GENERAL

COPYRIGHT,

1908,

1907,

BY

HENRY

NORRIS

Stanbope
H.

QILSON

BOSTON,

COMPAI

U.

S.

A.

PREFACE.

ELECTRICAL
of

and

magnetic

constructing machines
by selecting and

or

commercial
devices
a

sense

possibly

more

use

specificpurposes,

for

produce definite

to

electrical

engineer should

every

Electrical

engineer.

part

of

in

be

engineering,

once

is becoming

longer such, but

no

component

electrical

efficiency. As

maximum

cation
appli-

by designing and

apparatus

profession, is

separate
and

more

with

electrical

devices

arranging such

in universal

now

an

other

and

results

are

industry either

to

industrial

principles. The

electrical

applies science

engineer

in the

consists

ENGINEERING

general mechanical

engineering.
Having
it is

electrical

defined

especially important
have

subject should

before

Observation

them.
from
from

which

the

and

of

this

introductory

of

the

student

and

electric

Every

contact

with

experience

clear

this

conception
then

may

devices
The

be

used

used

for further

exercises

the

of

with
it should

upon

electrical

telephones

By

less

or

more

combining
These

result.

should

laws

operation of the

laws

numerous

practice.
this

course

is intended

by those

practical experience
sufficient

select, install, and

into

plan

taught by scientific research,

analytical work
be

of
uses

cars,

the

experience

every-day

phenomena.

explain the

to

proceed

must

survey

to

rial
mate-

raw

Hence

comes

ways

lessons

electrical

We

electric

electrical

with

in electrical

study based

combination

in other

ascribed

supply the

the

the

things and

be

can

general

on

the

unknown.

take

of

rides

one

lights,and

intimate

and

application,

approaching

of

be made.

to

is to

basis

in

student

must

are

of

one

reasons

any

new

work

the

as

applications.

the

as

knowledge

memory

deductions

familiar

the

that

personal

involved

phenomena

engineering

to

operate
iii

196469

enable

or

the

electrical

to

who

lay

desire

with
student

dation
foun-

it.

In

laboratory
to

machinery.

gently
intelli-

iv

PREFACE.

The
of
for

to

manufacturers
the

to

for
the
have

to

C.

of

work

issuing
been

in

the

reading

second

incorporated.

edition,

of

appreciation
who

diagrams,
of

Dennison

his

express

engineers

and

reproduction
B.

Mr.

College,

which

desires

author

have

electrical
and

given
Thanks

etc.

courtesy

permission
are

due

department,

correcting
and

the

for

proof

suggestions

also

Bible}?tory
preparamany

of

CONTENTS.

PAGB.

CHAPTER.

I.

DEVELOPMENT

HISTORICAL

ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL

OF

17
...

II.

ELECTRICAL

FUNDAMENTAL

MAGNETIC

AND

QUANTITIES

51
...

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

MATERIALS

OF

ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL

72

CIRCUITS

ELECTRIC

101

CIRCUITS

MAGNETIC

CONSTRUCTION

130

OF

GENERATORS

ELECTRIC

148
........

VII.

OPERATION

VIII.

TRANSFORMERS

IX.

CONSTRUCTION

178

GENERATORS

ELECTRIC

OF

APPLICATIONS

AND

THEIR

AND

OPERATION

OF

195

POWER

STATIONS

217
....

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

ELECTRIC

MOTORS

ELECTRIC

LIGHTING

ELECTRICAL

THE

APPLICATIONS

THEIR

AND

HEATING

MEASUREMENTS

TRANSMISSION

APPENDIX

REVIEW

AND

263

303

330

OF

INTELLIGENCE

352

374

QUESTIONS

379

IN

USED

SYMBOLS

ELECTRICAL

LITERATURE.

of

density

electrostatic

C.

flux

magnetic

or

induction.

capacity.

....

e.

force

electromotive

f.

m.

e.

m.

f., effective

e.

m.

f., instantaneous

mechanical

frequency

magnetomotive

current

i.
.

value.

force.
in

in

cycles

second.

per

force

in

gilberts

effective

amperes,

instantaneous

current,
.

volts.

value.

in

value.

value.

in

inductance

L.

henrys.

.....

m.

permeability.

magnetic

p.

electric

P.

power.

...

total

quantity

of

R,

reluctance.

magnetic
"'.-',time

in

angle

"H)

electric

W.
.

...

electricity.

resistance.

electric

induction

magnetic

4"

r,

force.

magnetomotive

f.

m.

seconds.

of

phase
energy

reactance.

impedance.

difference.

or

work.

or

per

flux.

cm.

INTRODUCTION.

electric current

THE

be

must

accepted

justas gravitationor inertia,and

its manifestations.

In

engineering it is

necessary

it

the

student

systematize his previous knowledge

of the

is

to

applied in modern
familiar

extent

some

with

familiaritybe only that

in

review

this

mentioned

of

casual

the

of

order

the
he

is

if the

even

assist him

application

The

to

here

are

of

ment
arrange-

standpoint of engineering importance and

financial

different

that

To

observer.

and

which

to

uses

applications

briefly illustrated.

merely suggestive. The

might dictate

these

recall

to

It is assumed

principal fields

the

and

is from

life.

through

subject of electrical

the

current

in nature,

only be studied

can

approaching
for

fact

as

or

the

economic

is

standpoint

order.

Synopsis of Applications of the Electric Current.

1

station
located
water

machines

to

of

Production

3.

Electrolysis.

4.

Transmission

5.

Production

is used

wheels,

such

movers,

connected

designed

to

intelligence.

of heat.

of

Mechanical

transmit

to

it is

points at which

prime

power.

light.

of

Distribution

current

the

of mechanical

2.

1.

Electric

Distribution
.

as

to

convert

gas

power

required.

Power.
from

generators

mechanical

power

In the station

engines, steam

electric

the

into

are

engines,
which

or

are

electrical

ELECTRICAL

At

power.

the

circuit, the

is

mechanical

reproduced

FIG.

Trolley

i.

power

in the

car

mechanical

electric
power
none

power

can

be

of these

transmitted
can

grade,

into

compete

circuit.

the

by
over

means

in

For

the

principles involved
electrical

and

power

fact

important

by the
been

through

or

losses

motors.

The

showing

line

necessary

the

having

transmission

through

current

discuss

is furnished

climbing

the

power.

motors,

transmission

electric

of mechanical

mechanical

again into

in

to

necessary

the

less

power,

reproduced

transformation

back
that

is

it is not

in the

of

receiving end

mechanical

transmission,
present

ENGINEERING.

prime

the

familiar

electric

While
other

considerable

and

movers

transmitted

by the

example

of

circuit.

it is true
than

is

that

electrical,

distances.

It is

INTRODUCTION.

FIG.

2.

Map

of

illustratingthe

the
case

transmission
of

lines

transmission

of
of

the

Ontario

power

by

Power
electrical

Company
means.

ELECTRICAL

interesting to
a

that

note

of

Examples

the

which

mounted

are

mechanical

into

changed
friction

and

includes

the
link

the

the

between

lines

of this

Part
transmitted

miles, and

is

power

against

car

circuit, which

merely

acts

the

and

as

driving

necting
con-

of

gear

is

for any

is used

power

plants located

electric

generated, and
material

difficult

to

and

cross-sectional
other
the

amount

great

words,

passage

of heat

the
of the

names

of

of

through

smaller
current

generated in
This

incandescence

be

power.
horse-

large part
Rochester,
hundred

two

The

electric

by

accomplished

points of demand.

Light.

through

through

current

light is given off.

given the

radius

It

conductor
than
any

the

part of

light is of
and

the

upon

is

of

one

offers

large
a

of small

large

When

one.

is

area.

the

sufficiently

kinds, which

luminescence.

more

resistance

more

circuit
two

nature

evidently

long conductor
short

is

circuit, heat

depends

its dimensions.

than

Buffalo,

could

produced

amount

area

that

great

thousand

constantly extending.

is forced

upon

pass

is furnished

Five

vicinity, but

within

the

current

the

hundred

Production

2.

Falls.

Niagara

Lockport,

purpose
at

distribution

power

in the

cities

range

power

When

from

several

is used

other

the

of

Toronto,

to

and

Syracuse,

to

engines

radiating

transform

plants

power

In

the

electric

motors,

striking illustration

by the

of

electric

motors

car.

Another

is

line,and

through

In the

drives

The

power

current

axles, the
and

climbing

car

of mechanical

rail return.

car

form

generator,

trolley

furnishes

resistances.

grade

the

the

upon

electrically

more.

station

power

trolley wire and

and

feeders

or

illustration

concrete

The

transmission.

miles

being transmitted

Transmission.

Power

grade furnishes

is

power

hundred

of two

distance

ENGINEERING.

are

INTRODUCTION.

is due

Incandescence

intensity has

the

and
the

somewhat

is

process

The

most

by the
In the former

FIG?

3.

carbon

by the

current

of carbon

filament

incandescent

This

centigrade.

will allow, but

point of the
of
between

it must

material.

and

be

in order

the

of

carbon

offered

vapor.

by

the

The
vapor

current

path

or

in
arc

the
the

lamps
by

points separated

(one-eighth to three-eighth inch)

thousand

and

power

connected

overcoming
heats

the

degrees
the

as

the

kept far below

arc

vacuum

electrical

high

as

minimize

to

lamps.

light.

of several

always

In

in which

is carried

temperature

carbon

two

heat

into

temperature

filament

the

lamp

in

nished
fur-

are

arc

is heated

metal

or

light

plain carbon

the

and

filament

to

in

waves

by incandescence.

of incandescent

examples

changed

property

generating light
for

ing
depend-

selective radiation.

frequently named

is

involves

also

to

heated.

light/' while

accounted

be

relation

substance

cold

of

incandescent
a

"

temperature,

can

common

the

to

substance,

well-known

and

called

materials

some

quantity than

greater
This

the

upon

by

regard

sometimes

Luminescence,

of the

high temperature

definite

without

temperature

possessed

the

to

rial
mate-

boiling

lation
gradual distilcurrent

short

by
the
carbon

flows
distance

stream

resistance

tips

to

such

4.

View

vapor

and

is

diagram
by

practically the

temperature

is the

the

forms

which

produced

bon

they become

that

temperature
the

FIG.

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

of

the

the

heat

most

arc

carbon

incandescent.
the carbon

arc

generated

lamp
in the

In

boils.

in

ducing
pro-

As

which

light

can

be

is

arc.

refractory of conductors, the

highest which

car-

produced.

arc

slight

INTRODUCTION.

of

amount

light also
with

compared

Luminescent
and

light

in

may

time

from

comes

thrown

that

from

out

sources

the

the

small

attracting attention,

other

displace the

is

tips.

now

are

this

but

arc,

As

forms.

rule, they

Air
Inlet

FIG.

5.

Vacuum

tube
and

produce

light

more

lamps.
the

is

composed

comparatively

which

small

gives
luminous

An

excellent
in
of

low

the

light

out

at

low

temperature

intensity.

efficientlythan

principle is found

mantle
to

lamp,
with

Valve

the

ordinary

non-electrical
Welsbach

thorium

temperature

oxide,

gas

which

arc

candesce
in-

and

illustration
mantle.
when

of

This
heated

gives off light. Among

ELECTRICAL

electrical

Mercury

arc

mercury

exhausted

to

connected

mercury

lamp,

is

path for the

low
a

current.

tube, and

at

most

highly efficient light now

added

to

high efficiency. The

the

carbons, calcium

for this purpose.

The

calcium

The

pressure.
a

flaming
known,
being

one

by

reservoir
forms

by

lamp
means

of the

particlesare

by

the

of metallic
a

gives off

arc

length

produced

vapor
arc

mercury

light.

produced

of moderate

heat

the

sists
con-

current

soft, white

is

cury
mer-

vapor.

from

vapor

The

first of these

tube

The

pressure.

the

The

mercury

principal

tube, the

greenish light

in

the

vacuum

produces

which

produced

low

gases

supply of
to

arc.

through

light

to

in

radiation

the

are

flaming

maintained

arc

maintains

current

use

rarefied

the

vapor

an

The

selective

long tube, exhausted

6.

the

tube, and

passingthrough

FIG.

into

coming

now

vapor

of

involving

lamps

examples

ENGINEERING.

ing
conduct-

greenish

produces the
of substances
best

maintained

materials

by the

INTRODUCTION.

at

arc

The

such
then

arc

tips
the

as

as

becomes

source

in the

the

acts

of

as

them

render

ordinary carbon

which

vapor

to

temperature

light rather
The

arc.

carrier

highly luminous.
than

carbon

for

the

the

bon
car-

furnishes
luminous

substance.

3.

Electrolysis is the
by the

produced
through

FIG.

7.

Gas

salt in solution

oxygen

in

ducting terminals

and

breaking

up

or

hydrogen

or

of the

to

chemical

When

current.

which

through fused

the
at

electrodes

electrolyte, decomposition
is

given

name

electric

generator,

Electrolysis.

of the

chemical

two

is

salt, between

water

passed
con-

into

electrodes.

immersed
salt

current

decomposes

current

the

decomposition

in

usually

compounds

the

liquid,

occurs.

and

or

There
recombin-

ELECTRICAL

IO

ation
or

of the

elements.

of the

more

ENGINEERING.

The

following

(a) Resolution

(c) Chemical
As
the

of

case

in

of the

the

base

compounds.

gaseous

of the

production of

oxy-hydrogen

tank

salt in solution.

containing

from

gases

sulphuric acid

Refining

8.

tank

for

from

the

jars

the

liberation

which
or

the

In

or

The

gas

or

lead

enters,

From

the

the

at

is

sulphate

copper

and

jars

verted
in-

are

solution.

Inside

Dynamo

the

deposited by

current

solution.

electrodes
of

solution

the

hydrogen
gases

which

between

positive plate

jars the

or

the

at

results

anode

in

through

negative plate

piped

are

the

to

storage

holders.

electrolyticrefining of
of the

which

copper,

decomposition

of oxygen

current

cathode.

tanks

platinum

are

flows.

current

liquid take

Two

generator.

To

FIG.

one

changes in the electrodes.

example

an

liquid into

of the

(b) Decomposition

in

ways

of the

is apparent

decomposition

decomposition

copper

of the

occurs

base

an

of

excellent

salt.

The

tration
illuscopper

INTRODUCTION.

be

to
a

refined

is first cast

which

of copper

deposited the

form

In

the

method

which

slabs
the

tanks

same

by the

refining produces

of

thin

are

sheets

which

upon

from

current

in

suspended

are

negative plates and

dissolved

copper

This

slabs.

into

sulphate solution.

copper

ii

the

is

anode

practically pure

copper.

The

storage

battery is the

engineering practice

PIG.

cell, in which

Storage

9.

oxidation

In
as

the

and

ordinary lead

electrolyte,the

form

reduces

spongy

lead

peroxide.

the
and

The

an

lead

of cell with

material

oxidizes

electric

of

in

thus

that

stored

positive and
circuit.

on

on

the
may

in

chemical

to

electrodes.

form

through

electrically.

sulphuric acid

supplied by the

active

energy

is stored

energy

type

application

electrolyticchanges

reduction

energy

by connecting the
through

of the

important

most

the

current

in electrical

negative plates

positive plates
be

solution

to

to

lead

partially recovered

negative terminals

of the

cell

ELECTRICAL

12

Transmission

4.

The
for

electric

is

accomplished

in the
in

as

FIG.
switch

C,

closes
"

the
"

dashes

the

represent

small

or

the

lever
two

for

letters

by

plays between

duration

simple telegraph circuit

showing,

circuit

battery

R,

long and

of

in

and

combinations

the

alphabet.

pivoted
upper

sounds.

at

S, sounder.

series.

of
The

attracts

one

The

key

and

lower

signals

sounder

prises
com-

plate of iron,

The

The

intervals

The

limit

as

these

current.

end.

Sw.

K, key;

intervals, known

short

which

relay

comprises

battery

local

; Bs.,

energized by the

lever

characteristic

the

current

electro-magnet

distance.

by varying the intensity of the

dots/'

when

armature,

is carried

"

and

considerable

key, all connected

and

circuit

means

current

; Bl., line

battery, sounder,

to

only convenient

of the

telegraph

Simple
contact

signals

or

telephone.

