Ped3-934-Sensorless Control of PMSM For Low Speed Applications Project Report

AALBORG UNIVERSITY
Institute of Energy Technology
Sensorless Control of
PMSM for Low-speed
Applications
Supervisor:
Project Group:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Kaiyuan Lu
Mehmet Sertug Basar

Mikel Mazuela
Marco Lillo
Joseba Irazustabarrena
Study group code: PED3-934
Title:
Sensorless Control of PMSM

for Low-speed Applications
Submitted to the Department of Energy

Technology - Aalborg University
in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the 3rd Semester M. Sc. Project
Group code:
PED3-934
Members:
Mehmet Sertug Basar

Mikel Mazuela
Marco Lillo
Joseba Irazustabarrena
Theme:
Power Electronics and Drives
Project period:
1st September 2008 - 6th January 2009
Publications:
Pages:
125
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The chapter starts with discussing the suitability of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
(PMSM) for modern low speed applications through a background information on this
specific motor type, general characteristics of PMSM and a comparison among some existing
motor technologies.
Then project objectives along with limitations are listed. A brief explanation of Sensorless
Control is given as well as this methods advantages over a traditional control system in
which a position sensor is employed.
In the following sections, commonly used possible sensorless control techniques are
introduced and described as well as their suitability for the application specific demands.
The chapter is concluded by stating the selection of a sensorless control technique and scope
of the project.
1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................2

1.2 OBJECTIVE AND LIMITATIONS .............................................................................5
1.3 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................5
1.3.1 Sensorless Drives...................................................................................................5
1.3.2 Method Selection .................................................................................................10
1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT........................................................................................10
1.5 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................10
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................12
SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Despite the fact that the principle of the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)
was introduced already before the Induction Motor (IM) was invented, the first commercially
fabricated permanent magnet DC machines date back into 1932 [2], after the first
commercially manufactured permanent magnet material AlNiCo was found.
As a result of low energy product of AlNiCos and subsequent materials, it was not possible to
manufature effective permanent magnet motors until the 1970s when new high-energy
product permanent magnet materials, namely rare earth magnets such as NdFeB, was
commercially developed. For this reason, it can be stated that the effective design of
permanent magnet motors has been developed only during the last 3 decades.
In recent years, the need for new motor types has grown with the industry demand for high
efficiency and accurate dynamic performance, and the development of new effective control
systems such as Direct Torque Control (DTC).
Permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) are well suitable for new adjustable speed
AC inverter drives, because their efficiency and power factor do not depend on the pole pair
number and speed to the same extent as they do in induction motors [2]. Hence, an induction
motor with gearbox can often be replaced by a direct PM motor system. Space in addition to
costs will be saved, because the efficiency increases and the cost of maintenance decreases as
well.
The increase in efficiency and decrease in cost are due to the elimination of brushes, sliprings, and rotor copper losses, factors which also make PMSM maintanance costs lower than
those of induction machine. Moreover, the higher efficiency of PMSM allows a reduction in
the machine frame size which translates into lower cost as well. Furthermore, the power
density of the PMSM may be increased remarkably from the level of the IM.
General advantages of PMSM can be listed as follows:
High air-gap flux density
High power-to-weight ratio (i.e., high power/motor mass)
Large torque-to-inertia ratio (enables high acceleration)
Controlled torque at zero speed
High torque capability (quick acceleration and deceleration for short time)
High efficiency and high cos (low expense for the power supply)
Low EMI [7]
Compact design
A permanent magnet motor and a frequency converter form together a simple, yet effective
choice in variable speed drives, since the total efficiency remains high even at lower speeds
and the control of the whole system is very accurate.
The standard induction motor operates at its best in the speed range between 1000 and 3000
rpm [2]. It is neither technically nor economically reasonable to manufacture medium and low
power induction motors. The induction motor may need to be equipped with a gearbox to
drive medium and low power applications while the permanent magnet motor offers the
possibility to drive these applications directly.
PMSM has speed/torque characteristics ideally suited for direct drive of large-horsepower,
low-rpm loads.
PMSMs can be divided into two major groups: Brushless DC PM (BLDC) motors and PM
Synchronous (PMS) motors.
Brushless DC PM motors have rectangular current waveformes and rectangular or trapezoidal
back EMFs. Even though their inverter control scheme is relatively simple than that of PM
synchronous motors, it leads to the torque ripple production and small commutation errors
cause great pulsating torque [2]. Moreover, it has a lower torque-to-volume ratio compared to
PMSM. Therefore, they do not match the requirements of high performance drives.
In synchronous AC PM motors, on the other hand, both machine back-EMF and current
excitation waveforms are in sinusoidal form. A short comparision of IM, BLDC and PMSM is
given in Table 1.1. Synchronous AC PM motors can be divided into two sub-groups as well:
Interior Mounted Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (IMPMSM) and Surface Mounted
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (SMPMSM). Lower cost and relatively simple
mechanical structure of SMPMSM makes it a reasonable chioce for low-speed applications
[2].
Advantages
Disadvantages
Induction Motor
BLDC Motor
PMS Motor
Excellent dynamics with proper

control
Low price and simple
construction
Durable
Several suppliers available
Complicated control
Always lagging power factor
Low efficiency with lighter loads
High power density and

torque/inertia
Good heat dissipation
Good overloading capability
Smooth torque
High efficiency
High torque/volume
Good heat dissipation
Expensive
Torque ripple
Danger of demagnetisation
Expensive
Danger of
demagnetisation
Table 1.1. Arguments for and against IM, BLDC and PMSM motors [3]
The main drawback of PMSM is the need for an accurate position sensor to provide desirable
motor control. A position sensor used requires extra space, reduces the reliability, while
increasing the cost of the overall system. However, employing a sensorless control algorithm
translates into an improved reliability and decreased cost.
Sensorless control methods are roughly catagorised into two main groups. One group is
composed of methods based on EMF observation in which position of the rotor is obtained
using the EMF information. The algorithms that fall into this first group perfom well at
medium and high speeds but when it comes to very low and near zero speed applications it is
almost impossible to detect rotor position due to low magnitude of EMF, which is
proportional to speed. It is also noteworthy that noise effects become dominant at very low
speeds and lead to estimation errors.
The second group is based on high frequency injection scheme. This method which has been
succesfully applied to reluctance and interior permanent magnet motor (IPMSM) [4,5] can
also be applied to surface permanent magnet synchronous motor (SPMSM), even though it is
a more difficult task to accomplish accurate sensorless control of this motor type, especially in
near zero speed region because of the fact that the saliency between d and q axes inductances
is very small. Yet, it is in all probability to achieve desirable results under high frequency
injection based methods.
1.2 OBJECTIVE AND LIMITATIONS

The objective of this project is to study, examine and implement a sensorless control
technique for the control of SPMSM at low speed applications including zero speed.
It should be noted that inverter non-linearities and dead time compensation, voltage drop in
power electronic devices, EMC issues as well as mechanical noise of the motor system are out
of scope of this project.
1.3 METHODOLOGY
In this section a brief information on different currently available sensorless methods to
control SPMSM is presented in order to give the reader a clear understanding about reasons to
select a technique, which is suitable for the application specific needs, to be employed in the
project.
1.3.1 Sensorless Drives

At this point, before moving any further, it would be a good idea to point out what the term
sensorless control means. It is not likely to estimate rotor position, and thus speed, without
aid of any sensors. The term refers to the control schemes where no position sensor is used to
obtain rotor position. In a more generic way, sensorless control means the removal of
encoders; and encoderless control and sensorless control terms are often interchangable.
In sensorless, or encoderless, control, rotor position is not obtained from direct measurement,
but estimated from sensor measured indicators such as voltage and current. In order to obtain
rotor position without mechanical position sensors, motor itself is used as a sensor indicating
parameters to be processed. Typically motor terminal voltage is provided by Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) inverter. Measured armature currents are used to obtain rotor position.
Sensorless control schemes are worth studying, because, as previously underlined, they
reduce overall system cost and increase reliability and robustness by making it possible to
remove position sensors.
The main techniques to obtain the rotor position information of PMSM are listed below.
A. Open-loop estimators using monitored stator voltages/currents [1].
B. Stator phase third harmonic voltage-based position estimators [1].
C. BEMF (Back Electromotive Force) based position estimators [1].
D. Observer based (e.g. Kalman, Luenberger) speed and position estimators [1].
E. Estimators based on inductance variation due to geometrical or saturation effects [1].
F. High frequency signal injection [6,7,8].
G. Estimators using artificial intelligence (e.g. neural network, fuzzy-logic-based systems,
fuzzy-neural networks) [1]
A. Open-loop Estimators Using Monitored Stator Voltages/Currents
Techniques listed under this group utilise stator flux calculated by integrating voltage across
the stator inductance. It is important to note that the performance of a PMSM drive with these
methods used depends greatly on the accuracy of the monitored voltages and currents, and on
an accurate integration tecnique as well. Errors may be encountered in the monitored voltages
and currents resulting from: phase shift in the measured values because of the sensors used,
magnitude errors because of conversion factors and gain, offset in the measurement system,
quantisation errors in the digital system, and so forth.
Furthermore, an accurate value has to be used for the stator resistance. For accurate fluxlinkage estimation, the stator variance in resistance by temperature changes should be taken
into consideration. The integration can become problematic at low frequencies, where the
stator voltages become very small and are dominated by the ohmic voltage drops. At low
frequencies the voltage drop of the inverter must also be considered.
Drift compensation is another important factor in a practical implementation of the integration
since drift can cause large errors of the position of the stator flux-linkage space vector. A
transient offset also arises from the d.c components which result after a transient change. An
incorrect calculation of flux angle and when the expression for torque is considered it will
obviously cause an unwanted fundamental oscillation in the electromagnetic torque of the
machine. Moreover, as in the open-loop speed estimator which utilises the stator flux-linkage
components, the rotor speed is determined from the position of the stator flux-linkage space
vector [1], a drift in the stator flux-linkage vector will cause incorrect and oscillatory speed
values. In a speed control loop, this drift error will cause an undesirable fundamental
frequency modulation of the modulus of the reference stator-current space vector.
When measured currents are used, voltage errors caused by dead-time effects, especially at
low speeds, the pulse widths become very small and the dead-time of the inverter switches
must be considered, the voltage drop in the power electronic devices, the fluctuation of the d.c
link voltage should also be taken into account.
Last but not least, in this method estimation of the initial position is impossible because initial
values of flux integrators depend on the rotor position caused by permanent magnets flux
linkage.
B. Stator phase third harmonic voltage-based position estimators
The main principle of this method is that, in a star-connected machine where zero-sequence
stator currents cannot flow, the third harmonic voltage is an air-gap voltage component, and
hence it is equal to the rate of change of the rotor flux.
In this technique, the measurement of the back e.m.f is needed. However, all back e.m.f-based
techniques, by nature, contain high frequency modulation noise. This can be eliminated by
using a low-pass filter which, on the other hand, translates into phase delay. This delay is a
function of the speed, and hence achievement of optimum control, that is to say stator current
is in space quadrature to the rotor flux-linkage, is very difficult, which largely affects the
torque/ampere capability and efficiency of the motor as the speed changes. Although this
problem can be reduced by applying a filter phase-delay compensator (lead-lag network),
maximum performance can still not be achieved at low speeds.
In general, the method is practically free of inverter modulation noise, and a small amount of
filtering is required to eliminate the switching frequency and its side bands. The main
disadvantage of this technique is third hamonic voltages having a relatively low value at low
speed as it is normally the case with all back-EMF based methods.
C. BEMF (Back Electromotive Force) based position estimators
In this technique voltage induced at the stator terminals measured by voltage sensors is used
to estimate the rotor position. The induced terminal voltage depends on rotor position, and
thus contains information from which rotor position can be obtained.
Due to the fact that magnitude of induced terminal voltages depend on rotor speed, this
method is not handy for low speed range in which signal containig information about position
is very small and is easy disturbed by noise.
Furthermore, in order to calculate BEMF, the resistance and inductances of the stator have to
be known. Hence, parameter value changes should also be considered and calculated.
D. Observer based (e.g. Kalman, Luenberger) speed and position estimators
When this technique is used, in a first stage of calculations, the states are predicted by usning
a mathematical model (which contains previous estimates) and in the second stage, the
predicted states are continuously corrected by using a feedback correction scheme. This
scheme makes use of actual measured states, by adding a term to the predicted states (which is
obtained in the first stage). The additional term contains the weighted difference of the
measured and estimated output signals. Based on the deviation from the estimated value, the
system gives an optimum output value at the next input instant. In a PMSM drive the
Extended Kalman Filter can be used for the real-time estimation of the rotor position and
speed.
Observers are sensitive to and affected by measurement noise. The stability analysis of the
observer is daunting and initial position could not be obtained. Furthermore, Kalman based
observers need powerful processors for fast computation of algoritms. Also tuning of the
Kalman filter based observers require highly-skilled operators and takes a long time. Another
disadvantage of this method is the discontinous nature of the control action.
E. Estimators based on inductance variation due to geometrical or saturation effects
This method depends on the fact that instantenous inductances contain information about
rotor position, and utilises rotor inductance variation resulting from magnetic saturation or
geometrical effects. Inductances are calculated online and compared with pre-defined values
by a lookup table which contains given rotor position for a given inductance. But the method
is suitable only for IPMSM where, thanks to saliency effects, the variation in inductance
values can be monitored to detect rotor position.
In SPMSM, on the other hand, the saliency between d and q axes inductances is rather small
which makes, this method difficult to be employed. In addition, it is not possible to obtain
zero positon information using this technique.
F. Estimators using artificial intelligence (e.g. neural network, fuzzy-logic-based systems,

fuzzy-neural networks)
The main advantage of employing these methods is the fact that a mathematical model of the
machine is not required and they provide simulation of non-linearity effects and are resistant
to noise. Yet, the technique requires training of a neural network which is a complex and time
consuming process when the time limitation for the project is taken into account.
G. High frequency signal injection
In order to obtain rotor position at standstill, this relatively new technique is based on high
frequency injection is used. Estimation of the rotor position is made by injecting high
frequency stator voltage component and demodulating the corresponding stator current taking
advantage of motor anisotropies. However, SPMSM, as stated before, has a very low level of
inductance anisotropy so using the method for SPMSM is more difficult than employing it for
IMSMPM, but still possible.
Initial position at zero speed can be estimated because a high frequency signal is continuously
injected to the machine. The technique is not sensitive to parameter variations, but injected
signal causes extra loss and torque ripple.
1.3.2 Method Selection

Some of the main sensorless methods have generally been presented above. Each of them has
its advantages and disadvantages depending on the application area. After evaluating present
techniques, taking into consideration of specific requirements of the addressed problem in the
project, high frequency signal injection method is chosen to be studied and implemented.
1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

As previously stated in Section 1.3.2 the high frequency signal injection method was selected
to be studied and implemented within this project. This method will thoroughly be
investigated during the project.
The target of the project is to implement a sensorless control of PMSM for low speed
applications including zero-speed by using appropriate high frequency signal injection
technique. The selected method will be implemented in a real-world system, Digital Signal
Processor (DSP), on dSPACE board.
10
1.5 SUMMARY
In Chapter 1, a brief history of PMSM is given first. This is followed by a comparison of IM,
BLDC and PMSM, and differences between interior mounted PMSM and surface mounted
PMSM as well as the need for sensorless control. Project objective and limitations are also
included in this chapter. The concept of sensorless control is explained, and fundamentals of
commonly used sensorless methodologies are given next. The chapter is concluded by stating
the scope of the project.
11
REFERENCES
1. Sensorless Vector and Direct Torque Control
Peter VAS
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, 1998
ISBN: 978-0-19-856465-2
2. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor for Industrial Inverter Applications - Analysis and Design
Tanja HEIKKILA
ISBN: 951-764-699-2
3. Induction Motor versus Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor in Motion Control Applications: A
Comparative Study
Jussi PURANEN
ISBN: 952-214-296-4
4. Position Sensorless Control of Synchronous Reluctance Motor Using High Frequency Current
Injection
Seog-Joo KANG, Jang-Mok KIM, Seung-Ki SUL
IEEE TRANSACTONS ON ENERGY CONVERSON, VOL. 14, NO. 4, DECEMBER 1999
5. Two Signal Injection Methods for Sensorless Control of PMSM at Very Low Speeds
Shanshan WU, Yongdong LI, Xuejin MIAO
IEEE XPLORE.
6. Analysis of Permanent-Magnet Machine for Sensorless Control Based on High Frequecny Signal
Injection
Ji-Hoon JANG, Jung-Ik HA, Motomichi OHTO, Kozo IDE, Seung-Ki SUL
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2004
7. A New High-Frequency Voltage Injection Method for Sensorless Drive of Permanent-Magnet

Synchronous Motors with Pole Saliency
Shinji SHINNAKA
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING IN JAPAN, VOL. 164, NO. 4, 2008
8. Sensorless Operation of PMSM by High Frequency Signal Injection Using the Field-Circuit
Coupled Solution
Dong CHEN, Heng NIAN, Yikang HE, Lei HUANG
PROCEEDING OF INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND SYSTEMS 2007, OCT. 8~11, SEOUL, KOREA
12
9. Mechanical Sensorless Robust Control of Wind Turbine Driven Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Generator for Maximum Power Operation
Kelvin TAN, Syed ISLAM
AUSTRALIAN COOPERATIVE RESEARCH CENTRE FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY LTD
10. Freescale Semiconductor Web Page

