the IMSI is only used for subscriber identification in the GSM network. It is used by
the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), which we explain later, the HLR, and the VLR. It consists again
of three parts: the Mobile Country Code (MCC, three digits), the Mobile Network Code (MNC, two
digits), and the Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN, up to ten digits).
3-Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)
The MSRN is a temporary identification that is associated with a mobile if it is not in the area
of its HLR. This number is then used for routing of connections. The number consists again of a CC,
MNC, and a TMSI, which is given to the subscriber by the GSM network (s)he is roaming into.
4-International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)
The IMEI is a means of identifying hardware i.e., the actual mobile device. Let us note here
that the three identity numbers described above are all either permanently or temporarily associated
with the subscriber. In contrast, the IMEI identifies the actual MS used. It consists of 15 digits: six are
used for the Type Approval Code (TAC), which is specified by a central GSM entity; two are used as
the Final Assembly Code (FAC), which represents the manufacturer; and six are used as a Serial
Number (SN), which identifies every MS uniquely for a given TAC and FAC.

2.2.7

Identification of a Mobile Subscriber:

In analog wireless networks, every MS was uniquely identified by a single number that was
permanently associated with it. All connections that were established from this MS were billed to its
registered owner. GSM is more flexible in this respect. The subscriber is identified by his SIM, which is
a plug-in chip card roughly the size of a postage stamp. A GSM MS can only make and receive calls
when such a SIM is plugged in and activated. All calls that are made from the MS are billed to the
subscriber whose SIM is plugged in. Furthermore, the MS only receives calls going to the number of
the SIM owner. This makes it possible for the subscriber to easily replace the MS, or even rent one for
a short time. As the SIM is of fundamental importance for billing procedures, it has to have several
security mechanisms. The following information is saved on it:




Permanent security information: this is defined when the subscriber signs a contract with the
operator. It consists of the IMSI, the authentication key, and the access rights.
Temporary network information: this includes the TMSI, location area, etc.
Information related to the user profile: e.g., the subscriber can store his/her personal phonebook on
the SIM in this way the phonebook is always available, independent of the MS the subscriber uses.
The SIM can be locked by the user. It is unlocked by entering the Personal Unblocking Key
(PUK). If a wrong code is entered ten times, the SIM is finally blocked and cannot be reactivated.
Removing the SIM and then plugging it into the same or another MS does not reset the number of
wrong trials. This blocking mechanism is an important security feature in case of theft. The Personal
Identification Number (PIN) serves a similar function as the PUK. The user may activate the PIN
function, so that the SIM requests a four-digit key every time an MS is switched on. In contrast to the
PUK, the PIN may be altered by the user. If a wrong PIN is entered three times, the SIM is locked and
may be unlocked only by entering the PUK.

2.3

GPRS (General packet radio services) 2.5G:

General packet radio service is used to describe 2G-systems that have implemented a packet
switched domain in addition to the circuit switched domain. As long as the system can support packet
transfer, it can transfer data as well as voice calls. 2.5 G systems can use the infrastructure of the
existing 2G systems by addition of some interfacing blocks in the system that can support packet
switching. The commonly known 2.5G technique is GPRS. Some protocols, such as EDGE for GSM,
officially qualify as "3G" services (because they have a data rate of above 144kbps), but are
considered by most to be 2.5G services (or 2.75G which sounds even more complicated) because they
are several times slower than "true" 3G services.

2.3.1

GPRS service:

GPRS is different from the older Circuit Switched Data (or CSD) connection included in GSM
standards releases before Release 97 (from 1997, the year the standard was feature frozen) using a
GSM phone, in that in the older system, a data connection establishes a circuit, and reserves the full
bandwidth of that circuit during the lifetime of the connection. GPRS is packet-switched. Web
browsing, receiving e-mails as they arrive and instant messaging are examples of uses that require
intermittent data transfers, which benefit from sharing the available bandwidth. Usually, GPRS data is

billed per kilobytes of information transceiver while circuit switched data connections are billed per
second.

2.3.2

GPRS Architecture:

GPRS is an enhancement over the GSM and aadds

dds some nodes in the network to provide the
packet switched services. These network nodes are called GSNs (GPRS Support Nodes) and are
responsible for the routing and delivery of the data packets to and from the MS and external packet
data networks (PDN).

Figure 2.4 GPRS system architecture

a) GPRS BSC:
A software upgrade is required in the existing Base Transceiver Site BTS. The Base Station
Controller BSC also requires a software upgrade, and the installation of a new pi
piece
ece of hardware
called a packet control unit PCU. The PCU directs the data traffic to the GPRS network and can be a
separate hardware element associated with BSC. The PCU provides a physical and logical data
interface out of BSS for packet data traffic. Th
There
ere are three options for positioning the PCU are
provided in the BTS, in the BSC or in spatial connection with the SGSN.
Addition of two network elements:



Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN).

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN).

b) Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

SGSN) Functions:
The SGSN is a primary component of cellular networks that employ GPRS. Via the radio
network, the SGSN routes incoming and outgoing IP packets addressed to or from any GPRS
subscriber physically located within the geographical area served by that SGSN. Each SGSN provides





Ciphering (encryption and decryption) and authentication.

Session management and communication set-up to the mobile subscriber.
Mobility management that is, support for roaming and handover within and between mobile
networks.

c) Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) Functions:

The GGSN is also a primary component of cellular networks that employ GPRS. The GGSN
serves as the interface to external IP packet networks, accessing external ISP functions such as routers
and remote access dial-in user service (RADIUS) servers. In terms of the external IP network, the
GGSN routes the IP addresses of subscribers served by the GPRS network, exchanging routing
information with the external network.

2.4

EDGE (enhanced data rates for GSM evolution) 2.75G:

EDGE is a technology that gives GSM Networks the capacity to handle services for 3G. EDGE was
developed to enable the transmission of large amounts of data at peak rates of up to 472kbps. Users
should experience average speeds of 80 kbps to 130 kbps. EDGE deployment will begin in 2003 with
full deployment finishing in 2004. EDGE devices are backwards compatible with GPRS and will be able
to operate on GPRS networks where EDGE has not yet been deployed. The first stepping stone in
migration path to third generation wireless mobile services (3G) is the General Packet Radio Services,
GPRS, a packet-switched technology that delivers speeds of up to 115kbps. If GPRS is already in place,
Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) technology is most effective as the second stepping
stone that gives a low impact migration. Only software upgrades and EDGE plug-in transceiver units
are needed. The approach protects operators' investments by allowing them to reuse their existing
network equipment and radio systems.
The EDGE air interface is intended to facilitate higher rates than those currently achievable in
existing cellular systems. In order to increase the gross bit rate, 8-PSK, a linear high-level modulation,
is introduced. 8-PSK, is selected since it provides high data rates, high spectral efficiency, and
moderate implementation complexity. GMSK modulation for GSM is also part of the EDGE system
concept. The symbol rate is 271 kb/s for both modulations, leading to gross bit rates per time slot of
22.8 kb/s and 69.2 kb/s for GMSK and 8-PSK, respectively (including two stealing bits per burst). The
8- PSK pulse shape is linearized GMSK, allowing 8PSK to fit in the GSM spectrum mask.

2.5

UMTS (3G):

2.5.1

Introduction to Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS):

UMTS, the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, is the third-generation (3G)

successor to the second-generation GSM-based technologies, including GPRS, and EDGE. UMTS,
which uses wideband CDMA (W-CDMA), thats the solution generally preferred by countries that used
GSM, centered in Europe.

3G also has 2 other camps with W-CDMA, which are CDMA-2000; is an outgrowth of the
earlier 2G CDMA standard IS-95. CDMA2000 is managed by 3GPP, which is separate and independent
from UMTS's 3GPP. TD-SCDMA; which is less known standard that is being developed in the People's
Republic of China by the companies Datang and Siemens, They are predicting an operational system
for 2005.Even as the first 2G systems were first being rolled out, it was clear that these would not
cater for the demand forever.
Although UMTS uses a totally different air interface, the core network elements have been
migrating towards the UMTS requirements with the introduction of GPRS and EDGE. In this way, the
transition from GSM to UMTS does not require such a large instantaneous investment.
New technologies capable of providing new services video telephone, Mobile TV, ... etc
and facilities would be required.UMTS offers flexible & dynamic data rates: 8 Kbit/s - 2 Mbit/s.
Frequency Band utilized is 2100 MHz Channel Bandwidth is 5 MHz With this in mind, the World
Administrative Radio Conference started to reserve spectrum allocations for a new service at its
meetings in 1992. The next stage in the development arose when the International
Telecommunications Union began defining a system and the International Mobile
Telecommunications System 2000 (IMT2000) started to take shape.

Figure 2.5 IMT2000

Figure 2.6 IMT-2000 road map

In order to manage the new standard, a group known as the Third Generation Partnership
Program (3GPP) was formed. In fact, 3GPP is a global co-operation between six Organizational
Partners (ARIB, CCSA, ETSI, ATIS, TTA and TTC) who are recognized as being the worlds major
standardization bodies from Japan, China, Europe, the USA and Korea.
The establishment of 3GPP was formalized in December 1998 by the signing of The Third
Generation Partnership Project Agreement. The original scope of 3GPP was to produce globally
applicable technical specifications and technical reports for a third-generation mobile
telecommunications system.
This would be based upon the GSM core networks and the radio access technologies that
they support (i.e. Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA), both Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)
and Time Division Duplex (TDD) modes).

Figure 2.7 WCDMA, CDMA

Later the scope of 3GPP was increased to include the maintenance and development of the
GSM Technical Specifications and Technical Reports, including its derivatives of GPRS and EDGE. In
view of the fact that UMTS is a 3G technology and is a successor to GSM with a defined migration
path, some are now referring to it as 3GSM.
While 3GPP undertook the management of the UMTS standard, a similar committee was
needed to oversee the development of the other major 3G standard, namely CDMA2000. This
committee took on the name 3GPP2, and the standards bodies that were represented included ARIB,
TTA, CWTS and TIA.

Figure 2.8 UMTS development 3GPP foundation

2.5.2

UMTS Services:

3G service capabilities for these services should take account of their discontinuous and
asymmetric nature in order to make efficient use of network resources.
Basic services provided in 3G networks are audio, video, facsimile transfer, data
communication, Internet services, e-mail/voice-mail, paging, messaging, and combinations of these
i.e. multimedia.
UMTS Services have:
 High Security Data.
 New Services.
 World Wide Roaming.
 Multi-environment Support.
 High Quality of Voice & Services.
 Streaming TV session with data rate 128Kb/s.
 Video Telephony with data rate starting from 64kb/s.
 Higher bit rates: up to 384 kbps.

2.5.3

UMTS Architecture Overview:

UMTS system consists of a number of logical network elements connected through open
interfaces or access points. Functionally these elements are grouped into the Radio Access Network
(RAN, UMTS Terrestrial RAN - UTRAN) and the Core Network (CN).
The UTRAN handles all radio-related functionality, Radio Resource and Mobility Management
(RRM and MM). Whereas, the CN is responsible for switching and routing calls and data connections
to external networks at the same time as managing session and mobility information, Communication
and Mobility Management (CM and MM).
The system is completed by the User Equipment (UE) or 3G terminal, which interfaces with
the user and the radio interface. The high-level architecture is shown below in figure 2.10.
The collection of at least one logical network element of each type defines a UMTS Public
Land Mobile Network (PLMN). The UMTS PLMN is a fully featured and operational network, either on
its own or together with other sub-networks, that provides land mobile telecommunication services
to the public.
Each PLMN, typically established and operated by a single operator, is connected to other
PLMNs as well as to other types of networks, such as Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN),
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), Internet, and so on.

Figure 2.9 UMTS Architecture.

2.5.3.1 UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN):

UTRAN is subdivided into individual Radio Network Systems (RNSs), where each one is controlled
by a Radio Network Controller (RNC). Within a RNS, the RNC is connected to a set of Node B elements,
each of which can serve one or several cells.
There are four interfaces connecting the UTRAN internally or externally to other functional
entities Uu, Iu, Iub and Iur.


The Uu is a WCDMA radio external interface, connecting the Node B with the User
Equipment (UE).

The Iu interface is an external interface that connects the RNC to the Core Network (CN).

The Iub is an internal interface connecting the RNC with the Node B.

The Iur connects two RNCs with each other. The Iur interface which is an internal
interface most of the time, but can, exceptionally be an external interface too for some
network architectures.

The main task of UTRAN is to create and maintain Radio Access Bearers (RABs) for
communication between User Equipment (UE) and the Core Network (CN).
With RAB the CN elements are given an illusion of a fixed communication path to the UE. While in
GPRS/EDGE networks the logical link is defined between UE and SGSN, RABs are defined between UE
and the UTRAN. Hence, the locations of several functions have been shifted from the SGSN which is
part of the GPRS CN to the RNC in UTRAN.
A 3rd Generation Serving GPRS Support Node (3G-SGSN) no longer comprises logical link
management functions.

2.5.3.1.1 Node B:

Node B is the physical unit, (equivalent to the BTS in GSM Network Structure) for radio
transmission/reception in cells. Depending on sectoring (omni/sectored cells), one or more
cells may be served by a Node B.

Node B connects with the UE via the WCDMA Uu radio interface and with the RNC via the Iub
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) based interface.

The main task of Node B is to perform the air interface Layer 1 processing (transfer
information from transport to physical channels) although it also participates in some basic
Radio Resource Management (RRM) operation. However, RNC is where the radio resources
are managed.

2.5.3.1.2 Radio Network Controller (RNC):

RNC is the switching and controlling element of the UTRAN located between the Iub and Iu
interface. It also has a third interface called Iur for inter-RNS connections.

RNC interfaces the CN for both Packet-Switched and Circuit- Switched service domains and
also terminates the Radio Resource Control (RRC) protocol that defines the messages and
procedures between the mobile and UTRAN.
RNC functionalities:
 UTRAN Radio Resource Management (RRM) and control functions.
 The RRM is a collection of algorithms used to guarantee the stability of the radio
path and the QOS of radio connection by efficient sharing and managing of the radio
resources.

The UTRAN control functions include all of the functions related to setup, maintenance and
release of Radio Bearers including the support functions for the RRM algorithms.

2.5.3.1.3 Mobile Switching Center (MSC):

The MSC is an exchange which performs all the switching and signaling functions for MSs /
UEs located in a geographical area designated as the MSC area. The MSC area is sub-divided
into so-called Location Areas LA.

2.5.3.1.4 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN):

The SGSN is responsible to provide service for all activated MS / UE in a certain geographical
area, the so-called SGSN service area. The SGSN service area is subdivided into different
Routing Area RA (a sub-set of the Location Area LA). A Routing Area consists of one or several
cells.
SGSN Functionalities:
 Keeps track of the location of an individual MS / UE and stores it location (the
Routing Area).
 It is responsible for the MS / UE Mobility Management (Location Updates, Attach,
Paging...).
 Performs security functions and access control.
 Collecting charging data or billing data & forwarding to CGF (Ga).
 Inter-working PLMN _PDN (Gi).
 Screening / Filtering.
 Storing routing information (current SGSN).
 Requesting location information from HLR.
 Routing packets _ SGSN (Gn).

2.5.3.1.5The Radio Frequency Interface:



In older analog FDMA systems, the user occupies one frequency channel to transmit (30 kHz
bandwidth for AMPS) and one to receive for the duration of a phone call. These transmitting and
receiving channels are busy until a call has been completed.

During peak hours, many subscribers are unable to access the system which results in lost revenue for
a network operator, and increased frustration for a user.