10.

or

Intelligence.
the

by varying

telegraph,

the

of

furnishes

current

transmitting speech

This
as

ENGINEERING.

armature

free

stops,

between

end

of

ing
producthe

two

INTRODUCTION.

the

duration

13

of

sounds

indicate

In

simple telephone circuit there

the

the

battery, and

receiver.

against which
is

diaphragm
varied

by the

sound

waves.

of

the

H,

phragm

R,

diaphragm
of
used

the

upon

the

the

and

contains

P, S,

T,

which

the

tact
con-

amount

iron

an

transmitter

transformer

is

of the

carbon

therefore

the

to

action

the

upon

showing

the

actual

business

in connection
same.

of

dia-

A,

B,

induction

or

varying

When

numerous

with

by

those

from

current

the

reproduces

force.

The

electro-magnet.

an

transmitter,

varying

the

end

current

with

principles are

ringer

the

under

phragm
dia-

Connected

"pressure upon

receiver

circuit

M,

carries

and

disk

transmitter, the

receiver.

near

magnet

the

coils.

magnet

comprises

talks.

pressure

The

telephone
;

transmitter

resistance

circuit.

C, condenser

switch

impressed

variable

electrical

placed

of this

of the

Simple

ii.

line wires
coils

vibration

in the

current

FIG.

contact,

the

are

speaker

carbon

The

varies

The

the

in the

current

the

sound

other

to

devices

mitter,
transwaves,

attracting the
applied

coil

the
are

receiver

ments
requiresarily
neces-

described, but the essential

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

I4

light,but there

with

FIG.

Electric

12.

rinding

heating
of

and

are

in

imbedded

heating is

of

very

efficient

13.

Carborundum

heating.

into heat.
described

Such
are

of

the

warming,

car

high

of

field

surrounded

as

to

be

all of the

of Carbon.

furnace,

Shows

for

through

body

the

^Mixture

FIG.

used

Sand,

an

arrangement

Salt

in

to

warming,

car

nection
con-

and

heat

producing

by

Electrical

usefulness.

with

consisting merely
insulating material
method

heated.

This

electrical

energy

of

is turned

Sawdust

important
of coke

application
and

sawdust

applicationsof electrical heating

triflingimportance

which

etc.,

resistance.

simple construction,

high resistance

of

cooking,

increasing

an

referred

applications of electrically

other

are

of current

flow

devices

wire

as

heater,

car

the

are

such

heat,

produced

Heat,

already been

has

of heat

production

The

of

Production

5.

as

compared

as

of

electric

core.

have

with

been
those

INTRODUCTION.

found
the

of current

passage

of material

practicable.

carbon

sawdust

and

in this line
while

example,
is

the

abrasive

with

high temperature

is maintained

aluminum

is carried

in

of

mass

the

current.

discoveries

new

reduction,

involves
which

the

is

of

use

reduced

by

cryolite which

of fused

mass

condition

fluid

in

Aluminum

oxide

not

material

by heating

produced

electrolytic process,

The

heating.

electrolyticaction

the

For

being constantly made.

are

masses

possible to produce reactions

to

essentially an

electric

paths in

graphite is similarly produced, and

Artificial

and

arc

it is

"carborundum"

as

electric

of the

means

through high resistance

heated

be

to

otherwise
known

By

electro-metallurgy.

in

15

by the

heat

general

survey

by

produced

current.

Summary.

of

preceding paragraphs

the

In

electricityin every-day life has

preparing

the

way

above

all others.

is put

involves

producing

as

whole,

light
the

takes

mechanical

case

the

instances
of

as

heat

such

can

be

All

of this

recovered
goes

from

have

only by
to

in

reappears

show

the

be

again.

is

so

form
and

dentally
inci-

restored

sound

electrical

thermal

roundabout

that

back

can

to

proportion

generation all of the

and

tration
first illus-

cited, although,

been

small

electricity

transmission

The

transformation

out

electrolysisthe

it

which

cases.

many

the

and

to

cations
appli-

stands

the

In

generated.

form

in

which

light, only

Finally, in

is

chemical

energy

electrical form

view

is largely lost in heat, but

energy

energy

intelligence involves
in

to

uses

these

fact

In

energy.

the
a

which

to

use

every

transformation of
mechanical

As

study.

important

one

is that

light the

some

to

more

This

it is from

energy

of

given with

been

detailed

for

viewed

are

In

of

energy
as

in

the

transformed.
energy

from

pears
disapwhich

it

inefficient process.

electric current

offers a

con-

ELECTRICAL

!6

uenient

nothing
is

that

of

the

It

transformations.

for

used

means

is

tranforming

electrical

of

study

The

else.

and

transmitting

for

means

ENGINEERING.

engineering,

economically

essential

that

therefore,

producing

the

arid

energy,

student

these

have

this

fact

motors,

cannot

before

continually
etc.,
be

be

viewed

"generated";

and

him,
merely
it

that

as

can

all

transformers.

energy

only

so-called

be

transformed.

generators,

Energy

CHAPTER

I.

OF

DEVELOPMENT

HISTORICAL

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING.

OUTLINE

PERIOD

"

PERIOD

MYSTERY.

OF

PREPARATION.

of

Storage
Exact

Electricity.

Electricity.
Work.

Scientific

Electricity

Current

of

Conduction

and

Generation

Electro-Magnetism

Effects.

and

its

and

Magneto-Electricity.

Summary.
PERIOD
Transmission

Intelligence.

of

Early

telegraph
in

Advances

The
Electric

DEVELOPMENT.

COMMERCIAL

OF

systems.

telegraphy.

telephone.
and

Lighting

Heating.

incandescent

Early

and

arc

lamps.

Development

of

the

incandescent

Development

of

arc

lamps.

Recent

in

improvements

Electric

lamp.

electric

lamps.

heating.

Electro-Chemistry.
Early
The

storage

Copper
Other
Electric

battery.

processes.

Generation

Early

direct

Early

alternators.

current

and

Transmission.

generators.

transformer.

Power

Early

transmission.
electric

Recent
Electric

electro-decomposition.

refining.

Power

The

in

experiments

motors.

electric

motors.

Traction.

Early

period.

Commercial
Recent

application.
developments.
17

OF

SCIENTIFIC

18

ELECTRICAL

of

survey

the

history of the

engineering shows
The

first

that

and

attitude

Between

the

continues

1600

the

the

to

1830

and

has

fact

been

amber

known

for

scientific

beginning
from

of

which

bodies

of

the
an

knowledge

the

words

lodestone

in Asia

of

which

iron

this

the

color

of

in very

knowledge
The

the

lodestone,

and

magnetite

the

of

name

in which

Greeks.

also
It is

which

matter

supposed

applied

were

the

The

attracting iron

was

times.

the

to

substance
of

the

elektront

given

was

ticular
par-

until

name

ancient

ancient

No

years.

property

ore,

light objects

attracts

by

The

sun.

of

Minor,

development

century.

amber

magnet
account

on

phenomena.

period of scientific

thousand

two

made

yellow

possessed by

common

that

of

the

them

was

electricityis derived,

property

reminded

known

Mystery.

seventeenth

indicates

name

few

rubbed

least

was

word

our

attractive

of

the

of

when

at

use

teenth
seven-

time.

present

that

periods.*

period of mystery, from

period of commercial

Period

The

the

electrical

beginning of the

the

people toward

years

preparation for

the

to

up

of

of three

roughly

be termed

may

of the

development

it consists

comprises the time

century,
the

ENGINEERING.

province

large quantities of the

the

to

of

nesia
Mag-

ore

were

discovered.
The

fundamental

two

attraction

underlie
No

magnetism.
*

References:

Faraday,
Gilbert, de

present

our

connection

Mottelay; Arago, Papers

Benjamin,
Magnetic Attractions;
Electricity;Mendenhall, Century

and

these

and

Magnetic

Age
of

of

two

magnetic

electricity and
was

suspected

of Electricity;
(1769) Status
and
Magnetism;
Electricity

in

French

of

and

Present

Researches

Lodestone
before

electric

knowledge

between

Priestley, History
Experimental

Magnete,

of

phenomena

Bodies,
of

translated

Science;
Academy
Electricity, Intellectual

Electricity-

by

Barlow,
Rise

in'

DEVELOPMENT.

HISTORICAL

had

until each

led

much

to

attractions

of these

lightning rod,

invented

at

known

to

Europe

is

it

is

the

1752,

mariner's

It

obscure.

ancient

in

general

regarding the

of

relation

was

electrical

little

however,

was,

there

and

been

in

appearance

from

that

time
form.

crude

very

unlimited

speculation

magnetic

attractions.

basis

experimental

the

undoubtedly

was

of

have

to

and

in

of the

history

first

century,

of either

invention

not

Its

shipboard

period of mystery

made

place, but

or

peoples.

on

use

use

the

appears

tion,
connec-

experimentally

of the

date

The

not

compass,

particular time

any

was

only practical

placed in the thirteenth

the

There

the

several

was

During

to

time,

some

The

up

was

which

origin of

on

1820.

until

research.

successful

although suspected for

established

19

for the

theories

advanced.

Period

scientific

The
1

the

"

de

Magnete,"

laborious

and

study by

numerous

the

one

explanation
*

The

scientists

electrical
of

amber

nature

of

their

may

of

accomplished;

engineers
the

dates

intended
demonstrated

be

electrified

poles and

of

of further

discovered

one

by

Gilbert

laws.

explain electric

to

he

writing,

results

cause

magnetic

and

magnetic

the

the

was

chief

that

by

many

rubbing.
a

gave

stances
sub-

He

rational

properties.

places mentioned
and

It

fallacies

attraction, and

electricity and

1600, contains

in

verified

and

His

philosophers who

other

of

study
basis.

who

Elizabeth),

time, corrected

scientific

published

number

beside
the

his

(London,*

Gilbert

Queen

to

placed the

sound

Wm.

Dr.

expensive research.

magnetic

studied

with

of

and

fundamental

disproved
and

upon

Preparation.

physician

knowledge

previous hypotheses,
magnetism

Scientific

period began

advisory

540*-! 603,

absorbed

of

in connection
are
are

those
of

births

in

with

which

and

the

their

deaths.

names

of

important

prominent
work

was

ELECTRICAL

20

Generation
studies
indirect
Otto
the

not

result

of

immediately

bear

electric

the

air pump

forging
"de

to

electrify it.

1642

March

"

glass for

to

of
the

20,

be
in

1675 Sir

attractive

conducted

conduction

along

the
in

were

was

thread.

1672 by

inventor
His

of
trical
elec-

b3^ hand

Gilbert's

(Christmas

electrical

principle the
of

von

supposed
former

Guericke
to

be

the

and

confined
that

discovered

Unfortunately

forgotten, and

Day,

by substituting

machine

time

the

an

1600.

Newton

Isaac

The
a

in

From

meridian.

published

property

substances.

invented

as

sulphur globe rubbed

producing
to

but

1602-1686), the

1727) improved

Up

fruit,

was

magnetic

in

iron

Gilbert'*

Electricity.

pieces of apparatus.

Magnete,"

to-day.

rubbed

the

could

In

of

sulphur, thus

machine
Newton

useful

consisted

Smith

14.

other

and

machine

machine

(Magdeburg,

Guericke

von

FIG.

Conduction

and

did

ENGINEERING.

his

it

ments
experi-

possibility of

DEVELOPMENT.

HISTORICAL

transmitting

electricity

this time

At

found

1736)

die

silk to

work

Gray's
research

by

he

made

1733

when

the

insulate

into

two

also

improved

ones

of

that

bodies

the

he

He

wax.

treated.

while

able

was

Du

to

scientific

and

In

materials
He

line of

transmission
of

the

substances

when

rubbed

repelled by

other

solid

making

by

that

Gray's

non-conductors.

influence

Fay

line of

separate

made

some
are

the

therefore, assumed

He,

ability of

more

in the

constructed

which

conducted.

latter

machine

(Paris, 1698-1739).

Fay

Gray's silk insulator

upon

was

covery

the

electrical
dis-

astounding

substances
there

light

attract

similarly
kinds

two

were

electricity.

electricity readily by
through

the

it, led

to

the

making

1745,

Peter

that

electric

end

being immersed
the

and

would

hand

hold
were

outer

machine.

of

Thus
its
soon

of

wire
in

end

be

in

the

about

The

water.

of the

wire
the

electricityfor

to

the

some

time.

replaced by metallic

first
and

water

charged

was

terminal

jar could

His

cork, the lower

the

jar

year

1692-1760)

bottle.

passed through

charged

experiments.

(Leyden,

stored

and,

conducting

glass jar filled with

the

Fay,

electrical

Musschenbroeck

consisted

hand.

Du

and

generating

machine

experiments

electricitycould

in the

Newton's

Gray

such

some

held

applying

of

popularizing

-van

bottle

possibility of
of

means

discoveries

While

found

The

Electricity.

of

Storage

the

inspiration for

Du

result

glass and

ability to

the

discovered

general classes, conductors

machine

of

the

F.

length through

some

also

long series of observations

As

unknown,

electric

an

1729.

conducting thread.

Charles

experiments.

of birth

date

with

connected

furnished

until

ivory ball possessed the

an

Incidentally he

thread.

(London,

Gray

that

light bodies

attract

by

Stephen

rediscovered

not

was

21

be

of

The

coatings

tric
elec-

an

carried

by

about

water

and

inside

and

ELECTRICAL

22

out

of the

the

present

this

bottle,resulting in the form

It should

time.

important invention,

charges

bodies

on

experiments

body

that

the

invention

interest,and
countries.

of

of

The

with
result

he

the

bottle

announced

the

another.

Franklin's
him

of the

able to

was

rod
electrical

bottle

sent

Exact

Scientific

available

furnished
made

1810) and

as

the

with

first

checks

such

Up

in various

the

relative

and

also the

upon

studies
A.

London

but

menting
experi-

been

kind

one

bottle

vinced
con-

electricity,which
Thus

the

ning
light-

application of
in

used

in

not

As

its presence

electric

the

scientific

to

the

had

data

of the

middle

been

for

precise measurements.

the

theory, and

for further

were

Coulomb

parts of France,
electrical
chemical

Benjamin

began

ment
treatmanner

Henry

the

and

latter

The
time

same

1736-1806).
of

Cavendish
various

was

they
those

(London,

(as military engineer

and

physical

analysis. Among

Cavendish

conductivity
effects

at

eighteenth

collected

production of mathematical

material

Charles

popular

by

was

commercial

had

charge.

effect and

the

time, but

Work.

for the

raw

there

one

in

results.

theories of electricityand
used

immediately

producing

experimental

numerous

stored

to

1747,

experimentally in 1752.

dubious

very

be

one,
any-

repeated in several

was
was

theory that

this

to

occur

stimulated

identity of lightning and

before

popular

theorizing regarding it.

principles. Electricity

with

century

and

the

of the

source

apparatus

invented, the

was

of disease

who

not

charge could

experiment

studies

prove

before

years

of

most

It did

philosopher

electricity,its absence

were

fact

(Philadelphia,Pa., 1706-1790), in

correspondent.

were

in

electric

the

some

at

use

possibility of inducing electric

electrical

the

jar in

Ley den

that

direction.

after the

soon

Some

Franklin

and

the

of

noted

electricallyindependent of the

The

he

be

known,

was

in this

were

however,

of

ENGINEERING.

1731ted
loca-

studied
substances

Coulomb
produced by electricity,

HISTORICAL

devoted
bodies

attention
and

particularly
the

deduced

Current

Electricity

(Bologna,

1737-1798)

two

these

dissimilar
Dr.

to

FIG.

15.

Volta's

was

also

had

occasion

metals.

The

Galvani

that

he

pile and

the

electric

the

of

attention

1827), who

two

had

the

Volta

it

from

the

the

forerunner

pile. Volta's

experimenters

next

source

of the

frogs' legs
a

gested
sug-

of

source

of

Galvani

this
of

by

the

of

source

from

came

attracted

(Pa via, Italy, 1745-

the

metals,

dissimilar

moistened

paper.

primary cell,was

electricity much

at

the
more

the
of

contact

conclusively he

discovery placed
of

with

contact

experiment

to

as

prove

pile of pairs of disks

pair separated
apparatus,

To

metals.

into

discovery

Volta

Galvani
that

frogs'

use.

His

Prof. Alessandro

cal
electri-

some

discovered

"frog-leg"
its

in

dissect

to

matter.

believed

dissimilar
a

animal

disagreed with

electricity,and

interested

name.