(http://www.freescale.com/webapp/sps/site/overview.jsp?code=DRMTRPRMSYMTR&tid=tMfp)
13
CHAPTER 2: VECTOR ORIENTED CONTROL FOR A PMSM MOTOR
CHAPTER 2: VECTOR ORIENTED CONTROL FOR A PMSM

MOTOR
In this chapter, derivation of PMSM models in different stationary and rotating reference
frames is given as well as the fundamentals of Field Oriented Control (FOC).
First, PMSM equations in stationary abc refence frame are given. Second, these equations
modelling the motor are tranformed into stationary and rotating dq reference frames by
using Clarke and Park transformations respectively. Finally, Field Oriented Controller
Design procedures using encoder and some experimental results are presented.
2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................15

2.2 PMSM MODEL .........................................................................................................16
2.2.1 PMSM Model in Stationary abc Reference Frame................................................17
2.2.2 PMSM Model in Stationary Reference Frame .................................................18
2.2.3 PMSM Model in Rotating dq Reference Frame....................................................20
2.3 FOC CONTROLLER DESIGN WITH ENCODER....................................................23
2.3.1 CURRENT LOOP ...............................................................................................25
2.3.2 SPEED LOOP......................................................................................................33
2.3.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS .............................................................................38
2.4 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................39
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................40
14
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The fundamentals of the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) and Field
Oriented Control (FOC) are introduced in this chapter. First, the equations of the motor are
described, one buy one, in stationary abc and reference frames and rotating dq frame.
Second, the dq frame field oriented control (FOC) is given and the related control techniques
are explained.
The control system has two loops, namely speed and current loops, which are modelled and
simulated in Simulink. The employed control method to design these controllers is PI, since it
is a simple, efficient technique. At the first stage, the current loop parameters are calculated
based on the electrical parameters, while the speed controller parameters are set in order to
ensure the desired speed response. They are, then, modified in order to be matched with
simulation results under real-world conditions.
m : Mechanical speed; e : Electrical speed

va , vb , vc : Stator 3 phase voltages
ia , ib , ic : Stator 3 phase currents
p : Number of pole pairs
Rs : Stator resistance
a , b , c : 3 phase fluxes
PM : Permanent magnet nominal flux
15
2.2 PMSM MODEL

From the stator point of view, a 3 phase PMSM has 3 uniformly distributed coils, where a 3
phase sinusoidal voltage is applied.
There are some permanent magnets in the rotor, and their number depends on the number of
pole pairs of the machine. There are two magnets in a single pole pair motor, while four
magnets are necessary for a 2 pole-pair machine (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1. One pole-pair PMSM rotor (left). Two pole-pair PMSM rotor (right)
This machine operates in a fixed speed depending on the frequency of the voltage applied to
the stator coils as well as the number of pole pairs.
m =
e
p
(2.1)
Firstly, the motor is modelled from the point of view of its three real coils and a 3 phase
stationary model is created. Then, using the Clarke transformation [Appendix A], this model
is transformed into a biphasic stationary model in order to have a simpler representation. This
transformation from abc to is shown in Figure 2.2. Lastly, the biphasic model in frame
is, using the Park transformation, transformed into a rotating reference frame which is the
reference to the rotating magnetic field of motor.
16
2.2.1 PMSM Model in Stationary abc Reference Frame

Voltage equation for the 3 phases is given in (2.2). 3 phase voltages are dependant on the
voltage drop on the stator resistor as well as the time derivative of the phase fluxes. [See
Appendix A for Clarke and Park transformations]
0 ia
va Rs 0
v = 0 Rs 0 i + d
b dt
b
vc 0
0 Rs ic
a

b
c
(2.2)
e : electrical position
V, V: stationary biphasic model stator

V
voltages
Figure 2.2. abc and stationary reference frames
(2.3) shows the expression for phase fluxes.

a Laa
= L
b ba
c Lca
Lab
Lbb
Lcb
Lac ia
d
Lbc ib +
dt
Lcc ic
PMa

PMb
PMc
(2.3)
The elements of the first matrix are known constants, related to the inductances. The terms on
the right hand side of the equation depend on the permanent magnet flux, which is also
known.
Laa = Lbb = Lcc = Los const.
Lab = Lac = Lba = Lbc = Lca = Lcb = Lom const.
The combination of the two previous equations yields to the expressions (2.4), (2.5) and (2.6).
17
PMa
=
PM
PMb
PMc
cos ( )

2
cos
3

2
cos +
3

PMa
d
PMb = PM
dt
PMc
a Los
d
b = Lom
dt
c Lom
sin ( )

2
sin
3

2
sin +
3

Lom
Los
Lom
(2.4)
d

dt
Lom
d
Lom
dt
Los
(2.5)
ia
i
PM
b
ic
sin ( )

2
sin
3

2
+

3

(2.6)
The substitution of (2.6) into (2.2) gives the complete and final equation for the PMSM in
stationary abc reference frame which is shown in (2.7).
0 ia Los
va Rs 0
v = 0 Rs 0 i + L
b om
b
vc 0
0 Rs ic Lom
Lom
Los
Lom
Lom
ia
d
Lom ib PM
dt
ic
Los
sin ( )
sin
2
+

3

(2.7)
2.2.2 PMSM Model in Stationary Reference Frame

It is possible to transform the motor model given in the previous section into a biphasic
reference frame. This 3 to 2 axes conversion is known as Clarke transformation [Appendix
18
A]. Thanks to this transformation, both expressing the model and applying the control
algorithm is much easier.
Figure 2.3. Magnet in stationary reference frame
Equation (2.8) shows the general transition matrixes for 3 to 2 phase (axes) transformation
[Appendix A]. The homopolar component is not calculated, as it is zero in a balanced 3 phase
system.
x 1
x = 0

0
1
3
0
1
x
a
xb
3 x
c
(2.8)
Applying this general 3 to 2 axes transformation to the original set of three-phase equations,
abc to transformation is done. The resulting equation is shown in (2.9).
v
i
d i
d
v = Rs i + L i + PM
dt
dt

(2.9)
L + Lom
L = os
0
(2.10)
Los + Lom
cos ( )
PM = PM
PM sin ( )
(2.11)
Once the stationary 2 phase model is created, due to the fact that a Cartesian reference
frame is sufficient to represent the machine, the behaviour of PMSM is expressed by using 2
components instead of 3 and in a simpler way.
19
There is another way to represent the same equations, using the general nomenclature
described in (2.12). The resultant equations are shown in (2.13), (2.14) and (2.15).
r
x = x + j x
(2.12)
uur
ur
ur d s
vs = Rs is +
dt
(2.13)
uur
ur
s = Ls is + PM e j
(2.14)
Finally, the stationary biphasic model for the PMSM motor is described in (2.15).
vs
= Rs is
di
+ Ls s + j PM e j
dt
(2.15)
2.2.3 PMSM Model in Rotating dq Reference Frame

The final step in modelling PMSM is to transform the stationary reference frame model
into a rotating biphasic reference frame, assuming that the electrical position of the motor
( e ) is normally known or measurable. This assumption makes it possible to create a pair of
rotating axes (namely dq) related to this rotation speed.
q
d
e
a
Figure 2.4. Magnet in dq rotating reference frame
20
The d axis is aligned to the rotor magnetic flux, which means that they rotate together, as
can be seen in Figure 2.4.
In this way, it is even much easier to control the machine, because the variables that to be
controlled are constant signals in steady state instead of being sinusoids. The equations from
(2.16) to (2.20) show the relation between the stationary and rotating dq reference frames,
as well as voltage and flux expressions.
r r dq j
r
r dq
x = x e x e j = x
(2.16)
uur
ur dq
ur dq d s dq
uur dq
vs = Rs is +
+ j e s
dt
(2.17)
uur dq
ur dq
s = Ls is + PM
(2.18)
ds = Ls ids + PM
(2.19)
qs = Ls iqs
(2.20)
The general biphasic rotating reference frame equation for the PMSM is then given by
equation (2.21).
ur dq
ur dq
ur dq
ur dq
dis
vs = Rs is + Ls
+ j e Ls is + PM
dt
(2.21)
It is possible to split the equation (2.21) into two parts so as to d-component and q-component
are described separately, as shown in (2.22) and (2.23).
vds = Rs ids + Ls
dids
e Ls iqs
dt
vqs = Rs iqs + Ls
diqs
dt
+ e ( PM + Ls ids )
(2.22)
(2.23)
The previous expressions can be reduced for the steady state, as can be seen in (2.24) and
(2.25).
21
vds = Rs ids e Ls iqs
(2.24)
vqs = Rs iqs + e ( PM + Ls ids )
(2.25)
Equivalent circuits for d and q axes are shown in Figure 2.5.

ids
Rs
vds
iqs
vqs
Lds
Rs
Rs
e Lqs iqs
+
Lqs
+
-
e ( PM + Lds ids )
Figure 2.5- d and q axes equivalent circuits in steady-state
Thanks to Clarke and Park transformations, stator voltages and currents of a PMSM, in a
balanced 3-phase system, may be represented solely in 2 axes and by DC quantities in steadystate. This is of prime importance as it simplifies the controller design and lowers the
computational burden. Thus, the equations of PMSM, which will be employed in the project
and whose parameters are as follows, shall be given in dq rotating reference frame. For more
specific information on the motor please refer to [Appendix C].
Mechanical Parameters
o Rated speed [Nn] = 6000 rpm
o Number of pole pairs [np] = 2
o Rotating inertia [J] = 94 10-6 Kgm2
o Viscous friction [Bm] = 0 Kgm
o Rated torque [Tn] = 1.3 Nm
22
Electrical Parameters
o Rated Power [Pn] = 400 W
o Rated phase voltage RMS [Un] = 300 V
o Rated current RMS [In] = 16 A
o Mutual inductance [Lm] = 21.5 10-3 H
o d axis inductance [Ld] = 10 10-3 H
o q axis inductance [Lq] = 12.5 10-3 H
o Stator resistor [Rs] = 2.3
o Torque constant [Kt] = 0.75
o Rotor permanent magnet flux [m] = 0.1652 Wb
2.3 FOC CONTROLLER DESIGN WITH ENCODER

In this part of the chapter, the fundamental control loops are designed. The estimator is not
taken into account, yet the encoder is used to carry out the closed loop control. There are two
reasons to follow this approach. First, once the sensor field-oriented controller is designed,
speed and position estimator to have sensorless control may be included in the system without
making major changes to sensor field-oriented control loop. Second, it would be relatively
easier to debug the system provided a step-by-step approach is chosen.
As Figure 2.6 shows, the motor block has two inputs: one for the load torque reference and
one for the voltage reference in the stationary three phase, i.e. abc, reference frame. Four
variables are defined as outputs: the electromagnetic torque created by the motor, phase a and
phase b currents and the rotor electrical speed.
23
torque
Tr
isa
isb
vs _abc
wr
PMSM MODEL
Figure 2.6. PMSM Simulink block overview
When the PMSM block is examined, it may be seen that the motor itself is modelled in the dq
rotating reference frame. Therefore, there are two transformation blocks included within the
block: abc to dq transformation block on the input side, and dq to abc transformation
block on the output side. This is shown in Figure 2.7.
isd
2
isa
vsd
2
vs_abc
abc -dq
isq
dq -abc
3
isb
vsq
wr
abc >> dq
isc
1
Tr
dq >>abc
Tr
torque
Sign 1
1
torque
Product
dq model
wr_real
4
wr
1
s
theta _real
Figure 2.7. PMSM Simulink model composition
As regards the controllers, firstly, the current control loop is designed and simulated, since it
is the fastest control loop in the system. Then, the same is done for the speed loop. Finally,
some practical results are obtained through laboratory experiments in which an encoder is
used.
24
2.3.1 CURRENT LOOP

The current control loop employs a PI controller, which has the purpose to minimize the
current error. The method in which the PI parameters are tuned is the same for both d and q
axes, because their equations can be simplified to the same model.
Design
vds = Rs ids + Lds
dids
{r Lqs iqs }
dt
vqs = Rs iqs + Lqs
diqs
dt
(2.26)
+ {r ( PM + Lds ids )}
(2.27)
As (2.26) and (2.27) show, there is a coupling between d axis voltage and q axis current and
vice versa.
Ids
Vds
Vds
regulator
d-q coupling
Iqs
Vqs
compensator
Vqs
regulator
Figure 2.8. dq coupling compensator
In order to avoid these coupling terms, a compensator can be introduced for the dq couplings
in the model, so the resulting system after applying the coupling compensator would be given
as follows. The Back ElectroMotive Force (BEMF) can be defined for both d and q
components.
vds = Rs ids + Lds
dids
+ BEMFd
dt
(2.28)
BEMFd = r Lqs iqs
vqs = Rs iqs + Lqs
diqs
dt
+ BEMFq
(2.29)
BEMFq = r ( PM + Lds ids )
25
As can be seen from the last equations, the two axes voltage expressions are not independent
from each other, because of the BEMF terms. The d-q coupling compensator is nothing
more than a BEMF builder, using the measured currents and rotor speed.
Finally, the equivalent model for the current loop is described by (2.30) and (2.31) for the
compensated stator voltage.
v 'ds = Rs ids + Lds
dids
dt
v 'qs = Rs iqs + Lqs
diqs
dt
(2.30)
(2.31)
Applying the Laplace transform to (2.30) and (2.31) results in (2.32) and (2.33) respectively:
V 'ds ( s ) = ( Rs + Lds s ) I ds ( s )
V 'qs ( s ) = Rs + Lqs s I qs ( s )
(2.32)
(2.33)
Writing the equations as transfer functions:

I ds ( s )
1
=
V 'ds ( s ) ( Rs + Lds s )
I qs ( s )
V 'qs ( s )
1
( Rs + Lqs s )
(2.34)
(2.35)
Once the equations for the model are obtained, the controller should be designed accordingly.
There are different possible controller topologies and different methods of tuning them as
well. In this case, a PI controller is used and two possible ways to find the parameters leading
to desired controller response are described.
Figure 2.9 shows the model of the chosen controller topologies.
26
ids*
ed
PI
regulator
vds
Gd ( s )
ids
vds
Gq ( s )
iqs
ids
iqs *
eq
PI
regulator
iqs
Figure 2.9. Current loop control

isd*
1
e_isd
1/Tid
1
s
vsd
1
vsd
vsd
2
vsq
Kp
isd
3
isq*
2
e_isq
1/Tiq
1
s
Kp
isq
4
Figure 2.10. Current loop PI controller
1ST METHOD: First order system.

The first approach is to use the PI controller to get a first order system as the closed loop
model of the current controller.
The current regulator would be a 1st order system (PI controller). The plant equations can be
expressed as transfer functions, as (2.36) and (2.37) show.
I ds ( s )
V 'ds ( s )
K=
1
1
=
Rs + s Lds Rs
1
K
=
L 1 + s d
1 + s ds
Rs
(2.36)
L
1
; d = ds ;
Rs
Rs
27
I qs ( s )
V 'qs ( s )
K=
1
1
=
Rs + s Lqs Rs
1
K
=
L 1 + s q
1 + s qs
Rs
(2.37)
L
1
; q = qs ;
Rs
Rs
The closed loop transfer function using a PI controller is shown in (2.38). Please note that
only the analysis of d-axis transfer function is given in detail, but same result holds for the qaxis as well.
1 + Tid s
K
Kpd
I ds ( s )
Tid s 1 + d s
=
I ds * ( s )
1 + Tid s
K
1 + Kpd
Tid s 1 + d s
(2.38)
The integral value is set so that the system pole is cancelled, choosing Tid = d =
Lds
.
Rs
Finally, closed loop transfer function is obtained (2.39).

Kpd K
I ds ( s )
Tid s
1
1
=
=
=
I ds * ( s ) 1 + Kpd K 1 + Tid s 1 + 1 s
Tid s
Kpd K
1 =
(2.39)
Tid
Kpd K
(2.40)
The equations define a 1st order system, thus only time constant value should be set according
to design constrains.
The results would be the same for q-axis, taking Tiq = q =
Lqs
Rs
28
Kpq K
I qs ( s )
I qs * ( s )
2 =
=
1+
Tiq s
=
Kpq K
Tiq s
1+
1
Tiq
Kpq K
1
1+ 2 s
(2.41)
Tiq
(2.42)
Kpq K
2ND METHOD: Second order system

This method results in more accurate and generalised controllers compared to the previously
explained method. This second way to tune the PI, is based on the aim to obtain the standard
Optimum Modulus (OM) transfer function by possible system simplification. The system
will have the form of a standard OM second order system, with the open and closed loop
transfer functions given in (2.43).
OL
Gom
(s ) =
1
2 s ( s + 1)
CL
Gom
( s) =
1
2 s + 2 s + 1
2
(2.43)
which has a known behaviour:

corresponding complex conjugate poles are p1 / 2 =
1
1
j
2
2
and the step response is characterised by the following features:

rise time Tr = 4.7, settling time Ts = 8.4 , percent overshoot OS = 4.3%
Coming back on the current loop, the time constants involved in the loop are TC inverter time
constant, tf measurement filter time constant, and tq electric motor time constant are listed as
follows:
-
TC = TPWM = 1/fPWM = 1/5000 = 0.0002 sec
tf = 1.6 * 10-4 sec
tq = Lsq/Rs = 0.0054 sec
29
It is possible to sum all the small time constants, because TC and tf have relatively small
values compared to tq; and for this reason their dynamics are negligible as regards the electric
time constant dynamic. Thus, the relative transfer functions may be replaced by a unique first
order transfer function, having a time constant equal to their sum which is given by t.
t = 2TC + tf = 5,6* 10-4 sec
(2.44)
Then the obtained open-loop transfer function is given in (2.45).