TDMA systems improve on this capacity issue by further subdividing a given bandwidth into time
slots.

CDMA and W-CDMA systems use a much broader bandwidth than either FDMA or TDMA systems.
Instead of dividing users up by frequency or time, they are divided into codes, specific data streams
assigned to particular users. All users transmit at the same time and multiple users share the same
frequency carrier. Each mobile user is uniquely identified by a specialized code and frequency.

Figure 2.10 Comparison between FMDA, TDMA and CDMA.

2.5.3.2 Frequency reuse:

Traditional cellular systems (FDMA or TDMA) have a frequency reuse method where
frequencies are only duplicated within a certain pattern. This reduces the interference between two
neighboring cell sites that are both using the same channel. CDMA and

Figure 2.11 Frequency Reuse by Using Reused Distance..

W-CDMA takes a much different approach in that the same frequency is used at every site as
shown in figure 2.11. In the case of CDMA, forward links are separated from each other not by,
frequencies but by Pseudo Noise (PN) Offsets. In the case of W-CDMA, forward links are separated
from each other by Scrambling Codes.

2.5.3.3 Spread Spectrum:

By a small amount of analysis in Shannon equation we can see that the bandwidth of the
signal (BW) is inversely proportional to the signal power.

Figure 2.12 Spread Spectrum.

This result can be used to serve more than one user by the same frequency in the same time
by generating a new dimension to discriminate between the different users and make the spreading
process.
In CDMA each user is assigned a unique code sequence it uses to encode its information
bearing signal. The receiver, knowing the code sequences of the user, decodes a received signal after
reception and recovers the original data. This is possible since the cross correlations between the
code of the desired user and the codes of the other users are small.
Since the bandwidth of the code signal is chosen to be much larger than the bandwidth of
the information-bearing signal, the encoding process enlarges (spreads) the spectrum of the signal
and is therefore also known as spread-spectrum modulation.
The ratio of transmitted bandwidth to information bandwidth is called the processing gain
(Gp) of the spread-spectrum system; the receiver correlates the received signal with a synchronously
generated replica of the spreading code to recover the original information bearing signal. This
implies that the receiver must know the code used to modulate the data.

2.5.3.4 WCDMA characteristics:

2.5.3.4.1 WCDMA spread spectrum:
The key element of code division multiple access CDMA is its use of a form of transmission
known as direct sequence spread spectrum, DSSS. Direct sequence spread spectrum is a form of
transmission that looks very similar to white noise over the bandwidth of the transmission. However
once received and processed with the correct descrambling codes, it is possible to extract the
required data.
When transmitting a CDMA spread spectrum signal, the required data signal is multiplied
with what is known as a spreading or chip code data stream. The resulting data stream has the same
data rate as the spread sequence, a higher data rate than the data itself. Often the data is multiplied
using the XOR (exclusive OR) function. Then the baseband data stream is then modulated onto a
carrier and in this way the overall signal is spread over a much wider bandwidth (5 MHZ). This is
because signals with high data rates occupy wider signal bandwidths than those with low data rates.

To decode the signal and receive the original data, the CDMA signal is first demodulated
from the carrier to reconstitute the high speed data stream. This is multiplied with the spreading code
to regenerate the original data. When this is done, then only the data with that was generated with
the same spreading code is regenerated, all the other data that is generated from different spreading
code streams is ignored.
Its advantages are
1 - Security.
2 - Wider Scope of Applications Higher Bandwidth.
3 - Higher System Capacity.
4 - Better system quality.

Figure 2.13 WCDMA Spread Spectrum

2.5.3.4.2 Rake receiver

A conventional RAKE receiver uses multipath diversity principle. It collects the energy in the
multipath signals instead of suppressing them. RAKE receiver attempts to collect the time shifted
versions of the original signal by providing a separate correlation receiver known as finger for each of
the multipath signals.
Each finger of the RAKE receiver has a separate code generator to generate codes with
different phases, where each phase corresponds to a specific multipath.

Figure 2.14 Rake Receiver.

2.5.3.4.3 Closed loop power control:

Open loop power control is the ability of the UE transmitter to sets its output power to a
specific value. It is used for setting initial uplink and downlink transmission powers when a UE is
accessing the network. The open loop power control tolerance is 9 dB (normal conditions) or 12 dB
(extreme conditions)
Inner loop power control (also called fast closed loop power control) in the uplink is the
ability of the UE transmitter to adjust its output power in accordance with one or more Transmit
Power Control (TPC) commands received in the downlink, in order to keep the received uplink Signalto-Interference Ratio (SIR) at a given SIR target. The UE transmitter is capable of changing the output
power with a step size of 1, 2 and 3 dB, in the slot immediately after the TPC can be derived. Inner
loop power control frequency is 1500Hz.
Outer loop power control is used to maintain the quality of communication at the level of
bearer service quality requirement, while using as low power as possible.

Figure 2.15 Closed loop Power Control

2.5.3.4.4 Soft and Softer handover:

Soft: from site to site.
Softer: from cell to another
Their disadvantage is that they make HO first then Break

Figure 2.16 Comparison between Soft and Softer Hand Over.

2.5.3.5 WCDMA code types:

2.3.5.1 PN codes (Scrambling codes):
Pseudo-random number codes (pseudo-noise or PN code) can be generated very easily.
These codes will sum to zero over a period of time. Although the sequence is deterministic because of
the limited length of the linear shift register used to generate the sequence, they provide a PN code
that can be used within a CDMA system to provide the spreading code required. They are used within
many systems as there is a very large number that can be used. A feature of PN codes is that if the
same versions of the PN code are time shifted, then they become almost orthogonal, and can be used
as virtually orthogonal codes within a CDMA system.

2.5.3.5.2 Orthogonal codes:

Two codes are said to be orthogonal if when they are multiplied together the result is added
over a period of time they sum to zero. For example a codes 1 -1 -1 1 and 1 -1 1 -1 when multiplied
together give 1 1 -1 -1 which gives the sum zero. An example of an orthogonal code set is the Walsh
codes (Channelization codes) used within the IS95 / CDMA2000 system.

2.5.3.6 Introduction for HSPA:

HSPA is a technology upgrade to UMTS network that provides high speeds, capacity and
efficiency. HSPA improved spectrum efficiency enables mush faster downstream. HSPA can
provide up to seven times higher than the UMTS networks higher capacity and reduced delay
time.

HSPA is the next step of the life cycle of UMTS. This is mostly used in Europe. The software
technologies used by the UMTS is in a lower standard than the HSPA. And with increasing
demand for the UMTS technology they developed the existing technology into HSPA. Even
though they upgraded this software both UMTS and the HSPA uses the same frequency
range. The phones that use the UMTs technology are extremely portable.

This means that even though they are not in a coverage range of UMTS they will connect into
a GPRS or GPS network. So the users will have the facility of roaming. Since HSPA is an
updated version of UMTS it has all these facilities of UMTS as well as more advanced and
upgraded technologies.
HSPA is a collection of two mobile telephony protocols:
 High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA).
 High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA).

2.5.3.6.1 High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) 3.5G:

High-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) is release 5 in 3GPP features. HSDPA is an

enhancement to Wideband-CDMA that provides a smooth evolutionary path to higher data
rates for current UMTS.

HSDPA was introduced to increase the channel utilization efficiency and provide a higher
speed (3.5 Mbps). To achieve these targets, the type of modulation should be changed from
QPSK modulation technique (used in UMTS) to 16-QAM (Quadrature amplitude modulation)
technique, in which each 4 bits represented by 1 symbol. That decreases the rate of
information therefore that resulted in increasing the user throughput, spreading factor and
capacity of users.

Figure 02.17 HSPA Targets.

Decreasing the latency factor is achieved by tiny change in the network structure of UMTS.
By direct tunnel concept allows User Plane (UP) to bypass the SGSN as show in Figure 2.19.

As increasing of user throughput, decreasing the latency factor and increasing the capacity
are achieved, therefore increasing the pricing efficiency is achieved. HSDPA has been very
successful because it greatly improved the downlink performance with higher throughput
and lower latency and provides network operators and opportunity of incremental data
revenues.

Figure 2.18 Comparison between UMTS Network Structure and HSDPA Network Structure.

2.5.3.6.2 High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA) 3.75G:

High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA) is a release 6 feature in 3GPP specifications and is
part of HSPA (High Speed Packet Access) family. HSUPA is more often called as the Enhanced Uplink
Dedicated Channel (E-DCH) by the technically aware people. The main aim of HSUPA is to increase the
uplink data transfer speed in the UMTS environment and it offers data speeds of up to 5.8Mbps in the
uplink. HSUPA achieves its high performance through more efficient uplink scheduling in the base
station and faster retransmission control.
The key specification parameters:


Increased data rate:

The use of HSUPA is able to provide a significant increase in the data rate available. It allows
peak raw data rates of 5.74 Mbps.

Lower latency:
The use of HSUPA introduces a TTI of 2 ms, although a 10ms TTI was originally used and is
still supported.

Improved system capacity:

In order to enable the large number of high data rate users, it has been necessary to ensure
that the overall capacity when using HSUPA is higher.

BPSK modulation:
Originally only BPSK modulation that adopted for UMTS was used. Accordingly it did not
support adaptive modulation schemes. Higher order modulation was introduced in Release 7
of the 3GPP standards when 64QAM was allowed.

Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):

In order to facilitate the improved performance the Hybrid ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
used for HSDPA is also employed for the uplink, HSUPA.

Fast Packet Scheduling:

In order to reduce latency, fast packet scheduling has been adopted again for the uplink as
for the downlink, although the implementation is slightly different.

2.5.3.7 High Speed Packet Access Evolution (HSPA+) 3.75G:

HSPA+ (High Speed Packet Access Plus) is also known as HSPA Evolution and Evolved HSPA. HSPA+
was first standardized in 3GPP Release7 and standardization has continued through to Release 10.
HSPA+ will apply some of the techniques developed for Long Term Evolution (LTE) and allow
operators to extend the life of their HSPA networks. 3G Americas initiated proposals at 3GPP to lead
the development of the HSPA+ standards which now have received wide scale commitments from
operators.
HSPA+ brings improved support and performance for real-time conversational and interactive services
such as Push-to-Talk over Cellular (PoC), picture and video sharing, and Video and Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) through the introduction of features like Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO)
antennas, Continuous Packet Connectivity (CPC) and Higher Order Modulations.
Using of MIMO antennas is to treat fading problems , then reduce bit error rate and rate of
information without increasing percentage of error , then increasing of signal to noise ratio and
capacity of users. Shortly, HSPA+ treats the disadvantage of HSPA.
Key features of HSPA+:


HSPA+ is a simple upgrade to todays HSPA networks, protecting an operators investment in

the network. HSPA+ enhancements are backward-compatible with UMTS Release 99/Release
5/Release 6.

HSPA+ is an affordable and incremental upgrade to existing HSPA networks. It provides a

tremendous advantage to HSPA operators, which is not an option for CDMA operators who
are already unable to compete with the higher data throughput performance of HSPA and
have no future evolution commercially viable for enhancement to their EV-DO networks
today. Because it offers impressive performance at an incremental cost, some HSPA
operators plan to use HSPA+ as a companion to LTE.

Chapter (3)
LTE (Long Term Evolution)

3.1

DRIVERS FOR LTE:

The evolution of 3G systems into 4G is driven by the creation and development of
new services for mobile devices, and is enabled by advancement of the technology available
for mobile systems. There has also been an evolution of the environment in which mobile
systems are deployed and operated, in terms of competition between mobile operators,
challenges from other mobile technologies, and new regulation of spectrum use and market
aspects of mobile systems.
The rapid evolution of the technology used in telecommunication systems,
consumer electronics, and specifically mobile devices has been remarkable in the last 20
years. Moores law illustrates this and indicates a continu
continuing
ing evolution of processor
performance and increased memory size, often combined with reduced size, power
consumption, and cost for devices. High
High-resolution
resolution color displays and megapixel camera
sensors are also coming into all types of mobile devices. Combined
Combi
with a high-speed
speed
internet backbone often based on optical fiber networks, we see that a range of technology
enablers are in place to go hand
hand-in-hand
hand with advancement in mobile communications
technology such as LTE.
The rapid increase in use of the in
internet
ternet to provide all kinds of services since the
1990s started at the same time as 2G and 3G mobile systems came into widespread use. The
natural next step was that those internet
internet-based
based services also moved to the mobile devices,
creating what is today kno
know
w as mobile broadband. Being able to support the same Internet
Protocol (IP)-based
based services in a mobile device that people use at home with a fixed
broadband connection is a major challenge and a prime driver for the evolution of LTE. A few
services were already
lready supported by the evolved 2.5G systems, but it is not until the systems
are designed primarily for IP
IP-based
based services that the real mobile IP revolution can take off.
An interesting aspect of the migration of broadband services to mobile devices is that
th a
mobile flavor is also added. The mobile position and the mobility and roaming capabilities
do in fact create a whole new range of services tailored to the mobile environment.

Figure 3.1 The increasing demand on mobile

mobile broadband services with compared to fixed broadband services in
the past few years

3.2

LTE main objectives

objectives:
1 - Increased downlink and uplink peak data rates: up to 100 Mbps
ps with 20 MHz bandwidth
in the downlink and uplink peak data rates up to 50 Mbps. Some vendors have already
demonstrated peak rates higher than this levelfor
for example Ericsson has demonstrated
150 Mbps
2 - Scalable bandwidth: ranges from 1.4 to 20 MHz
3 - Improved spectral efficiency: 5bps/Hz for DL and 2.5bps/Hz for UL
4 - All IP network
5 - A standards based interface that can su
support a multitude of user types: such
uch as mobiles,
mobiles
PCs, gaming devices and cameras
6 - Decreased CAPEX ad OPEX
OPEX:: via simple architecture that reduced the total number of
nodes needed to construct the network
7 - Reduced latency:: (to 10 ms) for better user experience
8 - Mobility:: LTE is optimized to work perfectly with speeds up to 350kph
9 - More simple network architecture

Figure 3.2 3GPP releases

3.3

LTE SAE (System

System Archite
Architecture Evolution):
While the term LTE encompasses the evolution of the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS) radio access through the Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN),
(E UTRAN), it
is accompanied by an evolution of the non
non-radio
radio aspects under the term System
Architecture
rchitecture Evolution (SAE), which includes the Evolved Packet Core (EPC) network.

Together LTE and SAE comprise the Evolved Packet System (EPS). EPS provides the
user with IP connectivity to a PDN for accessing the Internet, as well as for running serv
services
such as Voice over IP (VoIP). An EPS bearer is typically associated with a QoS. Multiple
bearers can be established for a user in order to provide different QoS streams or
connectivity to different PDNs. For example, a user might be engaged in a voice (VoIP) call
while at the same time performing web browsing or FTP download. A VoIP bearer would
provide the necessary QoS for the voice call, while a best
best-effort
effort bearer would be suitable for
the web browsing or FTP session.
The network must also provide ssufficient
ufficient security and privacy for the user and
protection for the network against fraudulent use. This is achieved by means of several EPS
network elements that have different roles. Figure shows the overall network architecture,
including the network elements
ele
and the standardized interfaces.
At a high level, the network is comprised of the CN (EPC) and the access network EE
UTRAN. While the CN consists of many logical nodes, the access network is made up of
essentially just one node, the evolved NodeB (eN
(eNodeB),
odeB), which connects to the UEs. Each of
these network elements is interconnected by means of interfaces that are standardized in
order to allow multi-vendor
vendor interoperability. This gives network operators the possibility to
source different network elemen
elements
ts from different vendors. In fact, network operators may
choose in their physical implementations to split or merge these logical network elements
depending on commercial considerations.