Galvani

Luigi

Dr.

much

charged

by his

twitching of the

repeated by

the

is now-known

its Effects.

and

of

attraction

accidentally brought

were

electricity in

23

the

to

which

law

He

experiments.
legs, and

DEVELOPMENT.

structed
con-

each
The

known

as

disposal of
convenient

ELECTRICAL

24

than

the

electrical

of Volta's

use

discovery

and

whiteness

the

developed

beginning

were

of

connection
While

carrying

of this

news

discovery and

the

rational

space

of

electric

In the

current.

(Paris, 1786-1852)
in
advance
in

other
of

which

found

that

Oersted.

the

magnet

was

only
Oersted
actual

an

current.

of

placed

magnetic

When

Ampere

the"

(Lyons,

this feat

magnetic

In

and

gave

field

to

This

current.

he

to

experiments appealed particularly to

could

magnetism

before
follow
a

young

an

man

the

duced
pro-

step

in

experiment
He

magnet.
disk.

the

Arago
be

was

performed

revolved

tended

of Oersted's

Dominique- Francois

that

the

of the

explain them.

to

of the

year

1825

In
disk

metal

same

by

made

his class he

verification

performed

he

discovered

bodies

had

was

was

deflected.

was

theory

relation

of the

treatment

other

electric

the

the

to

the

to

perceived the importance

once

week

one

Up

also been

there

Andre-Marie

developing

to

current.

Christian

Hans

before

latter

himself

devoted

and

short

at

1807 Davy

knowledge

neighborhood

reached

experiment

France, 1775-1836) he

statements

the

that

practical

of the

each

to

and

in the

current

In

had

that

experiments

some

noticed

and

needle

1820, Prof.

magnetism

between

wire

practical applications

of these

discovered

large

points.

the

means

slight use

relation

1819 and

performing

wire

Some

1777-1851)

(Copenhagen,

of

carbon

two

electrical

that

extent

an

the

by

first

platinum

light indicated

century

result.

to

In

suspected.

nineteenth

but

magnetism,

aid

Magneto=Electricity.

and

such

to

heat

to

decomposition

chemical

of the

the

between

arc

electric

Electro=Magnetism
beginning

able

was

the

(Bristol and

Davy

with

ulus
stim-

more

make

to

rapidly developing science.

possibilitiesof the
produced

of those

1802

an

it gave

Humphry

In

produce

of

invention

also

Sir

was

cells he

to

time, and

One

experiment.

voltaic

of

number

This

of the

Eng., 1778-1829).

London,

to

machine

study and

to

ENGINEERING.

who

Arago's
at

this

HISTORICAL

time

assistant

was

going

in

on

reaction

of the

he

remarkable

is

wires, it

that

the

first

opposite direction
this

current

notwithstanding

parallel
in

the

FlG-

other;

inducing

by

and

cur-

the

is

broken, another
in

produced

the

intensity and
that

to
"

If

with

generated

otherwise

magnet,

If the

induced,

but,

opposite

to

Faraday's
short

through

as

that
most

T.

the

of the

C.

laws

about

in the

the

same

opposite

tion
direc-

current

be

the

can

made

coil.

be

pass,

This

separated,

previous

case,

brought

approach

to

its

the

up

coil,

will not

current

current

ometer
galvan-

of
will

be

approach.
again be

direction

will

be

first/'*
discoveries

important
Naturally

period.
*

in

the

discovered.

were

only during the motion

coil be

and

magnet

which

joined, through

are

magnet

will exist

but

permanent,

ends

that

if the

or

researches

first.

whose
so

will pass

current

duration, but
at

as

his

is

induction, of

under

in

ele"=tro-magneticindue-

first

current

momentary

coil of wire

or

to

wire

coils

Faraday

experimental
""

When

and

RinS

l6-

tion

circuit

this, and

prove

current

current

in

the

is continued.

rent

Between

as

only momentary,

is

electricitywas

to

but

in

magnet

magnet.

used
...

cause

were

of two

one

at

causes

the

the

and

idea

near

electrical

important

electric

an

disk

the

the

pondering

experiments

by Faraday

"When

the

subject in

The

passed through

the

between

in

Faraday

systematized

manner.

follows:

In

laboratory.

many

of this

discovered

Michael

interested

conceived

had

year

25

Davy.

by its motion

disk

knowledge

facts

much

1831 he made

by the latter
the

was

produced

in the
and

1825

Humphry

Davy's

Arago's experiment
induced

Sir

1791-1867)

(London,
work

to

DEVELOPMENT.

Mendenhall,

they
"A

were

stimulated

Century

of

made
other

Electricity."

in

very

workers.

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

26

Faraday

by

produce

to

effect

able

was

invented

the

with

Contemporaneous
Prof. Joseph

FIG.

The

17.

the

motor

in his

he

by

winding

laboriously by
time

constructed

England,
In
that

hand.
in

the

work

the former

was

most

from

other

in

by

him,

coils

by William

was

Between

Peter

Barlow

and

1824.

powerful

magnets

by

motor.

important pieces

bars

Similar

of

land,
Eng-

disk

1797-1878).

constructed

of

Henry

interested

electricity. Faraday

electricityfrom

the way

Faraday

(Woolwich,

in

of
were

of electro-magnet

nets
electro-mag-

wire

insulated
the

at

same

S'.urgeon(Manchester,

1783-1850).

comparing

of

N. Y.,

constructed

England

disk, and

independent

published

iron

upon

the

of

Barlow

but

as

book

among

apparatus,

ment
Arago's experi-

producing the electric

(Albany,

1831,

1829 and

years

it,thus

original electric

of

operation of Faraday's

Faraday,

Henry

shown

motion

Peter

the

through

current

the

dynamo.

reversed

modification

by

current

1776-1862)
sending

of

means

magnetism.

for the many

and

Faraday

in the
studied

practically invented

the

production

of magnetism

carefullythe

tion
induc-

Thus,

applicationsof

it will be noted

while
the

Henry

pared
pre-

electro-magnet,

transformer, the

dynamo

DEVELOPMENT.

HISTORICAL

SUMMARY

OF
OF

THE

27

MYSTERY

OF

PERIODS

PREPARATION.

SCIENTIFIC

Magnetism.

Electricity.
Electric

lodestone,

attraction,

Magnetic

AND

attraction,

amber,

uity.
antiq-

antiquity.
Mariner's

used
1

origin

compass,

least

at

known,
un-

early

as

as

3th century.

Gilbert, researches

Magnete,"

"

published

Gilbert, researches

de

latter

part

i6th

century.

1600.

Machine,

Electric

Guericke,

1672.

Electric

Newton,

Machine,

1675.

tion,
Insula-

Conduction,

Electric

Gray,

about

1729.
i

Fay, separated conductors

Du

two-fluid

non-conductors,
of

and

theory

electricity,1733.

Musschenbroek,

of

identity

Franklin,

electricity, the

Cavendish
and

and

part

lightning and

lightning-rod,

scientific

Coulomb,

analytical work

latter

jar, 1745.

Leyden

of

in

i8th

electricity,

century.

Galvani,

electricity,"frog-

current

"

leg experiment,

1786.

Volta, the

the

Davy,

magnetic

effect

light,

arc

decomposition,

Oersted,

cell, 1793.

primary

of

chemical

1802-1807.

rent,
cur-

1820.

I
Ampere,
study

scientific
of Oersted's

and

analytical

work,

1820.

Arago,

induction

magnetic

current,

mechanical

from

the

effects,1820-

1825.

electro-magnetic

Faraday,

1820-1824.

transformer,

etc., 1825"1831.

I
Barlow, Elements

dynamo,

tion,
induc-

of electric motor,

I
Henry

and

Sturgeon,
1829-1831.

the

magnet,
electro-

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

28

With

devices.

modern

other

and

period of electrical development

their

work

scientific

of

conduction

had

progressed

had

jar in

accumulation

of

for all purposes

been

point that

which

to

static

The

identity of lightning and

and

The

systematically investigated, and magnetism

electric

from

the

been

produced,
These

Arc

current.

and

developed

facts

been

and

produce

to

laws

capacity

be

applied.

established,

some

extent

convenient
number

had

been

been
been

produced
lights had

posed.
electricallydecomwere

all of the

growth of electrical engineering from

has

the

sufficient

when

electrical

devices

the

present

day.

present

time

had

incandescent

and
had

substances

elementary

commercially

been

the

and

uses,

electricity could

to

means.

sufficient

electricityhad

ductors
con-

permitted

electro-magnetic induction

of

laws

was

possible

was

mechanical

gave

fect.
per-

tricity
elec-

practical lightning rod for protecting buildings had

developed.

The

it

experimental

jars in batteries

wires

of current

knowledge

electricity for

been

separated into

and

the

practically

practically perfect form

of these

arrangement

such

had

electricity along

The

to

for

necessary

was

supply by chemical

limited

Leyden

of the

cations
practical appli-

engineering

machine

static

non-conductors.

and

principles

electrical

materials

and

understood,

Before

Development.

electric

static

The

The

The

of

development

discovered.

produce

Commercial

of

1830, all of the

year

commercial

well

preparatory

close.

to

completed, however,

was

Period

the

said

be

may

the

men

already being made.

were

By

these

occurred
related
to

along
but

summarize

of different

number

more

the

topics.

or

less

of

1830

to

different

independent.

commercial

lines, all

to

It will be

development

under

DEVELOPMENT.

HISTORICAL

of

Transmission

early

As

1774,

as

balls

representing

years

later

this

of

wires

number

the

by

of
of

means

the

the

line.

for

Up

transmitting
moist

litmus

change

in

contact

finger. All of this development

Oersted

of Professor
of current

the

was

the

immediate

to

became

produced

was

attract

later

years

number

at

the

of

the

attention

Sir

Charles
a

as

the

of

the

was

device, utilizing Professor

apparatus,

which

device

recording dots

working

F.
on

Henry's

is illustrated
and

ing
employof

movements

The

in

needle

plan

in

B.
a

with

put

was

In

this

reduced
into

mercial
com-

country,

(Charlestown,

printing

or

electro-magnet.

few
1802-

England,

Morse

upon

signal

recording
His

Fig. 170, Chap. XIII,

dashes

there

1832

afterward

and

fairly successful.

time, Prof. S.
was

current,

system

and

(London,

This

one.

the

by

receiving operator.

Wheatstone

to

to

effect

magnetic

alphabet.

popular,

the

under

telegraph system,

needles

5-needle equipment

of needles

same

of

producing

preliminary

was

devised

Ampere

immediately

Mass., 1791-1872)

for

soon

magnetic

letters

current

moving

deflecting needles, the

the

operation and
and

1828

practical 36-needle arrangement

1875) devised
the

and

represented

telegraph

of

result.

wires

several
which

deflection

at

transmission

time

paper

discovered, the invention

was

involving

As

in 1820.

the

possible by the discovery

electro-magnetic telegraph made

the

Forty

another

signals by

pith

mounted

being

with

this

to

charge

reducing

by

balls

pith

were

different

electricity. About

of

color

electric

alphabet.

synchronously

static

used

electricitywas

the

one,

the

improved

was

rotating

end

sending

was

to

Signals

lines, the

of

Systems.
of different

number

pith balls with

letters

device

wheel

upon

the

devised.

been

respective conducting

their

through

using

pith balls had

to

by supplying these

transmitted

Early Telegraph

telegraph system

connected

wires

Intelligence

29

moving

first
was

strip of

ELECTRICAL

3"

1844, after

In

paper.

received

Morse

of

Washington,

and
It

1844.

The

cases.

"

in

invention

of the

The

Thomas

A.

led

two

connecting

"

break

received

from

Another

the

in

telegraphy

The

on

of

"

This

ing
duplex-

along the
""

quadruplex
important

same

of

the

feature

in

telegraph circuits

the

was

electro-magnetic device
circuit

with

line current

attract

an

the

iron

sounder

or

the

attached

armature

this

for

through

passes

of

movements

very

with
The

the

improving
rapidly.
for

large scale

signals.

sending of

"

lever

circuit,reproducing in it the

local

method

signals

of

local

The

"

the

direction

"

make

impulses

line.

the

is perforated
Morse

is still in

in this

invention

sensitive

circuit.

successfully developed
adopted

form

time.

most

extension

very

lever.

contact

the

many

(Menlo Park, N. J.,

same

in

first

relay which

of the

bobbins

later

battery in each

in that

recorder

"

is

This

relay/'

and

in

permitting the

further

to

the

From

Edison

the

at

years

rendering possible the

taken

principallyin improving

first step

method

wire

system

day.

present

to

May

fied
simpli-

recorder

advances

consisted

system.

by

over

messages

line, resulting

"

the

be

thus

was

the
and

on

could

mechanical

The

have

1847- date), in 1872, of

"

sent

was

system

for

improved

invention

transmission

the

two

"

for

Baltimore

messages

the

sounder

Telegraphy.

in

Morse's

the
was

that

recorder, and

the

between

first message

found

soon

was

recorder

Advances

since

line

Congress

particular classes of service.

for

use

this the

over

substituting

by

appropriation from

experimental

an

from

by sound

discouragements, Professor

numerous

small

construction

27,

ENGINEERING.

holes

tape

line

ing
efficiencyis by send-

Automatic

this

purpose

commercially.
so

placed that
is fed

through

systems
but
In

have
one

they
a

have

been

not

been

plan

tape

represent

the

contact-making

DEVELOPMENT.

HISTORICAL

which

device

the

under

pass

transmits

legible to

are

The

In

systems.
involves

properties of

Heinrich

These

waves.

induction

wire
sensitive

consists

decreased

they
for

waves

which

Either

of

in

connected

reproduced

in

these

has

lecting
col-

through
coherer

tic
electroly-

an

temporarily
The

waves.

telegraph

In
a

The

of

the

battery circuit, and

local

telephone,

electric

on

ground

or

an

space.

resistance

its

of the

discharge of

coherer.

particles

Prof.

Hertzian

called

the

to

the

as

metal

passage
a

them

ether.

by

received

are

mission
trans-

the

throughout

telegraphy they

of

in

by the

up

known

the

discovered

radiated

are

transmits

masses

by the

set

are

resistance

of

cell.

is

waves

that

frequently

are

which

principle from

waves

were

the

signals is

of

said

be

of

code.

radically in

electric

waves

they

coil, and

utilizingthe

these

Morse

transmission

may

of

use

and

Hertz,

the

general it

the

the

differs

telegraphy, which

wireless

The

in

holes

marks

produces

with

the

decomposition

current

familiar

person

development

latest

other

by the

paper

when

line

the

to

fingers. The

contact

in the

substance

current

31

coherer

signals

sounder,

are

other

or

apparatus.

The
the

transmission

of

of

transmitting

of

the

last

Bell

1876

sound

It

musical

remained,

speech.

Bell

crude

form

principles of the
studies

of

back

exhibited
of

sounds

however,

(Boston, Mass., Washington,

at

D.
the

for

receiver.

Prof. Alex.

C., 1847- date)

Oersted, Faraday,

It
and

was

an

Henry

than

middle

actually

were

Centennial

to

first ideas
the

to

telephone, containing the

present

later

signals. The

electrically date
when

circuit

electric

naturally much

came

merely transmits

century

transmitted.

application of the

speech

telegraph, which

the

the

The

Telephone.

so

Graham
to

mit
trans-

Exposition

of

fundamental

application of
by

which

the

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

72

of

vibration

and

made

was

waves,

metal

by induction

The

diaphragm,

to

vary

that

of

of

production

entirely satisfactory
the

at

use

1835-1901)
a

invented
the

varied

disk

supplied from
much

the

working
the

the

principle to

resistance
fluid.

Edison,

Blake,

and

others

the

to

development
for

switchboards

was

installed

which

early

elaborate

years

by

to

of

the

receiver

have

of

From
the

the

the

tion
induc-

an

mission
trans-

next

in

step

production
together.

this

subscribers'

Soon

crude

board,

circuits,the

developed.

development,

signaling was
located

of

switchboard

been

magneto-generator

struction
con-

raise the

transmitter,

use.