G OL ( s ) = kp
ti s + 1
Kf
1
1
ti s t s + 1 Rs tq s + 1
(2.45)
where the first factor is the controller transfer function.

The PI controller introduces two points of freedom in the loop. One of the points may be used
to reduce the system order, while the other may be used to regulate the stability.
In accordance with the zero-pole cancellation, it is possible to delete the slowest time constant
as below in order to let the control work depend on the faster time constant:
ti = tq
G OL ( s ) =
kp Kf
1
tq Rs s (t s + 1)
(2.46)
The closed-loop transfer function is of second order, and now it is possible to choose the
proportional constant kp of the controller with the aim of rend the system transfer function the
same of the OM one.
It can be imposed for similarity:
t =
kp Kf
1
=
tq Rs 2
(2.47)
where is the generic OM system time constant (as in (2.43)).

This setting allows to choose the current controller parameters as given in (2.48).
30
ti = tq = 0.0054 sec
Rs tq
Lsq
kp = Kf 2t = 2t = 11.16
(2.48)
Simulation
The first step in designing the controllers of the system is to set the parameters for the current
controller. As the parameters that are involved in the evaluation of the d and q currents (Rs,
Ld, Lq ) are known, it is possible to calculate these controller parameters by using
mathematical equations.
Once they are calculated, simulations can be started.
torque
Tr
is_ref
isq command
is_ref
is_ref
isq_ref
isa
isd_ref
isb
isd
vs _abc_ref
vs _abc
wr
isq
PMSM MODEL
wr
FOC CURRENT CONTROL
butter
isd
wr
isa
d current // q current
butter
isq
ts
isb
MEASUREMENT BLOCK
Clock
Figure 2.11. Simulink model: current loop
In this case, the rotor is externally (manually) blocked which translates into zero speed.
31
q-axis current with blocked rotor

2
isq
ref
isq
(inverter OFF)
isq
(inverter ON)
meas
meas
-1
-2
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.02
d-axis current with blocked rotor

2
isd
ref
isd
(inverter OFF)
isd
(inverter ON)
meas
meas
-1
-2
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.02
Figure 2.12. Current loop simulation with locked rotor
As can be seen in Figure 2.12, the reference values for both d and q currents are double steps,
signals rising from 0 to 2A at 0s immediately and falling back to 0A within 0.1s time.
There are different possibilities when designing a current controller, depending on the
response that is required for a step input reference.
On one hand, it is possible to get a very fast evaluation of the current, which is thought to be a
good characteristic. The problem is that there is an overshoot as well as some oscillations in
the current; and taking into account that in a PMSM motor the torque is directly proportional
to the iq current, the rotor would suffer from these drawbacks.
On the other hand, the closed loop system can be modelled as a first order system, so that the
response for a step could be represented solely by a delay. Using this second method, the
overshoot of the current disappears, hence the response is softer.
The effect that the inverter has on the controller response is analysed, too. As seen in the
figure, the only effect of the inverter is a relatively very short delay and small ripple, which
can be omitted as well.
32
2.3.2 SPEED LOOP

Once the current controller is designed, the next step is to control the speed. The Figure 2.13
shows how the speed control loop is added to the model, which will be the primary one. The
main idea is that the current loop must be much faster than the speed loop, so that the inner
loop can follow the reference given by the speed controller as it is only a short delay.
Ids*
ed
w*
+
w
eq
speed
controller
Vds
Gd
Ids
controller
Iqs*
ew
d-current
q-current
Vqs
Gq
Iqs
controller
Figure 2.13. Simulink model: current + speed loop
Design
As given in (2.39) and (2.41), in the closed-loop model the current loop can be modelled as a
delay only, what is shown in Figure 2.14.
w*
+
w
ew
-
speed
controller
Ids*
1
1 + 1 s
Ids
Iqs*
1
1+ 2 s
Iqs
Figure 2.14. Simulink model: speed loop for simplified current loop
33
This case the parameters are also calculated from the mathematical equations. In the speed
loop that is shown below, as explained in the previously, the q-current closed loop is reduced
into a first order system with a delay of 2 , as described in (2.42).
Te =
3
p PM iqs = KT iqs
2
where KT =
Te TL =
r =
(2.49)
3
p PM
2
J d
B
r + r
p dt
p
(2.50)
p
(Te TL )
J s+ B
w* +
ew
w
(2.51)
speed
controller
Iqs*
1
1+ 2 s
Iqs
KT
Te
p
J s + B
Figure 2.15. Simulink model: complete speed closed loop
The selected topology for the speed controller is a PI, as shown in (2.52).
iq* ( s ) = Kp
1 + Ti s
e ( s )
Ti s
(2.52)
Open loop transfer function:

r ( s )
1 + Ti s
KT p
=
Kp
*
r ( s ) (1 + 2 s ) ( J s + B )
Ti s
(2.53)
As the viscous friction coefficient is very small, it is possible to omit it when designing the
speed PI controller. Therefore, the open loop transfer function for the speed will be:
34
G OL ( s ) =
p KT Kp (1 + Ti s )
J Ti s 2 (1 + 2 s )
(2.54)
Analysing the open loop transfer function, can be stated some conclusions. Firstly, the two
poles in the origin give a contribution of -180 in the phase of the transfer function. Then, the
term
(1 + Ti s )
would increase or decrease the phase; depending on the values of Ti and
(1 + 2 s )
2 . If Ti 2 the phase of transfer function would always remain under -180, that is the
Phase Margin Limit (PM=0). To ensure a positive phase margin, what would translate into the
stability of the system and a good rejection for disturbances, the values should be set as
Ti > 2 , as shown below.
Figure 2.16 Bode phase diagram
The load torque is a disturbance from the point of view of the controller. The optimal
response to the disturbance is obtained tuning the regulator according to the optimum
symmetric method [1] that imposes the following statement.
As a first step, the open loop mode of the speed loop (2.55) is modelled so as to be similar to
the standard open-loop model of the optimum symmetric method (2.56).
35
p KT Kp (1 + Ti s )
G OL ( s ) =
=
J Ti s 2 (1 + 2 s )
p KT
p KT
Kp Ti s +
Kp
J
J
s 2 ( 2 Ti s + Ti )
K K T s + K1 K P
G OL ( s ) = = 1 2 P I
s ( T1 TI s + TI )
14444
24444
3
(2.57)
(2.58)
stndr . form
K1 =
p KT
; K P = Kp ; TI = Ti ; T1 = 2
J
Then, directly applying the method, the proportional gain (2.59) and integral time constant
(2.60) for the speed controller are obtained.
Kp =
1
1
=
2 K1 T1 2 p KT
2
J
(2.59)
Ti = 4 T1 = 4 2
(2.60)
The resultant open loop (2.61) and closed loop (2.62) standard transfer functions once the
optimum symmetric method is applied are shown below.
G OL ( s ) =
4 2 s + 1
8 2 s 2 ( 2 s + 1)
G CL (s ) =
4 2 s + 1
4 2 s + 1
=
(2.62)
3
3
2
2
( 2 2 s + 1) 4 2 s + 2 2 s + 1 4 2 s + 8 22 s 2 + 4 2 s + 1
(2.61)
The features of the dynamic response for a step input and for a system that has been designed
using this method are shown below:
Rising time: Tr = 3.1 2
Settling time: Ts = 16.6 2
Overshoot: os = 43.5%
36
Simulation
Once design of the speed controller is made, the mathematically calculated parameters are
tested in the simulation, as done with the current loop previously. The response is modelled in
order to have an acceptable overshoot, because it is required this loop not to be so slow and to
be stable when there is a torque load. This response is shown on Figure 2.17.
Figure 2.17. Speed loop simulation
Continuously, a step is introduced as a torque reference (Figure 2.18). The system is expected
to be stable regardless of the torque value applied in a real application.
Figure 2.18. Speed loop simulation under torque
37
In Figure 2.18, it can be seen that the even when the rated torque is applied the speed loop is
stable. When the torque is applied, the speed goes down for a while, but within 0.1s of time it
is stabilised again.
It can be stated these parameters for the speed loop would match precisely with the real
setting if an encoder-based vector oriented control was used. The problem is that if a
sensorless control is introduced, some delay and oscillations appear in the estimated angle and
speed values, hence some changes must be done in the speed controller.
2.3.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Some experiments are done in the laboratory using the controllers designed in this chapter and
using an encoder to measure the rotor speed. A step signal is used as reference. Figure 2.19
shows the evolution of the speed response. It can be deducted that the real result is very close
to the simulation, thus it is validated. When Figure 2.17 is compared with Figure 2.19, it can
be noted that the speed response in the latter has a lower overshoot. This may be due to two
reasons. First, actual motor parameters differ from those used in controller design; and
second, motor losses may result in a damping in the overshoot.
Figure 2.19. Laboratory result: speed response for a speed step
Then, the evolution of the d and q currents has been shown in Figure 2.20.
38
Figure 2.20. Laboratory result: current response for a speed step
In Figure 2.20, it is seen that d-axis current oscillates at 550 Hz, the frequency of the injected
high frequency voltage signal, over its set point zero (0). Yet it has an avarage value of zero
(0) over one period. It may also be noted that q-axis current has a higher value in the
beginning of the control, but settles into and holds a lower value after a certain time.
2.4 SUMMARY
In Chapter 2, PMSM representations in stationary abc and reference frames as well as dq
rotating reference frame are given first. This is followed by theoretical background on PI
parameter tuning for current and speed loops of field-oriented control in addition to their
calculated values aided with simulation results. The chapter is concluded by some
experimental results and their evaluation.
39
REFERENCES
1. Modification of Symmetric Optimum Method
Roman MIZERA
2. Machine Design Considerations for Sensorless Control of PM Motors
Mats LEKSELL, Lennart HARNEFORS, Hans-Peter NEE
Electrical Machines and Drives
KTH / ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
40
CHAPTER 3: SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM
CHAPTER 3: SENSORLESS CONTROL of PMSM

In this chapter, first, factors driving the need for sensorless control are given; and most
suitable sensorless control topology depending on system requirements, computational
burden, and time issues is chosen.
This is followed by brief explanations of some frequency injection methods studied; and the
reasons to choose one particular technique are stated. Next, selected high frequency injection
method is thoroughly discussed.
Finally design procedures of an estimator based on theory is given in detail along with
practical results verified through simulations.
3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................42

3.2 DIFFERENT SIGNAL INJECTION METHODS .......................................................43
3.2.1 Trigonometric Equation-Based Estimation...........................................................43
3.2.2 Torque Command-Based Estimation (alfa-beta axes) ...........................................44
3.2.3 Elliptical Signal Injection.....................................................................................45
3.2.4 Alternating High Frequency Injection ..................................................................45
3.3 CONTROLLER..........................................................................................................53
3.4 VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY SELECTION OF HF SIGNAL...............................54
3.5 ESTIMATOR DESIGN..............................................................................................56
Validation Step 1: setting the controller parameters. .....................................................59
Validation Step 2: problem with the delay. ...................................................................60
Validation Step 3: introducing the sensorless estimator.................................................62
3.6 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................56
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................66
41
3.1 INTRODUCTION
As explained in the introduction chapter, the PM motor has emerged as a new alternative to
the induction motor, because of its high efficiency and high torque-to-volume ratio. The most
popular technique to achieve desirable operation of a PM motor is to build a field oriented
controller, which is based on the information of rotor position and angular speed. The usual
way to obtain the required information for the control scheme is to install sensors in the rotor,
such as encoders or resolvers, although the presence of such sensors results in some
drawbacks related to cost, size and reliability of the drive system. However, during the last
decades efforts have been focused on investigating new alternatives to avoid this kind of
sensors, in order to find new sensorless control methods for PMSM.
Sensorless control is not new for some other type of motors. For instance, the back emf
estimators are not handy for PM synchronous motor, because the estimation in the low speed
conditions is not reliable enough due to disturbance and noise effects. The high frequency
signal injection has been the most efficient technique to control a PMSM (for low speed
applications) as yet. There are different alternatives within the high frequency injection
category that are going to be analysed later on in this chapter.
The high frequency injection method is based on obtaining the speed and the position of the
rotor using the mathematical model of the motor under high frequency conditions. A high
frequency voltage/voltages is/are superimposed to the reference voltage/voltages in the dq or
axes (depending on the method chosen). Measuring the high frequency response of the
current through the motor and transforming it, using the high frequency mathematical model,
the speed and position data may be estimated. It should be noted that in order to achieve most
desirable operation of the sensorless control under HF injection technique it is necessary to
have a high frequency saliency in terms of d and q axis inductances.
42
3.2 DIFFERENT SIGNAL INJECTION METHODS

At this stage, some of the studied high frequency injection techniques are briefly presented.
These methods include:
1. Trigonometric Equation-Based Estimation (- axes) [1]
2. Torque Command-Based Estimation (- axes) [2]
3. Elliptical Signal Injection (d-q axes) [3]
4. Alternating High Frequency Injection (d-q axes) [4]
3.2.1. Trigonometric Equation-Based Estimation

In 2006, an algorithm to control the PMSM motor without using position sensors is presented
in [1]. The article shows a way to improve the performance of the power converter that
supplies the motor in addition to the sensorless technique briefly explained below.
Similar to other methods will be explained later on, the main idea of this algorithm is to inject
a HF voltage and measure the high frequency current response of the motor. The difference of
this technique is that the HF voltage is injected, in the reference frame, on both axis. If the
mathematical model of the motor in the stationary reference frame () for high frequency
inputs is analysed, it can be seen that the currents in the reference frame contain
information about the rotor angular position.
To obtain this useful information from the currents, the signal must be processed by the
Homodyne Signal Processing algorithm [1]. This block filters the signal to take the high
frequency components of each current and after transforming the currents from to dq
reference frame, filtering and transforming the currents back into the reference frame, the
two current signals obtained only depend on the rotor position [1].
i _ pos I1cos(2 r )
i _ pos I1sin (2 r )
(3.1)
These two signals given in (3.1) can be considered a sine and a cosine of the twice of the rotor
angular position, hence by applying the arctangent of the division of the two components, it is
possible to obtain the value of the actual rotor angular speed and position.
43
3.2.2 Torque Command-Based Estimation (alfa-beta axes)

In this technique high frequency voltages are applied on both and axes. The resulting
currents in these axes are then processed by a BPF in order to filter out fundamental
components and PWM switching harmonics [2]. Then, obtained current with two components
one of which is rotating in clock-wise direction while the other is rotating in anti-clockwise
direction is transformed into a rotating frame synchronised with the injected high frequency
signal. One of the current components, the DC component, is then filtered out through a highpass filter. After all the irrelevant signals are eliminated, the part containing the position
information is again transferred into the frequency of the injected high frequency signal and
finally and axes currents are processed to complete the estimation task. Within the
controller part of estimator the command signal used is the electrical torque signal. Figure 3.1
and Figure 3.2 given below show how the algorithm works.
Figure 3.1. Filter processing of the high-frequency response current
Figure 3.2. Rotor position salience tracking observer using heterodyning processing [2]
It is seen in the simulations that the algorithm does not give satisfactory results in terms of
dynamic performance; and kd/J in the feed-forward causes some problems as well.
44
3.2.3 Elliptical Signal Injection

In this scheme, contrary to the most of other proposed methods, high frequency voltages are
injected on both d and q axes. The injected voltages are related to each other and dependant
on the estimated speed as well. In other words, injected voltages on both axes are not constant
in magnitude, but vary as the estimated speed changes. The frequencies of the injected signals
on both axes, on the other hand, are the same and kept constant. Another difference of this
method is that resulting current on d and q axes are auto-correlated and this auto-correlated
signal is processed by a control scheme in order to obtain estimated position and speed. Yet,
the controller employed is designed in the same way as the controllers for other investigated
high frequency injection techniques. Figure 3.3 given below shows the processing scheme in
general.
Figure 3.3. Configuration of the phase estimator [3]
Phase synchroniser is basically a PI controller and SVE-HFVC is the block by which the
injected voltages are created.
This method has a higher level of complexity when the whole system is concerned compared
to the other techniques studied. Yet, the scheme is thought to be a promising one to be
investigated further in future projects.
3.2.4 Alternating High Frequency Injection