Figure 3.3 LTE network architecture

3.3.1

The core network:

The core network (called EPC in SAE) is responsible for the overall control of the UE and
establishment of the bearers. The logical nodes of the EPC are:
1. PDN Gateway (P--GW)
2. Serving Gateway (S
(S-GW)
3. Mobility Management Entity (MME)

4.
5.

Home Subscriber Server (HSS)

Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF)

In addition to these nodes, Since the EPS only provides a bearer path of a certain QoS,
control of multimedia applications such as VoIP is provided by the IP Multimedia Subsystem
(IMS), which is considered to be outside the EPS itself.

3.3.1.1 PCRF:
The Policy Control and Charging Rules Function is responsible for policy control
decision-making, as well as for controlling the flow-based charging functionalities in the
Policy Control Enforcement Function (PCEF), which resides in the P-GW. The PCRF provides
the QoS authorization (QoS class identifier [QCI] and bit rates) that decides how a certain
data flow will be treated in the PCEF and ensures that this is in accordance with the users
subscription profile.

3.3.1.2 HSS:
The Home Subscriber Server contains users SAE subscription data such as the EPSsubscribed QoS profile and any access restrictions for roaming. It also holds information
about the PDNs to which the user can connect. This could be in the form of an access point
name (APN) (which is a label according to DNS naming conventions describing the access
point to the PDN) or a PDN address (indicating subscribed IP address (es)). In addition the
HSS holds dynamic information such as the identity of the MME to which the user is
currently attached or registered. The HSS may also integrate the authentication center
(AUC), which generates the vectors for authentication and security keys.

3.3.1.3 P-GW:
The PDN Gateway is responsible for IP address allocation for the UE, as well as QoS
enforcement and flow-based charging according to rules from the PCRF. It is responsible for
the filtering of downlink user IP packets into the different QoS-based bearers. This is
performed based on Traffic Flow Templates (TFTs). The P-GW performs QoS enforcement for
guaranteed bit rate (GBR) bearers. It also serves as the mobility anchor for interworking with
non-3GPP technologies such as CDMA2000 and WiMAX networks.

3.3.1.4 S-GW:
All user IP packets are transferred through the Serving Gateway, which serves as the
local mobility anchor for the data bearers when the UE moves between eNodeBs. It also
retains the information about the bearers when the UE is in the idle state (known as EPS
Connection Management IDLE [ECM-IDLE]) and temporarily buffers downlink data while
the MME initiates paging of the UE to reestablish the bearers. In addition, the S-GW
performs some administrative functions in the visited network such as collecting information
for charging (for example, the volume of data sent to or received from the user) and lawful
interception. It also serves as the mobility anchor for interworking with other 3GPP
technologies such as general packet radio service (GPRS) and UMTS.

3.3.1.5 MME:
The Mobility Management Entity (MME) is the control node that processes the
signaling between the UE and the CN. The protocols running between the UE and the CN are
known as the Non Access Stratum (NAS) protocols.

The main functions suppor

supported by the MME can be classified as:
 Functions related to bearer management
This
his includes the establishment, maintenance and release of the bearers
and is handled by the session management layer in the NAS protocol.
 Functions related to connection management
manag
This
his includes the establishment of the connection and security between
the network and UE and is handled by the connection or mobility management layer
in the NAS protocol layer.

3.3.2

The access network:

The access network of LTE, E-UTRAN,
E
simply consists of a network of eNodeBs, as
illustrated in Figure. For normal user traffic (as opposed to broadcast), there is no centralized
controller in E-UTRAN;
UTRAN; hence the EE-UTRAN
UTRAN architecture is said to be flat. The eNodeBs are
normally interconnected with eeach
ach other by means of an interface known as X2 and to the
EPC by means of the S1 interface - more specifically, to the MME by means of the S1-MME
S1
interface and to the S-GW
GW by means of the S1-U
S1 interface.

Figure 03.4 LTE access network

3.3.2.1 eNodeB functionality:

functionality
ENodeB is the RAN node in the EPS architecture that is responsible for radio
transmission to and reception from UEs in one or more cells. The eN
eNodeB
B is connected to
EPC nodes
odes by means of an S1 interface. The eN
eNodeB
B is also connected to its neighbor
eNodeBs
Bs by means of the X2 interface. Some significant changes have been made to the
eNodeB
B functional allocation compared to UTRAN. Most Rel
Rel-6
6 RNC functionality has been
moved to the E-UTRAN
UTRAN eN
eNodeB.
B. Below follows a description of the functionality provided by
eNodeB.

Cell control and MME pool support: eNodeB owns and controls the radio resources
of its own cells. Cell resources are requested by and granted to MMEs in an ordered fashion.
This arrangement supports the MME pooling concept. S-GW pooling is managed by the
MMEs and is not really seen in the eNodeB.
Mobility control: The eNodeB is responsible for controlling the mobility for
terminals in active state. This is done by ordering the UE to perform measurement and then
performing handover when necessary.
Control and User Plane security: The ciphering of user plane data over the radio
interface is terminated in the eNodeB. Also the ciphering and integrity protection of RRC
signaling is terminated in the eNodeB.
Shared Channel handling: Since the eNodeB owns the cell resources, the eNodeB also
handles the shared and random access channels used for signaling and initial access.
Segmentation/Concatenation : Radio Link Control (RLC) Service Data Units (SDUs)
received from the Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) layer consist of whole IP packets
and may be larger than the transport block size provided by the physical layer. Thus, the RLC
layer must support segmentation and concatenation to adapt the payload to the transport
block size.
HARQ: A Medium Access Control (MAC) Hybrid Automatic Repeat request (HARQ)
layer with fast feedback provides a means for quickly correcting most errors from the radio
channel. To achieve low delay and efficient use of radio resources, the HARQ operates with a
native error rate which is sufficient only for services with moderate error rate requirements
such as for instance VoIP. Lower error rates are achieved by letting an outer Automatic
Repeat request (ARQ) layer in the eNodeB handle the HARQ errors.
Scheduling: A scheduling with support for QoS provides for efficient scheduling of
UP and CP data.
Multiplexing and Mapping: The eNodeB performs mapping of logical channels onto
transport channels.
Physical layer functionality: The eNodeB handles the physical layer such as
scrambling, Tx diversity, beam forming processing and OFDM modulation. The eNodeB also
handles layer one functions like link adaptation and power control.
Measurements and reporting: eNodeB provides functions for configuring and
making measurements on the radio environment and eNodeB-internal variables and
conditions. The collected data is used internally for Radio Resource Management (RRM) but
can be reported for the purpose of multi-cell RRM.
Automated operation and maintenance: eNodeB provides functions for Automated
Neighbor Relations (ANR) and Automatic Integration of RBS.

3.4

LTE air interface:

The radio interface in LTE is developed according to the requirements of spectrum
flexibility, spectrum efficiency, cost effectiveness etc. Robustness against time dispersion has
influenced the choice of transmission technique in both UL and DL.

The radio interface is structured in a layered model, similar to WCDMA, with a lay
layer
2 bearer (here called EPS Bearer Service), which corresponds to a PDP
PDP-context
context in Rel. 6,
carrying layer 3 data and the end
end-to-end
end service. The EPS bearer is carried by the EUTRA
Radio Bearer Service in the radio interface. The EE-UTRA radio bearer is carried
ried by the radio
channels. The radio channel structure is divided into logical, transport and physical channels.
The logical channels are carried by transport channels, which in turn are carried by the
physical channels as illustrated in Figure below.

Figure 3.5 Radio interface structure

The protocols performing the functions in the radio interface are: PDCP (Packet Data
Convergence Protocol), RLC (Radio Link Protocol), MAC (Medium Access Control) and the
physical layer. The
he RRC (Radio Resource Control) protocol is used to transfer radio network
and NAS (Non Access Stratum) signaling over the radio interface.
The PDCP protocol maps the EPS bearer onto the E-UTRA
E UTRA Radio Bearer and
performs Robust Header Compression (ROHC). The
T RLC protocol maps the E-UTRA
UTRA Radio
Bearer to a logical channel and performs segmentation, in
in-sequence
sequence delivery and
retransmissions. The MAC protocol maps the logical channel to a transport channel and is
responsible for Hybrid ARQ (HARQ) and scheduling. The physical layer maps the transport
channel onto a physical channel and performs channel coding, modulation etc.
The 3GPP has chosen Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) as the air
interface for downlink (eNodeB to UE) and Single Carrier Freq
Frequency
uency Division Multiple Access
(SC-FDMA)
FDMA) for the uplink (UE to eNodeB) as illustrated in Figure below. Both of these access
techniques support a variable bandwidth and hence enable operators to deploy LTE in
different regions with different frequency bands and bandwidths available.

Figure 33.6 UL and DL access techniques

With OFDM each user is given a variable number of 15 kHz subcarriers in blocks or
12 (12X15 = 180 kHz) every 1 msec. This allows the operator to deploy LTE with variable size
bandwidth allocations. Each 15 kHz subcarrier has a slow symbol rate resulting in a long
symbol time giving a very good performance in highly time dispersive radio environments
(i.e. many delayed and strong multipath reflec
reflections).
tions). The long symbol time also reduces Inter
Symbol Interference (ISI).
One drawback of OFDM is its high Peak to Average Power Ratio (PARP) resulting in
relatively high power consumption and amplifier cost making it impractical for use in the
uplink given
ven the power consumption and cost constraints associated with User Equipment
(UE) design. With SC-FDMA
FDMA each UE uses a separate variable bandwidth carrier which
although not as flexible as OFDM produces a much lower PARP.
As can be seen in Figure the radio
o resources are divided in the time and frequency
domain. The smallest allocation is twelve 15 kHz subcarriers for 1 msec known as a Resource
Block (RB). These RBs are dynamically allocated by the eNodeB with variable modulation
schemes and coding rates de
depending
pending on the received Channel Quality Indicators (CQI) from
connected UEs.
Hybrid Automatic Repeat and Request (HARQ) caters for very quick layer 2
retransmission functionality. In addition, ordinary ARQ is implemented in the RLC layer.
The LTE radio transmissions
ransmissions are based on a very short Transmission Time Interval
(TTI) of 1ms, which speeds up the operation of all of the above functions and also reduces
the radio interface latency, which is one of the main concerns in the LTE development.

3.4.1

LTE
E air interface principles:
The LTE air interface employs the following principles to adapt the uplink and downlink
data rates to the radio environment and UE requirements:
1. Orthogonal Subcarriers
2. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
3. Adaptive coding and modulation
4. Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)

3.4.1.1 ORTHOGONAL SUBCARRIERS

SUBCARRIERS:
Each of the 15 kHz LTE air interface subcarriers are Orthogonal to each other
giving rise to the name Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) which is
employed in the downlink.
wnlink. What this means is that at the sampling point of each subcarrier
all others have a zero value as illustrated in Figure below. In the downlink a UE may be
allocated a number of non consecutive blocks of subcarriers producing a high Peak to
Average Power
ower Ratio (PARP) requirement on the transmitter. In the uplink the UE is only
allocated consecutive blocks of subcarriers reducing the PARP. In this way each UE is
allocated a separate variable bandwidth carrier giving rise to the name Single Carrier
Frequency
quency Division Multiple Access (SC
(SC-FDMA).
FDMA). These subcarriers are combined using Inverse
Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) at the transmitter and recovered using Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) at the receiver.

Figure 3.7 Orthogonal subcarriers

3.4.1.2
.1.2 FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM (FFT):
(FFT)
The transmitter combines all the subcarriers using an Inverse Fast Furrier Transform
(IFFT) function where the outcome is single signal which is basi
basically
cally a sum of sinusoids having
amplitude that varies depending on the number of subcarriers that have been combined as
illustrated in Figure below. The receiver uses a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) function to
recover each subcarrier.

Figure 33.8 Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT)

3.4.1.3 ADAPTIVE CODING AND MODULATION

MODULATION:
The type of modulation used in LTE depends on the radio environment. The UE
estimates the quality in the downlink and signals it back to the eNodeB in the Channel
Quality Indicator (CQI). The up
uplink
link reference signals that are embedded into the uplink
transmission are used by the eNodeB to estimate the quality in the uplink. The eNodeB
decides which modulation technique should be used based on the quality of the downlink
and uplink radio environme
environment.
LTE supports the following modulation techniques in the downlink and uplink:
 64 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ((64
64 QAM) which uses 64 different
quadrature and amplitude combinations to carry 6 bits per symbol
 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16 QAM
QAM) which uses
ses 16 different
quadrature
uadrature and amplitude combinations to carry 4 bits per symbol
 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) which used 4 different quadratures to
send 2 bits per symbol.

Figure 3.9 Adaptive Modulation

To check if the data has been received correctly the transmitter adds a 24-bit
24
CRC
to each block of user data before it is passed through a Turbo Coder. The Turbo Coder adds
extra parity bits to enable the receiver to recover bit errors introduced by the air interface.
The more parity bits sent the greater the protection against bit errors but at the expense of
the user data rate. Based on the quality of the radio environment the eNodeB these parity
bits can be punctured or removed reducing the prot
protection
ection but increasing the user data rate.
If the CRC is decoded correctly an Acknowledgement (ACK) message will be sent to the
transmitter or a Negative Acknowledgement (NACK) in the case that it is not. On reception
of the NACK the transmitter will perform
perform a retransmission using either Chase Combining or
Incremental Redundancy (IR). When Chase Combining is used the same data is sent
resulting in a power gain. In the IR retransmission the parity bits that were punctured in the
initial transmission are
re sent allowing the receiver to use the full strength of the Turbo Coding
to correct the error. The eNodeB will adapt the coding rate to suit the radio environment.
For example in poor radio environments a low coding rate which contains more parity than
systematic
ystematic bits and offers a high protection against bit errors would be used. On the other
hand when the radio environment is high a coding rate which contains more systematic than
parity bits could be used offering lower protection but higher user data rate
rate as illustrated in
Figure (3.8) below.

Figure 3.10 Adaptive Coding

The eNodeB will adapt the modulation and coding rate to offer the UE the best
possible data rate in various radio environments while maintaining an adequa
adequate
te Bit Error
Rate (BER). Coding rates between 33 and 95 % are possible.

3.4.1.4 MULTIPLE INPUTS MULTIPLE OUTPUTS

OUTPUTS:
In normal transmit diversity the same data is sent from both antennas increasing
the robustness of the signal. In good radio environments when
when robustness is not an issue the
eNodeB can send different data from each antenna effectively doubling the data rate. In the
illustration in Figure below the UE in the poor radio environment is sent the same data from
each antenna represented by the duplicated
dupli
numbered squares.

Figure 3.11 TX Diversity v 2X2 MIMO

The UE in the good radio environment on the other hand, is send different data
from each antenna represented by the 16 numbered squares. From this illustration it can be
seen that in a good radio environment the eNodeB can sacrifice TX diversity for an increased
user data rate. The UE can distinguish each antenna transmission by the embedded cell
reference signals which are sent at different times from each antenna. The term 2X2 is used
to signify that there are two separate transmit and receive paths between the E-Node
E Node B and
UE. In later releases of LTE this will be increased to 4X4 to further increase the user data
rate.

3.4.2

LTE channels structure :

There are
re 3 types of channels in LTE air interface which are: Logical, Transport and
Physical channels. These 3 types are illustrated in Figure below.