Francis

of transmission.

range

was

in

only essential

use

to

his

needle

transmitter

the

subscribers

and

connect

systems

of commercial
means

the

commercial

merely

served

present

for

the

varied

Hunnings,

transmitter

and

of receiver

invention

the

of

was

increase

connecting

produced.

metal

Henry

telephone

the

of

mitters
trans-

differingin

was

principle. The

satisfactory transmitter

after

thus

and

all transmitters

Gray

of

details

the

with

was

C., 1851- date) in 1887 applied

original inventions

pressure

the

the

duce
intro-

to

devised

resistance

Hughes,

B.

varied

coil in connection

With

D.

altering the

without
addition

variable

degree of immersion

Prof. D.

able

inventors

resistances, whereas

contact

the

by

thus

of

being

current

general principle but

the

is in

vibrations

principle underlies
Other

(Washington,

Berliner

Emile

form

(Chicago, 111.,

the

was

was

transmitting circuit than

This

same

which

in

manner

the

on

the

time.

present

He

source.

device.

Gray

circuit, the

the

was

apparatus

in modified

in which

in

into

power

Bell's

possible in

resistance

sound

surrounding it.

development

Prof. Elisha

transmitter

of

electro-magnet

Bell's

receiver, and

outside

an

more

of

as

action

an

coil

transmitter.

time.

present

in

current

efficient

an

strength of

step in telephone

important

next

the

the

under

at

In

the

plished
accom-

each

sub-

DEVELOPMENT.

HISTORICAL

This

scriber's instrument.

At

the

office

permit the

the

the

over

operated

the

for

current

central

and

time

present

direct

to

line

the

through

machine
a

bell.

for

the

current

of the

furnished

are

alternating

an

inductance

allows

to

pass

current

ringing and

circuit,a condenser

same

current

specially constructed

alternating

local bell circuit, while

direct

alternating

sent

talking circuit

passage

33

being employed

keeps

the

through

current

coil in the

and

the

from

talking circuit
the

out

alternating

current.

Electric
Arc

Lighting

Lamps.

His

light.

battery, the

limitation

cells of

heated

his

form

wire

this

as

by
to

platinum

years

of

the

arc,

incandescence
in the

thousand

indicating the

carbon

by
air it

ment
develop-

two

name

of

stream

primary

the

of

and

arc

the

was

use

and

nineteenth

both

power

the

an

was

the

discouraged

By

the

Incandescent

of

which

produced

taken

platinum
but

of

Early

produced

source

discoveries.

battery he

arched

Davy

Humphry

incandescent

of

first few

the

During

Sir

century,

Heating;

and

He

vapor.

of the

means

was

rent,
cur-

destroyed

soon

by oxidation.

of the

Development
to

be

granted for

being /. W.
out

dated

June

owing

to

of

Starr

lack

of

cheap

practical electric generator

to

place the

he

succeeded
in

incandescent
in

1879.

in

was

the

use

It

made
As

current.

on

an

Shortly before

the

this

had

patent

was

interest

commercial

he

was

inventions,
as

in electric

A.

Thomas

extensive

patent

therefore,

soon,

for

remained

doing, after

of the

produced

lamp

The

first American

was

was

first patent

tor
1845, the inven-

Cincinnati, Ohio.

Little

lighting increased.

The

Lamp.
lamp

Britain, and

1858.

29,

the

incandescent

an

in Great

taken

Incandescent

Edison

basis, which

series
made

of

ments,
experi-

platinum

ELECTRICAL

34

filament

he

mentioned
in

which

lamps

Edison

filament,

but

with

his

experiments
make

commercial

Edison
1828

has

been

date),

"

time

of the

patents

incandescent

lamp

mechanical
in

of

the

Joseph

The

The

result

filament

of these
in the

consumption

needed

only

carbons

to

undoubtedly
of

source

time

in
of the

by

have

the

arc

1845.

In

lamp, and

singular form

known

there

length of
as

the

been

wire.
power

by Davy
between

This
a

would

satisfactory

repeated

was

to

light.

distance

from

finally produced

was

practical
street

applied

produced

to

much

reduce

to

of

in the

metal

applicable.

referred

early sixties

short

been

experiment

mechanism

the

had

in

facture
manu-

at

is
to

arc

the
other

change

"

regulating the

invented

Davy's

current.

The

commercially

been

but

and

operated

given output

for

it

render

has

Lamp.

mechanism

time, and

to

Arc

be

ment.
fila-

metal

improvement

metallized

inventions
for

chief

is

lamp

employed,

its resemblance

from

lamp

of the

Development

"

word

recent

the

tantalum

to

the

in the

the

to

producing

permitting it

the

Since

raising it during the

high temperature

higher temperature.
improved

in

for

largely in their

back

The

to

with

credit

time

now

use.

him

England,

England.

present

metal

consists

of

previous

improvements

titanium,

into

carbon, and

this

the

tungsten,

very

of the

in

Swan,

the

of

(London,

recently been

At

or

Contemporaneous

lamp

until

vacuum

enable

to

as

way

Swan

and

year

operating

results

large share

of Edison
have

Wilson

incandescent

filament

to

use

lamp.

is due

coming

are

carbon

form

of

is not

refractory
metals

first to

transition, apparently

Platinum

rare

filament

the

in such

own

in the

carbon

combined

construction.

process

more

he

whom

the

not

form

of the

development

durable

was

Sir

to

fairly successful, but

were

produced

vacuum.

carbon

ENGINEERING.

use

in Paris

made

was

was

Jablochkoff candle.

lighted
It

con-

HISTORICAL

sisted

of

DEVELOPMENT.

parallel pair of carbons

the

material,

forming

arc

tips. After

this

brought

by

out

the

Mass., Newport,

The

G.

1889 L.

In

by

arc

referred
Marks

B.

The

reduced.
air from

the

inclosed

lamp

globe which
is

with

C. P. Steinmetz
in which
this

in the

as

light is the

the

of

and

arc

development

In

vacuum

the

air
The

Nernst

general

use.

by certain
they become
the

of the

use

of

or

out

inert

of
The

gas.

recently the

more

other

the

luminous
the

stances.
sub-

so-called

others.

and

efficient

very

the

Dr.

lamp

arc

place of carbons.
"

the

arcs

carbon

greatly

was

principle are

lamps

other

lamp
In

incandescent

main

In
of

source

it is the

descent
incan-

at

gas

with
this

low

its

filament

important

an

is utilized.
and

their

high temperature

When

in air.

air

property
these

refractory

from

comes

mercury

in

of

promise.

containing
and

pressure

kaolin

type

conductors,

tubes

through

to

several

are

luminosity

arc

addition

commercial

great

mercury

current

In

Lamps.
lamp, there

have

and

refractory earths

very

Electric

in

which

tube

passage

air.

by impregnating

and

flaming

the

and

country

tips.

recent

the

"

in

Improvements

forms

Still

take

copper

Brush

partial exclusion

Blondel, Bremer

other

while

arc,

carbon

Recent

and

F.

of carbon

increased

brought

were

inclosing globe for the

use.

this

carbon

lamps

the

to

the

strontium

also

magnetite
well

as

has

in this

filled with

been

of

lamps

arc

others

from

lamps employing

"

flaming

Charles

consumption

general

has

arc

and

an

became

in

now

calcium,

The
"

the

between

(Dover, N. H., Salem,

all open

were

saving resulted

efficiency of the
carbons

and

insulating

an

rapid, and

Farmer

perfected

of which

means

to

latter

was

I., 1820-1893),

R.

arcs

the

development

(Cleveland, Ohio, i849-date),

abroad.

separated by

across

Prof. Moses

35

nature

tively
respecvapor.

is

now

in

possessed
are

heated

permits

36

ELECTRICAL

Electric
of

Electric

Heating.

heat

production, but

electric

heating in which

determine

to

heating

the

warming

car

the

jars and

electrical

machines.

given

acid

sulphuric acid

and

with

metal

one

mentioned,

been
He
a

of

the

his
of

of

result

as

He

commercial

sodium

from
the

of

the

Gaston

lead

oxide

accomplished

sheets

impetus

new

Ammonia,
the
As

nitric

plating of

had

already
in

processes

by the

by charging and

1807.

researches

made

recent

some

bear

now

electro-chemical

equivalents
possible the

years,

the

engineering standpoint

reduction

860

when

of his

by electrolysis. Faraday,

electrolysisin

The

and

these

Leyden

means

electrolysis,which

the

Storage Battery.
about

producing

investigations, determined

These

which

of

battery and

storage

current,

in

of electricity

in

Volta, by

of

and

laws

in

abrasive,

discharge from

electric

use

determined

advances

important

the

made

electrical

substances.

many

from

his

important

most

name.

The

Davy

of

example

made

accomplished.

was

potassium

produced

and

another

and

room

Experiments

was

decomposed,

were

produced

of the

discovery in electro-chemistry.

to

is

An

Early

When
the

available

battery, rendered
was

means

early in the

heat

eighteenth century
of

by

used

purposes.

slight use

of the

reactions

so

time

Some

chemical

was

for

used

was

Introduction.

in the

part

current

manufacture

Electrochemistry

latter

It is difficult

cooking, soldering,

in the

is found

Electro=Decomposition.
in the

it

metallurgical

mentioned

Engineering

the

matter

applications of

some

produced.

not

present
for

extent

for

and

carborundum,

also

are

light is

At

some

last mentioned

the

there

undoubtedly

but

century.

electricallyto

lighting is largely

period in which

purposes,

nineteenth

ENGINEERING.

most

the

are

of metals.

modern
Plante

action

storage

produced
of the

battery dates
lead

spongy

current.

discharging in alternate

This

he

direc-

DEVELOPMENT.

HISTORICAL

tions

cell made

of

up

parallel. Twenty

in

Planters

upon

reduced

was

peroxide, thus

to

respectively.
large

of

In

to

modern

cells

Copper

Plante
of

are

Refining

of copper

dates

this

France, 1788-1878),

1865 that

The

success.

differ

be

in

the

year

solution.

It

the

form

BecquereFs
Other

of

of

manner

to

is that

due

to

date).

In

the

process

was

The

Becquerel (Paris,

Ceser

1836 succeeded

was

of

one

process

that

time

it

in all
be

can

coating for

the

until

which

ore,

first

ducing
pro-

commercial

since

before

copper

in

however,

not,

was

form

of

use

Charles
Hall

M.

into

electro-chemical

kinds

of chemical

in

commercial

invention.

principal

jected
sub-

ducing
repro-

applications

of

is of
process

Falls, N.Y.,

aluminum

bath

is reduced

are

most

in

use

of these

paratively
com-

in

use

1863from

cryolite. This

Jused

operation in 1887.

processes

substances,

aluminum

(Niagara

the
a

of

the

Hall

process

suspended
put

reduction

invention, and

other

recent

the

discovery.

recent

while

tendency

positives,and

handling the

metallic

objects

Processes.

oxides

been

developed

processes

reduced

the

electrolytic refining

the

Elkington made

electrolysis. The

to

of

several

largely in the
must

cases

B.

James

Prof. Antoine

who

from

copper

1880

ical
largely mechan-

has

The

Plating.

to

form.

and

back

store

to

Since

plate for the

of

type

possible

been

there

years

oxidized

positive plates

space.

cells have

few

past

it

small

storage

and

oxide

lead

further

or

negative
made

in

energy

the

the

to

return

the

invention

in the

improvements

by the current,

forming

This

amount

ones.

lead

spongy

The

of lead.

of

form

plates in the

the

oxide

improved

Faure

later, Camille

years

fillingsof red

to

alternately connected

of lead

discovery by making

grids with

lead

sheets

37

for

Numerous

producing

being of

tively
compara-

all

38

ELECTRICAL

Electric

Power

Direct

Power

wheel

contained

and

after

years

the
"

dynamos
wire

of

the

in
in

horse

shoe

who

studied
G.

C.

modified

The

changes

soft

iron

in

improved

armature

1818-1892),
Siemens'

opposite

of

inventor,

which

the

The

While

battery
not

too

the

wound

of the

weak
current

Hence

the

Sir

Charles

for

on

ring.
fields

large scale.

of

exciter
made

1867.

an

armature

excitation

field from

was

860

magnet

field

in

of

surface

the

Wheatstone

exhibiting his invention

an

slots

It

of

type

importance

by exciting the

1856

In

permanent

available

was

one,

deep

armature.

generation

power

by

wound.

were

auxiliary magneto-generator

direction

machine,

for

coils.

rapid development.

cylinder with

employed

the

(Berlin, Germany,

around

the

of

In

more

drum

wound.

one

coils

the

modern

were

early sixties.

in this

of

which

the

convenient.
of the

step

in

early generators
were

was

before

in

gradually.

Paccinotti, produced

coils

which

in

result
consisted

sides

forerunner

was

the

and

further

were

force

Siemens

Werner

by

best

the

movement

improvements
machines

the

of

armature

Italian
in

size

the

by

electromotive

introduced

London,

of

armature

coils of wire

produced

induced

inventors

iron

soft

which

on

field

armature

the

the

fields
the

increasing

on

by moving

magnet

permanent

rotating

produce

to

of

Pixii

B.C., 1812-1868)

(Washington,

Page

by Clarke

first

bobbins

with

dynamo

proportions

proper

The

Hyppolyte

improved

was

battery

primary

fields with

them.

for

slow, and

supply.

current

such

generator

was

the

Barlow

and

modern

magnet

to

made

This

machine

the

Other

relation

magnets.
the

of

permanent

1832

the

development

source

comprised

Paris, France,

of

Early

disk

Faraday

discoveries

Faraday's

moving

effect.

The
essentials

principal

Transmission

and

Progress in their

remained
"

Generation

Generators.

motor.

forty

ENGINEERING.

the

the

this
duction
intro-

by Wilde
the

final

armature

DEVELOPMENT.

HISTORICAL

did

Paccinotti

that

1870

until

not

the

machine

Anthony

and

of

number

the

was

movable

Gramme,

combined

and

generators

inventors,

prominent

most

Early Alternators.
direct

were

current

primary

or

All

rectifying devices
coils with

the

It

use.

alternating
slow

was

development

of

were

to

limited

considered
had

been

and

the

Its

use

the

in output,
troublesome.

developed
use

did

transformer

of the
not

for

the

delayed

machines

to

was

and

the

with

of

was

the

no

ticular
par-

of

adoption

generator
of

stated

before, the

not

suited

to

the

this

the

type
was

that

apparatus

alternating

was

was

exciter

separate

and

exception

the

current

until

ous
vari-

early eighties. The

the

of

use

pressure,

nating
alter-

coils alternated.

As

raising the

from

of the

early machines

popular

for which

operate

original form

alternating current

become

tioned
men-

for the

in the

until

the

tioned,
men-

Edison.

and

connection

alternating

that

practical

required commutating

current

in its

of

apparatus

alternators

were

fact

immediately

demand

no

machines

as

the

which

already

the

is surprising, therefore, that

current

partly due

was

reversing the

disk, which

those

constructed

for

of the

1876.

among

Weston

The

the

machines

machine

of

those

to

of

circuit

the

number

Brush,

were

there

Inherently the
Faraday

addition

been

batteries, hence
current.

of

generators.

required, had

was

with

Practically all of

current

fessors
by Pro-

brushes.

interest

in

whom,

duced
pro-

production of satisfactory electric

the

aroused

among

the

in the

Paris,

was

reproductions

introduced,

for the

preceding it, resulted

first

Exposition

arm

rocker

in

1875, and

in

were

it

and

constructed

was

Centennial

the

of

of the

Cornell

at

interesting features

invention

The

One

in America

Moler

at

ring armature,
manufacturer

ring type.

modern

exhibited

was

Gramme,

Gramme

of the

his

develop

not

39

current*

little understood.
invention

by the

use

of

the

of which

ELECTRICAL

40

transmission

efficiency was

alternators

Jablochkoff

to

built

by

which

Gramme

terminals

built

and

capacity.

small

period Prof. Gisbert

sets

machine

His
of

builders

Z.

de

pioneer

was

dey,

size

type

pressure

of the

with

The

Gaulard

and

Gibbs

practically the
the

limited

in
in

1882

these

transformers

house

secured

this

and

country.

in

the

In

In

of

were

of

this

inent.
prom-

comprised
ring

ture.
arma-

alternator

Meritens, Friederick

the

who

United

States

the

nators
constructing alter-

was

was

and

American
to

in

made

1883.