One of the possible methods to implement the sensorless control algorithm in the PMSM
motor is proposed in [4]. The main idea of this sensorless control algorithm is to inject a HF
45
voltage, on one of the two rotating axes (dq), to the control voltage, and measuring the HF
response of the currents through the motor, in order to find the actual position of the rotor.
During the estimation, if an error is being introduced, a high frequency coupling impedance
appears between the voltages and the currents, which means that if the HF voltage is injected
on the d axis, a direct response will appear on the q axis current, and vice versa. If the HF
current response of the motor is measured and demodulated, it is possible to obtain a signal
almost directly proportional to the estimation error. This error signal can, then, be controlled
by using an appropriate controller.
To sum it up, with this simple method, it is possible to estimate the instantaneous value of the
rotors rotation speed and position without using an encoder, only by measuring and
demodulating the high frequency currents through the rotor and controlling them by a PI
regulator.
For this project, Alternating High Frequency Injection [4] method has been chosen, because
of its simplicity and efficiency. This technique will be studied in detail below.
The HF injection method is based on injecting a HF voltage to the reference voltage/voltages on one
of the two rotating axis (d or q), and measuring the HF current response of the motor. Firstly, it is
necessary to consider the general electric model of the motor, where p represents differential
operation. It is assumed in the PMSM model shown below that the d axis aligned exactly with
the rotor magnetic flux.
v dsr Rs + pLs
r =
v qs r Ls
r Ls idsr 0
+
Rs + pLs iqsr r pm
(3.2)
Thus, the motor electric model for high frequencies would take the form given in (3.3).
r
r
v dsh
Rdh
+ pLrdh
r =
r
v qsh r Ldh
r
0
r Lrqh idsh
+
r
r r
Rqh + pLqh iqsh r pm
(3.3)
46
Considering the injected signals frequency is sufficiently higher than the rotating frequency
( r << h ), the terms associated with r may be omitted, hence, based on this simplification,
the motor model is expressed as (3.4).
r
r
vdsh
Rdh
+ pLrdh
r =
r
vqsh r Ldh 0
r
r
0

r Lrqh 0 i dsh
+ pLrdh
Rdh
r +
r
Rqh
0
+ pLrqh i qsh
r pm 0
r
idsh
r
r r
Rqh + pLqh iqsh
(3.4)
As (3.4) shows, the equations for axis d and q can be considered decoupled in high
frequencies, if the frequency value of the injected HF sinusoidal signal is much greater than
the rotating pulsation. When the differentiation is applied, the electrical motor model under
HF injection conditions will be:
r
r
vdsh
Rdh
+ j h Lrdh
r =
0
vqsh
r
idsh
r
r
Rqh
+ j h Lrqh iqsh
(3.5)
The model could also be rewritten with impedances instead:

r
r
Z dh
v dsh
=
r
v qsh 0
0 i dsh
r r
Z qh i qsh
(3.6)
Equations (3.5) and (3.6) show the HF electrical model of the motor considering an ideal
position of the d axis with the rotor position, in other words, the direct axis is aligned with the
rotor position. In practice, when a position estimator is used, it should be taken into account
that an error is produced, at least in the transient state. Therefore, the real model in this case
~
will not be the same as the one in the ideal case. The angle error produced ( (t ) ) is the
difference between the real ( (t ) ) and the estimated position of the rotor ( (t ) ), where the
direct axis is positioned.
~
(t ) = (t ) (t )
(3.7)
The explanation given in the previous paragraph translates into the fact that the estimated
reference frame, in which control algorithm is applied, differs from the actual reference
frame. As a consequence of this, it is necessary to derive motor equations for the estimated
reference frame starting from the ideal motor model.
47
[ ( )]
r
v dsh
~
r = R
v qsh
r
Z dh
[ ( )]
0 ~
R
r
Z qh
[ ( )]
r
idsh
r
iqsh
(3.8)
[ ( )]
~
~
where the R rotation matrix and the R
inverse rotation matrix are equal to:
Figure 3.4. Transformation between actual and estimated dq reference frames

~
f dq = fdq e j r
(3.9)
cos ~ sin ~
~
R =
~
~
sin cos
(3.10)
[ ( )]
fdq = f dq e j r
[ ( )]
~
R
(3.11)
cos ~ sin ~
=
~
~
cos
sin
(3.12)
The result of (3.8) after matrix multiplications is, in a simplified mode, shown below.
r
r
v dsh
Z dh
=
r r
v qsh Z ch
Z chr idsh
r r
Z qh iqsh
(3.13)
Where the new impedances viewed from the rotating reference frame aligned to the estimated
rotor position are [4]:
48

r
r
Z dh
+ Z qh
r
r
Z dh
Z qh
( )
( )
( )
( )
Z
~
~
cos 2 r = Z avg + diff cos 2 r
2
2
2
r
r
r
r
Z dh + Z qh Z dh Z qh
Z diff
~
~
r
cos 2 r
Z qh
cos 2 r = Z avg
=
2
2
2
r
r
Z dh Z qh
Z diff
~
~
Z chr =
sin 2 r =
sin 2 r
2
2
r
dh
( )
(3.14)
( )
with:
Z avg =
r
Z dhr + Z qh
(3.15)
r
Z diff = Z dhr Z qh
(3.16)
It is necessary to obtain the response of the current in the dq rotating reference frame with
regard to the input voltage in the same reference frame. Calculating the inverse of the matrix
of impedances, gives the result in (3.17).
r
r
Z dh
idsh
=
r r
iqsh Z ch
Z chr
Z qhr
v r
1
= r r
dsh
r
vqsh Z dh Z qh
r
Z qh
r
Z ch
Z chr vdsh
r r
Z dh vqsh
(3.17)
Please note that in the equation given above the term, -Zrch2 in the denominator is omitted due
to it is small value as well.
For the HF injection in the rotating reference frame there are two main possibilities.
The first is to inject a HF voltage on the q axis. In this case, a response will appear in the q
axis current and a small amplitude response in the d axis current. The main drawback of this
selection is that: because the rotor position is aligned with the d axis, the motor torque is
aligned with the q axis, so the torque, as in a DC motor, will be proportional to the current
through axis q. Ripple in the amplitude of the q current, in other words the torque producing
current will be a considerable amount if the voltage injection is made on the q axis. Hence,
this will result in a substantial torque ripple which lowers the performance of drive system
and, consequently the motor. d and q axes currents when high frequency voltage signal is
applied on q axis are given in (3.18) and (3.19).
49
r
r
idsh
Z dh
r = r
iqsh Z ch
Z chr 0
1
r = r r
r
Z qh vqsh Z dh Z qh
( ) v
Z diff
~
r
iqsh
cos 2 r
= Z avg
2
r
Z chr vqsh
r r
Z dh vqsh
(3.18)
r
qsh
(3.19)
The second option is to inject a high frequency voltage on the d axis and measure the high
frequency current response through the PMSM. A response will appear in the d axis current as
well as generating a small response on the q axis, since the two electric equations are coupled.
This effect will be analysed deeply later on. d and q axes currents when high frequency
voltage signal is applied to the q axis are given in (3.20) and (3.21)
r
r
idsh
Z dh
=
r r
iqsh Z ch
r
qsh
Z diff
2
Z chr
Z qhr
v r
1
dsh = r r
0 Z dh Z qh
( )
~
sin 2 r
Z avg ( Z diff
2
( )
~
/ 4). cos 2 r
2
r
r
Z qh
vdsh
r r
Z ch vdsh
(3.20)
r
vdsh
(3.21)
r
r
When (3.19) is compared to (3.21), assuming that vdsh
= vqsh
holds, it is seen that the q axis
current has a higher value if the high frequency voltage is injected into q axis. Therefore, in
order to ensure minimum possible oscillation in torque, it would be more precise to choose d
axis for high frequency voltage signal injection instead of q axis.
To sum up, considering the handicaps of HF signal injection on the q axis, it has been decided
to inject high frequency voltage into the d axis voltage.
r
v dsh
vinj cos( h t )
r =
0
v qsh
(3.22)
The resulting HF currents with this input will be:

r
idsh
1
r = r r
iqsh Z dh Z qh
r
Z qh
r
Z ch
Z chr vinj cos( h t )
Z dhr
0
(3.23)
50
Now the effect of the d axis injected voltage on the current iq . As discussed earlier, due to
estimation error, coupling impedance appears between the currents and the voltages attached
to each axis, what is shown below:
r
qsh
Z chr
Z chr
r
r
= r r vdsh + 0vqsh = r r Vinj cos( h t )
Z dh Z qh
Z dhZ qh
(3.24)
r
when (3.14) and (3.22) are put into (3.24), iqsh
can be expressed as (3.25)
r
qsh
( )
( )
~
Z diff .Vinj . cos(h t ). sin 2 r
=
~
2
2
4Z avg Z diff . cos 2 2 r
(3.25)
Seeing that Z diff is rather small and may be omitted, we get (3.26)
r
qsh
( )
~
Z diff .Vinj . cos( h t ). sin 2 r
4 Z avg
(3.26)
When the output HF current term is obtained depending on the estimation error, a
mathematical multiplication (i.e. a demodulation) is applied in order to get a term that can be
considered proportional to the estimation error. If the HF current response is multiplied by a
cosinus of the same frequency, it is possible to separate the resulting current into an AC part
of double frequency (i.e., 2nd harmonic) of the HF and a DC part, as shown in (3.30) and
(3.31).
r
qsh
cos(h t ) =
( )
~
Z diff .Vinj . cos( h t ). sin 2 r . cos( ht )
4 Z avg
(3.27)
where:
Z diff =
(r ) + ( L )
r
diff
h Lrdiff
= arctan
r
rdiff
r
diff
(3.28)
(3.29)
51
When the sinusoidal signal is multiplied by a sinus signal of the same frequency, its spectrum
changes. After the demodulation, the spectrum is composed of two signals: an offset or a DC
component and a sinusoidal term, whose frequency is the twice of the HF. In conclusion,
these are the two terms that appear after the demodulation of the high frequency current.
DC term:
( )
~
X DC = Z diff Vinj sin . 2 r
8 Z avg
(3.30)
AC term:
X AC =
( )
~
Vinj sin 2 r
Z diff cos (2 h t )
8 Z avg 2
(3.31)
If the modulated signal is inputted to a LPF, in case of an ideal filter, the HF term will
disappear; therefore, the output signal will only be composed of a DC term containing the
estimation error information. Applying the mathematical approximations, it will be concluded
that theoretically, for small values of the estimation error, the DC term can be considered
proportional to this error. This is based on the assumption that a sinus can be approximated in
the way explained in (3.32) when the angle is very small (close to 0).
( )
~
~
lim
sin 2 r = 2 r
~
(3.32)
Assuming that in the steady state the value of the error resulted from the estimation will
converge to 0, it is possible to say that the DC value will be almost directly proportional to
estimation error. So the output signal of the LPF will be the next:
( )
( ) (3.33)
~
~
r
X LPF = f r = LPF [ iqsh
. cos( h t )] = Z diff .Vinj . r .
4 Z avg
~
where the value of the coefficient that multiplies r ,obviously, is:
K est = Z diff .Vinj
4 Z avg
(3.34)
52
3.3 CONTROLLER
In order to complete the design of a reliable estimator for the PMSM motor, a controller that
will provide the required specifications with regard to speed and accuracy for the sensorless
control should be designed as well. Some different controller topologies could be used for this
aim, but in this project, a PI controller has been chosen for its relatively simple structure. As it
has been proved in the previous section, the signal that comes from the LPF is proportional to
the estimation error, thus the input of the PI controller will be a function of this error.
In addition, the output signal of the PI regulator is the estimated speed.
PI (s ) =
K p s + K i
K
r (s )
(s )
= r~
= K p + i =
s
s
X LPF (s ) f (s )
( )
(3.35)
It must be borne in mind that the angular position of the rotor is the integral of rotors
mechanical rotating speed. Hence, the estimated position is expressed as the integral of the
estimated angular speed as well. The expression for the estimated angle (position) in the
Laplace domain is:
(s )
r (s ) = r
s
(3.36)
Combining the last two equations, a transfer function relating the estimation position with
estimation error can be obtained as follows:
r (s )
r (s )
r (s ) 1
1 K p s + K i
= ~ s = ~
= PI ( s ) =
X LPF (s ) f (s )
s
s2
f (s ) s
( )
( )
(3.37)
If the equation shown above is developed, the transfer function of the system in closed loop
(considering only the loop of the estimation) can be achieved, which relates the estimated
rotor position with the actual position.
r (s ) =
K p s + K i
s2
X LPF (s )=
K p s + K i
s2
K p s + K i
~
K est r (s ) =
K est r (s ) r (s )
s2
(3.38)
Therefore, the closed loop transfer function of the system is the one shown in (3.39)
53
K est K p s + K est K i
r (s )
= 2
r (s ) s + K est K p s + K est K i
(3.39)
If the stability of the system is analysed, applying the limit of the transfer function, it can be
demonstrated that the error of the system will converge to 0 in steady state. As shown in the
equation, the static gain of the transfer function in closed loop is 1.
K est K p s + K est K i
K K
r (s )
= lim 2
= est i = 1
s 0 (s )
s 0 s + K K
K est K i
r
est
p s + K est K i
G static = TF (t ) = lim
(3.40)
The whole system is of second order, thus it is possible to choose controller parameters so as
to achieve the specified conditions. The steps that have been followed to complete the tuning
of the estimator will be explained in dedicated sections of the chapter.
3.4 VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY SELECTION OF HF SIGNAL

The essential requirement for the proposed and employed sensorless control scheme is the
high-frequency impedance difference, i.e. saliency, between d and q axes in the rotor
reference frame. In the reference paper for Hf injection method used some tests are performed
using the Finite Element Method (FEM), simulations or making some motor parameter
measurements. The results provided in the reference article coincide with the simulations
carried out under Simulink and d-Space systems as well as real-time experiments on the testbench.
Figure 3.5 below illustrates the results of some simulations done with FEM to test the
impedance profile applying high frequency injected signal with different voltage and
frequency values.
54
Figure 3.5. High frequency impedances under various injection conditions [4]
It can be interpreted from the figure that when the frequency of the injected signal is between
400 and 800 Hz the d axis impedance is higher than that of the q axis. Moreover, the
difference in impedance between the axes increases both when the frequency of the injected
signal is increased and the voltage of the injected signal is decreased as well. It is also a rule
of thumb to keep the voltage of the injected signal at 1/10th of the mains voltage.
Figure 3.6. Physical location of windings and flux paths in two-pole SMPM Machine
Because the high-frequency flux passes through the stator leakage path, resultant flux from
high-frequency voltage injected on the d axis passes as flux B in the figure above, and
resultant flux from high-frequency voltage injected on the q axis passes as flux A in the figure.
Hence, d-axis inductance is larger than q-axis inductance since flux A passes through the
highly saturated part of the stator. This is the reason for the inductance characteristics in the
fundamental component and in the high-frequency component. Yet, it should be noted that in
the low frequency region the relation between the inductances of is reversed and d axis
impedance becomes lower than that of q axis.
55
3.5 ESTIMATOR DESIGN

As the third step, the speed estimator block is added to the previous model. It is neither
possible nor is systematic to get the system running simply by the application of speed and
position estimation blocks constructed at once directly. Yet it is necessary to go once again
step by step tuning the different components of the estimator. The simulink model of the
complete scheme is given below.
torque
wr_ref
PI speed regulator
Tr
Scope
e_w
w_ref
isq_ref
is a
is q_ref
Torque command
is b
W command
is d_ref
isd command
wr
vs _abc_ref
is d
vs _abc
theta_real
is q
PMSM MODEL
wr
FOC CURRENT CONTROL

Scope 1
butter
is d
wr
isa
butter
is q
isb
MEASUREMENT BLOCK
wr_est
theta _est
iq_s^
w_es tim
tita^
theta_real
t
error^
ts
Estimator
Clock
Figure 3.7. Simulink model: current/speed loops and estimator
As shown in Figure 3.9, the estimator block has different parts inside. At the first stage, the iq
current is filtered through a band-pass filter, so as to obtain only the high frequency current
component induced by the injected voltage. It is worth trying to use an ideal filter with a
narrow pass band, in order just to take the frequency that is of interest, which would result in
a higher order filter. But the problem is that a high order filter introduces a long delay to the
system, which is not a desired action for control. Thats why a first order filter has been
implemented, having a central frequency of 550 Hz and pass band limited to 900Hz.
56
Bode diagrams showing the magnitude and phase responses of the band-pass filter are given
in Figure 3.8. Thanks to bode diagrams, it is possible to see the attenuation of the filter at
frequencies higher and lower then the central frequency which is 550Hz.
Figure 3.8. Magnitude and phase Bode diagram of the Band-Pass Filter
As shown in the magnitude diagram above, at 987Hz, which is very close to the upper band
limit of 1000Hz, the band pass filter has an attenuation of approximately 3dB that
corresponds to 50% magnitude reduction compared to the central frequency magnitude. Only
the high frequency component at 550Hz passes through the filter without attenuation.
error
butter
tita ^
2
tita ^
wr^1
1
w_estim
butter
1
iq _s^
u(1)*sin(wh*u(2))
2
t
Fcn
-5
error_theta
Gain
f(u)
CONTROLLER
Fcn1
Scope 4
3
error ^
Figure 3.9. Simulink model: estimator block composition
The filtered signal, which theoretically solely is the 550Hz component of the q current, is then
demodulated, by being multiplied by a sine of the same frequency. As it has been explained in
57
the previous section 3.2.4 Alternating High Frequency Injection, the resulted signal from the
demodulation has a dc component, which is proportional to the angle error. Then a low-pass
filter is employed in order to remove the second harmonic component from the signal at the
output of the multiplication block and obtain solely the DC signal containing the position
information. The filter is of 1st order, for the very same reason as the band pass filter.
In Figure 3.10 below, the magnitude and phase responses of the low-pass filter used after the
demodulator are shown. The chosen cut-off frequency is 30Hz and by taking some snapshots
from the curves it is possible to interpret how the filter operates. The first graph shows that
the filter produces an attenuation of 3dB (50%), already at the cut-off frequency. The phase
curve snapshot evidently shows that the filter has a delay of 0.165 radians at 5Hz, i.e. in short
distance to the DC component.
Figure 3.10. Magnitude and phase Bode diagram of the Low-Pass Filter
Finally, the error signal, multiplied by a gain, is inputted to the estimator PI controller. The
aim of this controller is to calculate the estimated speed, and therefore, minimize the error
signal.
58
Validation Step 1: setting the controller parameters.