Figure 33.12 LTE CHANNEL STRUCTURE

The logical channels define the type of information that is being carried which is
either control signaling or user data. The transport channels define what characteristics are
used to carry this information and are either common or shared. The physical channels which
are mapped to the downlink and uplink physical resources (bits, symbols, modulation, radio
frames etc) carry the transport channel data across the air interface.

3.4.2.1 LTE logical channels :

The logical channels can be divided into control channels and traffic channels. The
control channels are used for transfer of control plane information and the traffic channels
are used for the transfer of user plane information. The following logical channels are
supported for LTE:

3.4.2.1.1 Logical Control Channels:

1) Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): A downlink channel for broadcasting system
control information.
2) Paging Control Channel (PCCH): A downlink channel that transfers paging
information. This channel is used when the network does not know the location cell
of the UE.
3) Common Control Channel (CCCH): This channel is used by the UEs having no RRC
connection with the network. CCCH would be used by the UEs when accessing a
new cell or after cell reselection.
4) Multicast Control Channel (MCCH): A point-to-multipoint downlink channel used
for transmitting MBMS scheduling and control information from the network to the
UE, for one or several MTCHs. After establishing an RRC connection this channel is
only used by UEs that receive MBMS.
5) Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH): A point-to-point bidirectional channel that
transmits dedicated control information between a UE and the network. Used by
UEs having an RRC connection.

3.4.2.1.2 Logical Traffic Channels:

1) Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH): A Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) is a point-topoint channel, dedicated to one UE, for the transfer of user information. A DTCH can
exist in both uplink and downlink.
2) Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH): A point-to-multipoint downlink channel for
transmitting traffic data from the network to the UEs using MBMS.

3.4.2.2 LTE transport channels :

An effort has been made to keep a low number of transport channels in order to
avoid unnecessary switches between different channel types, which are found to be time
consuming in UMTS. In fact there is currently only one transport channel in downlink and
one in uplink carrying user data, i.e., channel switching is not needed. For LTE, the following
transport channels are provided by the physical layer:

3.4.2.2.1 Downlink Transport Channels:

1) Broadcast Channel (BCH): A low fixed bit rate channel broadcast in the entire
coverage area of the cell. Beam-forming is not applied.
2) Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH): A channel with possibility to use HARQ and link
adaptation by varying the modulation, coding and transmit power. The channel is
possible to broadcast in the entire cell and beam-forming may be applied. UE power
saving (DRX) is supported to reduce the UE power consumption. MBMS
transmission is also supported.

3) Paging Channel (PCH): A channel that is broadcasted in the entire cell. DRX is
supported to enable power saving.
4) Multicast channel (MCH): A separate transport channel for multicast (MBMS). This
channel is broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell. Combining of MBMS
transmissions from multiple cells (MBSFN) is supported.

3.4.2.2.2 Uplink Transport Channels:

1) Uplink Shared channel (UL-SCH): A channel with possibility to use HARQ and link
adaptation by varying the transmit power, modulation and coding. Beam-forming
may be applied.
2) Random Access Channel (RACH): A channel used to obtain timing synchronization
(asynchronous random access) and to transmit information needed to obtain
scheduling grants (synchronous random access). The transmission is typically
contention based. For UEs having an RRC connection there is some limited support
for contention free access.

3.4.2.3 LTE physical channels :

User data to be transmitted is delivered to the physical layer from the MAC layer in
the form of transport blocks. The MAC layer at the transmitter side also provides the physical
layer with control information necessary for transmission and/or reception of the user data.
A physical channel corresponds to a set of physical resources used for transmission of data
and/or control information from the MAC layer. A physical signal, which also corresponds to
a set of physical resources, is used to support physical-layer functionality but do not carry
any information from the MAC layer. The following physical channels are specified for LTE:

3.4.2.3.1 Downlink Physical Channels:

1) Physical Multicast Channel (PMCH): Carries the MCH transport channel.
2) Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH): Carries the BCH transport channel.
3) Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH): Carries the DL-SCH and PCH transport
channels.
4) Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH): Indicates the format of the
PDCCH.
5) Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH): Carries downlink Layer 1 and 2 control
signaling such as the scheduled Transport Format in the downlink and scheduled
grant in the uplink, power control commands and Hybrid Automatic Retransmission
Request (HARQ) information.
6) Physical Hybrid Indicator Channel (PHICH): Carries the ACKs and NACKs from the
eNodeB to the UE.

3.4.2.3.2 Uplink Physical Channels:

1) Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH): Carries the UL-SCH transport channel.
2) Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH): Carries uplink Layer 1 and 2 control
signaling such as CQI, ACKs, NACKs and scheduling requirements from the UE.
3) Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH): carries the random access preamble and
the RACH transport channel.

3.3.3

Time domain frame structure :

3.3.3.1 FDD:
Figure 13 illustrates the high
high-level time-domain structure for LTE transmission in
case of FDD mode-of-operation.
operation. The figure is valid for both the downlink and uplink
transmission
n direction (except that PBCH and SCH are only for DL and in uplink the symbols
are called DFTS-OFDM
OFDM symbols). Each (radio) frame of length Tf = 10 ms consists of ten
equally-sized sub frames of length Tsubframe = 1 ms each sub frame, in turn, consists of two
equally-sized slots of length Tslot = 0.5 ms the sub frame is the typical scheduling unit of LTE
while the slots are relevant in case of frequency hopping.

Figure 3.13 FDD frame structure

In the general FDD case, all slots

s
of a carrier are available for downlink transmission
(in case of a downlink carrier) or uplink transmission (in case of an uplink carrier). However,
LTE should allow for half-duplex
duplex terminals in case of FDD operation, implying that, from a
terminal point-of-view,
view, downlink reception and uplink transmission do not coincide for such
terminals. The assumption is that this is ensured by means of scheduling restrictions.

3.4.3.2 TDD:

As illustrated in Figure 22-12, the LTE time-domain structure in case of TDD operation
is similar to that of FDD with the following exceptions:
The 10 ms frame is assumed to consist of two equal
equal-sized half frames,, each of length 5 ms
and each consisting of five sub frames of length 1 ms.
The second sub frame within each half-frame
half
(sub frame #1 and #6 within the frame) has a
special structure. More specifically, it consists of a downlink part (DwPTS), a guard period
(GP), and an uplink part (UpPTS). The downlink
downlink-to-uplink
uplink switching point thus takes place
within the second sub frame of each half frame, i.e. there can be two downlink-to
to-uplink
switching points within each frame. The corresponding uplink
uplink-to-downlink switching point
can take place at any sub--sequent sub frame boundary within the half-frame.
frame. Thus, the first
sub framee of each half frame is always a downlink sub frame.

Figure 3.14 TDD frame structure

3.4.4 LTE downlink physical resources :

The basic LTE downlink physical resource can be seen as a time
time-frequency
frequency grid as
illustrated in Figure below, where each resource element corresponds to one OFDM
subcarrier during one OFDM symbol interval. A Resource Block corresponds to twelve OFDM
sub-carriers
carriers during one 0.5 ms slot. The smallest unit that can be allocated by the scheduler
is two consecutive
onsecutive Resource Blocks (12 sub
sub-carriers
carriers during 1ms). This is sometimes referred
to as a Scheduling Block (SB) and is equal to the TTI (Transmission Time Interval) of 1 ms.

Figure 3.15 LTE DL physical resources

The LTE symbol length is 1/15000 = 66.7 s.

s. Each symbol is followed by a 4.7 s
Cyclic Prefix (CP) which is copy of the last part of the symbol used to preserve the subcarrier
orthogonality and improve its robustness in time
time-dispersive
dispersive channels. This means that each
subcarrier can carry 1/(0.0667 + 0.0047) = 14 modulation symbols making. The 12 subcarriers
that make up a RB can thus carry 12 X 14 = 168 modulation symbols with RX diversity or(12 X
14) X 2 = 336 when 2X2 MIMO as illustrated in Figure abov
above. These modulation
odulation symbols are
used to carry downlink physical channels and reference signals. The number of RBs (n
(  )
depends on the Channel Bandwidth (BW
( 

) as illustrated in figure and Table below.

Figure 03.16

BW (MHz)

1.4

10

15

20

n

15

25

50

75

100

Table 3.1
The LTE Air Interface supports channel bandwidths from 1.4 up to 20 MHz The RB at
the Direct Centre (DC) carrier along with a number at the channel edge are
are not used leaving
the number of active RBs ranging from 6 to 100 as illustrated in Figure above. All defined
bandwidths can be used for FDD as well as TDD.
The active RBs are used to carry the following traffic types:
1) Downlink Reference Signals
Signals: Eight modulation
dulation symbols per RB are used to
carry the cell specific reference signal used by the UE to identify the cell and
perform channel estimation. To allow th
the
e UE to distinguish between the
antennas ports these reference signals are staggered in time with tr
transmission
suspended alternatively on each antenna port when the other is transmitting.
This means that a total of 16 modulation symbols are required to carry the DL
Reference Signals
2) Downlink
wnlink L1/L12 Control signaling:
signaling A minimum of one modulation symbol per
pe
subcarrier is reserved for downlink L1/L2 control signaling which includes
downlink scheduling assignments required by the UE to properly receive,
demodulate and decode PSDCH, uplink scheduling grants informing UE about
resources and transport formats fo
forr its uplink transmission and HARQ
acknowledgements in response to the UEs uplink transmissions. The number
of modulation symbols needed to carry the downlink control signaling

depends on the number of UEs being scheduled in the cell and can range from
1 to
o 3 per subcarrier.
3) Synchronization Channels (SCH)
(SCH): One SCH signal is comprised of a primary
SCH (P-SCH)
SCH) sent during symbols #6 and a secondary SCH (S-SCH)
(S
sent
ent during
symbols #7 in the RB
RB, In order to simplify initial cell search where the UE has
no apriori
iori information about the spectrum allocation of the cell the
Synchronization Channel (SCH) always occupies only 63 (62 + DC carrier which
is not used) subcarriers in the center of the available spectrum. The UE
therefore always processes only these 63 subcarriers, independent of the
spectrum allocations.
4) Broadcast
roadcast Control Channel (BCH): The Broadcast Channel (BCH) is the
transport channel used to carry system information to idle UEs in the cell. This
system information is divided up into a static part ccarried
arried by the Master
Information Block (MIB) containing the number of antennas, system
bandwidth, PHICH configuration, transmitted power and scheduling
information about the System Information Blocks (SIBs) which carry dynamic
system information. The BCH is
i only sent on the 72 centre (DC +/- 36)
subcarriers and uses the first four OFDMA symbols of the second slot in the
first sub frame of each 10 msec radio frame
5) User plane data
data: The amount of user plane data carried by a RB will depend on
the amount of mod
modulation
ulation symbols left after the reference signals, L1/L2
control signaling, SCH and BCH and also whether 2X2 MIMO or TX diversity is
used and the modulation and puncturing used. The highest user plane data
rate is achieved when the RB is not carrying SCH or BCH and the least amount
of L1/L2 control signaling as illustrated in Figure below.

Figure 03.17 Maximum user data rate

When TX diversity is used the RB has 144 modulation symbols available for user
plane data. This would carry 288, 576 or 864 bit
bitss using QPSK, 16 QAM and 64 QAM
modulations respectively. When 2X2 MIMO
MIMO is used the RB has 288 modulation symbols
available for user plane data. This would carry 576, 1152 or 1728 bits using QPSK, 16 QAM
and 64 QAM modulation respectively.

The lowest user plane data rate is achieved when the RB is SCH and BCH with the
most amount of L1/L2 control signaling as illustrated in Figure below.

Figure 03.18 Minimum user data rate

When TX diversity is used the RB has 52 modulation symbols available for user plane
data. This would carry 104, 208 or 312 bits using QPS
QPSK,
K, 16 QAM and 64 QAM modulations
respectively. When 2X2 MIMO
MIMO is used the RB has 104 modulation symbols available for user
plane data. This would carry 208, 416 or 624 bit
bitss using QPSK, 16 QAM and 64 QAM
modulations respectively.
Since the number of RBs allocated to a UE along with the modulation scheme and
puncturing
ing is constantly varying it is very difficult to calculate an instantaneous user data
rate.

3.4.5

LTE uplink physical resources:

The LTE uplink air interface uses the same 15 kHz orthogonal subcarriers grouped in
blocks of 12 to produce Resource Blocks ((RBs).
RBs). There are no unused Direct Centre (DC)
subcarriers in the uplink however a number of RBs at the edge of the uplink channel
bandwidth are reserved for PUCCH signaling from UEs that have not been scheduled. Each
UE can be assigned 1 or any number of RB
RBss provided it is a factor of 2, 3 or 5 from the
remaining RBs. For example a UE could be dynamically assigned 6, 8 or 9 RBs as illustrated in
Figure below but not 7.

Figure 3.19
3
LTE UL physical resources

In contrast to the downlink, uplink resource blocks assigned to a UE must always be

consecutive in the frequency domain, as illustrated in Figure above. This is necessary in order
to keep the single-carrier
carrier property of the uplink transmis
transmission.
sion. Note that, similar to the
downlink,
nlink, the uplink resource block is defined as twelve subcarriers during one 0.5 ms slot.
At the same time, uplink scheduling is carried out on a sub
sub-frame
frame (1 ms) basis. Thus, similar
to the downlink, the uplink resource assignment is carried out in terms of pairs of resource
blocks, where each pair consists of two resource blocks in consecutive slots.
The number of RBs reserved for signaling from unscheduled UEs varies from 2 with
a 1.4, 3 or 5 MHz channel bandwidth or 4 with 10 or 15 MHz and 6 with 20 MHz as illustrated
in Figure above. The same 1 msec sub frame containing two timeslots is used for LTE in the
uplink. The number of modulation symbols per slot will depend on the number of RBs
assigned to the UE. Since each slot carries one modulation symbol and there are 12
subcarriers in each RB there is a total of 12 X 7 = 84 modulation symbols per slot or 84 X 2 =
168 per sub frame as illustrated in Figure below.

Figure 03.20 UL data rate

The UL Reference Signals illustrated in Figure above are used for channel estimation
and are transmitted in the fourth block of each uplink slot. Uplink frequency hopping is
normally applied, whereby the two slots illustrated in Figure above are transmitted on
different, perhaps
erhaps substantially separated, frequencies.
When a UE has been given an uplink scheduling grant, that is has been assigned UL
ULSCH resources in the current sub frame the PUCCH is time multiplexed with the user data.
Unlike the downlink there is no minimum number of modulation symbols reserved for the
PDCCH making it possible for all modulation symbols except those reserved for UL reference
signals to be used for user data. This means that 168 24 = 144 modulation symbols per RB
can be used to carry user da
data as illustrated in Figure above.
Similar coding, puncturing and modulation schemes are used in the uplink but there
is no TX diversity or 2X2 MIMO. This means one sub frame can carry 288, 676 or 864 bits
using QPSK, 16 QAM and 64 QAM modulation symbols rrespectively.
The uplink transport format is completely decided by the scheduler in the eNodeB.
Consequently, and in contrast to High Speed Downlink Pa
Packet
cket Access in WCDMA the uplink
control signaling does not need to carry the transport format.

3.4.6

LTE UE capabilities:
The number of modulation schemes and MIMO layers supported by the LTE UE will
dictate its maximum uplink and downlink data rates. LTE UEs are divided up into five
categories as illustrated in Figure below.

Figure 03.21 LTE UE categories

3.5 Frequency Bands for LTE

The frequency bands where LTE will operate are in both paired and unpaired
spectrum, requiring flexibility in the duplex arrangement. For this reason, LTE supports both
FDD and TDD Release 8 of the 3GPP specifications for LTE includes 19 frequency bands for
FDD and nine for TDD.