Faraday's

large sizes.

of

were

of transmission.

ring, but
the

and
At

Deri

the

rights of the
develop the

same

had

in

covered
dis-

been

by Messrs.

order

was

to

vent
pre-

coils these

were

in

built

1884-85
time

Gaulard

was

low

tion
inven-

transformer

alternating

spite of opposition it

the

The

England

Their

between

Zipernowski

proceeded

houses
light-

most

Other

principle of which

leakage of magnetism

placed close together.

patents

range

1831,

as

same

were

in

they

of

early alternators

transformer, the

by Faraday

there

1886-1887.

in

Transformer.

de

by

Schuckert, Zipernowski, Deri, Mor-

George Westinghouse,
small

this

faces

were

contained

alternator

two

in

were

current

of the

successful.

others.

and

machines

alternators

one

Kapp's

Europe

Alteneck, Ganz,
Ferranti,

of

The

of

these

lamps

arc

parallel

with

They

of

was

very

in

time

the

Hefner

i)on

Kapp

was

vertical

Francaise, but

placed opposite the

of bobbins

the

before

years

builders

field

magnetic

The

with

These

operating

Among

connection

supplied with

1'Alliance

by

mercial
com-

1880.

and

few

magneto-alternators

several

first

of two

evenly.

1876

exciter.

The

desirable

was

between

connected

in

use

consisted

revolving field magnets

direct

same

for

current

off the

burn

internal

very

built

lamps

arc

greatly improved.

were

Alternating

carbons.
order

ENGINEERING.

Westingand

Gibbs

current

in

gradually intro-

DEVELOPMENT.

HISTORICAL

for

later
inventors

work

at

mechanical

1890

considerable

transmission

horse

alike

were

former

been

polyphase

applied

to

had

the

aid

of

with

they produced
circuited

tendency

follow

to

in

1888, and

polyphase

system
over

the

upon

Machine

this

Works
and

five miles

its

country

took

in

up
a

the

by

as

the

development

E.

Two

operating;in parallel

were

L.

Brown

plant

1888

disk

without
ing
alternat-

at

different
fixed

times

coils.

rotating field had

they

C.

not

Dob-

more

Tesla

Mr.

In

Arago's

patents

Westinghouse

motors,

had

or

field with
a

before

von

power

occurring

The

transmission

length.

Dolivo

of two

means

motion.

induction

market.

operated

M.

placed in such

armature

1890.

to

the

pressure

Shortly

mechanical

values

1 00

generator

developed, but
up

rotating magnetic

acquired

soon

By

of

and

motor

and

of

of

winter

alternators

principle underlying

maximum
a

the

miles.

been

Tesla,

the

commutator.

currents

short

Nikola

mission
trans-

power

transmission

distance, 2.6

production

the

to

The

had

nators
alter-

self-exciting while

was

transmission

adapted

experiment

latter

current

power

Professor Ferraris,
rowolski

tion
reduc-

Telluride, Colo.,

at

The

made.

excited.

the

and

installed

was

the

for

During

single-phase

separately
volts

this, the

that

except

was

3000

was

plant

largest then

the

power,

and

of successful

way

distances.

Westinghouse

employing

insulation

of

the

opened

over

various

produced

production

The

transformers

and

many

leakage.

Transmission.

Power

The

chiefly dealing with

improvements

efficiency,strengthening

in

magnetic

of

have

mission,
trans-

power

service.

motor

transformer

the

on

electrical

and

increase

lighting and

arc

for

lighting,then

incandescent

first for

duced,

41

one-hundred

employed,

in

called, were

of the

of the
at

were

Company

were

Oerlikon

single-phase

Kassel, Germany,
horse
and

power
current

erators
genwas

ELECTRICAL

42

transmitted

at

ENGINEERING.

Three-phase
a

distance

Brown

with

in connection

made

current

of 75

the

raised

was

pressure

miles, and

produce

to

turbine
it

Lauffen

at

of transmission
that

transmission

polyphase

the

to

status

long distance

power

tory
satisfac-

so

Elihu

Thomson

transmission

power

water

application of the

Professor

of

means

efficiency

was

the

to

by

The

power.

given

system.

The

Exposition; where

cent, which

per

was

the

summarized

thus

75

impetus

great

generated

mechanical

about

was

volts.

50

transmission, by

was

transmitted

into

retransformed

was

for

at

Lauffen,

designed by

was

current

volts

Power

and

from

power

special generator

13,000

experiment

Exposition of 1891.

transmit

three-phase

to

famous

the

demonstrate

to

Frankfort

to

special transformers.

of

the

used

was

order

transmission

possibility of long distance

was

In

volts.

2000

this

at

period.
"

These

'

spoken

of

1890

such

no
are

miles.

systems

in

two,

three,

other's

each

dead

plan about
bore

no

to

so

1880, and

was

years

This

large manufacturing
done

before

speak.

much
in Tesla's

any

sent
are

separate

over

not

simultaneous,

Early suggestions of such

and

attention

given

experiment

was

the

to

power

and

by technical
it

was

transmission

phase
poly-

subject.

invoked, but
were

come.
over-

staffs of the

necessary
on

others,

of his

announcement

mainly

companies,

notable

1 00

single alternating

engineering difficulties

done

was

to

up

regular succession, overlapping each

elapsed before
work

tions
installa-

nating
single-phase alter-

are

impulses

until Tesla's

wide-spread interest

several

of

miles

thereafter, by Bailey, Deprez

not

in 1888

which

of small

as

instead

Before

systems.

few

known

are

electric
in

other

of

generally

are

'

large number

more,

or

the

points,

fruit,and
system

what

employing,

in which

follow

distances

over

differ from

They

lines,and
but

working

plants

poly-phase

or

plants existed.

now

current,

'

'

two-phase

as

transmission

the

to

be

polyphase

THE

OF

UNIVERSITY
OF

DEVELOPMENT.

HISTORICAL

be established.

could

system

successful

Lauffen-Frankfort

projects were

begun, the

the

After
power

distribution

the

involved

1893 the Westinghouse

for

time

ultimate
Since

plant

has

three

large

water

numerous

been

developed and

far

as

economic

Early Electric
transmission
Barlow's

wheel

in

production of

any

motor

may

In this form

A number

power.

shown

through

in

Davenport
States.

permanent

In

8.

series of

placed

on

of

the

was

1837 he
and

the

builder
was

power

permit of the

of power,

and

it

Hermann

Jacobi

number

of electromagnets

able

to

siderable
con-

arranged

supplied intermittently

one

river

of the

was

electro-magnet that the

Moritz

was

electro-magnets
*

as

it did not

electro-magnets were

impulses in
on

of

permit the development of

Current

boat

of

means

began with

rings to the revolving armature.

contact

it received
was

Fig.

world

motor

amount

of the

to

as

feature

The

motor.

invention

way

power.

be transmitted

now

essential

commercially.

the

combined

in all parts of the

(St. Petersburg, 1801-1874) combined

in such

at

horse

being developed by

considerable

used

was

currents

warrant.

electric

until after the

not

million

quarter

An

1824.

In

contract

which

Company,
plants with

power

powers

Motors.

is the

the

develop two-phase

power

conditions

of which

Niagara Falls.

awarded

was

to

are

polyphase current, and

ambitious

most

ous
numer-

successfullybuilt and has since

was

capacity of nearly

1890

have

Company,

by the Niagara Power

extended

present

the

This

volts.

2000

experiments

from

of power

horse-power plant

15,000

been

as

1892 the growth became

rapid/' *

very

at

After

43

direction.

construct

in the
a

similar

Electrical World, Vol. 38, p. 88

This

Russia.

Neva,

first motor

very

In this way

1.

motor

Thomas

United

combination
in

of

principle to

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

44

that

his

using

Professor

Jacobi.

of

Professor
the

gradually improved
by the

of

One

8.

with

reversible

them.

Electric

time

are

been

forced

upon

required

to

The

evolution

of

for

motor

prime

requisites. For

developed

as

constant

traction

of

source

it

is the

was

uses

found

to

that

work, and

the

shunt
be

motive

the

For

durability

the

current.

began

result.

reversibilityand

stationary

this

they

found

was

satisfactory. Then
for

having

When

dynamos.

purposes

railway type

speed

were

which

under

available

peculiarly suited

large starting torque,

on

of the present

peculiar forms

conditions

by the

not

were

series street

modern

their

simply reversed

were

dynamos

or

Jacobi

dynamos

electric motors

types,

by the

operate

required

was

reversed

them

by

con-

motors.

The

different

in

1838.

practically all of the

Motors.

mercially
com-

up

developed

Installed
in

others

and

taken

was

motors.

Russia,

fairly good

of several

first motors

power

As

they made

Recent

are

on

experimenters,

and

dynamos

Neva,

River

it

until

electric

earliest

the
boat

junction

of

powerful motor,

Paccinotti,

Farmer,

motor

builders

built

Numerous

electro-magnets.

own

including Fromant,

FIG.

also

Henry

this
were

motor

important.

pose
pur-

the
was

The

DEVELOPMENT

HISTORICAL

in

increase

the

of

use

required

the

Single

polyphase

or

alternating
of

development

synchronous

as

proportional
in

that

1887 produced

the

current

short

but

recently received

available

from

the

the

fact

field and

and

the

6000

The
which

as

has

of all

been

Satisfactory

operation under
kind

alternatingcurrent

successfully adapted

railway service.

any

first and

Davenport,
Robert

from
a

Davidson

and

Ferraris
so-called
between

mechanically

been

it is practically

time

built

are

is the

motors
to

the

are

now

1834
a

were

the

as

soon

up

in

as

series type
of

requirements
obtainable

for

and

with

had

been

of service

of Oersted,

small

model

blacksmith

of

Aberdeen,

of
was

Brandon,

motor

Faraday,

Barlow

experimentally.

developed

primary battery

of

electric

application of the

natural
In

previously

motor,

motors

conditions

discoveries

forms

crude

most

current

As

Traction.

Henry,

successful,

supply.

possible by the

made

motors

practically any

of power

Electric

to

'demanded.

are

latest

was

being built in sizes

are

Synchronous

which

given

As

present

speed

armature

connection

has

the

motors

in

was

induction

at

Thomson

commercially

motor

until

known

"

motor

electrical

no

The

Induction

horse-power.

large sizes

by

was

electricallyimproved

to

and

there

the

attention.

the

type,

is

motor

rotating field by Tesla

armature.

perfect.

time

great

of the
new

that

repulsion

the

at

not

was

field and

the

to

were

Professor

single-phase

name

stated, the invention

made,

of

motors

it maintains

generator.

"

The

It

has

the

as

motors.

alternator

fact that

the

rotation

circuited.

this type.

of

furnished

was

the

onward

current

operated

operated

from

motor

to

when

1882

from

current

alternating

alternators

fairly satisfactory. Thus

45

motor
a

railway

constructed
Vt.

to

was

Four

The
portation.
trans-

driven

car

by Thomas
later

years

Scotland, constructed

loco-

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

46
motive

with

equipped

operated

and

built

reversible

conducted

car

of small

supplied with

locomotive

operated in 1857, and

was

All of these
of

until

In

F.

Green

that

was

dynamo

Exposition
grounds

developed
line
same

used

impetus
devoted

attention

their

constructed

Sprague,
*

The

pioneer in

electric

an

it in

exhibited

and

then

successful

to

D.

locomotive

Chicago

midshipman

in

founded

largely by

Werner

all branches

of electrical

work.

firm

for

In

under

1883.
in

This

mental
experi-

the

At

in

great

inventors

their

and

car

gave

to

patents

own

time

those
Edison

A.

Thomas

United

Siemens

The

addition

this

by the

long time

numerous

and

It

by this time

had

experiments

Field

Berlin

Exposition

Berlin, in 1881.

subject.

the

the

road, built

railway, and

Stephen

already mentioned,

who

continued

was

at

generator.

near

the

commercially.

commercial

Lichterfeld,

electric

the

to

and

motor

ment
equip-

although

the

about

Halske,*

and

by

These

service.

they

again by

small

1879

passengers

carry

high speed and

attained

regular

first to

at

company

that

up

built

In

constructed

road

followed

was

therefore, not

current,

partiallydeveloped.

satisfactory

time.

by the lack

taken

battery

by Siemens

constructed

was

battery

the

generator

was

supplied with

the

was

electric

was

battery

the

for

It was,

power.

Mich., who

model

with

handicapped

were

of the

large Grove

of Kalamazoo,

then

was

Hall

Institution.

successful

railway work

1875 experimental

George

1847,

successful.

commercially

were

in

large scale

troubles

very

development

on

by

for the

but

supply of electrical

after the

the

on

1850 Thomas

Smithsonian

current

early experimenters

ample

an

in

size, and

of the

considered

been

have

would

G. Farmer,

railway experiment

Professor Page

by

tried

was

in Boston.

car

first electric

The

which

motor

Prof. Moses

Railway.

Edinburgh-Glasgow
built

Jacobi

Frank

States
his brother

J.

Navy,
was

HISTORICAL

interested

became
the

in

line in

Van

year

after

soon

shown

at

FIG.

operation

19.

Early

he

also had

locomotives
of

the

Baltimore

Avenue

into

Elevated

practicallythe
Ohio, by Messrs.

"

During

the

ing
follow-

Exposition

New

Bentley and
conduit.

It

Ampere.

named

the

the

year

City.

being carried
Knight

who

Among

Ampere,"

on

branch

Daft
the

and
ated
oper-

Ninth

Experiments
on

at

in Cleveland,

installed
the

electric

Company,

Franklin/'

York

"

Hampton

same

motive
loco-

this year

In
the

being

commercial

constructed

on

electric

was

in

Railway

Benjamin

were

the

operation.

operation

in

time

underground

he

Passenger

Road

same

the

1885 the

were

had

which

cars.

locomotive, the

cars

Daft

in

Union

street

In

success.

locomotive,

Leo

cars

put

were

pulled regular

electric

power

other

which

Toronto

year

commercial

Mr.

of considerable
and

the

By

expositions, and

abroad.

the

pioneer

constructed

wire.

at

cars

places.

approaching
all the

Poele

overhead

an

Application.

was

was

Chicago, in 1882-83,

operated

in other

Commercial

railway

Poele

de

and

de

Van

J.

supplied from

was

47

railway work

Charles

movement.

current

and

in electric

experimental

small

DEVELOPMENT.

an

cessful
unsuc-

experimenters

of this

time

had

Sprague
work

Elevated

York

New

These

"

system:
the

over

volts, with

450
taken

reversible

the

on

then

either

from
at

was

the

first

coils

field

both

first laminated

ones

radial

Transactions

at

the

first

could
the

of

placed

bearing/'
International

series

to

armatures

directions
at

an

ported
sup-

down
were

by single,

ends

being

motors

of axle

were

movement,
the

upon

weight of the

cars

and

each,

the

yielding touch

pole

up

outer

that

so

was

pressure

to

them

variation

from

in

run

were

with

body

every

upper
on

one

about

at

car

was

be

operated

car.

The

in

gears

able
availeither

controlling

by graded resistances, afterward

of

ones

motors,
to

main

current

having free

and

gears,

end

series-parallel control
Motors

carried

car

the

traction, and

direction

of

wheel

parallelism. All the

absolute

line carried

The

geared

all times

at

historic

now

distributing points by

by fixed

car

tion
by varia-

multiple relations, and

by

with

angle, and

switch.

separate
fixed
later

brushes,

Congress,

Vol.

at

solid metallic

Electrical

to

Mr.

continuous

first

by

the

follow

to

by

at

reduction

from

yet maintain

system

line

was

large scale.

overhead

an

return.

Exposed

double

by

individually free

for

track

axles, and

spring supported

and

this

of the

center

movement.

centered
and

overhead

the

over

of

subsequently

and

contacts,

the

reinforced

the

from

potential plant, operated

constant

car

Richmond,

and

on

central

the

applied in 1887

Joseph, Mo.,

at

of

elevated

an

was

by

Mr.

branch

be electrified

supplied

in turn

meantime

Street

features

J. C.

1885 construction

year

track, reinforced

of the

center

the

later

year

of distribution

system

from

feeders

St.

at

summarizes

conductor,

and

Road,

the first to

were

thus

Sprague

in the

Thirty-fourth

of roads

construction

Va.

In

experience gained here

The

operated.
the

the

on

Wellington Adams,

others.

idle, and

been

not

Dr.

Short, and

H.

begun

was

mentioned

be

may

Sidney

Henry,

in

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

48

Ill,

p.

331.