As a first approach, and in order to set the parameters of the PI controller, a virtual error
signal is created using the actual theta, as shown in Figure 3.11. This way, it would be
possible to set the parameters of the controller, according to the speed response.
1
theta _real
tita ^
2
tita ^
wr^1
1
w_estim
error_theta
CONTROLLER
3
error ^
Figure 3.11. Simulink model: virtual error without delay
In this first step the estimator is not connected in the feedback. The actual speed and angle are
used instead, and it is logical to set the estimator controller parameters which would enable
the estimated speed follow the actual speed.
The first approach is to use the parameters obtained from the previous step for the speed
controller, and the result is a close estimation of the actual speed. The controller response is
shown in Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12. Speed step simulation with virtual error
59
But there is a relatively big difference between this model and the real estimator, which
makes the simulation unreliable. This difference results from the fact that the estimated error
which is the output of the demodulation block has a delay with respect to the actual error.
Consequently, it has a very important influence on the speed response previously plotted. The
simulation and experimental values for the estimator controller are listed in Table 3.1.
Simulation
Experimental
Proportional
400
150
Integral
50
10
Table 3.1- Simulation and experimental values of the estimator controller
Validation Step 2: problem with the delay.

In order to make a simulation that is closer to the reality, an equivalent delay block to
simulate the filters effect is placed before the error signal is inputted to the controller.
tita ^
2
tita ^
wr^1
1
w_estim
1
1
theta _real
error_theta
tau .s+1
CONTROLLER
3
error ^
Figure 3.13. Simulink model: virtual error with delay
As a result, using the same parameters for the controller, it is now, seen that the response is
very different compared to the previously plotted one. The parameters used before for the
estimator controller make the speed response completely unstable, hence it is necessary to
reduce them if a more stable response is required.
60
After a trial-and-error process to set the controller parameters, it has been concluded that it is
not possible to get a very smooth speed response from the estimator under highly dynamic
speed conditions, and the resulting response of the controller is shown in Figure 3.14.
Figure 3.14. Speed step simulation with virtual error and delay
The estimator cannot perfectly follow the actual speed due to the estimation error delay. It is
concluded that reducing the speed response bandwidth would solve the problem, as the delay
in the error signal is not avoidable. Decreasing the controller bandwidth lowers the dynamics
and in this way the estimator response is improved. It is possible to compare the bandwidths
before and after the bandwidth change by graphics. In Figure 3.14 the speed response
bandwidth is in the neighbourhood of 20Hz.
The response for the same estimator controller parameters, reducing the bandwidth of the
speed controller can be seen in Figure 3.15 where the bandwidth is approximately calculated
to be 10Hz.
61
Figure 3.15. Speed step simulation with virtual error and delay (modified parameters)
In this case, the speed response converges to the reference value in about 0.4 sec, thus the
speed controller parameters given below are the ones that will be used later on in the project.
The experimental values of speed controller parameters are listed in Table 3.2.
kpw = 0.01, kiw = 0.10;
Proportional
0.05
Integral
0.15
Table 3.2- Experimental values of the speed controller
Validation Step 3: introducing the sensorless estimator.

At this step, the estimated error will be used instead of the virtual one that has been used in
the previous step, thus the estimator model given in Figure 3.9 will be employed.
It is seen that the estimated speed is very close to the actual speed, only with the block delay
that has been explained before.
62
Figure 3.16. Speed step with estimator: speed
Figure 3.17 shows both the actual and estimated thetas. There is a constant steady-state error
between these two angles, which does not affect the control by a considerable extent, as will
be shown later. The same thing also applies to the actual and estimated errors shown.
Figure 3.17. Speed step with estimator: angle
63
Then, in order to see if the response of the controller is correct under a load torque,
appropriate conditions are set and the system is simulated. First, the system is started without
any load and with a certain speed reference. Once that the reference speed is reached, the load
torque is applied, and the speed goes down in order to obtain the requested torque. However,
the speed controller is able to make the speed to go to the reference value again in
approximately 0.2 sec, as seen in Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.18. Speed step with estimator and torque: speed
The same can be stated about the angle estimation (Figure 3.19). A constant steady-state error
is seen between actual and estimated values as described before.
64
Figure 3.19. Speed step with estimator and torque: angle
3.6 SUMMARY
In the 3rd chapter, drawbacks of sensor field-oriented control and reasons to study and apply
sensorless control are explained in detail first. Second, fundamentals of different high
frequency signal injection methods are given, and the chosen technique, namely Alternating
High Frequency Injection is thoroughly discussed. Third, how to obtain rotor position
information using a PI controller is given; and this is followed by some practical information
on high frequency signal voltage and frequency selection. Last but not least, adjusting
methodology of the controller and estimator components parameters are detailed.
65
REFERENCES
1. Sensorless Control of Surface Mounted Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Using Matrix
Converters
David SALTIVERI, Antoni ARIAS, Greg ASHER, Mark SUMNER, Pat WHEELER, Lee
EMPRINGHAM, Cesar SILVA
ELECTRICAL POWER QUALITY AND UTILISATION, JOURNAL VOL. X, NO.1, 2006
2. Sensorless Operation of PMSM by High Frequency Signal Injection Using the Field-Circuit
Coupled Solution
Dong CHEN, Heng NIAN, Yikang HE, Lei HUANG
PROCEEDING OF INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND SYSTEMS 2007, OCT. 8~11, SEOUL, KOREA
3. A New High-Frequency Voltage Injection Method for Sensorless Drive of Permanent-Magnet

Synchronous Motors with Pole Saliency
Shinji SHINNAKA
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING IN JAPAN, VOL. 164, NO. 4, 2008
4. Analysis of Permanent-Magnet Machine for Sensorless Control Based on High Frequecny Signal
Injection
Ji-Hoon Jang, Jung-Ik Ha, Motomichi Ohto, Kozo Ide, Seung-Ki Sul
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2004
66
CHAPTER 4: LABORATORY RESULTS

Once all the necessary simulations have been done, the control system can be implemented on
the real experimental setup. Theoretically, the results are expected to be very close to the
results obtained through simulations.
It should be borne in mind that using a DC motor as load limits the conditions under which
the system can be tested. For instance, the system might not be tested under rated torque at
zero-speed unless the load motor is short-circuited.
The experimental setup is described in APPENDIX D.
4.1 SPEED RESPONSE TO A STEP REFERENCE ........................................................68

4.2 SPEED STEP RESPONSE WITH INITIAL TORQUE...............................................71
4.3 SPEED STEP RESPONSE WITH TORQUE STEP....................................................73
4.4 STEP RESPONSE FOR DIFFERENT SPEEDS.........................................................75
4.5 TORQUE STEP AT ZERO SPEED............................................................................78
4.6 RESPONSE FOR DIFFERENT (ARBITRARY) START POSITIONS ......................79
4.7 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................79
67
4.1 SPEED RESPONSE TO A STEP REFERENCE

The speed response for a step reference using the estimated value instead of the encoder
signal to feedback the position information can be seen in Figure 4.1. The encoder is solely
used to show the actual speed of the motor. The reference value is 50 rad/s for the electrical
speed, i.e. the rotor speed is approximately 240 rpm, sufficient to test the system at low speed
conditions. The results are obtained under no load torque. Figure 4.2 shows the evolution of
the dq currents.
Figure 4.1. Laboratory results. Speed step: speed
Figure 4.2. Speed step simulation: dq currents
68
In the d-axis, where the current reference remains at zero value, a 550 Hz, which is the
frequency of the injected high frequency voltage signal, sinusoidal current is observed. This is
caused by the high frequency voltage injected in the d axis, but it should be noted that the
average value remains at zero. In the d axis, the measured current follows the reference value.
In this case, the value of the sinusoidal component in the current very small, but it is
sufficiently large to be used in the estimator. Details of the currents of Figure 4.2 are shown in
Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3. Detail of the dq currents
Figure 4.4 shows the evolution of the actual and estimated motor angles. A nearly constant
error of 0.2 rad for steady state appears between measured and estimated angles.
Comparing the obtained results of the estimated position and speed, it is stated that the second
variable, i.e. the estimated speed, is the one that introduces more problems into the control
system. The oscillations of the estimated speed over the measured value are transmitted to the
q current controller, which forces a ripple in the torque, too.
69
Figure 4.4. Laboratory results. Speed step: angle I
Figure 4.5 shows a detailed evolution of the angle given in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.5. Laboratory results. Speed step: angle II
70
4.2 SPEED STEP RESPONSE WITH INITIAL TORQUE

Continuously, the same experiment is done, but under load torque. In this case, the DC motor
that is used as load is short circuited (the DC motor used as load cannot provide it is rated
torque at zero-speed due to its characteristics). The results can be seen in the following
figures.
Figure 4.6 shows the evolution of the motor speed. It can be stated that, due to the load, it
takes more time to the motor to reach the reference speed, but overshoot disappears. The
small vibration in the estimated speed in steady-state results from the very small vibration in
the actual motor position.
Figure 4.6. Laboratory results. Speed step with initial torque: speed
The evolution of the current also is different, owing to the fact that the iq current must be
higher due to increased electromagnetic torque requirement. d-axis current oscillates around
its reference value, with an average value of zero. The current control loop performance is the
same as the previous case.
71
Figure 4.7. Laboratory results. Speed step with initial torque: dq currents
Finally, the motor angle is shown in Figure 4.8 below. As the speed response is softer, it is
even relatively easier for the estimator to follow the actual speed.
Figure 4.8. Laboratory results. Speed step with initial torque: angle
72
4.3 SPEED STEP RESPONSE WITH TORQUE STEP

The last approach using the torque is to input it while the motor is running at a certain speed
in steady state. As a result, the speed goes down for a while, but then the reference speed is
recovered, as seen in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9. Laboratory results. Speed step with torque step: speed
At 1.1s time the iq current starts increasing, because the motor needs to create torque. It has
an increasing evolution and then reaches a certain value, which is enough to endure the
required load torque. d-axis current oscillates around its reference value, with an average
value of zero.
73
Figure 4.10. Laboratory results. Speed step with torque step: dq currents
The same result can also be seen in Figure 4.11, where the evolutions of the three phase
currents are given. The sinusoidal current values increase until a steady state value is reached,
just as occurs with the iq current. Looking at Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11, it can be verified
that the value of the dq current is correct. Since the d current is zero, the peak value of the
sinusoidal current is the same as the q current value.
Figure 4.11. Laboratory results. Speed step with torque step: abc currents
The evolution of the real and estimated angles is shown in Figure 4.12.
74
Figure 4.12. Laboratory results. Speed step with torque step: angle
4.4 STEP RESPONSE FOR DIFFERENT SPEEDS

The figures below show the evolution of the speed response for different step references
under no load torque. The estimator parameters are set in order to get a good performance of
the system in 50-60rad/s speed range.
As seen in Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.14, both the speed estimator and the speed controller
have some problems following the reference in the very low speed range. Even in steady state
the measured speed is oscillating over the desired value. The reason of this phenomenon is
that this estimation method requires the parameters be individually set for each working
speed.
Then, the higher the speed reference the better the system response is within the tested speed
range. At 30rad/s reference (Figure 4.15) the speed error starts reducing and the
improvements are visible until 60rad/s reference (Figure 4.18). Graphically measurement of
rising times of the speed responses for different speed references indicates that the control
system responds faster to speed references above 30 rad/s (electrical).
75
SPEED REFERENCE
RISING TIME (0%-90%)

(approximate results)
10 rad/s
0.40 s
20 rad/s
0.25 s
30 rad/s
0.20 s
40 rad/s
0.15 s
50 rad/s
0.15 s
60 rad/s
0.15 s
Table 4.1. Rising time for different speed references
Figure 4.13. Speed response for 10rad/s
Figure 4.14. Speed response at 20rad/s
76
77
4.5 TORQUE STEP AT ZERO SPEED

As the range of application of the sensorless control analyzed and implemented in this project
is low speed, it is important that the system can be controllable even at zero speed. Figure
4.19 shows the evolution of the estimated and measured speed at these conditions. Please note
that the rated-torque is applied at 0.4 s.
78
Figure 4.19. Torque step at zero speed: electrical speed
Although there is a transient period when the rotor is moved because of the torque input, the
control system is able to control it, so that the speed remains at zero in steady state.
4.6 RESPONSE FOR DIFFERENT (ARBITRARY) START POSITIONS

In some applications, such as vehicle propulsion, the machine may need to be started from
any arbitrary position. In order for the control system to be employed in these applications, it
should meet this requirement as well. The designed and implemented system tested under
different arbitrary start positions and it is verified that it is able to be started from any
position. Results obtained when the machine is started from any arbitrary position are very
similar to those given in Section 4.4.
4.7 SUMMARY
In Chapter 4, designed and implemented sensorless field-oriented controller is put into test
under several different conditions. Systems speed response to a certain speed reference
along with d and q axes currents as well as measured and estimated angles and measured and
estimated angle errors is given in this chapter. The same parameters are also examined when
rated torque is applied both initially and at an arbitrary time. The chapter is concluded by
systems response to different speed references.
79
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

In this chapter, the results obtained in the simulations and laboratory tests have been
analysed, describing the results and introducing some fields for improving the system.
The first part is dedicated to a a general evaluation of the results, including both advantages
and drawbacks of the system.
The second and last part is dedicated to a list of suggestions in order to improve the
accuracy, efficiency and reliability of the control method proposed.
5.1 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................81

5.2 FUTURE WORK .......................................................................................................82
5.3 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................82
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................83
80
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
It is verified through simulations and laboratory experiments that the designed and
implemented sensorless control system serves its aimed purpose by allowing full control on
the PMSM over low speed range.
The system operates properly between +/-250 rpm angular speed range. The injected voltage
has minor effects on d and q axes currents, yet is sufficient for estimator operation. This
confirms that the applied control technique does not increase iron core losses to a
considerable extent. The d axis current shows oscillations at injected signals frequency, i.e.
550 Hz, but its average value is zero, as it is in theory.
Upon a trial-and-error process over simulations and experiments, the optimum voltage and
frequency values for the injection signal are found to be 20V, i.e. slightly less than one tenth
of the mains voltage as given in Section 3.4 of Chapter 3, and 550 Hz. Lowering the voltage
value of the injected signal is thought to be a solution to loss and efficiency problems, but
decreasing the voltage below the selected value risks proper operation of the system.
System dynamics are bounded by estimator speed. Therefore, some possible solutions to
overcome this problem and to improve estimator and system performance are given in the
next section.
Consequently, the proposed system could be an alternative to drive systems in which lowresolution sensors are employed.
81
5.2 FUTURE WORK

It may be stated that the obtained experimental results match, as regards many aspects, the
requirements of industrial applications, and thus is a candidate to be employed in real-world
systems. One possible improvement to the present system would be to employ some other
controller topologies such as PID and resonance controllers which might result in better
estimator and system performance. Another point that could move the system efficiency into a
higher level is to use different SVM techniques in order to remove common mode reduction.
The next possible improvement on sensorless control of PMSM, would be to apply Elliptical
Signal Injection algoritm briefly explained in Section 3.2 of Chapter 3. In order to overcome
the computational burden of this method and take advantage of it, the PLL technique
proposed in [1] may be used.
The advantage of Elliptical Signal Injection method over Alternating High Frequency
Injection technique employed in this project is that injecting high frequency signals on both d
and q axes and processing the current signal resulting from auto-correlation of high frequency
d and q axes currents minimizes the estimation error and offers more accurate position
information [Section 3.2]. It, on the other hand, increases the iron core losses, and thus
decreases energy efficiency.
Another possible improvement in control might be applying the Direct Torque Control
(DTC) technique [2] instead of Field Oriented Control (FOC).The vector order is better
adapted (load variation), and the responses with the DTC are quicker. The DTC does not need
any mechanical measurements such as speed or position of the machine and is less sensitive
to variations in the machine parameters clearly is decreased in the case of DTC [2].
5.3 SUMMARY
In this fifth and last chapter, general conclusions of the project work and system operation
limitations are given. The chapter is, then, concluded by a list of suggestions along with their
reasons in order to improve system performance, efficiency and reliability.
82
REFERENCES
1. Decoupled Double Synchronous Reference Frame PLL for Power Converters Control
Pedro Rodrguez, Member, IEEE, Josep Pou, Member, IEEE, Joan Bergas, Member, IEEE,J. Ignacio
Candela, Member, IEEE, Rolando P. Burgos, Member, IEEE, and Dushan Boroyevich, Fellow, IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 22, NO. 2, MARCH 2007
2. Comparison of Field-Oriented Control and Direct Torque Control for Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor (PMSM)
M. S. Merzoug, and F. Naceri
PROCEEDINGS OF WORLD ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 35 NOVEMBER 2008 ISSN 2070-3740
83
APPENDIX A: CLARKE and PARK TRANSFORMATIONS AND GENERAL SCHEME OF FOC
APPENDIX A - CLARKE AND PARK TRANSFORMATIONS

AND GENERAL SCHEME OF FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL
In Appendix A, Space Vector definition is given first. This is followed by explanations of

Clarke, Park and Inverse Park transformations on which Field Oriented Control (FOC) is
based. The part is concluded with a brief explanation of general FOC control scheme.
A.1 SPACE VECTOR DEFINITION ........................................................................................ 85

A.2 FORWARD CLARKE TRANSFORMATION (abc >> PROJECTION) ........................ 85
A.3 FORWARD PARK TRANSFORMATION ( >> dq PROJECTION)............................... 86
A.4 INVERSE PARK TRANSFORMATION (dq >> PROJECTION).................................. 87
A.5 GENERAL FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL SCHEME ..................................................... 88
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................... 89
84
A.1 SPACE VECTOR DEFINITION