Some of the frequency bands are partly or fully overlapping. In most cases this is
explained by regional differences in how the bands defined
defined by the ITU are implemented. At
the same time, a high degree of commonality between the bands is desired to enable global
roaming. The set of bands have first been specified as bands for UTRA, with each band
originating in global, regional, and local spec
spectrum
trum developments. The complete set of UTRA
bands was then transferred to the LTE specifications in release 8 and additional ones have
been added in later releases.

Figure 03.22 Paired Frequency Bands Defined by 3GPP for LTE

Figure 03.23 Unpaired Frequency Bands Defined by 3GPP for LTE

Chapter (4)
LTE planning process

4.1

Planning process:

4.1.1

Pre-planning:
The initial planning phase takes its offset in the business plan and clarifies the
objectives and requirements for the network to be provided. In this phase we may assist in
technology evaluations, conceptual designs, tendering, vendor selection, budgeting, process
setup and organization setup .The network planning criteria is used as an input for network
dimensioning. In the following basic inputs for dimensioning are listed:







Coverage requirements, the signal level for outdoor, in-car and indoor with
the coverage probabilities.
Cell edge quality of service criteria
Frequency spectrum, number of channels, including information about
possible needed guard bands.
Subscriber information, number of users and growth figures.
Traffic per user, busy hour traffic.
Expected services.

Dimensioning provides the evaluation of the number of network elements that are
needed to fulfill the quality of service requirements set by the operator, e.g. in LTE number
of E-NBs. This is done with the help of dimensioning tool for both access and core networks.
Dimensioning uses relatively simpler models for modeling of the actual conditions as
compared to the detailed planning. Simpler models and methods reduce the time required
for dimensioning. On the other hand, dimensioning tool should be accurate enough to
provide results with an acceptable level of accuracy, when loaded with expected traffic
profile and subscriber base.

Figure 04.1 General wireless cellular network planning process

4.1.2

Planning:
The planning phase takes inputs from the dimensioning process, initial network
configuration these are the basis for nominal planning. A nominal plan is an ideal scenario,
and in the practical world a range of constraints and restrictions may appear that forces the
actual plan do deviate from the nominal plan. T becomes an iterative process where the
objectives and requirements must be maintained.
The planning process interacts with authorities, site acquisition process, building
process and transmission planning. It also interacts with the optimization process which
provides feedback to future planning and accordingly improves the planning quality over
time The target for the coverage planning phase is to find optimal locations for ENBs to build

continuous coverage according to the planning requirements. In the capacity planning phase
the final coverage plan including sites locations is combined with the user density
information; in this way the capacity can be allocated. The output of the planning phase is the
final and detailed coverage and capacity plans .Coverage maps are made for the planned area
and final site locations and configurations

4.1.3

Detailed Planning:
The detailed planning phase includes frequency, neighbor and parameter planning
frequency re-use factor in LTE is 1 and that it is because we want to make use of all the
bandwidth in every cell to achieve extremely high bit rates. But we introduce soft frequency
re-use factor to decrease the interference between sites. Neighbor planning in LTE is done
automatically through a new option in release 9 which is SON (self organizing networks),
where the neighbor sites communicate through the X2 interface to handle the ICIC, handover
and load sharing. In the parameter planning phase a recommended parameter setting is
allocated for each network element. For radio planning the responsibility is to allocate
parameters such as handover control and power control and define the location areas and
set the parameters accordingly.

4.1.4

Testing and optimization:

The first part of the optimization process includes pre-launch optimization and
acceptance testing and will in principle be finalized when the network is handed over to
operation. The pre-launch optimization is an iterative process where the physical and logical
parameters of the network are tuned based on drive testing or field testing in the actual
network in order to improve service performance and network performance .the acceptance
testing is a strictly predefined procedure that verifies if the actual service performance and
network performance complies with the requirements.
The second part of the optimization process is in the operational phase and ensures
that capacity, coverage and network parameters are maintained and adjusted according to
traffic growth, changing services and changing requirements. This part involves evaluation of
new technologies and network features as part of the long term optimization and it includes
daily optimization and trouble shooting. Network optimization requires vendor specific
technology expertise, an end to end understanding of the network, and understanding of
how networks and services interacts and experience with various engineering tools, drive
test tools and monitoring systems.

4.1.5

Concepts and Terminology:

The following terms are used in describing capacity and coverage dimensioning:

a)

Average user bit rate

The bit rate is achievable by a single user when all resources in a cell are used. The average
user bit rate can be the average throughput in one cell. It is a measure of average potential in
a cell while all interfering cells are loaded to the dimensioned level.

b) Cell edge
The geographical location where the path loss between the base station and the antenna is
at a specific maximum threshold value, as calculated using the quality requirement imposed
on the network, guaranteeing the required quality with a probability of 95%, for example.

c)

Cell throughput
Cell throughput is obtained in one cell when all cells are loaded to the dimensioned level,
and the resource use is equal to system load, interfering cells as well as interfered cells. It is
the average throughput per cell as calculated across the entire network.

d) Coverage (area)
Coverage area is the percentage of cell area that can be served according to a defined quality
requirement. With an assumed uniform subscriber density (often assumed in a dimensioning
exercise), the percentage of served area equals the percentage of served users.
e)

Resource block
A two-dimensional unit in the time-frequency plane consisting of a group of 12 carriers, each
with 15 kHz bandwidth, and one slot of 0.5 ms

f)

System load
The extent of available air interface resource usage. The system load equals the ratio of used
resource blocks as an average over the entire system.

g)

Resource Block Flexible Bandwidth

A transmitted OFDMA signal can be carried by a number of parallel subcarriers. Each LTE
subcarrier is 15 kHz. Twelve subcarriers (180 kHz) are grouped into a resource block.
Depending on the carrier bandwidth, LTE supports a varying number of resource blocks. The
downlink has an unused central subcarrier. The following illustration shows resource block
definition:

Figure 4.2 Resource Block Definitions in Frequency Domain

h) User Equipment
Five user equipment categories have been specified by 3GPP in User Equipment (UE) radio
access capabilities, 3GPP TS 36.306. Each category is specified by a number of downlink and
uplink physical layer parameter values
i)

Power Control
A closed loop power control mechanism in the uplink aims at maintaining a constant
received Signal-to-Interference-and-Noise Ratio (SINR), defined by a target SINR. The target
is set as the SINR level that gives a suitable bit rate. The closed loop power control

mechanism operates at about 200 Hz. This means that the power is not set every scheduled
TTI but rather every 5th TTI. This power control mechanism can follow the slow fading, but
not the fast fading. User equipment has a limited range for power control. In small cells or
cells with moderate or low load, the user equipment power in standard operating mode is
inside the dynamic range in the greater cell area The physical modeling of average noise rise
is based on closed loop power control.

4.1.6

Limitations:
Limitations to the calculation methods include the following:
 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) is considered only for the
downlink and for a maximum of two antennas
 Outer loop power control in the uplink is not modeled. The method is
adapted and developed primarily as a mobile broadband service
 Quality of Service (QoS) is not handled by the method

4.1.7

Assumptions:
Calculations for coverage and capacity are based on the following assumptions:
 All user equipment is assumed to have two receiving antennas All resource
blocks are transmitted at the same power, including user data, control
channels and control signals
 The coverage for control channels and control signals equals that of user
data at the same power levels
 Layer 1 overhead for all control channels and control signals is included in
the Signal-to-Interference-and-Noise Ratio (SINR) to bit rate relationships

4.2

Dimensioning process:
The typical Network requirements that make up the input to the dimensioning
process are; coverage area, number of subscribers, traffic model and Uplink/Downlink cell
edge throughput. There are a number of ways to dimension the LTE network to meet these
requirements. Figure 4-3 below illustrated one LTE dimensioning process that can be
followed to produce a final site count that meets the uplink and downlink coverage and
capacity requirements

Figure 04.3 LTE Dimensioning Process

The uplink coverage calculations are performed to determine if the estimated initial
site count meets the uplink network requirements. If not the initial site count is increased
and the calculations performed again. Once a site count and cell range that meets the uplink
requirements has been has been determined it is used as the input to the downlink coverage
calculations.
The downlink coverage calculations are performed to ensure that the downlink
network requirements are met. Like the uplink the site count may need to be increased if the
downlink requirements are not met with the estimated site count. The final site count that
meets both uplink and downlink coverage requirements is chosen. The uplink and downlink
capacity calculations are performed to provide the uplink and downlink cell and maximum
user throughputs which are the inputs to subsequent dimensioning tasks for the e Node B
and transmission network.

4 .2.1 Coverage Dimensioning (UPLINK):

The Uplink coverage calculation steps are listed below:
Step 1: Uplink Noise Rise
Step 2: Uplink Link Budget
Step 3: Uplink Site Count

4.2.1.1 UPLINK NOISE RISE:

LTE users in the same cell are separated in time and frequency in the uplink. This
means that the noise rise will therefore only depend on the interference from the adjacent
cells. To account for this noise rise an uplink interference margin (B ) must be included in
link budget calculations. The calculation of B  can be divided into the following steps:

Uplink cell throughput (T ,)

Interfering Cell UL RB rate (R ,)
Interfering Cell UL SINR target (target)
Average uplink system load (Q , )
Uplink interference margin (B  )

4.2.1.1.1 Uplink Cell Throughput (  , ):

If we assume that there are 30 days per month and the average subscriber is active
for 10 hours per day and since there 3600 seconds in an hour and 8 bits in a Byte, the
amount of data uploaded by an average subscriber (D#$% , ) in GB (Bytes X 230) can be
converted to the subscriber uplink throughput (T#$% , ) in kbps using the formula illustrated
in Figure 4-4 below.

)*+ ,,T#$% , = 3454364454

0

/01 2

T ,= T#$% , N#$%

Figure 04.4 Uplink Cell Throughput

[Kbps]
[Kbps]

The uplink cell throughput (T , ) in kbps can be calculated by multiplying the
subscriber uplink throughput ( T#$% , ) by the number of subscribers served by the cell
(N#$% ) as illustrated in Figure 4-4 above. Alternatively can be( T , ) given as one of the
network criteria inputs if the number of subscribers and traffic model is not known.

4.2.1.1.2 Interfering Cell Uplink Bit Rate per RB ( 8 89 , ):

Each LTE cell must also be dimensioned to support a certain uplink throughput at
the cell edge (T:; , )with a certain coverage probability. The number of RBs used to
support this throughput is decided by the e Node B scheduler and is the source of the uplink
noise rise in the surrounding cells. For uplink noise rise calculation the number of RBs
supporting (T:; , )in the interfering cells is known as(n ). The uplink bit rate
requirement of each of these RBs ( R  , ) is therefore ( T:; , / n )as illustrated in
Figure 4-5 below.

R  , =

=>?@ ,,
AABC

Figure 04.5 Interfering Cell UL Bit Rate Per RB

[kbps]

(nA  ) can take any value from 1 up to the number supported by the Channel
Bandwidth (N ) minus the number reserved for PUCCH ( npucch), provided it is a factor of
2, 3 or 5 as illustrated in Figure 4-5 above. Typical dimensioning values of n = 2, 5 and 10
n : total number of resource blocks in the bandwidth.
nH$ : number of resource blocks assigned for control channels.

4.2.1.1.3 Interfering Cell UL SINR target ( IJKLMJ):

For the transport formats in LTE, the relationship between bit rate, T, and Signal-toNoise Ratio (SNR), , is determined by a set of link simulations. The results, including an
implementation margin, have been fitted to a semi-empirical parameterized expression
illustrated in Figure 4-6 below.

Figure 04.6 LTE Semi empirical Model

ln ( =Q 3 )S
= - a2 O
ln2 + a1
4Q 3

[dB]

a0, a1, a2 and a3 are fitted parameters which have different values depending on
the channel model and modulation scheme. The semi-empirical parameter a0 represents the
maximum obtainable bit rate in one resource block.The first formula Figure 4-6 can be solved
for and used to calculate the Interfering Cell UL SINR target (V :WV ) for a number of
(R  , ) values. The semi-empirical parameters for uplink are given in the following table
Table 2 Semi-Empirical Parameters for Uplink

Channel model
a4
a5
a/
a3

EPA5
459.9
20.76
13.28
0

EVA5
493.6
20.98
13.08
0

4.2.1.1.4 Average Uplink System Load (X, ):

EVA70
456.9
23.91
13.74
0

ETU300
322.5
20.15
12.41
0

The uplink cell throughput of an LTE cell (T , ) is equal to the product of the
system utilization or load (Q, ) the bit rate per RB (R  , )and the number of available
RBs in the system (n nH$ ) as illustrated in the formula in Figure 4-7 below.

Figure 04.7 Average Uplink System Load

T , = Q , x R  , (n nH$)

Q  =

T ,
R  , (n nH$ )

If the uplink system load is 100 % (Q  =1) then:

T , = R , (n nH$ )

This can be achieved in two ways:

All RBs are scheduled producing a combined throughput equal to the uplink system load.
Not all RBs are scheduled but the combined throughput of those that are is equal to the
uplink cell throughput (T , ). The formula in Figure 4-7 above can be solved for (Qul )
and used to calculate average uplink system loading for the previously calculated (R  , )
values supporting the required [T , \

4.2.1.1.5 Uplink interference margin (9] ):

The uplink interference margin (B  ) will depend on the following factors:

 Average uplink system load (Q, ).
 Uplink SINR target (^_`abc_ ).
 Uplink Cell Interference Factor (F). The calculation of B  is illustrated in
Figure 4-8 below.

Figure 04.8 Uplink Interference Margin

BIUL=10log (5Q

fg>h?f i,- j

) [dB]

The uplink cell interference factor (F) is the average ratio of path gains to interfering
cells to that of the serving cell. The value of F in the equation in Figure 4-8 will depend on the
characteristics of the cell plan such as number of sectors, cell size, wave propagation
characteristics, antenna height, beam width and down-tilt. For dimensioning calculations in
this course an uplink F value of 0.7 which is typical for a 3-sector site in an urban or dense
urban environment is used.

A number of (B  ) margins need to be calculated for the various( Q , )and

(target) values previously calculated. If BIUL reaches its pole value (target Q , F =1) for
any of these calculations a more suitable (Q, ) value that fulfils the input requirements
needs to be determines by an iteration process.

4.2.1.2 UPLINK LINK BUDGET:

The uplink link budget is comprised of the following calculations:

Dimensioning Cell UL RB throughput (R , )

Dimensioning Cell UL SINR target (^)
eNodeB receiver sensitivity (kclmnco )
Maximum uplink path loss (Lpmax)
Uplink Cell range (R)

4.2.1.2.1 Dimensioning Cell UL Bit Rate per RB ( 8 89 , ):

The number of RBs supporting the required uplink throughput in

the dimensioning cell is denoted by the term (n ) The uplink bit
rate per RB ( R  , ) is therefore (T:;, /n )as illustrated in Figure 4-9 below

Figure 4.9 Dimensioning Cell UL RB Throughput

R  , =

=>?@ ,,
ABC

[kbps]

(nA  ) can take any value from 1 up to the number supported by the
Channel Bandwidth (n ) minus the number reserved for PUCCH (nH$ ), provided it is a
factor of 2, 3 or 5 as illustrated in Figure 4-9 above. Typical dimensioning values of n = 2,
5 and 10 When the required uplink throughput (T:;, ) is supported by a small ( n ) value
more RBs are available to other users thus maximizing capacity.
On the other hand when a large (n )is used to support (T:;, ) the transmitted
blocks are spread out over a wider frequency requiring less power per RB and a lower
modulation scheme and/or a higher coding rate may be used. This allows the UE to
overcome a greater path loss and thus maximizes coverage. It is useful to try out the link
budget with a few different values of ( rso ) but it should be remembered that the e Node B
scheduler will not allocate very large numbers of RBs for small (tacu,vw ) values to keep the
uplink efficiency high. For simplification of the dimensioning calculations it is assumed that

the value of (rso ) and that in the interfering cells (rso ) are the same which may not be
the case in reality.