HISTORICAL

as

motors

other

the

This

of

brought
for

At

cars.

in

current

the

the

country

electricity
and

tunnel

as

the

time

application

motive

service.

also

The

to

seriously

the

ment
developsion
transmis-

substations

of

direct

for

use

and

steam

the

considering
for

suburban

in

the

upon

current

The

ing
start-

time.

same

current

traction

especially

for

interurban

alternating

electric

these

control

at

alternating

substations.

power,

train

introduction

the

to

special

are

of

transformed

present

the

the

traction

Among

unit

Sprague.

use

and

was

the

unnecessary

of

the

of

of

heavy

to

far

as

operation

necessary.

cars

by

power

of

process

several

about

the

the

which

the

applied

multiple

have

design
of

range

were

invented

also

the

of

improvements

mechanical

was

system

motors

was

As

improvements

mentioned

be

may

the

and

electricity

and

increased

49

1887

electrical

concerned.

are

work

of

those

largely

cars

Since

Developments.

Recent
been

DEVELOPMENT.

is

motor

is

rendering
railroads

adoption

of

traffic

ELECTRICAL

$o
S52

ENGINEERING.

%"

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w

CHAPTER
FUNDAMENTAL

II.
MAGNETIC

AND

ELECTRICAL

QUANTITIES.
OUTLINE.
The

disk

Faraday

for

arranged

experiments

be

to

used

basis

the

as

of

definitions.

Effect

of

of

Electrical

e.

m.

Definition

of

units

power

"

of

the

power.

practical

energy

system.
resistance

"

quantity

"

e.

"

inductance

"

f.

m.

derived

"

capacity

"

"

the

in
e.

"

quantities

of

system.

quantity

"

power

"

for

practical

energy

"

definitions.

Faraday's

pivoted

used

intimate
electric

Such

terms.

facts

as

using

relation
current.

of

generator
a

few

similar
which
With

apparatus
exists

magnetic
to

tions
defini-

only

are

the

between

apparatus

of

basis

magnet
and

current,
as

and

simple

very

the

electric

this
51

as

with

experiment

upon

clearly understood.

selected

been

and

definitions

are

based

reduced

be

must

complication,
have

be

electrical

use

fundamental

experiments

experiment,

fundamental

familiar

the

should

engineering

of

unnecessary

disk

S.

current

"

electrical

previously

avoid

G.

capacity.

"

which

when

f.

m.

conceptions

accurate

C.

definitions.

of

study

the

field.

in

experiments.

current

"

units

resistance

Summary

and

mechanical
from

in

"

strength

the

Law.

Ohm's

conductor

of

strength.

Definition

familiar

field.

field.

and

force,

and

units

unit

possible

and

current

motion

by

deduction

Fundamental

To

f.

electrical
of

Summary

in

and

electrical

fundamental

power.
of

Identity

THE

of

current

electromotive

and

Generator

of

between

reaction

Resistance

field

direction

of

change

Mechanical

"

inter-relation

quantities.

magnetic

Field

the

showing

Experiments

motor,

the
and
low's
Bar-

trate
illus-

magnetism
in

modified

ELECTRICAL

52

form

number

shown

as

with
and

of instructive

mechanical

For

in

its

Fig.

Special
wheel

large enough
large

the

Radial

The

or

air gap

an

form

to

been

are

cut

field
to

as

from

and

which
in the

at

bear
disk

magnet,

short

poles have

disk

air gap,
in the

been

made

or

experiment.

area

of several

disk, rotating in ball bearings, is

magnetic

arranged

field,is mounted

the

and

performed.

permanent

Faraday's

of

demonstration

produce

"brushes"

slots

of

surfaces

arrangement
for

has

apparatus

magnetic

be

may

large compound

strong

is conducted

Current

strips

to

copper

it cuts

the

poles brought close together

Barlow's

20.

consequently

20.

experiments

convenience

position shown.

FIG.

ENGINEERING.

high
the
upon

in order

so

velocity
disk
the
to

inches.

square

placed that
possible.

as

through
center

confine

copper

and
the

rim.

current

ELECTRICAL

to

with
and

replaced by

disk

axle

is

it is used
brush

as

as

brush

to

The

efficient

not

from

differs

machine

the
and

the

in

form

the

details

commercial

It

the

Showing
Electrical

Experiment
center

direction

rim, it

the

Interrelation

and

Magnetic

\Vhen

I.
to

of

but

it is

ever,
has, howwhich

dynamo

and

the

construction.

turbine,

steam

is

coming

operation.

Experiments

from

from

important

giving high peripheral velocity, the unipolar dynamo

into

when

flows

shown.

of the

development

recent

load

motors,

design

disk

through

unipolar

of

the

most

and

generators

to

current

the

the

upon

passes

embodies

able
mov-

be removed

when

power

connecting it

disk

in

in

only

of the

account

the

prototype

it

of

electric

modern

On

as

supplying

apparatus

principles of modern

is

magnet

pulley is mounted

and

through

field.

magnetic

of

53

disk itself may

In this machine

motor.

generator

the

disk, and

purposes

The

brushes.

the

another.

for the

operated

the

to

respect

QUANTITIES.

MAGNETIC

between

path

direct

AND

current

in

rotates

is

current

of

Fundamental

Quantities.
is sent

through the

definite

direction.

disk
If the

re-

Battery

versed

and

center,

it flows

the

disk

from

direction

to

the

Further,

magnetic poles

the

in

rotates

opposite direction.
the

rim

reversed,

are

of the

if

current

re-

the

mammg

of

same,

rotation

other

is

words,

the

Si7

'.

reversed.

reversing

In

FIG.

21.

nection

both

latter

magnet

of the

current

of rotation.

and
at

The

the
the

Disk

direction

the

l
i

,,

Diagram
of

acting

showing

battery
as

and

con-

disk,

motor.

direction
same

conclusion

time

does

from

not

these

change the

direction

experimental

facts

is

ELECTRICAL

54

that

is

there

disk

be

carried

another

of

different
rotative

The

and

force

the

It is convenient

constant.

mechanical

force is

Similarly if
the

rotative

the

current
as

force

indication

an

Taken

of

the

III.

Experiment
convenient

currents,

circuit

must

found

furnished
have

is termed

be

by

been
the
the

employed

of the

alter the

the

to

cell of

force
instead

property

This

current.

evident, indicating

one,
an

an

in

two

the

current

the

resistance

If this current

secondary battery there

or

condition

If

in

by which
the

but
different

two

increased

increase

change in the

current.

disks,

used.

II

and

change in the

ability to maintain

the

be

may

which

force,a cumbersome

changing

of

or

strength.

strength of

II

change

primary

for

means

field

force, indicating

of the

garded
re-

tric
properties of the elec-

through

be

may

Experiments

disk

flow

in this cell

of

give

Experiment

evidently

electromotive

Instead

electromotive
be

disk

In

rent.
cur-

assuming

force

and

of the

some

made.

was

by the

maintained

name.

to

There

offered

study of

the

field.

II

of current

same

original one

case,

determining the relative

material

or

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In the first

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ENGINEERING.

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Taken

II

Experiments

together
dimensions

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Diagram

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ing
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QUANTITIES.

MAGNETIC

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one,

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ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING.

of the field. Experiment

either

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ure

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experimentally
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Diagram

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23.

mechanical

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product

FIG.

mechanical

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_,

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to

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speed indicator.

velocity will give the

inserted, the

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The

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sion
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For

power.

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the

principles indicated

to

determine

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in

values

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Experiments
of

current

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electromotive

After

correcting for the losses in the generator,

input

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establish

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electrical power.

ELECTRICAL

AND

As

VI.

Experiment

further

changeability of mechanical
disks

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no

electrical losses
from
small

FIG.

the

do

these

losses
to

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current.

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the

square

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Experiments

electric

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as

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power

mechanically

nected
con-

supply
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of resistance

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product, of

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product

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circuit.

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and
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taining
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plied
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motor-generator

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57

of

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electricallyas before.

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speed the

QUANTITIES.

MAGNETIC

resistance.

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This

product of the
deduction

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ELECTRICAL

58

the

has

direction

definite

existence

and

current

Experiments

from

the

I shows

Experiment
between

Deductions

of

Summary

ENGINEERING.

of

with

either

to

respect

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to

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the

to

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the

III

the

which

at

crude

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of modern

of current,

motive
electro-

in Ohm's
of

field

law.

strength,

basis

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upon

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identity of mechanical

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of the latter

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established.

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however,
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the

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as

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quantities.
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to

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The

Units

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machines

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IV

Experiments

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For
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ELECTRICAL

The

form.

AND

MAGNETIC

legal standards
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measurements

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secondary

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fundamental

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define

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Fundamental
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59

length of

106.3 centimeters.
of

Unit

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Electromotive

product

resistance

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force
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Illustrating

electric

trolley pressure
What

is the

heaters
of 550

resistance

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is,

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against

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The

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Units

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m.

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draw
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four

five amperes
heaters
Ans.

at

in series.
27.5

ohms.

60

ELECTRICAL

The

hot

resistance

ohms.

10

How

is generating

When
the

field

of

much

the

field coil
is it

current

of

shunt

drawing

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Ans.

22

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are

coil,the

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180

to

to

circuit

When

500

e.

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e.

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What

is 550

volts?
volts.

500

mental
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in

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shown

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flowing from
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Units.

VI

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from

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units

What

battery is 580

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With

with

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open

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is

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220

then

current

ENGINEERING.

confined

to

Fig. 25.
generating electromotive

producing

conductor,

mechanical

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relations

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of

force

by virtue

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various

quantities

then

quantitiesare

electrical

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of

product

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units

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is

watt

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Diagram

25.

located

times

thousand

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magnetic

(1000) the

ordinary commercial
Experiment

in

watt

electrical

term

of

number
somewhat
Unit
and

of

time,

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Electrical

Energy.

and
units

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the

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kilowatt

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watt-hour

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to

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of

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it is very
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to

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equivalent of approximately

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is the

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Electrical

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The

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are

61

QUANTITIES.

MAGNETIC

AND

ELECTRICAL

product of

energy

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pere-second,
-volt-am-

convenience

small

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power

The

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unit
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of

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62

ELECTRICAL

electrical

term

ENGINEERING.

horsepower

hour

or

electrical

even

horsepower

is used.

year

which

unit, and

Problems

is the

is

convenient

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name

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one

Units

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Illustrating

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The

One

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The

Quantity.

passed through

is
the

and

Electrical

of

Unit

of

Energy,

Power,

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Quantity.
much

How

five amperes

draw

is

power
at

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car

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550

Ans.
If

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of

80

is

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per

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2.75
at

from

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20

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25

per

What

Each

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trolleycar

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when

the

car

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speed

0.18

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hours

per

1 1

cents

$3.63.

ton-mile.

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pressure

miles

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15

per

battery is discharged

railway storage
for eleven

given out?

How

minutes.
many

How

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What

of 525

Ans.

amperes

0.6

takes

lamp

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amperes.

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lamps

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is the

21.2

us.

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A

ciency
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an

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220-volt

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102.9
a

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rate

ampere-hours

of

noo

has

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coulombs?
Ans.

201.7

ampere-hours.

726,000 coulombs.

How

days will

many

MAGNETIC

AND

ELECTRICAL

yield one-tenth

if its ultimate

ampere

63

gravity battery continue

10-volt

QUANTITIES.

K.W.

is ten

output

of

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One

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In

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The

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The

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to

capacity.

property

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Diagrams

26.

and

in

times

at

analogs of these

Inductance

FIG.

which
elasticity,

defined

closely analogous

other

two

are

tance.
impor-

already

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elec-

an

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hours?

416.6 days.

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Unit

to

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mass

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circuit

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is surrounded
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the

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The
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field,
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electro-

ELECTRICAL

64
force

motive

When

the

producing

in

current

such

in

produced

rate

by

electromotive

of

certain

The

the

"

the

process

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will

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of

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ical
mechan-

condenser
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When

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field.

magnetic

force

ENGINEERING.

this

charge

defined

either

receive

may

electricitywhich

be

will

be

held

at

ELECTRICAL

given

into
at

pressure,

the

in

or

condenser

definite

AND

the

Either

and

of

terms

when

rate.

accurate,

MAGNETIC

QUANTITIES.

the

of

which

current

terminal
these

flow

changing

will

familiar

be

to

will

is

pressure

definitions

it is convenient

65

be

fectly
per-

with

both

of them.
The

equal
"

farad

under

when

terminals

the

condenser

has

be

noted

that

two

or

of

produces

to

is

denned,

as

millionth

one

has

of

Problems

The

Illustrating the
in

current

What

of

dielectric,usually

it, the

large unit

micro-farad, is the

is the

circuit

inductance

is

of

changed

from

How

volts

many

of 50

current

m.

and

in

f. in

30,000

the

receiver

circuit

circuit alternates

volts

negative, 60

of 5

open,

volts.

milli-henry.

0.75

times

if its

to

reverse

henrys inductance

between

(charging current) will

terminals

amperes

f. is 15

(average e.m.f.) will be required

amperes

current

average

1 00

Ans.

m.

Capacity.

circuit?

0.5 second?

e.

to

counter-e.

average

of the

and

Inductance

Ans.

with

the

consist

they

as

inconveniently

an

of

Units

The

second.

0.005

The

While

capacity, it should

capacity,
by

one

practical unit.

usual

capacity of

ampere.

one

in

-volt per second

one

denning

separated

conductors,
farad,

of

in

have

all circuits

capacity, and

in

circuit

current

referred

been

more

The

air.

other

or

it

Denned

volt.

one

of change of pressure

rate

of

pressure

which

coulombs

electricity in

of

condenser

way,

farads, is numerically

in

condenser,

quantity

"

hold

another

at

the

to

will

of

capacity

per

flow

volts.

1000

30,000

volts

tive
posiWhat

second.
into

in

the

line

farads?
capacity is 8 microAns.

28.8

amperes.

66

ELECTRICAL

An

underground

ENGINEERING.

cable

charging current,

ampere

draws

system
when

the

e.

an

m.

of

average

alternates

0.2

between

volts

3000

second.

positive and

What

is the

volts

3000

the

Unit

of

Magnetic

interaction

defined, that

of

by connecting

in
in

the

field

will

words, the

of

of

be

that

current

in

field is

after

study

current

and

In

other

tor.
conducthe

by

proportional

an

as

volt

large

As

or

that

as

pound,

upon

unit

matter

the

as

Or

length of
of

ductor
con-

fact, the

is that

use

it

which

length of conductor
This

ampere.

force

conductor

of

when

TW.TnTo

the

same

,Wo"

velocity

is said to have

of the

in

electromotive

of these

taken

length of conductor.

centimeter

per

second.

use

be

dyne

velocity.

length of

per

for the

unit

then

intensity in general

times

field of this value

evident

or

centimeter

reason

in

of force

ten

centimeter

force, say

unit

strength
dyne

of

produces

intensity produces

The

located

are

produced

the

through

connected

length of the

force

tional
addi-

an

conductor.

one

strength might

unit

which

current

one

field

at

of field

produces

conductor

between

tional
addi-

modified

25

current,

the

to

Fig.

been

An

conductors

same

for

has

will indicate

force

as

field, shown

of current

in

From

length of the conductor.

moved

is

great

as

of the

ampere

volt

reactive

electromotive

produces

field

carrying the

Intensity.

naturally.

If two

the

unit

upon

fact.

Similarly

which

unit

obvious

twice

unit

in series

proportional

The

could

conductors

two

per

micro-farad.

magnetic

apparatus

is

the

an

the

force

movement
to

with

field, the
be

the

0.128

or

strength follows

therefore

same

and

II, when

field

almost

series,and

Strength

current

I and

experiment

and

Field

between

by Experiments

times

capacity of the cables?

Ans.

The

260

negative

an

apparently

following

section.

intensity of
arbitrary

one

constants

gauss.
will be

ELECTRICAL

Problems
A

Illustrating

motor

(located in

the

field

average

is

strength when

Field
of

feet

50

the

(Assume

of

500

field) carrying

pounds?

1000

Unit

the

contains

armature

QUANTITIES.

MAGNETIC

AND

Strength.

active

Ib.

is
the

on

dynes.)
5840

445,000

conductor

What

amperes.

tangential pull

67

Ans.
The
the

e.

above

f. if the

m.

(250 ft.

machine

is

conductors

circuit)and

per

operated

as

connected

are

at

move

in

feet per

2430

of

Units

in

the

based

given

were

upon

simple

this

of the

minute?

of

pole when

distance.

It

distance

measured.

in the

field,the

of the

field,or,

force

in

dynes

is acted

upon

with

based

upon

the

unit

pole

similar

pole with

centimeter.

gives

Such

of determining

means

of force

terms

and

most

can

be

difficult

When

the

acting

upon

accurately

very

and

unit

cumbersome

pole is placed

it is the

strength

accurately, it is its intensity.

more

Field

one

and

theoretically perfect method

Units.