The three-phase voltages, currents and fluxes of AC-motors may be expressed in terms of
complex space vectors. The stator current vector , is , can be defined as (A.1) based on the
assumption that ia, ib, ic are the instantaneous currents in the stator phases.
is = ia + ib + 2 ic
where = e
2
j
3
(A.1)
is a complex operator.
This three phase system can be transformed into a two-axis time-invariant co-ordinate system.
This transformation can be split into two steps:
The Clark transformation (a,b,c) -> (,) which outputs a two co-ordinate time-variant
system
The Park transformation (,) -> (d,q) which results in a two co-ordinate time invariant
system
A.2 FORWARD CLARKE TRANSFORMATION (abc >> PROJECTION)

The current space vector, is , can be expressed in a reference frame composed of two
orthogonal axes. The new frame is called frame; and Figure A.1 illustrates the projection
from (abc) reference frame to () reference frame assuming that axis is in phase with a
phase axis.
Figure A.1- The current space vector, is , in the reference frame
85
The transformation matrix from abc frame to frame, namely the Clarke matrix, is given in
(A.2).
1
2
2
TC =
3
3
0
1
2 (A.2)
iS
ia
iS
= = TC ib (A.3)
iS
ic
In symmetric sinusoidal regime, the three phase currents and voltages can be written as
follows:
v = 2V cos( )
S
Sa
vSb = 2VS cos +

3
vSc = 2VS cos +

3
(A.4)
i = 2 I cos( )
S
a
Sa
iSb = 2 I S cos a + (A.5)

3
iSc = 2 I S cos a +
3
where is the phase of the voltage with respect to its corresponding phase axis (taken as
reference axis), and a is the phase between voltage and current vectors, and the expression of
the voltages and currents in frame are written follows.
vs = vs + jvs =
is = is + jis =
2
4
j
j
2v + v
v
2
(vs ,1N + vs , 2 N e 3 + vs ,3 N e 3 ) = s,12 s , 23 + j s , 23 = vs e j = 2Vs e j (A.6)
3
3
3
j
2
(is ,1 + is , 2e
3
2
3
+ is ,3 e
4
3
) = is ,1 + j
is ,1 + 2is , 2
3
= is e j ( 1 ) = 2 I s e j ( 1 )
(A.7)
A.3 FORWARD PARK TRANSFORMATION ( >> dq PROJECTION)

Forward Park Transformation modifies stationary frame to a rotating frame, namely dq.
The importance of this transformation is that it makes it possible to fix a component of the
stator current on the d axis responsible of flux
86
Figure A.2- The current space vector, is , in the dq reference frame
d axis is chosen to be aligned with rotor flux space vector, R , and is the rotor flux position.
The transformation matrix is given in (A.8) and stator currents in the dq reference frame can
be expressed as (A.9) by the Park matrix starting from the frame coordinates.
cos
TP =
sin
sin
(A.8)
cos
iSd
iS
i = TP i (A.9)
Sq
S
A.4 INVERSE PARK TRANSFORMATION (dq >> PROJECTION)

The FOC operates in dq reference frame co-ordinates. Besides, inputs of the Space vector
controller are voltages in the frame. Therefore, the inverse Park transformation is needed
to project rotating reference frame, dq, voltages back into stationary reference frame. The
inverse transformation matrix is given in (A.10), where stator phase voltages are expressed in
(A.11).
cos
TP1 =
sin
sin
(A.10)
cos
iS
iSd
1
i = TP i (A.11)
S
Sq
87
A.5 GENERAL FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL SCHEME

The general scheme of FOC of AC motors is illustrated in Figure A.3.
Figure A.3- General scheme of FOC
The mesured phase currents are transformed into the reference frame and then into the dq
reference frame via Clarke transformation blocks respectively. d and q axes currents are
compared to their reference signals, and current error signals are inputted to PI current
regulators.
Outputs of PI blocks are reference voltages which are applied to the Space Vector Modulation
block after being transformed into reference frame. SV-PWM block then generates the
inverter driving signals.
88
REFERENCES
1. Sensor field oriented control (IFOC) of three-phase AC induction motors using ST10F276
ST SEMCONDUCTOR
89
APPENDIX B: SVM and INVERTER IMPLEMENTATION
APPENDIX B - SPACE VECTOR MODULATION AND

INVERTER IMPLEMENTATION
In Appendix B, the principles of Space Vector Modulation (SVM) technique on which design
and implementation of the inverter of the PMSM control system are based as well as
operation of the inverter will be explained.
B1 SPACE VECTOR MODULATION THEORY ...........................................................91

B2 SV-PWM OVER-MODULATION .............................................................................97
B3 COMPARISON BETWEEN SPACE VECTOR MODULATION and SINUSOIDAL
PWM................................................................................................................................98
B4 INVERTER IMPLEMENTATION.............................................................................98
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................99
90
B.1 SPACE VECTOR MODULATION THEORY

An inverse Clarke transformation is employed to obtain three-phase voltage values in the
standard technique. The three-phase voltage values are then used to calculate the duty cycles
needed to control the power stage switches. Although this method gives good results, space
vector modulation is more straightforward when the prosedure is carried out in - stationary
reference frame [1].
Space vector modulation is a sophisticated PWM method that provides some advantages to
the application compared to the classical sinusoidal weighted modulation PWM:
Higher bus voltage utilization (86%)
Lower Total Harmonic Distortion percentace (THD%) [2].
The basic principle of the standard SVM technique can be explained with the help of the
schematic diagram of a three-phase inverter given in Figure B.1.
Figure B.1.Three phase inverter
The three legs of the three phase inverter can connect the phases of the motor to either
positive or negative terminal of DC bus voltage. Assuming that the upper and the lower
switches of the same leg are driven with two complementary pulsed signals and can not be in
the same state (i.e., ON and OFF) at the same time, 8 different states are possible.
At this point, it should be notices that some dead time must be inserted between the time one
transistor of the half-bridge is turned off and its complementary device is turned on. This is
91
due to the fact that switching devices turn-off time is longer than its turn-on time and short
circuiting should be avoided.
In order to generate a rotating field, the inverter has to be switched in six of the eight possible
states. This operation mode is called six-step mode. The remaining two states are called zero
vectors since in these states the voltage applied in the motor windings is null due to the
middle point of each leg is connected either to GND or to the DC bus voltage.
The phase voltages A, B and C can be represented as a space vector model. A graphical
representation of all combinations is the hexagon shown in Figure B. where the zero vectors
are located in the middle. The angle between any two vectors is 60.
Figure B.2. Basic space vectors and voltage vector projection
Each of the vectors U0, U60, and so forth, in Figure B. represents the six voltage steps
developed by the inverter where the zero voltages 0000 and 0111 are located at the origin of the
hexagon. At each of these states the inverter transistors are in steady state. In order to develop
a sine wave at the motor then we must devise a switching pattern that produces a voltage at
not only the six vectors states but one which transitions in between these states as well. This
effectively means producing a continuously rotating vector Uout that transition smoothly from
state to state.
SVPWM seeks to average out the adjacent vectors for each sector. Using the appropriate
PWM signals a vector is produced that transitions smoothly between sectors, and thus provide
sinusoidal line to line voltages to the motor.
92
The representations of two adjacent basic vectors differ in only one sign (or bit), so that only
one of the upper transistors switches when the switching pattern moves from one vector to the
adjacent one [3]. For instance, the state when transistors T1, T4 and T6 are on (and of
course T2, T3, and T5 are off) can be represented with the notation (+,-,-), whereas the state
where transistors T2, T3, T6 are on is denoted by (-, +, -).
Thanks to this notation, it is possible to determine the following states related to the power
switches of the inverter.
(+, -, -), (+, +, -), (-, +, -), (-, +, +), (-, -, +), (+, -, +)
Running the inverter through this switching sequence will produce the line-to-neutral voltages
shown in Figure B. and on devices and corresponding space vectors along with line-to-neutral
voltages are given in Table B..
Figure B.3. Line-to-neutral voltages in six-step mode
Table B.1. On devices, line-to-neutral voltages and corresponding space voltage vectors
93
SVM is a technique used as a direct bridge between vector control (voltage space vector) and
PWM[1].
The SVM technique consists of several steps:
1. Sector identification
2. Space voltage vector decomposition into directions of sector base vectors Ux, Ux60
3. PWM duty cycle calculation
Space vector modulation uses six-step mode, but smoothes out the steps through some
sophisticated averaging techniques. When a voltage between two space voltage vectors is
required, the corresponding inverter states can be activated in a fashion that ensures the
average of the step voltages gives the desired output.
In order to develop the equations needed to achieve this averaging algorithm, the problem is
transformed into an equivalent geometrical problem. The first step in this re-definition would
be to transform the inverter voltages of six-step mode into a space vector.
Space vectors are similar to phasors and they are denoted by a magnitude and an angle. It
should be noted that space vectors are not phasors. Phasors are used to represent a single time
varying sinusoidal signal, while space vectors are used to represent three spatially separated
time variant quantities. If there are three time varying quantities, which sum to zero and are
spatially separated by 120, then these quantities can be expressed as a single space vector.
Since the three line-to-neutral voltages sum to zero, they can easily be converted into a space
vector (us) using the following transformation:
u = Van (t )e j 0 + Vbn (t )e j ( 2 / 3 ) + Vcn (t )e j ( 2 / 3) (B.1)
Since the components of space vectors are projected along constant angles (0,-2/3, and 2/3),
it is easy to graphically represent a space vector as shown in Figure B..
94
Figure B.4. Transforming 3 quantities into a single space vector
Usually, when creating space vectors, the three time-varying quantities are sinusoids of the
same amplitude and frequency having 120 phase shifts. When this is the case, the space
vector at any given time maintains its magnitude. As time increases, the angle of the space
vector increases as well, causing the vector to rotate with a frequency equal to the frequency
of the sinusoidal signal.
Figure B.5. Approximation for any vector in the sector bounded by u0 and u60
The purpose of space vector modulation is to generate the appropriate PWM signals so that
any vector (us) can be produced. Consider a space vector voltage uout located in the sector
defined by u1 and u2. us can be approximated by applying u1 for a percentage of time (t1) and
u2 for a percentage of time (t2) such that:
t1 * u 0 + t 2 * u 60 = u s
(B.2)
This leads to the following formulas for t1 and t2:

t 2 = 2U (1 / 3 ) sin( )
(B.3)
t1 = U [cos( ) (1 / 3 ) sin( )]
(B.4)
95
where
U = u out (Modulation index)
(B.5)
= u s
(B.6)
Thus, given a space vector of angle , bounded by u0, u60 and modulation index U, the
approximation can be constructed by applying vectors u0 and u60 for percentage of times t1 and
t2 respectively. If the vector is in another sector it then can be rotated by a multiple of /3
radians until it is within the first sector.
To approximate us the inverter state that corresponds to u0 should be active for t1*TS seconds,
and the inverter state that corresponds to u60 should be active for t2*TS seconds.
When the modulation index is sufficiently small (less than 0.866), the sum of t1 and t2 will be
less than one. This means that (t1*TS+t2*TS) is less than TS.
TS is the sampling time, typically the PWM frequency. That is why TS will be indicated as
Tpwm. Hence, for the left over time no voltage should be applied to the motor. The remaining
time will be referred to as t0.
t0 = TPWM (1 t1 t 2 )
(B.7)
There are two ways to apply no voltage to the motor. The first way is to simply connect all
three phases to the negative rail of the inverter. This will be called inverter state 0 and the
corresponding switching pattern is (-, -, -). The second way to apply no voltage to the motor is
to connect all three phases to the positive rail of the inverter. This will be called inverter state
7 and the corresponding switching pattern is (+, +, +).
To approximate the voltage us during the PWM carrier period, the pulses and timing shown in
Figure B. should be used.
96
Figure B.6. PWM sequence to be applied in order to obtain us
If the modulation index exceeds (0.866), the value of t0 can become negative (depending on
the angle) because it is not possible to apply one of the zero vectors for any negative time, the
maximum modulation index for space vector modulation is approximately 0.866.
Graphically, this means that for space vector modulation to work properly, the magnitude of
the reference space vector, us, must be totally contained inside the hexagon shown in Figure
B..
B.2 SV-PWM OVER-MODULATION

Over-modulation compensation techniques are needed when the modulation index (the length
of the reference space vector, us), causes the magnitude of the vector to be located outside of
the hexagon. Should the vector us extend beyond the hexagon shown in Figure B.2, then "t0"
will become negative.
Therefore, in order to generate sinusoidal voltages the vector us must be maintained within the
hexagon. In other words, the modulation index (which is effectively the ratio of the magnitude
of us to the Vdc rail of the inverter), should not exceed 3 ( 0.866).
Over-modulation does not provide for such a clean sinusoid voltage and increases harmonic
distortion, but does provide a higher voltage to the motor [4].
97
B.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN SPACE VECTOR MODULATION and

SINUSOIDAL PWM
The SVPWM generates minimum harmonic distortion of the currents in the winding of
PMSM. SV Modulation also provides a more efficient use of the supply voltage in
comparison with sinusoidal modulation methods. In fact, with conventional sinusoidal
modulation in which the sinusoidal signals are compared with a triangular carrier, we know
that the locus of the reference vector is the inside of a circle with a radius of (1/2)*VDC. In the
SV modulation it can be shown that the length of each of the six vectors is (2/3)*VDC.
In steady state the reference vector magnitude might be constant. This fact makes the SV
modulation reference vector locus smaller than the hexagon described above. This locus
narrows itself to the circle inscribed within the hexagon, thus having a radius of (1/sqrt(3))*
VDC. The different reference vector loci are presented in Figure B..
Figure B.7. Locus comparison between sinusoidal PWM and SV-PWM
Therefore, the maximum output voltage based on the Space Vector Modulation theory is
(2/sqrt(3))*(OM/ON) times as large as that of the conventional sinusoidal modulation. This
explains why, with SVPWM, we have a more efficient use of the supply voltage than with the
sinusoidal PWM method.
B.4 INVERTER IMPLEMENTATION

SV-PWM based inverter operating algorithm is composed in a C language file and the
corresponding model is constructed in Matlab/Simulink.
98
REFERENCES
1. PMSM Vector Control with Single-Shunt Current-Sensing Using MC56F8013/23

DESIGN REFERENCE MANUAL, FREESCALE SEMICONDUCTOR
2. Sensor field oriented control (IFOC) of three-phase AC induction motors using ST10F276
ST SEMICONDUCTOR
3. Field Orientated Control of 3-Phase AC-Motors

TEXAS INSTRUMENTS EUROPE
4. An Introduction to Space Vector Modulation using NECs 8-bit Motor Control Microcontrollers
NEC
99
APPENDIX C: EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND SENSOR CALIBRATION
APPENDIX C - EXPERIMENTAL SETUP and SENSOR

CALIBRATION
Brief explanation of the experimental setup components including their main objectives and
features are given in Appendix C.
C.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 101

C.2 Danfoss HRS92C4-44S Motor ................................................................................. 101
C.3 Danfoss VLT5004 Inverter ...................................................................................... 102
C.5 Load DC Motor........................................................................................................ 103
C.6 dSPACE DS1103 PPC digital controller .................................................................. 103
C.7 SCU (Signal Conditioning Unit) .............................................................................. 104
C.8 Sensors and Acquired Signal Routing ...................................................................... 104
C.8.1 Sensors.............................................................................................................. 105
C.8.2 Signal Adaptation in the DSP ............................................................................ 106
C.9 Acquisition Block in Simulink Application .............................................................. 107
C.10 Calibration and Compensation of the Sensors......................................................... 111
C.10.1 Current Sensor Offset Compensation............................................................... 111
C.10.2 Voltage Sensor Offset Compensation .............................................................. 112
C.10.3 Encoder Calibration......................................................................................... 113
REFERENCES............................................................................................................... 114
100
C.1 INTRODUCTION
The presented project is developed using the setup installed in the Flexible Drive Systems
Laboratory (FDSL) in the Institute of Energy Technology, Aalborg University and will be
explained in detail. The main components of the experimental setup listed as: a Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) for motoring, an inverter to supply the motor, a rectifier
gives the DC Bus voltage, a DC motor for loading, a main control unit consisting of a PC and
a DSP for the acquisitions and control, and a Signal Control Unit (SCU) providing galvanic
insulation between the control and power parts of the setup.
The features of each component as well as dedicated dSPACE blocks and sensor calibration
will be explained in the following sections of Appendix C. Figure C.1 below shows a general
layout of the setup.
Figure C.1- Layout of the setup with the main components
C.2 DANFOSS HRS92C4-44S MOTOR

The motor used in this project for motoring is a Surface Mounted Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor (SMPMSM), which has two pole pairs and is manufactured by Danfoss.
The properties and equations of the motor are analysed in Chapter 2.
Main specifications of the motor are as follows.
101
Mechanical Parameters
o Rated speed [Nn] = 6000 rpm
o Number of pole pairs [np] = 2
o Rotating inertia [J] = 94 10-6 Kgm2
o Viscous friction [Bm] = 0 Kgm
o Rated torque [Tn] = 1.3 Nm
Electrical Parameters
o Rated Power [Pn] = 400 W
o Rated phase voltage RMS [Un] = 300 V
o Rated current RMS [In] = 16 A
o Mutual inductance [Lm] = 21.5 10-3 H
o d axis inductance [Ld] = 10 10-3 H
o q axis inductance [Lq] = 12.5 10-3 H
o Stator resistor [Rs] = 2.3
o Torque constant [Kt] = 0.75
o Rotor permanent magnet flux [m] = 0.1652 Wb
C.3 DANFOSS VLT5004 INVERTER