4.2.1.2.2 Dimensioning Cell UL SINR target (I):

The formula in Figure 4.6 can also be used to calculate the dimensioning cell UL
SINR target (^xyz{|x) for a number of (}so ,vw ) values.

4.2.1.2.3 eNodeB Receiver sensitivity (~9 ):

The eNodeB receiver sensitivity (kclmnco ) is defined as the minimum signal that is
required to decode the Uplink RB. This will depend on the thermal noise power density (Nt),
noise figure of the eNodeB ( ), bandwidth of the RB (WRB) and the SINR target requirement
for the uplink RB (^xyz{|x) as illustrated in Figure 4.10 below.

Figure 04.10 eNode B Receiver Sensitivity

SenodeB=Nt + Nf +10log(WRB)+target [dBm]

: Thermal noise power density -174 dBm/Hz

= 10log10 (KT), where (K) is Boltzmann constant & (T) is temperature in Kelvin.
= 10log (KT/10-3) dBm/Hz
Where K = 1.38 X 10-23 J/K and T = 290 (17o C)
=>N= = 10log [(1.38 X 10-23 X 290)/10-3] = -173.98= approximately -174 dBm/Hz

: Noise figure is the ratio of the input Signal to noise ratio to output signal to
noise ratio which determine amplifier performance. Noise figure of the eNodeB receiver
[dB], the e Node B receiver can be assumed to have a noise figure of 2 dB with Tower
Mounted Amplifier (TMA) and 3 dB without.

so : Bandwidth per resource block: 180 kHz => 10log(WRB) = 10log(180,000) =

52.55 dB as illustrated in Figure 4-10 above.

4.2.1.2.4 Maximum Uplink path loss (

K):

The maximum path loss between the UE and e Node B can be calculated using the
formula illustrated in Figure 4
4-11 below.

Figure 04.11 Uplink Link Budget

Lpmax=PUE,RB SeNodeB BIuL BLNF LBLLCPLLBPL+GaLJA

[dB]

The total output power of the UE ((P$ ) is shared equally between all allocated
resource blocks. Therefore the UE power per resource block (P$, ) will be equal to !P$ /
n .) It should be remembered that !P$, & must
must be in mW when it is divided by !n &
and the result converted back to dBm as illustrated in Figure 4-11
4
above
,so =10 log ( / rso
so )
rso = [2, 3, 410] Rbs
UE antenna Gain = 5 to 10 dBi
RX antenna gain = 17 dBi or 18 dBi
Log-Normal Fading
A radio signal envelope is composed of a fast fading signal superimposed on a slow
fading one. The short term or fast fading (Rayleigh fading) signal (peak-to
(peak to peak distance
/2)
/2) is usually present during radio communication, due to the fact that the mobile antenna
is lower than the surrounding structures, such as trees and buildings which act as reflectors.
The resulting signal consists of several waves with various amplitudes and phases.
Sometimes these almost completely cancel out each other.
The Rayleigh effect is proportional to the wavelength (()) and UE speed. The SINR ()
values used for LTE dimensio
dimensioning
ning include the effect of Rayleigh fading Assuming that fast
fading has been removed (averaged out), the local mean value of the signal strength

fluctuates in a way not modeled by the standard propagation RF prediction algorithms. This
fluctuation is log normally distributed about the mean value with a standard deviation (()
which is typically between 6 and 10dB depending on the environment . If outdoor base
stations are used to provide indoor coverage then the standard deviation in Building
Penetration Loss (ow ) and signal strength inside the building must be added.
Typical values for this combined standard deviation (()) are between 10 and 14 dB
depending on the environment The log
log-normal fading margin (wl ) used in the link budget
calculations
culations will depend on the standard deviation of the environment (()) and the required
coverage probability. The standard deviations ()
( ) for various environments and the
lognormal margin (wl ) that should be used to achieve the required coverage probability is
illustrated in table 4.2 below.
Table 3 Log-normal Fading Margin

The log-normal
normal fading margins ((wl ) illustrated in Table 4.2 above are used in both
uplink and downlink LTE link budget calculations.
The uplink
link system reference point for link budget calculations will depend on
o
whether an ASC is used or not The Antenna System Controller (ASC) contains a variable gain
Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA). The gain of the ASC is adjusted to overcome the sum of
ASC insertion loss ( ), Feeder loss (( ) and all Jumper and Connector losses between the
ASC and eNodeB ( ) for the uplink.
This means that when the ASC is used the reference point for link budget
calculations is the top of the ASC and only the Ant
Antenna Jumper loss ( ) needs to be
included. If an ASC is not used the uplink reference point for link budget calculations is the
top of the eNodeB and all feeder and jumper/connector losses must be included.
included. In the case
where the eNodeB
B uses a Remote Radio Unit (RRU) fiber optical cables are used instead of RF
feeder, jumper and connectors so no feeder and jumpers losses need to be included in link

budget calculations. The antenna gain ((` ) is the sum of the UE and eNodeB antenna gains
(v + cmnco )
Table 4 link budget losses

It should be remembered that for indoor coverage calculations car penetration loss
( ) is not included. Note that the characteristics of different urban, suburban etc.
etc
environments can differ significantly throughout the world. Thus the building penetration
loss (o ) values in Table 4.3 above must be treated with care. They should be considered
as a reasonable approximation when no o
other information is obtainable.

4.2.1.3 UPLINK SITE COUNT:

The uplink site count comprises of the following calculations:

Uplink cell range (R)

Uplink site to site distance (d) and coverage area (A)
Uplink site count

4.2.1.3.1 Uplink Cell Range (R)

(R):
For cell planning it is very im
important
portant to be able to estimate the signal strengths in all
parts of the area to be covered, that is, to predict the path loss. The most accurate best path
loss models that can be used are semi
semi-empirical,
empirical, that is, based on measurements of path
loss/attenuation
ion in various terrains. The use of such models is motivated by the fact that
radio propagation cannot be measured everywhere. However, if measurements are taken in
typical environments, the parameters of the model can be fine-tuned
fine
so that the model is as
good as possible for that particular type of terrain. The modified Okumura
Okumura-Hata
Hata (OH)

propagation model illustrated in Figure 4

4-12
12 below is used for LTE coverage calculations in
the 2.6 GHz band.

Figure 04.12 Uplink Cell Range

Lpmax = A-13.82logHb + (44.9

(44.9-6.55logHb) log R - [3.2(Log !11.75Hm&&/ -4.97] [dB]
R={Q5 (

w Q53.2/
Q 3./!W !55.&& Q.

.Q6.mb

) [Km]

4.2.1.3.2 Uplink site-to-site

site distance (d) and coverage area (A):
(A)

Figure 4.13 Site-to-Site Distance & Coverage Area

Once the cell range (R) has been calculated, simple geometry can be used to
Calculate the site-to-site
site distance (d) and coverage area (A) as illustrated in Figure 4-13
4
below.
If a 6-sector
sector site configuration is used the coverage area (A) and site-to-site
site site distance
(d) are calculated using the same formulae as an Omni site.

4.2.1.3.3 Uplink site count:

The number of sites needed to meet the uplink coverage requirements can be
calculated
ed by dividing the site coverage area into the area to be covered.
txy z|y
kx|
kx| rx =
|zy{| yz|y r| x|

4.2.2 DOWNLINK COVERAGE

COVERAGE:
The downlink link budget is calculated for the following purposes:
To
o determine the limiting link
To determine the bit rate that can be supported in the downlink at the uplink
The Downlink coverage calculation steps are listed below:
Step 1: Downlink noise rise at cell edge
Step 2: Downlink Throughput at cell edge

4.2.2.1 DOWNLINK NOISE RISE AT CELL EDGE

EDGE:
Since LTE users are also separated in time and frequency in the downlink the noise
rise will only depend on the interference from the adjacent cells. The amount of downlink
noise rise at the cell edge ((w ) must be included in link budget calculations. The calculation
of BIDL can be divided into the following steps:

Downlink maximum signal attenuation ((`,` )

Downlink noise rise at cell edge ((w )

4.2.2.1.1 Downlink maximum signal attenuation (

K,K ):

The maximum downlink signal attenuation (`,` ) is the maximum attenuation

between the eNodeB output and the UEs receiver input. y, y can be calculated using
the basic formula below:
y, y = ` + wl + losses - ` Where BLNF is the log-normal fading margin, ` is
the sum of the UE and eNodeB antenna gains and the losses are made up of the following:
Body loss ( )
Car penetration loss (w )
Building Penetration Loss (ow )
Losses between the antenna input and system reference point

The derivation of a complete formula to calculate `,` is illustrated in Figure 4-14 below.

Figure 04.14 DL Max Signal Attenuation

Lsa,max = Lpmax + BLNF + LBL+ LCPL+ LBPL + LJA Ga

[dB]

The formula in Figure 4-14 above is only valid when an ASC is used as only is included.

4.2.2.1.2 Downlink noise rise at cell edge (w ):

The downlink noise rise at the cell edge (w ) will depend on the following factors:
eNodeB power per RB at the reference point (_,so )
Average downlink system load (w )
Downlink Cell edge interference factor ( )
Thermal Noise Power Density (_ )
UE noise figure ( )
Bandwidth per Resource Block (WRB)
DL maximum signal attenuation (`,` )
The formula used to calculate w is illustrated in Figure 4-15 below.

Figure 04.15 DL Noise Rise at Cell Edge

V, i

BIDL=10log ( 1+ ( 54W (- ))
f

BC

)g,g

) )

[dB]

As there is no power control for individual RBs the nominal power at the reference
point (m,ac ) is shared equally between the number of RBs supported by the Channel
Bandwidth (rso ). This means that the nominal power per RB at the reference point (_,so )
is given by ( m,ac ) /rso as illustrated in Figure 4-15 above. With 60W transmitted at the
top of the eNodeB it can be assumed that the nominal power at the reference point
(m,ac ) is 40 W. NRB can vary from 6 to 100 for channel bandwidths from 1.4 to 20 MHz.
The downlink load ( ) value used in the formula in Figure 4-15 is normally given as a one
of the design inputs. The UE noise figure can be assumed to be 7 dB.

The cell plan quality is modeled with the factor . . describes the ratio of
received power from all other cells to that received from own cell at a location near the cell
edge.

4.2.2.2 DOWNLINK THROUGHPUT AT CELL EDGE:

Using the maximum path loss (` ) from the uplink and the calculated downlink
noise rise at the cell edge (w ) it is possible to work out the downlink cell edge SINR ().
This can then be converted to an approximate downlink bit rate per RB (}so, ) using the LTE
Semi empirical Model illustrated in Figure 4-6. The downlink throughput at the cell edge can
then be calculated by multiplying the downlink bit rate per RB (}so, ) by the available
number of RBs (rso ). The result should be enough to meet the downlink cell edge
throughput requirement. If not the initial site count should be increased and the
dimensioning process restarted. The downlink cell edge throughput dimensioning step
involves calculating the following terms:
Downlink cell edge SINR ()
Downlink cell edge bit rate per RB (}so, )
Downlink cell edge throughput (tcnbc, )

4.2.2.2.1 Downlink cell edge SINR ():

The formulae to calculate the maximum path loss (` ) and UE receiver

sensitivity (kv ) illustrated in Figure 4-16 below can be solved for to produce a formula that
can be used to calculate the downlink SINR () at the cell edge.

Figure 04.16 Downlink Cell Edge SINR

Lpmax=Ptx,RB SUE BIDL BLNF LBLLCPLLBPL+ GaLJA

where SUE=Nt + Nf +10log(WRB)+
54W
,: []

Ptx,RB=



[dBm]

= Ptx,RBLpmaxNt Nf10log(WRB) BIDL BLNF LBLLCPLLBPL+GaLJA

The value of Lpmax used in the formula in Figure 4-16 is taken from the uplink link
budget calculation with _,so converted to dBm as illustrated

4.2.2.2.2 Downlink Cell Edge bit rate per RB (R,( ):

Since the downlink cell edge SINR () has been calculated it can be substituted into
the first formula in the LTE Semi empirical Model illustrated in Figure 4-6 to calculate the
value for T. This result will be the downlink cell edge bit rate per RB (R ,( ).The cell edge
SINR estimate is transformed into a bit rate per resource block (R/RB) by the same type of
semi-empirical relationship as for the uplink SINR requirement. For the downlink, the semiempirical constants are given following table

Table 5 Semi -Empirical Parameters for Downlink

4.2.2.2.3 Downlink Cell Edge Throughput (T(,W ):

The downlink cell edge throughput (T(,W ) can be calculated by multiplying

(R,( ) by the number of RBs supported by the Channel Bandwidth (n ) as illustrated in
Figure 4-17 below.

TDl,edge =

s,
540

Figure 04.17 DL Cell Edge Throughput

[Mbps]

The downlink cell edge throughput (T(,W ) calculated using the formula in Figure
4-17 above must be enough to meet the network downlink cell edge throughput
requirement (T:;,( ).

4 .2.3 UPLINK CAPACITY:

Capacity dimensioning obtains input information to the phases after radio interface
dimensioning: transmission link dimensioning and e NodeB dimensioning. The method is
specified for a certain background load, the so-called system load. The dimensioning method
finds the maximum capacity that the target cell can sustain momentarily, given the system
load in the surrounding cells. It is improbable that all cells in a system are fully loaded at the
same time, as observed in real networks of different technologies. The operating mode with
power control assumes perfect power control and infinite power dynamics. This means that
all UEs are received at the previously calculated UL SINR target(^_`abc_ ) as illustrated in
Figure 4-18 below.

BC,,-(BC

Ravg,UL=

540

Tcell,UL =QUL Ravg,UL

Figure 04.18 Uplink Capacity Calculation

* )

[Mbps]
[Mbps]

The corresponding uplink bit rate per RB (}so,v ) can be scaled with the number of
available resource blocks in the system (rso r ) to produce the average user bit rate
per cell (}`b,v ) as illustrated in Figure 4-18 above. The uplink cell throughput (tc,v ) can
then be calculated by multiplying the average user bit rate per cell (}`b,v ) buy the Average
uplink system load (v ) as illustrated in Figure 4-18 Above

4.2.4 DOWNLINK CAPACITY:

The calculation of the downlink cell throughput (T,( ) is performed in the

following order:
Downlink average noise rise (B(Q
#: # )
Downlink average SINR ( (, W )
Downlink average bit rate per resource block (R ,(, W )
Downlink average user bit rate ( R W,( )
Downlink cell throughput (T,( )

4.2.4.1 DOWNLINK AVERAGE NOISE RISE:

The downlink noise rise at an average location in the cell (B(Q

#: # ) may be
calculated using the formula illustrated in Figure 4- 19 below.