Fundamental

Magnetic

of

directly in

practically.

apply

already

Underlying

pole.
a

upon

distance

and

It is, however,
to

field

one

unit

field

magnetic

gives, therefore,
force

exact

more

will react

(Centimeter=Qram=

practical system

field upon

strength of the

definition, as

method

at

placed in

the

of

dyne

one

volts.

550

easity reproducible.

which

one

circuits

arbitrary legal standards

much

magnetic

by definition
force

the

experiments
is

in the

units

upon

of units

system

reaction
is

of the

definitions

S.

is

System.

Second)
The

G.

C.

gausses.

two

Ans.

Definitions

ture
arma-

What

generator.

the

Strength
a

force

or

of

Intensity.
one

When

unit

pole

dyne, the field surrounding

68

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

it has

intensity of unity in the C. G. S. system.

an

is

gauss

given

C. G.

logically in the

naturally and

name

this unit.

to

definitions

intensity of field defined, all other

With

The

S. system,

follow

in

and

lowing
fol-

the

order.

When

Electromotive

of

Unit

S.

C. G.

is moved

conductor

produced

in it

tendency

is

Force.

tendency

across

to

proportional

set

up

the

to

Facts.

Experimental

magnetic

an

electric

field

there

This

current.

intensity of the

is

field

and

to

velocity of cutting.

the

is that

by the

produced

at

velocity of

normal

S. unit

cutting of

to

the

of electromotive

field of

centimeter

one

field and

the

to

C. G.

The

Definition of Unit.

one

conductor)

sity
inten-

gauss

(in a direction

second

per

force

by

centimeter

one

of conductor.
One

million

hundred

C.

G.

S.

the

conditions

certain
field.

The

and

the

to

of

is

force

amount
current

G.

Unit

and

effect
the

is

Under

Facts.
the

across

magnetic

length of the conductor

the

The

force

indicates

the

ence
pres-

conductor.
G.

S.

of current

unit

the

to

magnetic

exists

in

field) when

field of

one

gauss

ampere.

for

flows

produced.
the

Electricity. Experimental

of

Quantity

time, and

urged

plane normal

is the

current

volt.

dyne.

one

unit

of

across

of

force

When
of

urged

of this

One-tenth

Facts.

is

C.

The

Unit.

centimeter

intensity with

C.

to

in the

(located in

conductor

each

proportional

strength of the field.

Definition of
a

is

conductor

electric current

an

is the

Experimental

Current.

of

Unit

this

times

This

length of time
is

proportional

product is known

as

the

definite
to

the

quantity

of electricity.
Definition of

Unit.

The

unit

of

quantity

is that

repre-

flow

the

by

sented

MAGNETIC

AND

ELECTRICAL

of

C. G.

one

QUANTITIES.

unit

S.

of

69
for

current

one

second.
One

tenth

C.

G.

of

transformation

proportional
In

force

is

this

the

to

takes

energy

fact, since

(in

proportional

is evident

from

The

Definition of Unit.
the

represented by
a

of

pressure

Ten
C.
The

S.

times

of

duration

this

is the

electromotive

force,

to

quantities.
is

power

of current

electromotive

that
under

force.

watt.

Energy.

electrical

is

represents

power

is

Experimental

equal

to

the

Facts.

transfer

product of

of

power

time.

and

is that

represented by the flow of

for

power

Ten

million

the

times
of

this

in

the

to

Definition of Unit.
which

C.

G.
One

C. G.

one

S.

unit

billion

of

current

electrical

C. G. S. unit

one

energy

of electric

in

proportional

of
a

circuit

is the

By Ohm's

Facts.

the

motive
electro-

resistance

is that

ratio

of

current.

The
S.

C. G.

unit

this

of

is the

of

current

of

is maintained

by

one

ohm.

Experimental

produces

its rate

S. unit

force.

Inductance.

circuit
to

joule.

Experimental

electromotive

times

C. Q. S. Unit

is the

Resistance.

resistance
force

in

of

second.

one

C. Q. S. Unit
Law

C. G. S. unit

The

Definition of Unit.

is

of

unit

quantity of which

the

energy,

S.

this

of

current

electric

C. G. S. unit

one

Electrical

of

Unit

of

G.

C.

one

million
G.

flow

of

field) electromotive

of these

unit

circuit

rate

and

velocity, and

definitions

the

The

current

magnetic

the

to

place.
of

product

in

present

are

When

Facts.

Experimental

force

electromotive

and

force.

Power.

Electric

of

S. Unit

current

coulomb.

this is the

of

an

Facts.

electromotive

change.

force

ing
changwhich

ELECTRICAL

70

Definition of Unit.
in which
second

the

produces

One

billion

electricityis
of

force.
is

Capacity.
stored

The

proportional

dielectric

of

the

to

this

of

rate

of current

per

force.

henry.

the

change

is that

inductance

of electromotive

Facts.

Experimental

in

the

to

of

C. G. S. unit

proportional

of

rate

unit

one

this is the

circuit

of

C. G. S. unit

one

of

C. G. S.

change

times

C. G. S. Unit

of

The

of

rate

ENGINEERING.

quantity

separating the

ductors
con-

applied electromotive

quantity,
of

change

the

or

the

current,

electromotive

force.

Definition of Unit.
in

circuit

of

applied

when

C. G. S.

conductors,

the

dielectric

when

or

per

unit

of

is absorbed

pressure

the

C. G. S.

The

C. G. S.

quantity

in

C. G. S.

unit

the
unit
of

rate

of

unit

exists

capacity
C. G.

per

S.

unit

dielectric

separating

of

flows

current

of

change

the

into

motive
electro-

force.
One

billion

times

this is the

of

Summary
In

viewing the

these

Definitions

of

2.

Definitions

of conditions

but

are

relation
All

the

and
to

three

of the

circuit

when

having

noted

that

general classes.

two

of electric

of

the

circuits.
circuit

electric

an

depend

These

capacity.

conductors

quantities defined
transmitting

tendency

properties have

conditions.

that

noted

and

ance,
resist-

the

upon

their

upon

other.

other

when

Units.
it will be

whole,

properties of

dimensions

each

of

properties of electric circuits.

inductance, and
material

as

into

1.

There

of

Definition

definitions

themselves

group

farad.

It

is

only

to

electric

produce
been

when

represent

in

the

current

or

general defined
is

or

power,

It

current.

circuit

of

conditions

will
in

be

terms

subjected

to

certain

example,

electrical

flowing;

inductance,

when

the

that

conditions

when

motion

to

and

bring
elasticity

is

is

analogies,
it

into

evident

is

current

force

mechanical

action,

requires

become

properties

resistance

electromotive

QUANTITIES.

MAGNETIC

AND

ELECTRICAL

inertia

displacement.

when

changing;

and

resistance

requires

is

current

Taking

mechanical

For

manifest.

only

changing.

71

change

capacity,
the

sponding
corre-

requires
of

city,
velo-

CHAPTER

MATERIALS

OF

III.

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING.

OUTLINE.

Materials:

Conducting
(german

of

coefficient

aluminum

"

silver, manganin,

Properties

Wire

Copper

fusible

alloys)

Materials:

Conducting

iron

"

and

carbon

"

Specific

steel

alloys

"

liquids.

"

resistance

"

temperature

summary.

"

gauges.

Magnetic

Materials:

Swing's

Theory:

Induction

of Magnetic

Properties

flux

Magnetic

and

Magnetomotive

and

flux

Materials:

Force.

density.

Permeability

hysteresis

"

coefficient

"

retentiveness.

Characteristics
steel

wrought

"

Dielectric

Specific

Materials:

fiber

THE

"

Air

cloth

historical
in

made
or

other

in

which

electrical
the

materials

for

so

different

that

additional
and

they

the

circuits.

be

support
The

must

be

general
72

has

materials

for

provided

principles

cally
electri-

material.

mechanical
and

been

generator,

surrounding

form,

paper

"

conducting

insulation

possess
proper

motor,

produced;

and
from

must

which

magnetic

are

may

rubber

"

oils.

"

in

there

current;

their

mica

devices

that

conductors

keep

mechanical

magnetic

field

specific resistance.

"

"

electrical

indicated

materials

may

electrical

"

dielectrics.

varnishes

apparatus,

carrying

of

porcelain

"

"

of

has

the

steel

cast

"

capacity

waxes

"

magnetic

separating
These

inductive

survey

Chapter

iron

properties

glass

"

yarn

"

Cast

alloys.

"

Electrical

Gradient:

Rupturing

Materials:

iron

Materials:

Insulating

"

Various

of

strength

in
for
of

many

the

cases

electric

mechanics

MATERIALS

machine

and

OF

design apply

whether

these

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

form

the

to

of electric

support

machines

of electric

parts

73

tors
conducof transmission

or

circuits.
convenience

For
follows

all of these

be

may

mechanical

the

of electric

materials

(a) Materials

for

used
iron

aluminum,

(b) Materials

other

Iron

conducting

construction

steel
of

controlling the

for

flow

or

the

mechanical

circuits

the

general

for

used

separated
a

materials

charge
those

is

this

the

into

of his

which

electrifymost

with

which

the
conduct

certain

purpose,

those

is meant
with

not

it is true

which

and

Materials
tors
non-conduc-

showed

the

receive

that

in which

others.

difficulty. On

extent,

apply.

discussed.

that

readily by rubbing

readily do
While

present

be

not

magnetic

design

the

conductors

experiments,

greatest

charge by rubbing.
to
electricity

the

Materials.

compared

result

of

will

materials"

Fay

and

machine

scope

purpose

small

by Du

conductors

principles of

"conducting

resistance

of

support

Conducting
term

for

suitable

circuits.

subject is beyond

materials

as

current

insulating materials.

For

were

of

silver, manganin

only materials

the

are

magnetic

(4)Dielectric

the

economically;

current

steel.

and

used

circuits.

materials.

and

By the

electric

alloys.

(3)Magnetic

this

of

support

(resistance materials); iron, .steel, german

As

as

circuits.

(2) Conducting

copper,

for

used

magnetic

and

classified

(1) Materials
and

materials

the
any

conduct

other

between

hand,

considerable

all materials

difference

those

conduct
the

resist-

ELECTRICAL

74

of conductors

ance

is

the

non-conductors

conductivity of

relative
raised

ten

are

and

for

the

to

transmitting
is

metal,

pure

electric

current

metals

of

example

latter

street

In addition

used

resistance

as

with

because

strength is
while

which

hardness

drawn/'

form

the

from

to

The

remove

material

be

of

As

an

cited

the

heat

carbon

in
also

are

best

all around

area

it has

tensile

use

to

strength

metallic

sulphur, then
requires

binding material
the

state,

copper

copper

is

and

in

the

run

into
The

"

in

hard

sulphide

the

latter

varying

"

roasted

is separated

metal

held.

"

rough ingots.

by stamping, which
are

soft

preparing the

it is first

roasting.

masses

it is

masses

In

"

lines

In

copper.

weight.

and

of railways
ical
mechan-

forms,"

conductors

melted
no

greatest

Where

important

in two

tons

many

the

transmission

are

native

or

in electrical

in which

and

in nature

the

rial
mate-

conductor

distributing systems

importance

great

occurs

conducting

installations.

power

and

conglomerate
the

the

trolley wires

grams

the

from
the

for

for

is in

for

sulphide ore

It is the

of

copper

few

flow

produce

important

most

conglomerate

the

of

materials,

heat.

may
to

Materials.

not

Copper

and

not

the

into

wire

given cross-sectional

lighting and

and

drawn,"

is the

It is used

conductivity.

of

used

now

circuits

control

alloys,liquids and

to

of service.

conductors

high

as

materials.

Copper

for all kinds

best

return

conductors

coils

be

resistance

energy

Various

Copper.

for

electrical

in

current

the

is to

of

may

Steel, while

of which

use

of

for

there

example,

only conductors

used

are

transform

employment
cars.

the

are

Alloys

For

The

economically.

purpose

the

them.

one.

necessarily used

the

to

or

to

that

great

so

good conductor

power

power

railways.

is,those

that

20th

metals, and

pure

ores

is

difficultyin distinguishing between

no

as

ENGINEERING.

pulverizes
The

lighter

OF

MATERIALS

substances
for

washed

are

the

and

out,

75

into

copper

is cast

copper

is that

slabs

refining.
electrical

For

the

purposes

electrolyticallyrefined.
removed

be

cannot

an

with

surrounded

are

solution

saturated

the

negative terminals
the

from

behind

from
in

After

the

the

and

the

larger than
maintained

at

the

desired

the

metal

soft

which

time

drawn

wire

to

but

processes

it is not

its

forms

purest
ores

be

forming

only

copper

will

and

left

it is

rolling.

somewhat

it.

Wire

process.

be

for

from

made

is

deposited.

rod

tive
nega-

manner

size

to

solved
dis-

the

present

proper

on

During the

harden, and

time.

is made

The

It

is

is made

of

is
been

until

clay contain

practicable

oxides.
account

The

it must,

difference

to

metal

of their

drawing

therefore, be
between

number

hard
of times

drawing.

of

one

of

process

entirely by the

during the

it has

All

the

to

Aluminum

recover.

from

is reached.

it is annealed

Aluminum.

but

is to

through

upon

deposited in this

during this

tendency

from

nature,

As

nearly

is thus

copper

ingot is reduced

heat

diameter
has

annealed

been

copper,

copper

dissolved

be

may

which

red

pure

metals

rare

in

is sent

deposited

ingots of the

into

wire
a

Current

state.

pure

processes.

by drawing through dies of diminishing size until

rods

the

and

has

copper
cast

is

is

refining,the ingots

suspended

The

bath.

any

and

rolling mill the

the

from

ingot

In

plates of

to

ingots and

bagging

pure

remelted
In

the

other.

sulphate.

practically

smelting

separating the

bagging and

of the

impure

plates in

each

ingots

the

for

which

impurities which

numerous

means

of copper

liquid from

are

roasting and

easy

heavy

the

dissolved

the

impurities from

silver, and

best

There

by

Electrolysis offers

in

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

the

plentiful metals

most

recently
it,but

very

expensive

even

with

reduce

the

cannot

be

metal

to

modern
from

any

directly smelted

highly refractory nature.

The

direct

of

source

which

in

occurs

The

the

oxidize
machine

the

after

alumina,

the

in

and

sodium.

box

and

is

cryolite is contained

kept liquid by the heat

in the

center

bath

lining,and

the

furnace, from

of
the

from

The

wire, however,

wire

is made
This

together.

of

up

serious

and

copper

is

60

it is

or

does

described

of

bottom

practically pure

state.

differ

not

for
that

copper.

is, each

spirally wrapped

ones

impossible

wire.

the

is dissolved

Such

to

keep

impurities

sional
occa-

are

breakage.
has

much

per

as

current

large carbon

the

on

stranded;

smaller

numerous

of

of the

iron

keeps it molten.

aluminum

made

aluminum

negative terminal

in

already

always

cent

one-third

about

the

conductivity.

lower

conductivity

same

least

from

process

out

aluminum

Pure

of the

of

cause

wire

to

necessary

from

bath

of the

it is removed

is essential,

impurities

the

at

subject

to

of

flow

passes

smelting

carbon-lined

cryolite it remains

the

which

production

materially

is reduced

than

the

to

lining. As alumina

high temperature

it is heavier

the

to

current

carbon

metal

the
the

the

to

As

The

The

resistance.

due

bonate
car-

precipitated

order

to

dioxide

sodium

The

in

and

ide.
hydrox-

fluoride

double

roughly

sodium

electrolysis it is

of

cryolite, the

The

through the

in the

action

the

to

is

carbon

In

pow^der.