The inverter feeding the PMSM motor is a three phase inverter and also manufactured by
Danfoss. The main specifications of the device are listed below.
Input Rated Voltage [Vin] = 3 phase AC 380V
Output Rated Voltage [Von] = 3 phase AC 380V
Rated Input Current [Iin] = 5.3 A
Rated Output Current [Ion] = 5.6 A
Rated Output Frequency [fon] = 0.. 132 Hz
Switching frequency [fs] = 3.. 5 KHz
Rated Power [Pn] = 4.3 KVA
102
C.5 LOAD DC MOTOR: GP115.30

The aim of the DC motor is to operate as a load. However, the objective of the project is not
to generate power at the output of the DC motor, but to use the load as a perturbation to the
PMSM motor in order to evaluate the sensorless FOC controllers response. For doing these
tests, the load motor has been connected through a variable resistance, in order to apply
different load torques to the PMSM. The main specifications of the DC motor are listed
below.
Rated Power [Pn] = 500 W
Rated speed [Nn] = 6000 rpm
Rated voltage [Vn] = 170 V
Rated current [In] = 4 A
C.6 dSPACE DS1103 PPC DIGITAL CONTROLLER

The control unit of the setup controlling the system and driving the inverter as well as
acquiring the system signals and displaying them on the PC screen is a digital controller
provided by dSPACE. It contains a DS1103 board inside which is a very powerful RISC/DSP
controller.
The main features of the board are given below.
Motorola Power PC 604e at 333 MHz
16 channels ADC, 16 bit, 4s, 10 V
4 channels ADC, 12 bit, 800ns, 10 V
8 channels DAC, 14 bit, 6s, 10 V
Incremental Encoder Interface 7 channels
32 I/O lines, programmable in 8-bit groups
Software development tools
o MATLAB/Simulink
o RTI, RTW, TDE
o Control Desk (Human Interface)
103
C.7 SCU (SIGNAL CONDITIONING UNIT)

The SCU is the electronic equipment that is built with the objective to provide galvanic
insulation between the mains electronic equipment and the dSPACE equipment. All the
signals that are sent to the DSP from the sensors, and the signals that the DSP sends to the
other equipments go through the SCU. The utilised boards in the SCU are as follows.
DEMUX Eurocard: it selects 60 signals from the 300 that DS1103 is providing
OPTI-VLT: it contains 8 optical fiber drivers for controlling the IGBTs of the inverter
ISO-ADC Eurocard: it contains 5 isolation amplifiers which convert analog signals to

digital signals in a range of 10 V
LEM-ADC Eurocard: it contains 3 analog to digital (A/D) converters in a range of 10

V to be used only with the LEM-Box with the three current transducers.
The rest of the system elements that can be seen in the layout of the Figure C.1 are the three
sensors (current, voltage and rotor position) needed for the control, and the PC with the
Control Desk software, connected directly to the DSP. The characteristics of these elements
are explained in the following sections of Appendix C, where how to manage the signals in
order to get accurate information in the DSP is described.
C.8 SENSORS and ACQUIRED SIGNAL ROUTING

Procedure to design and implement a sensorless control algorithm is given in Chapter 3. The
general outline of the sensorless control is drawn in Section 1.3.1 of Chapter 1. However, it
should be underlined once again that even though the control algorithm is referred to as
sensorless control, some acquisitions through current and voltage sensor need to be done for
the proper operation of the motor. Therefore, sensorless control means encoder-less control.
In the following sections, management of the measured signals will be analysed. First of all,
the sensors and their gains will be showed, and after that how the control unit manages the
received signals will be described, explaining deeply how the MATLAB-Simulink application
downloaded into the DSP adjusts each signal.
104
C.8.1 SENSORS
Three different type of sensors are utilised within the project. Two of them are to measure
electrical variables, the current through the motor and the DC Bus voltage. The third is an
incremental encoder to measure the angular position of the rotor, i.e. a mechanical variable.
C.8.1.1 Current Sensor

An accurate measurement of the phase currents through the motor is essential in order to build
the sensorless control algorithm, because the technique used in the project is based on
obtaining the rotor position information from the phase angles of the current. The
measurements of the currents are also used for the over-current protection of the motor,
because one of the alarms installed in the project is the over-current warning alarm, which
automatically stops the operation of the inverter, and consequently of the motor as well.
The three phase currents are acquired by introducing the three phase voltages that supply the
motor in a LEM-Box. The LEM-Box contains three LEM55-P current transducers, one for
each phase. The current is measured by Hall Effect technique. The LEM transducer creates a
proportional current in the output, what is conducted through a resistance, and thus an image
of the current through each phase is created in volts.
The relation between the input phase current and the output voltage is shown in the equation.
GLEMV =
I out [V ]
I [ A]
= sec
Rsec [ ] = I Ratio Rsec [ ]
I in [ A] I primary [ A]
C.8.1.2 Voltage Sensor

The other electrical sensor employed in the setup is the one that is the responsible for
measuring the voltage of the DC bus. This measurement is necessary for the safety of the
motor, because two alarms, namely under and over voltage alarms, to protect the inverter and
the motor and stopping the system are set.
105
The DC bus voltage is also measured using a LEM-Box, which creates an output proportional
to the input voltage. Similar to the previous case, that is the current measurement process, the
voltage is dropped on a resistance, which is connected to the output of the LEM-Box.
Therefore, the relation between output and input voltages is as follows.
GLEMV =
VDC out [V ]
V [V ]
= sec
Rsec [ ] = VRatioRsec
VDCin [V ] Vprimary [V ]
C.8.1.3 Angular Position Sensor (Encoder)

With regard to the mechanical measurements, an incremental encoder is installed in the motor
rotor. This sensor measures the position of the rotor, and thus it obtains the rotation speed of
the rotor as well. As explained previously, the encoder is not necessary if the sensorless
control is used. However, during the process of performing the FOC, in order to simulate and
improve control, the use of an encoder is needed.
The encoder used in this setup has 2048 segments, hence it can be stated that the one
revolution of the rotor is divided into 2048 states. Each time the rotor moves from one of
these sections to the consecutive one, a positive pulse is created by the encoder. The signal
will be converted to the format interpretable by the main control unit.
C.8.2 SIGNAL ADAPTATION in the DSP

As seen in the previous explanations, each signal obtained in the measurements has its own
scale; therefore, the control unit must adjust each one into a common scale. But before
sending the signals to the control unit, they are conditioned in the SCU, Signal Conditioning
Unit. As briefly explained in C.7, the main objective of this block is to provide galvanic
isolation between the power and control parts, that is to say, to separate the power signals that
supply the motor from the control signals that contain information of the variables for the
control.
After the conditioning process, the signals taken from the sensors are finally sent to the main
106
control unit, the DS1103 board based on a DSP provided by dSPACE, whose main features
are explained in C.6. The algorithm created in MATLAB-Simulink using the block diagram
method is directly loaded into this board.
C.9 ACQUISITION BLOCK in SIMULINK APPLICATION

As shown in Appendix D, the implemented Simulink application has two main parts: one
dedicated to control, explained deeply in previous chapters; and the other one dedicated to
signal acquisition, where all the input signals to the control unit are managed. The block
named Measurement and Safety, which is directly related to the experimental setup and its
safety is going to be analysed in the following lines.
Data acquisition
f()
Trigger
TRIP_IN
2
ENABLE
enable
Ud_IN
Control
Constt
ia,b,c
Software Interrupt
enc
TRIP_OUT
5
Data _ready
Software Interrupt
Ud_in
SC Protection
s peed, theta _m
1
enc
ENCODER INTERFACE
ia,b,c
4
ia ,b,c
Currents A/D
Ud_vol
3
Ud
Ud A /D
Figure C.2- Measurement and Safety block diagram
The acquisition block is divided into five sub-blocks. The first block manages the
authorisation of the whole system, after receiving the orders and information sent from the
second block.
107
ON-OFF control , TRIP and BREAK
FAULT
== 0
From
Compare
To Zero
ENABLE
ON
1
TRIP _IN
boolean
NOT
1
enable
Product
double
boolean
NOT
double
SLAVE BIT OUT

DS 1103 SL _DSP _BIT _OUT _C13
Figure C.3- Control Enable Block
The second block is the protection controller, that is to say it keeps the system working within
the boundaries of the safe operation area; and it sends a FAULT signal to the enable
controlling block in the cases of over-current, under-voltage, over-voltage and short circuit.
Overcurrent , overspeed , overvoltage /undervoltage protection
1
ia ,b ,c
1
M ux
(abs(u (1 ))> u (4 ))+(abs(u (2 ))> u (4 ))+ (abs(u (3))> u (4 ))
i _ m ax
CLK
i _ m ax
SC
Q
!Q
OS
J-K
Flip -Flop
FAULT
2
enc
FAU LT
OV
M ux
(abs(u (1 ))>u (5 ))
n_ m ax
CLK
n_ m ax
G oto
4
!Q
UV
J-K
Flip -Flop 1
3
U d_ in
Ud _ m ax
M ux
(u (1 )> u(2 ))
UD _m ax
CLK
Ud _ m in
UD_ m in
!Q
J-K
Flip -Flop 2
(u (1 )< u(3 ))
CLK
K
!Q
J-K
Flip -Flop 3
double
0
reset_trip
NO T
double
SLA VE BIT O UT
DS 1103 S L_ DS P _ BIT _ O UT _C 10
SLAVE B IT IN
TRIP_HW
1
TR IP _ O UT
DS 1103 SL _ DSP _ BIT _ IN _ C 14
Figure C.4- Protection block
The third block is the one that receives signals coming from the encoder. As explained
previously, the encoder only outputs square pulses, hence by an integral action they are the
108
mechanical and electrical speeds of the rotor are obtained.

Encoder interface
sin
ENCODER
MASTER SETUP
sin(u(1))
DS1103 ENC_SETUP
cos(u(1))
cos
Enc position
2*pi /INC _LINES

Terminator
tic2rad 1
Enc delta position
2*pi /INC_LINES
30 /pi
1/TM
tic2rad 2
d_rad 2rad _per _sec
rads 2rpm
DS1103 ENC_POS _C1

delta_th_m
th_m
theta_m
th_rm
delta_th_m
th_el
theta_el
1
speed ,
theta _m
th_re
Ground
by ret
Figure C.5- Encoder Signal Adaption Block
The fourth block manages the current signals. The original signals that come from the output
of the inverter have been modified by the sensors and SCU. Therefore, original values of
these signals must be recovered in the DSP. In order to do this, the received signals are
divided by the gain of the sensors, achieving the actual values (the numerical value, not real
current) of the variables. Assuming that the values are reduced 10 times when they are
introduced to the DSP, the gain that the DSP should apply to the input signals to recover the
information correctly is given below:
I abcSCALE =
1
1
1 1
=
= 10
I Ratio Rsec
GLEM I 1
I RatioRsec 1
10
10
Finally an offset is added to each instantaneous current value for balancing, because when
some different electronic components are connected in series, offsets, noises and other
unexpected disturbances can appear. The value of the offset that must be added has been
obtained experimentally, as explained in C.10.1.
109
MEASURED MOTOR CURRENTS ADC
ADC
DS 1103 ADC_C17
iA _scale
ia_direct_meas ur
ia_direct_meas ur
iA _offset
iA _scale
ia
0
ADC
DS 1103 ADC_C18
ib_direct_measur
iB_scale
iB _offset
iB _scale
ib
0
ADC
DS 1103 ADC_C19
Mux
1
ia ,b,c
ic_direct_measur
iC_scale
iC _offset
iC _scale
ic
1/3
1/3
Figure C.6- Current Signal Adaptation Block
In order to complete the Measurements and Safety block, the DC Bus voltage measurement
block will be explained. In the same way that the previous block adapts the currents, this one
also divides the received signal by the gains by which the initial measurement values are
multiplied. The gain applied to the input signal is given as:
Ud SCALE =
1
1
1
1
=
= 10
VRatio Rsec
GLEMV 1
VRatio Rsec 1
10
10
An offset to the output is also added, in order to balance the possible disturbances in the
transmission of the signal. For obtaining the value of the offset, another experiment has been
done, whose settings and results can be seen in C.10.2.
BUS DC voltage signal A /D
MUX ADC
Ud_scale
DS1103 MUX _ADC_CON4
1
Ud_vol
Ud _scale
0
Ud _offset
Figure C.7- Bus Voltage Adaptation Block
110
In brief, all the received signals are adapted by the Measurement and Safety block. Some of
them are utilised to keep the operation of the motor and the inverter in a safe operation area,
and the others are sent to the control block in order to feedback the FOC.
C.10 CALIBRATION and COMPENSATION of the SENSORS

In the following paragraphs, the different experiments done in order to calibrate the different
acquisition blocks of the setup are explained. As it is known, each sensor converts the
measured signal into another signal, changing the values and sometimes even the formats as
well (i.e., Amperes to Volts). The outputs of the sensors are usually connected to other
electronic components that adapt the signals, thus the signals that finally arrive at the control
unit have to be adjusted and compensated before being processed. In order to find the
necessary compensation for the measured variables, each one of them is compared via
alternative measuring tools.
C.10.1 CURRENT SENSOR OFFSET COMPENSATION

Firstly, the DC component of the current sensor is compensated. As explained in C.8.1.1, a
LEM-Box with 3 LEM-55P current transducers has been used for measuring the currents. To
analyse the different phases, the same experiment is carried out for each one and every phase,
using a DC power supply (GW INSTEK GPS-3030DD) and a high accuracy multimeter
(APPA 109).
The power supply is connected to one of the phases of the LEM-Box and the multimeter in
series, limiting the supply current to 500mA, the results obtained in the multimeter and in the
Control Desk (after adapting the gains) are compared. The results for each phase are shown in
Table C.1 below.
111
500mA
Power
Supply
500mA
Control
Desk Ia
507mA
Control Desk
Ib
-
Control
Desk Ic
-
500mA
500mA
502mA
500mA
500mA
503mA
Current
Injection
a
Multimeter
Table C.1-Results of Current Sensor Offset Compensation Experiment
Hence, as seen in the table, all three phases have
small offset values that must be
compensated in the acquisition block within the Simulink model for proper operation.
However, the values are considerably small, and thus can be omitted.
Figure C.8. Phase current sensor configuration
C.10.2 VOLTAGE SENSOR OFFSET COMPENSATION

With regard to the DC Bus voltage sensor, a similar experiment is done. The sensor for the
voltage is also a LEM-Box, but in this case it is a voltage transducer. The circuit is composed
only of the voltage LEM-Box and the multimeter is connected in parallel to measure the
voltage. The results shown in Table C.2 below are obtained with the multimeter and in the
Control Desk.
112
Experiment
Power Supply
Multimeter
Control Desk
16V
16V
14.3V
8V
8V
6.3V
25V
25V
23.4V
0V
0V
-1.65V
Table C.2- -Results of Voltage Sensor Offset Compensation Experiment
The results of the table above show that there is an offset in the voltage acquisition of -1.65
volts. This offset needs to be compensated in the acquisition block of the Simulink
application, but as with the currents, the offset value may be omitted, seeing that the values
expected to be measured by this sensor are in the neighbourhood of 550 volts.
Figure C.9. DC BUS voltage sensor
C.10.3 ENCODER CALIBRATION

Lastly, the encoder is analysed. In this case, the accuracy of the position measurement is
studied. The results are obtained through a simple experiment, setting an arbitrary starting
position and first moving the rotor manually and later by supplying it. In both cases, turning
either clockwise or anti-clockwise, the obtained values in the Control Desk are within the
acceptable limit of accuracy, even after turning the motor for a relatively long time.
113
REFERENCES
1. Getting Started With dSPACE System (GettingStarted.pdf) Version 1.0 (May 2000)
Remus TEODORESCU
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, INSTITUTE OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
2. VLT 5000 Series (VLT5000 Data Sheet.pdf)

http://www.controlresource.co.th/DANFOSS/Drive/VLT5000%20Data%20sheet.pdf
3. RTI and Control Desk Software Demo

2008 dSPACE GmbH
http://www.dspaceinc.com/shared/demos/rti/RTI10.htm
4. A Tutorial Introduction to Control Systems Development and Implementation with dSPACE

(dSPACEtutorial.doc.pdf) Updated 3/29/2002
Nicanor QUIJANO, Kevin PASSINO
THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, DEPARTAMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
http://www.ece.osu.edu/~passino/dSPACEtutorial.doc.pdf
114
APPENDIX D: SIMULINK BLOCKS
APPENDIX D - SIMULINK BLOCKS

In this part of the Appendix, the MATLAB/Simulink files created for the project are shown.
The analysis of the block diagram used for the simulations is followed by explanation the file
created for the real setup is explained.
D.1 Simulation File ........................................................................................................ 116

D.1.1 PMSM Model in the abc Stationary Reference Frame ....................................... 116
D.1.2 Field Oriented Control (FOC) Current Controller .............................................. 118
D.1.3 Measurement Block .......................................................................................... 119
D.1.4 Estimator .......................................................................................................... 119
D.2 Real Setup file with dSPACE System ...................................................................... 120
D.2.1 Controller.......................................................................................................... 121
D.2.2 Initialisation Block............................................................................................ 122
D.2.3 SVM and Dead-time Compensation for the Inverter .......................................... 123
115
D.1 SIMULATION FILE