Figure 4.19 Downlink Average Noise Rise

B(Q
#: # = 1+ ( 54W (- ))
f

V, i

BC

)g,g

) [linear]

The formula used to calculate the downlink average noise rise (B(Q
#: # )
illustrated in Figure 4-19 above is very similar to that used to calculate the noise rise at the
cell edge (B ( ) in Figure 4-19 but the average F factor for the cell is used instead of F at the
cell edge. The value of F will depend on the characteristics of the cell plan such as number of
sectors, cell size, wave propagation characteristics, antenna height beam width and down tilt
however a value of 0.7 which is typical for a 3-sector site in an urban or dense urban
environment may be used in this course

4.2.4.2 DOWNLINK AVERAGE SINR:

An average downlink SINR ((, W ) value can be calculated using the formula

illustrated in Figure 4-20 below.

(, W = 10log (

Figure 04.20 DL Average SINR

V,

)?>)? [f 54W (BC )] )g,g

[dB]

The average attenuation factor (H) used in the formula in Figure 4-20 above is
dependent on the site geometry, antenna pattern, wave propagation exponent and the base
station antenna height. For dimensioning purposes a H value of 0.36 which is valid for urban
3-sector sites with 30 antenna height may be used.

4.2.4.3 DOWNLINK AVERAGE BIT RATE PER RESOURCE BLOCK:

Since the average downlink SINR ((, W ) has been calculated it can be substituted
into the first formula in the LTE Semi empirical Model illustrated in Figure 4-6 to calculate the
value for T. This result will be the downlink average bit rate per RB (R ,(, W ).

4.2.4.4 DOWNLINK AVERAGE USER BIT RATE AND CELL THROUGHPUT:

The downlink average bit rate per RB (R ,(, W ) can be scaled with the number of
available resource blocks in the system (n, ) to produce the average user bit rate per cell
(R W,( ) as illustrated below.

Ravg,DL=

BCBC,-,gh
540

Tcell,DL =QDL Ravg,DL

Figure 04.21 Downlink Capacity Calculations

[Mbps]
[Mbps]

The downlink cell throughput (T,( ) can then be calculated by multiplying the
average user bit rate per cell (R W,( ) by the Average downlink system load (Q( ) as
illustrated in Figure 4-21

Chapter (5)
Implementation of the tool

5.1 Getting started with java:

In this part you begin the process of understanding:

Why java is a great programming language to use

Discover the steps in the Program Development Cycle with the project

5.1.1 What is java ?

Java is a programming language and computing platform first released by Sun Microsystems in
1995. There are lots of applications and websites that runs using java, and more are created every
day. Java is fast, secure, and reliable. From laptops to datacenters, game consoles to scientific
supercomputers, cell phones to the Internet, Java is everywhere.

5.1.2 Introduction to java :

Distinguished Engineer who has created other products and languages, with java, he focused on
taking what was right about existing languages and adding improvements to make something better.
Java is a powerful and flexible programming language. Like all programming languages, it can be used
to create a variety of applications. Your potential with java is limited only by your imagination. The
language does not place constraints on what you can do. Java has already been used for projects as
diverse as dynamic Web sites, development tools. Java can be used to create traditional Windows
client applications, XML Web services, distributed components, client-server applications, database
applications, and much, much more.

5.1.3 Why java ?

Many would be surprised to see this one of the top reason of learning Java, or considering it as
best programming language, but it is. If you have steep learning curve, it would be difficult to get
productive in short span of time, which is the case with most of professional project. Java has fluent
English like syntax with minimum magic characters e.g. Generics angle brackets, which makes it easy
to read Java program and learn quickly.
Note: If you have used C# and you believe it is simple, you will find java to be simple. Most people
dont believe that C# is simple. Java is however easier than C# and C++.
And the main advantages that made us use java instead of any other programming languages are:
1. Java Is Object-Oriented
2. Java has easiest GUI creator
3. Powerful development tools e.g. Eclipse, Netbeans
4. Java Is Powerful and Flexible
5. Great collection of Open Source libraries
6. Wonderful community support
7. Java is FREE
8. Java is Platform Independent
9. Java is everywhere
5.1.3.1 Java Is Object-Oriented :
The keys to an object-oriented language are encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism. Java
supports all of these. Encapsulation is the placing of functionality into a single package. Inheritance is
a structured way of extending existing code and functionality into new programs and packages.
5.1.3.2 Java has easiest GUI creator :
One more reason of Java programming language's huge success is easiness of GUI creation and all
components you need to have perfect GUI comes all with java installation like buttons, panels,
frames, textfields, sliders, labels and others all to support you to get what in your imagination.
5.1.3.3 Powerful development tools e.g. Eclipse, Netbeans :

Eclipse and Netbeans has played huge role to make Java one of the best programming language.
Coding in IDE is pleasure. They not only helps in code completion but also provides powerful
debugging capability, which is essential for real world development. Integrated Development
Environment (IDE) made Java development much easier, faster and fluent. It's easy to search, refactor
and read code using IDEs.
5.1.3.4 Java Is Powerful and Flexible:
Java you are limited only by your imagination. The language places no constraints on what can be
done. Java can be used for projects as diverse as creating games, graphics and websites.
5.1.3.5 Great collection of Open Source libraries:
Open source libraries ensures that Java should be used everywhere. Apache, Google, and other
organization has contributed lot of great libraries, which makes Java development easy, faster and
cost effective.
5.1.3.6 Wonderful community support:
Community is the biggest strength of Java programming language and platform. No matter, how
good a language is, it wouldn't survive, if there is no community to support, help and share their
knowledge.
5.1.3.7 Java is FREE:
Since Java is free from start, i.e. you don't need to pay anything to create Java application. This
FREE thing also helped Java to become popular among individual programmers, and among large
organizations.
5.1.3.8 Java is Platform Independent:
In 1990s, this was the main reason of Java's popularity. Idea of platform independence is great,
and Java's tag line "write once run anywhere" was enticing enough to attract lots of new
development in Java. This is still one of the reason of Java being best programming language, most of
Java applications are developed in Windows environment and run in UNIX platform.
5.1.3.9 Java is everywhere:
Java is everywhere, it's on desktop, it's on mobile, it's on card, on websites, games and servers
almost everywhere and so is Java programmers

5.1.4 System implementation :

System architecture :

Figure 5.1

5.1.5 Program snapshots :

1) Welcome page :

2) Selecting area on map:

3) See selected points and calculated area :

4) Entering main planning parameters:

5) Entering advanced parameters or leave it to defaults:

6) Generating cells position on map

7) Showing main outputs :

8) Showing advanced coverage outputs:

9) Showing advanced capacity outputs:

10) Showing graphs for your project:

11) Finally exporting outputs and cells positions in excel file :

MAP appendix
Calculate distance between two points:
/s
X= [
.\
/

a =y new point y last point

b = x new point x last point
Y=y/ + /
Distance=X*Y
Calculate area:
A=0.5*(5 / / 5 + / 3 3 / +. . . +Q5 Q5 + 5 5 )
C=approximate unit area between two successive latitudes and longitudes=10671.91
C in Egypt
Total area =A*C
Beyer, W. H. (Ed.). CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, 28th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 123124, 1987.

5.2 Illustrative Charts

5.2.1 Chart 1:

Figure 05.2 relation between Cell Radius and Base Station Height.

The previous relationship between base station height and cell site radius is direct
proportionality. This arises from the higher radiation ability of higher antenna systems. Another
explanation for this relationship is that higher base station means more resistivity against path
obstacles resulting in better channel fading conditions (i.e. signal keeps its strength for longer
distance).Cell range radius depends mainly on maximum allowed path loss and height of the
antenna but maximum path loss almost depends on the enviroment so to achieve more cell
coverage area (increase cell radius) we have to increase height of the antenna.
L =A-13.82logH% +(44.9-6.55logH% )logR -[3.2(log (11.75H ))/ 4.97] [dB]

R=log Q5 (

g Q53.2/+Q [3./(W (55.)) Q.]

.Q6.W+

) [Km]

5.2.2 Chart 2:

Figure 05.3 relation between Maximum Path Loss and Equipment Senstivity.

The previous relation between user equipment sensitivity and maximum path loss is
considered inversely proportional with slope=-1. As shown, when increasing the user equipment
sensitivity SUE the ` decreases due to this equation relation:
Lpmax= Ptx,RB SUE BIDL BLNF LBLLCPLLBPL+GaLJA [dB]

5.2.3 Chart 3:

Figure 05.4 relation between Rx DL sensitivity and Channel Bandwidth

The previous chart shows the relation between channel bandwidth and the receiver
downlink sensitivity user equipment sensitivity .When we increase bandwidth the number of
resource blocks N increases according to Table 3 and when number of resource blocks NRB
increase the power transmitted per resource block Ptx,RB decrease and to compensate this we
have to increase user equipment sensitivity SUE, thats shown by the following relations:
Table 6 relation between bandwidth and number of resource block

Channel Bandwidth [MHZ]

Number of Resource Blocks (nRB)

,:()

Ptx,RB=10log(

BC

) [dBm]

1.4
6

Lpmax=Ptx,RB SUE BIDL BLNF LBLLCPLLBPL+GaLJA [dB]

3
15

5
25

10
50

15
75

20
100

5.2.4 Chart 4:

Figure 5.5 Relation between DL Cell edge throughput and DL network load

The previous relation between downlink network load and downlink cell edge
throughput.When network load Q( increases the interference between users in downlink
BIDL increases too.Therefore signal to interference noise ratio V :WV decreases more in negative
value so the number of resource blocks sent to user at the cell edge decreases then finally the cell
edge throughput decreases.This normally as when load increases SINR decreases and throughput
decreases and proved by the following equations:
V,i

BIDL=10log(1+( 54W (f

BC )))g,g

) [dB]

= Ptx,RBLpmaxNt Nf10log(WRB) BIDL BLNF LBLLCPLLBPL+GaLJA [dB]

RRB,DL =a3+(a0-a3)e
TDl,edge =

[Q 
(/)

BC BC,540

g
]
g

[Kbps]

[Mbps]

5.2.5 Chart 5:

Figure 05.6 Relation between Maxmimum Path Loss and Distance between two sites

The previous relation between maximum path loss and distance between 2
sites is direct log relationship. As when distance bet 2 sites D increases the serving eNodeB
distance R increases so, the losses due to environment also increase so the maximum path
lossL increases too. Also, it can be proved by the following equations:
R= D /1.5
L =A-13.82logH% +(44.9-6.55logH% )logR-[3.2(log (11.75H ))/ 4.97] [dB]

5.2.6 Chart 6:

Figure 5.7 Relation between UL Cell throughput and Number of Subscribers per cell

The previous relation is between the number of subscribers per cell and the uplink cell
throughput. As, number of subscribers Nsubs increases the uplink cell throughput Tcell,UL must
increase too to support new subscribers but also there is a maximum throughput of the cell
cannot passed at which increase the number of users the throughput will be constant.
Tcell,UL=Tsub,UL*Nsubs [kbps]

5.2.7 Chart 7:

Figure 05.8 Relation between DL Cell edge throughput and Distance from Base Station

The previous chart depicts the relation between downlink cell edge throughput and distance
away from the base station. When we move away from the serving eNodeB the Distance R
increases, the path loss L increases so, the downlink maximum signal attenuation Lsa,max
increases, the DL interference margin BIDL decreases and the SINR increases So the bit rate
per resource block RRB,DL decreases therefore, the downlink cell edge throughput TDl,edge
decreases , the be achieved according to the given equations:
L =A-13.82logH% +(44.9-6.55logH% )logR-[3.2(log (11.75H ))/ 4.97] [dB]
Lsa,max= Lpmax + BLNF + losses Ga
V,i

BIDL=10log(1+( 54W (f

BC )))g,g

) [dB]

= Ptx,RBLpmaxNt Nf10log(WRB) BIDL BLNF LBLLCPLLBPL+GaLJA [dB]

RRB,DL =a3+(a0-a3)e
TDl,edge =

[Q 
(/)

BC BC,540

g
]
g

[Kbps]

[Mbps]

5.3 Future Work

The tool can be enhanced to perform more complex planning functions , the most important one
of them is the ability to understand and deal with non-uniform user distribution.

5.3.1 Introduction to the Classification and Generation of Non-Uniform User

Distributions:
The introduction of high data rate services, such as video messaging and video clips on
demand, by wireless operators means that both the coverage range and the number of users
which can be served is reduced. The range reduction is a direct effect of higher data rates
requiring higher signal to interference and noise ratios (SINRs) which typically only occur
near to the base station (BS). The reduction in the number of users that can be supported is
simply due to the finite cell capacity being shared between fewer users so that each user has
a greater data rate.
Operators are increasingly interested in the possibility of using relays, as originally
proposed to exploit reductions in path loss and large scale shadowing. This provides
improvements in SINR which can translate into coverage/capacity enhancements. These
relays can either be fixed seeds, as in the case of dedicated relays, or the UEs themselves.
This combination of traditional fixed cellular infrastructure with multi-hop relaying
technology provides an economically attractive way of improving coverage/capacity due to
its minimal additional infrastructure requirements. This is especially true when the UEs
themselves are used as relays.
The complex interactions between route selection and interference means that
simulations are being increasingly used to investigate the coverage/capacity tradeoffs that
occur when extending cellular networks with multi-hop relaying techniques. In almost all of
these investigations the users are assumed to be uniformly distributed. In reality the
physical topography of the land, i.e. hills and rivers, and the manmade features such as
buildings, roads and parks, mean that people tend to cluster in certain areas and not in
others. It can be seen that the uniform distribution is not characteristic of a typical scenario.
Since the form of the user distribution is critical in determining the coverage/capacity
benefits of multi-hop systems, it is paramount to ensure that realistic user distributions are
considered (1).

The importance of non uniform distributions in multi-hop where the cell throughput
increase as the majority of users clustered towards the edge of cell. With these facts in mind,
it is the aim is to propose a generic method by which non-uniform distributions can be
generated and classified with respect to their performance within a multi-hop network.
User Distribution depend upon uniform distribution or non uniform which is in reality is
non uniform due to the physical topography of the land and the distribution of manmade
features such as roads, buildings and parks, In a uniform distribution we assume that all of
the M possible target UE locations , were n=1..M, have an equal probability of occurrence,
i.e. P( ) = 1/M. Whereas in the non-uniform distribution case it is assumed that each of the
M possible locations can have a different probability, i.e. P( ) = f( ), where f(x) denotes a
function dependent upon the parameter .It is concerned with defining f( ) in a way that
enables the user distribution to be varied from the clustering to the BS case, through to the
uniform distribution case, and then on to the clustering to the edge of cell case. The aim
being to define the clustering, either towards or away from the BS, by a metric which can be
related to the resulting multi-hop performance.

5.3.2 SPATIAL BINNING:

To be able to generate non-uniform distributions we require a method to attribute
different probabilities of UE occurrence as a function of their spatial location within a cell.
This can be achieved by either analytical functions, such as the Gaussian spread in UE
probability of occurrence, or via a spatial binning approach in which we break the cell up into
a number of bins (i.e. pixels). An example of the latter, for the center excited hexagonal cell ,
is shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 05.9 Quantized Representation of Cell

We now assume the following. All bins which are either within or have influence within
the cell boundaries are attributed a probability of occurrence , where i corresponds to the
bin number. The probability of UE occurrence within a bin is determined for the bin center
locations, using their distances, z , from the BS. This distance dependence of bin probabilities
enables control over the clustering of users towards or away from the BS, which has a large
influence upon the multi-hop performance gains observed.
Once the probabilities are defined they can be used to select bins with an appropriate
probability of occurrence. The actual UE position within the bin is then assumed to be
uniformly distributed within
Q^/2in both the x and y plane about the center of the selected
bin. If the selected bin is only partially within the cell boundaries then the actual UE position
randomly selected could be outside the cell boundary. If this occurs then the bin and hence
UE selection process is repeated until a UE location within the cell boundary is found. This

ensures that the UE locations in the bins partially within the cell occur with the correct
probabilities of occurrence

5.3.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA METRIC :

As there are an infinite number of possible user distributions, we require a metric to
classify them. Ideally the metric should be based upon characteristics which affect multi-hop
performance. Since multi-hop provides the greatest benefits to UEs with low SINRs, it seems
sensible that the metric should reflect how the distribution of users varies with respect to
the BS to target UE separation distance. Such a heuristic metric can be based upon the
moment of inertia (MOI) as defined in (1) when replacing m, the point mass, by the
probability of a UE being within the pixel, . Similarly d, the distance from the point mass to
the axis of rotation, can represent the distance between the center of the _ pixel and the
BS location, z This scenario is shown in Fig. 1. The z / term in (1) is intended to reflect the
dependency of multi-hop benefits upon the area, i.e. z / , between the BS and the _ pixel in
which the UE is located

5.3.4 GENERATING NON-UNIFORM USER DISTRIBUTIONS:

We need to define 2 algorithms for attributing probabilities of occurrence to the bins. These
methods should complement the MOI metric and hence should be based upon the BS to bin
center separation distance. Since the probabilities attributed to the bin centers must either
increase or decrease as a function of the BS to UE distance.

A. Case 1: clustering to the BS:

The probability attributed to the _ bin center must decrease as a function of

increasing BS to _ bin center separation distance z . To achieve this we define a variable
whose magnitude decreases as z increases. This is achieved by basing it on the difference
between the maximum possible bin center separation distance andz . For the hexagonal
cell case considered in this paper is taken to be the cell side length. To control how strongly
the UEs cluster towards the BS, a scaling term is included. The larger the negative value of
the higher the probability of the bins nearest the BS and hence the more strongly the UEs
will cluster around it. Finally, since in reality there are very few places where no UEs are ever
found, just places with low probabilities of finding a UE, we ensure that there is a small but
finite background probability of / for all locations in the cell. By defining the ambient
probability of UE occurrence as / we ensure that it scales with the cell area and is
equivalent to the highest bin probability possible when using a scaling factor of 1.

To express as a probability it is normalized by the total sum of taken over all the N bins
considered.

Once the bin probabilities have been determined for the specified scaling factor and
cell side length these can be used to determine UE locations. Bins are selected according to
their probability of occurrence . This can be achieved through sampling the cumulative
density function (CDF) of the bin probabilities with a uniformly distributed random number
between 0 and 1. Once the bin has been selected then a random location uniformly
distributed within
Q^/2 of the selected bin center location is determined. if the selected UE
location is outside the cell boundaries then the whole bin/UE selection process is repeated
until a UE within the cell boundaries is obtained.
An example of the clustering of 5000 UE locations (i.e. circles) towards the BS, when
considering a hexagonal cell of 500m cell side length and = -10 is given in Fig. 2.

Figure 05.10 Non-uniform User Distribution (= -10)

Fig. 2 shows clearly that the UEs are clustered towards the BS and that the likelihood of
a UE decreases as you move towards the cell edge. The fact that we randomly select UEs
from within each bin means that whilst the probability of selecting a bin is deterministic in
nature, i.e. dependent upon z , the actual UE location within that bin is not.

B. Case 2: clustering to the edge of cell:

The probability attributed to the _ bin center must increase as a function of

increasing BS to _ bin center separation distance z . This is achieved in a similar manner to
that given in (2) and (3) except that distances are no longer expressed relative to the edge of
cell and that the scaling factor assumes positive values. now becomes the expression
shown in (4).

The sign of can be used within a simulation to select between (2) and (4), i.e. using (2)
when < 0 and using (4) when 0. Therefore negative values of correspond to UEs
clustering towards the BS and positive values of correspond to UEs clustering towards the
edge of cell. It should be noted that when = 0 all bins are equally likely to be selected and
hence this corresponds to a uniform distribution.

Fig. 3 is derived for a hexagonal cell with a 500m cell side length and = +10. It shows
how 5000 UEs positioned according to the bin probabilities derived from (4) and substituted
into (3) leads to the UEs clustering towards the cell boundaries.

Figure 05.11 Non-uniform User Distribution ( = +10)

5.3.5 MAPPING BETWEEN THE SCALING FACTOR
AND THE MOMENT OF INERTIA
METRIC :
Having presented a method of generating non-uniform user distributions whose
clustering towards the BS or the edge of cell is dependent upon the scaling factor , it is
necessary to determine the relationship between and the moment of inertia metric, , as
defined in (1). A scaling factor of 10Q is applied to the results generated by (1) so as to
reduce the absolute values of into the smaller range 6-18 as used in Fig. 4 and Fig 5. This is
done since the absolute values merely reflect the number of bins within the cell. Fig. 4 shows
how the scaling factor maps into the moment of inertia metric when is varied from -50
to +50 for a hexagonal cell of 500m cell side length. It shows that varies most rapidly
between =
Q 10 and more slowly above and below these values.

Figure 0.12 Scaling value to moment of inertia mapping

Since the linearly interpolated line can be seen to yield a close match to the trend of the
simulated points it is appears reasonable to use interpolation to determine a set of scaling
factors that uniformly sample the moment of inertia metric range.

5.3.6 User Distribution with Multi Hop:

As we get from Figure5 the capacity increase with decreasing the coverage while
increasing the MOI metric
It shows that when the UEs are clustered around the BS, i.e. when the MOI metric tends
towards 6, the coverage is good due to the low path loss for the majority of target UE
locations explored. Conversely the capacity gain experienced when the UEs are clustered
around the BS is poor since the UEs already have high SINRs and the capacity gains offered
by multi-hop are not enough to compensate for the halving of bandwidth that the use of two
hops incurs. The opposite arguments apply when considering the clustering of UEs towards
the edge of cell, i.e. the MOI metric tending towards 18. The low SINRs experienced by the
majority of target UE locations due to the high path loss at the larger range leads to poor
coverage and good capacity gain.

Figure 05.13 Moment of inertia metric versus coverage and capacity

5.3.7 Conclusion:
We get that it`s very difficult to apply non uniform Traffic distribution of users due to its
main dependence on probabilities of users inside each cell in all places all over the world.
However that is not public or opened to know it but operators have this and we can`t get it

5.4 How to compare between planning tools ?

To compare between any two LTE planning tools they must have the same inputs(Uplink
and downlink cell-edge throughputs, losses, antenna heights, channel bandwidth, ....etc) to
have a meaningful comparison.
But the area input can't be exactly the same in the two tools , so the site count
parameter can't be used to compare between them. However, the density of sites (the
number of sites per square KM) can be used in the comparison.
The tool which offers a smaller site density is supposed to have a better performance
Another parameter that can be used is the percentage difference between the required
downlink cell-edge throughput and the maximum allowable cell-edge throughput
=

T(,W T:;,(,W
100 %
T:;,(,W

The tool which offers a higher value of is also supposed to have a better performance

The average uplink system load Q  and average downlink system load Q( can also be
used to compare between the planning tools.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

3G
3GGP2
3GPP
ADSL
AMC
AMPS
ANR
APNs
ARIB
ARQ
ATM
AuC
BSC
BSS
BTS
BW
CAI
CCCH
CCSA
CDMA
CDPD
CDR
CEPT
CG
CGF
CH
CM
CN
CPC
C-plane
CQI
CS
CSD
CWTS
DCCH
DCS
DFT
DNS
DRS
DS-CDMA
DTM
E-DCH
EDGE
EFR
EIR
eNode-B

rd

3 Generation.
rd
3 Generation Partnership Project.
rd
3 Generation Partnership Project.
Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line.
Adaptive Modulation and Coding.
Advanced Mobile Phone System.
Automatic Neighbor Relation.
Access Point Names.
Association of Radio Industries and Businesses.
Automatic Repeat request.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode.
Authentication Center.
Base Station Controller.
Base Station Subsystem.
Base transceiver station.
Bandwidth.
Common Air Interface.
Common Control Channels.
China Communications Standards Association.
Code Division multiple access.
Cellular Digital Packet Data.
Charging Data Records.
Conference for European Post and Telecommunication Administration.
Charging Gateway.
Charging Gateway Function.
Channel.
Communication Management.
Core Network.
Continuous Packet Connectivity.
Control-plane.
Channel Quality Indicator.
Circuit Switching.
Circuit Switched Data.
Certified Wireless Technology Specialist.
Dedicated Control Channels.
Digital Communications System.
Discrete Fourier transform.
Domain Name System.
Demodulation Reference Signal.
Direct sequence CDMA.
Dual transfer mode.
Enhanced Uplink Dedicated Channel.
Enhanced data rates for GSM Evolution.
Enhanced Full Rate.
Equipment Identity Register.
Evolved Node-B.

ETSI
E-UTRAN
EV-DO
FCC
FDD
FDE
FDMA
FFT
FH-SS
FNR
FR
FVC
GERAN
GGSN
GMSC
GMSK
GOS
GPRS
GSM
GTP
HARQ
HLR
HSCSD
HSDPA
HSPA
HSPA+
HSS
HSUPA
ICI
IEEE
IMEI
IMS
IMSI
IP
ISDN
ISI
ISP
ITU
IWF
Kc
Ki
LA
LAN
LIG
LNP
LTE
MAN
MAP
MBMS

European Telecommunication Standard Institute.

Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network.
Evolution-Data Optimized or Evolution-Data Only.
Forward Control Channels.
Frequency Division Duplex.
Frequency-Domain Equalizer.
Frequency Division Multiple Access.
Fast Fourier Transform.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum.
Flexible Numbering Register.
Frame Relay.
Forward Voice Channels.
GSM&EDGE Radio Access Network.
Gateway GPRS Support Node.
Gateway MSC.
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying.
Grade Of Service.
General Packet Radio Service.
Global System For Mobile Communication.
GPRS Tunneling Protocol.
Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request.
Home location register.
High-Speed Circuit Switched Data.
High-Speed Downlink Packet Access.
High Speed Packet access.
High-Speed Packet Access Evolution
Home Subscriber Server
High-Speed Uplink Packet Access
Inter carrier interference.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
International Mobile Equipment Identity.
Internet Protocol Multimedia Subsystem.
International Mobile Subscriber Identity.
Internet Protocol .
Integrated Services Digital Network.
Inter symbol interference.
Internet Service Providers.
International Telecommunication Union.
Interworking Unit/Function.
Cipher Key.
Authentication Key.
Location area.
Local Area Network.
Legal Interception Gateway.
Local Number Portability.
Long Term Evolution.
Metropolitan Area Network.
Mobile Application Part.
Multimedia Broadcast and Multicast Service.

MBSFN
MCC
MCS
MIB
MIMO
MISN
MM
MME
MMS
MNC
MNC
MPI
MS
MSC
MSG
MSISDN
MSRN
MTS
MTSO
MU-MIMO
MXE
NAM
NAS
NAT
NMC
NMS
NMT
NSS
NTT
OFDM
OFDMA
OMC
OSS
PABX
PAMR
PAN
PAPR
PBCH
PCM
PCRF
PCS
PC
PDN
PDN-GW
PDP
PHY
PLMN
PMR
PoC

Multicast-Broadcast Single Frequency Network.

Mobile Country Code.
Modulation and Coding Scheme.
Master Information Block.
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output.
Mobile intelligent services node.
Mobility Management.
Mobility Management Entity.
Multimedia Message Service.
Mobile Network Code.
Mobile Network Code.
Multipath Interference.
Mobile Station.
Mobile Switching Center.
Message Service Gateway.
Mobile Subscriber Integrated Services Digital Network.
Mobile Station Roaming Number.
Mechanical Testing and sensing Solution.
Mobile Telephone Switching Office.
Multiple User MIMO.
Message Center.
Numeric Assignment Module.
Non-access Stratum.
Network Address Translation.
Network Management center.
Network Management Subsystem.
Nordic Mobile Telephone.
Network Switching Subsystem.
Nippon Telegraph and Telephone.
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access.
Operations and maintenance center.
Operation Support System.
Private Automatic Branch Exchange.
Private Access Mobile Radio.
Personal Area Network.
Peak-To-Average Power Ratio.
Physical Broadcast Channel.
Pulse Code Modulation.
Policy Control Resource Function.
Personal Communications System.
Packet Control Unit.
Packet Data Network.
Packet Data Network-Gateway.
Packet Data Protocol .
Physical Layer.
Public Land Mobile Network.
Private Mobile Radio.
Push-to-Talk over Cellular.

PS
PSS
PSTN
PTM
PTP
GPRS
PUSCH
QAM
QoS
QPSK
RA
RAB
RAN
RCC
RNC
RNR
RNS
RR
RRC
RRH
RRM
RTMS
RVC
Rx
S1
SAE/EPC
SC-FDMA
SCTP
SGSN
SIBs
SIM
SIR
SMS
SMSC
SNR
SRS
SS
SS7
SSS
SU-MIMO
TA
TA
TACS
TCH
TCP/IP
TDD
TDMA
TETRA
TIA

Packet Switching.
Primary Synchronization Signal.
Public Switched Telephone Network.
Point-To-Multipoint.
Point-to-point.
General Packet Radio Services.
Physical Uplink Shared Channel.
Quadrature amplitude modulation.
Quality of Service.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying.
Routing Area.
Radio Access Bearers.
Radio Access Network.
Reverse Control Channels.
Radio Network Controller.
Numbering Register.
Radio Network Systems.
Radio resource.
Radio Resource Control.
Remote Radio Head .
Radio Resource Management.
Repetitive Transracial Magnetic stimulation.
Reverse Voice Channels.
Receive.
interface to the Evolved Packet Core.
System Architecture Evolution/Evolved Packet Core.
Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol.
Serving GPRS Support Node.
System Information Blocks.
Subscriber Identity Module.
Signal-to-Interference Ratio.
Short Message Service.
Short Message Service Center.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio.
sounding reference signal.
Spread Spectrum.
Signaling system no. 7.
Secondary Synchronization Signal.
Single User MIMO.
Timing Advance.
Tracking Area.
Total Access Communication System.
Traffic Channels.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet.
Time Division Duplex.
Time Division Multiple Access.
Terrestrial Trunked Radio.
Telecommunication Indusrty Association.

TMSI
TTA
TTC
TTI
Tx
UE
UMTS
U-plane
UTRA
UTRAN
Uu
VLR
VoIP
WAP
WCDMA
WiMAX
WLL

Temporary Mobile Subscribe Identity.

Telecommunications Technology Association.
Telecommunication Technology Committee.
Transmission Time Interval.
Transmit.
User Equipment.
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System.
User Plane.
Universal Terrestrial Radio Access.
UMTS Terrestrial RAN.
The radio interface between the eNodeB and the User Equipment.
Visitor Location Register.
Voice over Internet Protocol.
Wide Area Network.
Wide band code Division multiple access
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
Wireless Local Loop.

LIST OF REFERENCES
[1] Erricson , LTE L10A Radio Network Design , 2009
[2] Erricson , LTESAE System Overview ,2009
[3] Andreas F. Molisch , Wirelees Communication ,2010
[4] Alcatel Lucent , The LTE Network Architecture , Strategic White Paper , 2010
[5] Erricson , Erricson LTE Coverage and Capacity Dimensioning Recommendation , Jun 2010
[6] Mark Newton and John Thompson , Classification and Generation of Non-Uniform User
Distributions for Cellular Multi-Hop Networks , 2011
[7] www.3gpp.com