With this file, all the simulations to check the operation of the PMSM motor and the
controller are carried out. The file includes the position estimator and the whole system can
also be simulated by connecting the control block into an inverter. The complete model can is
shown in Figure D.1.
torque
isqref
Te
Tr
isa
isd command
wr_ ref
Torque command
0
W command
isb
isd_ref
z
w_ref
0
z1
e_w
isq_ref
isc
isq_ref
PI speed regulator 1
vs _abc_ref
isd
vs _abc
wr
isq
theta
wr
PMSM MODEL
wr_real
FOC CURRENT CONTROL
butter
w_error
wr
isd
ids_filt
isa
butter
isq
isb
iqs_filt 1
MEASUREMENT BLOCK
w_ real // w_est // w_ref

wr_est
tita ^
theta _real
iq_s^
w_estim
theta_real
theta _real // theta _ est

t
error^
theta _est
Estimator
ts
Clock
error theta
Figure D.1- Complete Simulink Model for the Simulation
In Figure D.1, there are four main parts: the motor model in the abc stationary reference
frame, the field oriented controller (FOC) for the current control, the current measurement
block, and the position and speed estimator. All of them are included in the speed loop,
controlled by the PI controller shown on the left hand side. The content of each block is
analysed in the following sections.
D.1.1 PMSM MODEL in the abc STATIONARY REFERENCE FRAME

In order to build the motor model, the equations of the rotating reference frame (dq) are used,
since it is much easier to obtain the model from these equations than the equations in abc
116
stationary reference frame. In the real setup, the inverter feeds the motor with a three phase
system, and the current measurements are also made in the (abc) stationary reference frame.
Hence, both in the input and the output sides of the motor model in dq, there are
transformation blocks from abc to dq reference frames and vice versa, as shown in Figure
D.2.
dq currents 1
dq currents
abc voltages
isd
isa
isd
vs d
isa
isq
2
vs_abc
isb
abc -dq
isq
dq -abc
3
isb
vs q
isc
wr
4
isc
abc >> dq
1
Tr
dq >>abc
Tr
torq ue
Sign 1
1
torque
Product
dq model
wr
5
wr
1
s
6
theta
Figure D.2- Motor Model in abc
The actual motor model is built using the dq reference frame equations. Figure D.3 shows
how to build the equations in a Simulink application.
isd
1/Ld *(-Rs*u(1)+Lq *u(2)*u(3)+u(4))
disd /dt
1
s
isd
1
isd
isq
wr
1/Lq *(-Ld *u(1)*u(3)-Rs*u(2)-u(3)*lambda _m+u(5))
disq/dt
1
s
speed 2
isq
2
isq
4
1
vsd
torque
electrical speed
3/2*np *(lambda _m*u(2)+(Ld -Lq )*u(1)*u(2))
2
vsq
electromagnetic torque
=Te
1
s
1/J
Te
3
wr
3
Tr
Bm/1
speed
Te 1
Figure D.3- Motor Model in dq Rotating Reference Frame
117
D.1.2 FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL (FOC) CURRENT CONTROLLER

The current controller is the block that is the responsible for controlling the current loop, but
it also manages the high frequency injection, and the inverter. The current controller is
designed based on the dq reference frame equations due to simplicity. It includes the PI
controllers for both axes (d and q) and the decoupling network, which allows to have an ideal
first order decoupled loop for each axis. At the upper side of the Figure D.4, the HF injection
in the voltage of the d axis is seen as well.
Sine Wave
Vs_abc
vsd
vs d '
e_ is d
1
isd_ref
vd
va
PI isd regulator
Vs_abc chopped
vsq
isq_ref
vs q '
e_is q
2
isq_ref
vq
vb
wr
vc
vs _a bc_re f
vs _a bc
1
vs_abc _ref
q a xis dec term
d a xis dec term
PI isq regulator
speed 2
SPACE VECTOR MODULATED
INVERTER
Decoupling network
dq >>abc
wr
isq
isd
speed 1
isd
3
isq
4
wr
5
Figure D.4- Field Oriented Controller for the Current Loop with the SVM Inverter and HF injection
On the right side of the Figure D. the voltage references are transformed from the dq rotating
reference frame to the abc stationary reference frame in order to feed the motor can be seen.
In the simulation, to obtain more realistic simulations, the Space Vector Modulation (SVM)
inverter whose model is shown in the Figure D.5 can also be connected to the system.
Udc
Constant
vab
Vdc
Vdc
vbc
DaDbDc
1
vs_abc _ref
vabc
DaDbDc
vca
6-Bri Inverter
K*u
1
vs_abc
L-to-L 2 L-to-N
bypass inverter
DutyCycleGeneration
Figure D.5- Simulated Inverter Model

118
D.1.3 MEASUREMENT BLOCK

The aim of the measurement block is to transform the measured currents in the abc stationary
reference frame to the dq rotating reference frame to be able to feedback them. With a
balanced load, with two of the three currents of the motor is possible to obtain the third one.
After that the three currents are transformed, as it shows the Figure D.6
sin
3
wr
1
s
Integrator
1
isd
cos
sqrt(u(1)^2+u(2)^2)
is_rms
Fcn
2/3*[ 1 -.5 -.5; 0 sqrt(3)/2 -sqrt(3)/2; .5 .5 .5]
vsalfa
1
isa
2
isb
K*u
2
isq
Demux
vsbeta
Matrix
Gain
Terminator
Figure D.6- Block Diagram of the Measurement Block
D.1.4 ESTIMATOR
This block, as explained step by step in the Chapter 3, takes the measured q axis current and
after demodulating it, inputs the position error signal to a PI controller which finally gives the
estimated angular speed and position required for the controller operation and the co-ordinate
transformations respectively. The block diagram given in Figure D.7 illustrates the estimator.
error
Scope 2
Scope 1
Scope 3
2
tita ^
Scope 11
Scope 10
butter
tita ^
butter
1
u(1)*sin(wh*u(2))
iq _s^
Analog
Filter Design 1
Fcn
error_theta
-5
Analog
Filter Design 2
wr^1
Gain
1
w_estim
PI ESTIMATOR
3
t
1
2
theta _real
3
tau .s+1
error ^
Figure D.7- Block Diagram of the Estimator with the Demodulator, Filter and PI controller
119
D.2 REAL SETUP FILE with dSPACE SYSTEM

After the simulations, an algorithm with all the simulated control parameters and equations
must be installed in the dSPACE DSP, in order to run the real setup. dSPACE tools provide
an easy way to convert a Simulink block diagram into an algorithm to be loaded into the DSP.
For doing that, the simulation file analysed in the previous sections of Appendix D is
modified in some aspects. First of all, the model is divided in two main parts: one dedicated to
the control, based on the model used for the simulations; and one dedicated to the
measurement and safety of the test bench equipment.
The first one will be described below, part by part, and the second one is extensively
explained in section C.9 of Appendix C.
VECTOR ORIENTED CONTROL FOR A PMSM MOTOR
RTI Data
DS 1103SLAVE Board
PWM-Interrupt
DS 1103 SL _DSP _PWMINT
Trigger()
Trigger()
Task Transition
(no buffer )
enc
ENABLE
Task Transition
(no buffer )
ENABLE
Ud
Task Transition
(no buffer )
Ud
ia,b,c
Task Transition
(no buffer )
ia,b,c
enc
enc_in
enc_fil
encoder filter
CONTROL
Data _ready
MEASUREMENTS AND SAFETY
Figure D.8- Main Page of the Block Diagram for the Real Setup
The control block includes some of the blocks shown previously in the simulation file in
addition to some new blocks in order to be able to connect with the other equipment of the
experimental setup. It can be divided into three main components: one that controls the
authorisation, the reset and the initialisation of the PI controllers, another associated with the
120
control (the block analysed in the simulation file, such as the estimator and the controller),
and a third component that manages the SVM of the inverter.
VECTOR CONTROL OF A PMSM MOTOR WITH
with SVM modulation and deadtime compensation
Initialization
f()
Trigger
2
ENABLE
delay
enable
EN
(u>0)
EN
RUN
el _theta _meas
input signals
1
enc
enc_in
el_theta _m eas
el_theta _meas
th_m eas_real
reset
el_w_meas
el _w_meas
vs _x
encoder signal processor
is_abc
4
ia ,b,c
reset_controller
Duty cycle a
Da
vs _y
modula
Mux
Demux
delay
Duty cycle b
Db
SVM
Controller
Duty cycle c
Dc
dc-max
3
Ud
Ud_out
Ud_in
DS1103 SL_DSP_PWM 3
Ud proc
dta
iabc dtb
dtc
Deadtime -comp
Figure D.9- Control Block of the Real Setup Simulink file
D.2.1 CONTROLLER
The controller block includes almost all the blocks shown previously in the simulation file:
the speed and current loop controllers, the high frequency injection block, and the position
and speed estimator block, as seen in the Figure D.10.
isa
vsd
2
is_ abc
vs d
vs _alfa
isb
el_w
reset_ cont roller
Terminator
vsq
reset
Reset integrators
isq
reset
iq_to_filter
el_th eta
w_ ref
vs _beta
vs beta
2
vs_ y
dq >>alfa _ beta
high_freq
init
delay
1
vs_ x
vs q
el_theta
enable
vs alfa
Co ntroller P I
4
0
speed c ommand
P roduct
el_theta
A dd 1
1
t h _ m eas _ re al
error_theta
Terminat or 1
is q
iqhf _am plitude
high_freq
Kest
angle_error
teta _es tim
sensorless_ adjust
E ST _ ON
el _ theta _ meas
0
iq _ hf _ a mplitude
res et_es tim
wr_es tim
E stimator
el _ w _ meas
Figure D.10- Control Block of the Real Setup Simulink File
121
The block at the upper side of Figure D.10 should be analysed more extensively, where there
are the two controller loops and the high frequency injection block mentioned previously
besides the decoupling network for the d and q axes.
high _ freq
4
Vh _command
Vinj
Vh
Vhf (t)
fh
fh
fh _command
vsd +hf
vsd _ref
v _hf
1
vsd
High frequency injection
e_isd
isd_ref
vsd
reset
isd command
vsd
PI isd
e_w
w_ref
error
w_ref
reset
isq_ref
isq_ref
e_isq
error_isq
vsq
init
reset
vsq
vsq _ref
PI speed
reset
7
init
2
vsq
PI isq
abc >>dq
1
isa
isa
2
isb
isb
Decoupling network
isd
theta
4
el _ theta
isq
isd_no_filt
isd
isd_no_filt
d axis dec
isq_no_filt
isq
isq_no_filt
q axis dec
3
el _w
wr
3
isq
Figure D.11- Controller PI Block Included in the Control Block of the Real Setup Simulink File
D.2.2 INITIALISATION BLOCK

The objective of this block is to reset all the integrators used in the control part. All the
integrators used in this Simulink files are discrete, and they must be resetted each time that
the setup starts running. Once the enable signal is received, the block waits for 2 seconds until
it sends the signal to the control part to start running.
1
enable
K Ts
U < U/z
Detect
Decrease
>2
z-1
Discrete-Time
Integrator
1
delay
Compare
To Constant
uint 8
init _state
Terminator 2
Figure D.12: Initialisation block diagram
122
D.2.3 SVM and Dead-time COMPENSATION for the INVERTER

The operation of the inverter is managed using Space Vector Modulation. The algorithm is
applied with a C code file named modula, which can be seen in Figure D.13. With this
algorithm, the duty cycle reference is sent to the inverter using the dSPACE tools. The option
to manage the dead-time from the Control Desk is also exist in order to increase or decrease
the time gap between the switching-on time of the upper and bottom switches of the same
branch.
Figure D.13- Duty Cycle Reference Management Blocks for the Inverter
123
D.2.4 CONTROLDESK LAYOUT
Figure D.14. Controldesk layout
124
INDEX
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................2
1.2 OBJECTIVE AND LIMITATIONS .............................................................................5
1.3 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................5
1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT........................................................................................10
1.5 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................11
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................12
CHAPTER 2: VECTOR ORIENTED CONTROL FOR A PMSM MOTOR ........................14
2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................15
2.2 PMSM MODEL .........................................................................................................16
2.3 FOC CONTROLLER DESIGN WITH ENCODER....................................................23
2.4 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................39
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................40
CHAPTER 3: SENSORLESS CONTROL of PMSM ..........................................................41
3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................42
3.2 DIFFERENT SIGNAL INJECTION METHODS .......................................................43
3.3 CONTROLLER..........................................................................................................53
3.4 VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY SELECTION OF HF SIGNAL...............................54
3.5 ESTIMATOR DESIGN..............................................................................................56
3.6 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................65
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................66
CHAPTER 4: LABORATORY RESULTS ..........................................................................67
4.1 SPEED RESPONSE TO A STEP REFERENCE ........................................................68
4.2 SPEED STEP RESPONSE WITH INITIAL TORQUE...............................................71
4.3 SPEED STEP RESPONSE WITH TORQUE STEP....................................................73
4.4 STEP RESPONSE FOR DIFFERENT SPEEDS.........................................................75
4.5 TORQUE STEP AT ZERO SPEED............................................................................78
4.6 RESPONSE FOR DIFFERENT (ARBITRARY) START POSITIONS ......................79
4.7 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................79
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK .....................................................80
5.1 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................81
5.1 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................81
5.2 FUTURE WORK .......................................................................................................82

5.3 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................82
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................83
APPENDIX A - CLARKE AND PARK TRANSFORMATIONS AND GENERAL SCHEME
OF FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL.....................................................................................84
A.1 SPACE VECTOR DEFINITION ...............................................................................85
A.2 FORWARD CLARKE TRANSFORMATION (abc >> PROJECTION) ...............85
A.3 FORWARD PARK TRANSFORMATION ( >> dq PROJECTION)......................86
A.4 INVERSE PARK TRANSFORMATION (dq >> PROJECTION).........................87
A.5 GENERAL FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL SCHEME ............................................88
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................89
APPENDIX
SPACE
VECTOR
MODULATION
AND
INVERTER
IMPLEMENTATION ..........................................................................................................90
B.1 SPACE VECTOR MODULATION THEORY ..........................................................91
B.2 SV-PWM OVER-MODULATION ............................................................................97
B.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN SPACE VECTOR MODULATION and SINUSOIDAL
PWM................................................................................................................................98
B.4 INVERTER IMPLEMENTATION ............................................................................98
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................99
APPENDIX C - EXPERIMENTAL SETUP and SENSOR CALIBRATION ..................... 100
C.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 101
C.2 DANFOSS HRS92C4-44S MOTOR........................................................................ 101
C.3 DANFOSS VLT5004 INVERTER........................................................................... 102
C.5 LOAD DC MOTOR: GP115.30 ............................................................................... 103
C.6 dSPACE DS1103 PPC DIGITAL CONTROLLER .................................................. 103
C.7 SCU (SIGNAL CONDITIONING UNIT) ................................................................ 104
C.8 SENSORS and ACQUIRED SIGNAL ROUTING................................................... 104
C.9 ACQUISITION BLOCK in SIMULINK APPLICATION........................................ 107
C.10 CALIBRATION and COMPENSATION of the SENSORS ................................... 111
REFERENCES............................................................................................................... 114
APPENDIX D - SIMULINK BLOCKS.............................................................................. 115
D.1 SIMULATION FILE ............................................................................................... 116
D.2 REAL SETUP FILE with dSPACE SYSTEM.......................................................... 120

Ped3-934-Sensorless Control of PMSM For Low Speed Applications Project Report

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Ped3-934-Sensorless Control of PMSM For Low Speed Applications Project Report

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AALBORG UNIVERSITY

Institute of Energy Technology

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Kaiyuan Lu

Mehmet Sertug Basar

Study group code: PED3-934

Sensorless Control of PMSM

Submitted to the Department of Energy

Mehmet Sertug Basar

Power Electronics and Drives

1st September 2008 - 6th January 2009

1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................2

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

General advantages of PMSM can be listed as follows:

High air-gap flux density

High power-to-weight ratio (i.e., high power/motor mass)

Large torque-to-inertia ratio (enables high acceleration)

Controlled torque at zero speed

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

Low EMI [7]

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

Excellent dynamics with proper

High power density and

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

1.2 OBJECTIVE AND LIMITATIONS

1.3.1 Sensorless Drives

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

A. Open-loop Estimators Using Monitored Stator Voltages/Currents

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

B. Stator phase third harmonic voltage-based position estimators

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

C. BEMF (Back Electromotive Force) based position estimators

D. Observer based (e.g. Kalman, Luenberger) speed and position estimators

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

E. Estimators based on inductance variation due to geometrical or saturation effects

F. Estimators using artificial intelligence (e.g. neural network, fuzzy-logic-based systems,

G. High frequency signal injection

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

1.3.2 Method Selection

1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

7. A New High-Frequency Voltage Injection Method for Sensorless Drive of Permanent-Magnet

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

10. Freescale Semiconductor Web Page

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 2: VECTOR ORIENTED CONTROL FOR A PMSM MOTOR

CHAPTER 2: VECTOR ORIENTED CONTROL FOR A PMSM

2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................15

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 2: VECTOR ORIENTED CONTROL FOR A PMSM MOTOR

m : Mechanical speed; e : Electrical speed

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 2: VECTOR ORIENTED CONTROL FOR A PMSM MOTOR

2.2 PMSM MODEL

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 2: VECTOR ORIENTED CONTROL FOR A PMSM MOTOR

2.2.1 PMSM Model in Stationary abc Reference Frame

V, V: stationary biphasic model stator

Figure 2.2. abc and stationary reference frames

(2.3) shows the expression for phase fluxes.

SENSORLESS CONTROL OF PMSM FOR LOW SPEED APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 2: VECTOR ORIENTED CONTROL FOR A PMSM MOTOR