Europe.

stamping

forming

oxide.

in

drying, is shipped

white

with

out

bauxite

matter

in

crushed

aluminate,

and

of

it in fused

dissolve

sodium

washing

organic

is discarded, and

residue

form

alumina

rods

dissolved

the

is then

precipitating aluminum

and

the

aluminum

and

bauxite

off

alumina

as

mineral

states

drive

to

the

from

It

through

is forced

southern

present.

insoluble

The

from

alumina

producing

iron

and

works

of the

known

oxide

produced

It is first roasted

follows:

as

is

some

of

process

is the

metal

the

alumina

This

(A12O3).

at

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

76

as

greater

specificgravity of
An

wire

aluminum

copper

wire

will have

if pure,

and

up

to

an

70 per

area

cent

OF

MATERIALS

other

greater if alloyed with

the

that

metals

two

that

of copper,

rine

gives

for hard

drawn

basis

the

on

of

value

about

per

Problem

conductivity

line three

97

The

employed.

strength of

line of

wire; d, diameter
of

is

of the

6 cents
Ans.

per
a.

small
iron

compared

with

nearly six

has

of

resistance

strength, and

aluminum

consideration

They
but
in

are

copper

is

The

are

to

a,

num
alumi-

an

of this aluminum

pound

6. 1332

price per pound

e,

copper,

pounds;
inch;

that
and

of

hard

They
this

of
and

steel

about

have,

rather

they

copper

are

than

transmission

when

the

19.3

feet;

telegraph

iron

and

and

Pure
times

twelve

high

than

is

very

the

tensile

is the

telephone
In

is

steel

aluminum.

expensive

steel

cents.

31

e.

conductivity

less

lines

c.

however,

gradually displacing them.

high tension

there

and

following item:

wire;

conductivity

largely in

used

are

copper,

pound.

copper.

where

pure

the

c, feet per

1561 pounds;

Steel.

and

wires, with

copper

in diameter,

d, 0.227

Iron

(about

copper.

as

equivalent in conductivity

aluminum

latter

inch

conductivity;

same

inch

value

line; 6, tensile strength of

copper

Per-

Qualities of

drawn

Determine

pound.

less than

square

that

drawn

great

as

is 0.182

per

as

Copper.

hard

cent

per

wire

9.98 feet of it in
tensile

pounds

Illustratingthe Comparative

transmission

basis

much

as

is much

nearly twice

and

the

on

equal conductivity.

inch) for hard

square

Aluminum
In

of

so

copper,

nearly twice

33,000

and

aluminum,

60,000 pounds

competition,

costs

strength.

of the

strength of aluminum

even

in

77

tensile

that

one-half

aluminum

tensile

The

copper.

increase

to

sold

be

may

conductivity, when

of

metal

weight will be slightly over

Its

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

portant
im-

copper.

service,

long

spans

occasionally used

ELECTRICAL

y8

on

account

As

the

of its

circuit, the

iron

steel

that

is very

steel must

and

in

be

Problem

class

its

obtain, and

place wherever

galvanized

to

to Illustrate

is built

track

The

rails

30

are

together with

Relative

0.280

one-fifth

to

pound

that

per

cubic

in its
have

may

The

of the

more

(b) Increased

resistance.

give

to

high

resistance

resistance

of resistance

bond

0.227

ance
resist-

inch.

square

differs materially

metals.

This

with

alloy

temperature.

strength is usually secured

will not

produce

varying

melting temperature

the

them

as

this

desired

result.

desirable

for

high resistance

temperature.

secured

at

fice
sacri-

for this purpose

employed

are

alloys renders

with

steel, what

following characteristics:

materials, especially
constant

low

of

ductivity
con-

strength.

conductivity, alloys
drawing

(Steel rails weigh

constituent

change

hard

metals

more

or

(d) Decreased

when

the

"

bonded

Assuming

rails?

melting temperature.

tensile

yard).

per

are

for

bonds

(c) Decreased

increased

iron

oxidation.

"

lengths

copper

the

two

the

tensile

of

the

of

(a) Increased

As

so

inch.)

union

or

from

bonds.

of

of

properties from
one

Both

(66 pounds

Ans.

Alloys.

expensive,

Conductivity of

the

of the

that

it is

them

rails

copper

cross-section

tical
prac-

Copper.

long, and

one-twelfth

be the

equal

feet

the

as

of

are

possible.

protect

66-pound

30-inch round

of
should

of

usually used

are

of service.

Steel and
A

conductivity.

properties of steel

difficult to

is used

spite of its low

railways

conducting

in that

importance
Pure

in

strength and

rails of electric

service

return

ENGINEERING.

In

by alloying is

The
use

as

is

some
a

only

sonably
rea-

cases

desirable

OF

MATERIALS

This

feature.
and

nickel, and

zinc

of

compounds

24

nearly fifteen

is

for

times

for

or

taken

that

metal

resistance

regardless of the

In

the

which

construction

important still,this

Fusible

have

Large
"

flow

is

constant

across

voltmeters.
ferro-

copper,

remarkable

that

of

practically

are

"

shunts

alloy of

currents

delicate

It

is

resistance

Alloys.

lead, it is possible

low

temperatures.
of

tin, two

the

By

and

For

strips and

for

its

More

copper.

for

constant

in
when

the

electric

all

Carbon.
carbon

While

is

through
motors

not

important

an

which
and

current

as

act

as

excessive

good

are

generators

are

made

at

less than

part

into
When

wires
nected
con-

safety fuses, melting

temperature.

conductor

to

very

one

formed

as

The

conducting material.
is conducted

at

of

terminals.

copper

they
an

will melt

combination

alloys

between

produces

current

tin, bismuth,

of lead, will melt

one

These

circuits

of

alloys which

example,

bismuth, and

soldered

combination

make

to

degrees Centigrade.

100

shall

an

venient
con-

current.

instruments

connected

used.

alloy

of temperature.

ranges

or

is

per

of this

electrical

through

shunts

20

controlling the

temperature.

of these

of

values

copper,

electric

an

resistance, nearly thirty times

high

of

for

which

are

nickel

and

manganese,

with

copper,

It is, therefore,

from

by sending them
of

cent

resistance

coils used

is necessary

usually measured
terminals

The

value.

alloy of
Average

per

of copper.

connection

resistance

the

zinc.

producing heat

In

Manganin.

56

as

melt

to

certain

an

proportions.

cent

per

is

79

intended

are

exceeds

silver

in resistance

use

of current

be

which

current

varying

may

nickel, and

cent

the

German

Silver.

German

the

in fuses

case

circuit when

open

is the

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

and

from

of carbon,

as

the
"

metals,

brushes
direct

are

"

rent
cur-

also the

8o

ELECTRICAL

filaments

of

lamps

arc

made

greater

By
forms
such

work,

use

be

secured.

in it, any

for

wooden

the

in the

by the

Properties

of

cube

of

materials

purposes

foot

one

circular
an

inch

or

and

are

cross-section.
or

one

mil

of the

simply

is

the
The

The

are

mil-foot. The

in the

of

area

water.

of

For

practical

of

wires

to

and

one-thousandth

circular

by the

resistance

centimeter

in diameter,

wire
a

ance
resist-

convenient.

most

by reference

inch
a

the

comparison
is

is called

covered

is further

Materials.

of

an

ing
alter-

by

or

resistance

specificresistance.

of

terminals

adjusted by

terminals

usually compared

in diameter
wire

resistance

opposite faces

is called its

for

sometimes

are

the

basis

be

may

convenient

Metal

given dimensions
two

substance

liquid is usually carried

Conducting
a

other

or

they

foreign material

As

non-conductor,

box/'

of

long, one-thousandth

dimensions

foot

of

between

material

phous
amor-

convenient

water

them.

of

resistance

The

between

sample

testing, and

"

as

amount

The

is

particularly

immersion

Specific Resistance.
a

facture.
manu-

electrical

degree of conductivity

work.

water,

of

area

of

it is often

water

are

in electrical

distance

of

Pure

resistances

box, known

varying the

affected

of current

desired

permanent

more

immersed

are

control

quantities of salt, sulphuric acid

power

resistance

in

uses

high

graphitic and

various

to

this

processes

of the

adapted

has

of

specified.

the

Liquid

absorbing

in

be

liquid resistance.

and

copper,

"

carbons

Carbon

by different

it may
those

dissolved

used

less

or

of

combinations

For

if small

but

that

suitable

as

Liquids.
to

with

"

The

lamps.

obviously of this material.

compared

be

may

incandescent

most

are

resistance

ENGINEERING.

term

any

of
of

mil, and

the

circular

mil-

wire

may

be

MATERIALS

OF

if the

calculated

of

resistance

the

Where

is

I
of

resistance

ELECTRICAL

dimensions
a

mil-foot

and

length, Rsp is the

mil-foot, and

the

resistance
that

will be

of

of

wire

test

sample of aluminum
shows

feet with

of copper

long and

in C. G.

of

100

is

ohms,

10

inch

0.25

S. units, and

Temperature

with

rise of

about

four-tenths

diameter?

8.45 ohms.

resistance

different

cent

per

degrees.

metals.

These

ance
specificresist-

of

mil -foot in

S. units; 16

of

of

all

per

This
facts

ohms.
metals

metals

pure

degree C.

proportional (not

per degree C. from

by combining

TABLE

the

is its

G.

under

length of three

resistance

variation

per

resistance
C.

The

the

temperature,

the
2660

Coefficient.

is
coefficient

in the

what
Ans.

in

volt

what

in diameter

inch

What

amperes.

ohms?

varies

one-half

drop of 0.0192

pressure

current

wire

being

The

SPECIFIC

RESISTANCES
FROM

AND
o

TEMPERATURE

DEGREES.

perature
tem-

cent) change in
may
are

be

reduced

summarized

following table:
or

the

area.

Ans.
A

is:

resistance

Problems.

miles

10

The

or

specific resistance, or

is the

mil-foot

81

specific resistance

the

known.

are

Illustrative
If

ENGINEERING.

COEFFICIENTS

82

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING.

Illustrative Problems.
The

field coils

of 0.25
for

ohm

be

of the
The

What

of

What

sends

of

their

When

operating

of 2000"

coefficient

of the

Conducting

conducting

of

pressure

through the filament.

ampere

brief

at

filament?
0.00262.

the

Materials.

The

principal engineering

materials

and

few

of

applications.
Best

Copper.
drawn

without

outdoor
be

of

in

shows

various

lamp

Ans.

Properties

the

109.6" Fahr.

incandescent

an

temperature

of 0.37

is found

rise of temperature

average

ohms.

50.1

operating

and

lamp.)

following synopsis
of

of

temperature

average

Summary

is

at

current

tantalum

features

the

filament
C.

conditions

is the

(This is

the

20"

of

normal
volts

no

After

again measured

been

resistance

Ans.

resistance

under

has

Fahr.

coils?

temperature

is

have

motor

70"

of

resistance

ohm.

0.31

railway

street

temperature

the

time

some

to

at

of

conductivity, smallest

work

where

economized,
Aluminum.

wrhich

and

for

Used

conductivity.

insulation

Light

is needed

conductors

weight;

in

used

hard

be

can

for indoor

where

and

machinery.

transmission

for

lines

insulation

making

and
must

space

electrical

insulated, its large surface

not

are

loss of

great

surface;

too

expensive.
Iron
rails

Steel.

and

of

account

on

practically always
railways

street
as

of

matter

satisfactory,as
and

is

must

sometimes

Used

durability and
as

street

have

the
As

course.

it exposes

feeders

as

large surface

railway

return

rails,these

are

resistance

considerable

and

contact

exposed, and
circuits.

used

for

material, iron
surface

for

As

return

is very

radiation

cheap.

German

Silver.
coefficient.

High
Used

specific resistance.'
in resistance

boxes

Fairly low
to

some

perature"
tem-

extent.

for resistance

Used

resistance.

High

for electrical

brushes

and

83

ENGINEERING.

High specificresistance,low

Manganin.

Carbon.

ELECTRICAL

OF

MATERIALS

cient.
coeffi-

temperature

ments.
instru-

for shunts

for

Used

resistances, and

machines.

for
in

Also

measuring

incandescent

and

arc

for

lamps.

Wire
round

of

Conductors

Gages.

sizes in accordance

(B. " S.)

Sharp
No.

to

inch

the

40,

three

every

twice
The

form

in the

area

of the

No.

40

often

Magnetic
The
before

fundamental
the

(a) that
(6) that
the

lodestone

other

iron.

time

facts
of

the
to

the

iron, so

Evidently iron

and
oooo

0.00314

No.
No.

as

are

mils, while

and

10,

etc.

ular
given in tab-

larger than

area

is

37

No.

oooo

sizes

the

of

diameter.

or

rated

are

by

mils.

Materials.

known

long

were:

is attracted

attractive

certain

latter

regarding magnetism,

Gilbert,

only iron

gage

stranded,

in circular

of

No.

that

so

given by

are

parts

Brown

or

large

as

circular

all

practically doubles
40,

7 twice

for

in

the

area

Conductors

are

of copper

and

American

in

areas

large conductors
net

No.

certain

sizes from

No.

with

appendix.

than

the

gage

40,

wires

by their

smaller

Very

No.

as

for the

these

this

for

covers

gage

sizes, beginning

data

known

are

the

In

being used

American

being 0.46 inch

former

large

as

the

made

are

is manufactured

with

This

gage.

in diameter.

latter

wire

Round

circuits

former

circuits,the

electrical machines.
definite

electric

rectangular wire, the

or

of transmission

kinds

for

to

property
that

the

possesses

lodestone,
may

be

transmitted

latter in turn
some

quality

from

will attract
not

inherent

84

ELECTRICAL

in other

metals, and

Magnetic

ENGINEERING.

iron

Materials

and

of its derivatives

some

distinguish them

to

from

called

are

others

in

this

particular.

Induction
When
a

This

quality in it.

The

quality is called
be

may

ability of the field

either

produced

by

iron

is

inducing

the

attractive

induce

the

attractive

to

force. The

magnetomotive

of the

magnet

field

magnetic

Force.

magnetic field it becomes

operation of making

induction, the

force

Magnetomotive

piece of iron is placed in

magnet.

called

and

magnetomotive

previously magnetized

piece of magnetic material

or

The

given strength of field produces the

material

in which

greatest effect is the best

Ewing's
of

Theory.

FIG.

Diagrams

27.

Ewing.

representing

If each

magnet

various

magnetic

phenomena

in line with
the

is that

current.

may

magnetic

that

field.
of

the

magnetic

north
be

in

ance
accord-

magnetism.

of

and

material

south

explained.

field will tend

Before

by Professor

arranged

magnets

of

with

attractions

explanation

proposed

molecular

molecule

permanent

placed in

carrying

accepted

Ewing's theory

natural

when

coil of wire

commonly

of iron

with

J. A.

magnetic material.

The

induction

magnetic

by

molecular

to

poles, the
Such

nets
mag-

selves
place them-

piece of iron is
magnets

is

for

netized
mag-

each

MATERIALS

other

the

prevent

molecules

applied directing force

or

coil of wire

direction

of the

arranged

in

the

stable

effect then
force

So

that

several

thousand

given the
E

It is
field

magnetic

"

of

strength

or

purposes

to

of flux

is said
of

to

one

materials

is

the

flux

of the
name

turn

have

be

may

property

is

carry

unit

well-known

ability

The

in

the

per

same

field.) The
An

as

by the
unit
ampere

produces

square

1.257

the

out

II to

define

practical

certain

flux just

words,

in

same

as

magnetomotive
current

nature

unit
in

non-magnetic
unit

intensity

quantity

of

non-magnetic
materials

is added
force

sity
inten-

centimeter

(In magnetic
magnets

its

for

square

to

erty
prop-

field of unit

centimeter

gauss.

of

attractive

each

given

molecular
of

"

in

other

is

the

bring

current, although of the

of flux

maxwell

to

Chapter

filled with

as

of

property

convenient

very

In

maxwell

of magnetic

iron.

used

field

area.

produced

of wire

increase

to

This

little is known.

name

gilbert.

magnets.

magnets

of intensityof flux is the

unit

of field. The
flux, and

the

very

cross-sectional

materials,

The

applied magnetomotive

field alone.

Density.

was

It

is said to

its

of the

field

consider

current

or

other.

effect

this

to

Flux

and

intensity.

conductor

that

seen

is due

magnetic

each

assist

to

satisfactory explanation

property

Flux

Magnetic

as

affords

wing's theory

latent

the

previously

combined

the

take

to

molecular

the

magnet

tend

now

of the

by

of the

by

magnetic permeability.

name

magnetic

that

externally

an

were

for

molecular

that

force

iron

sum

produced

times

induction.
the

the

the

ability of the

magnetomotive

which

attractions

becomes

and

is this

great

the

is

by their

to

produced

molecules
within

groups

attraction.

they will tend

current,

The

force.

that

as

85

external

any

subjected

are

such

carrying

directing force

external

of

production

the

If, however,

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

OF

is

to

that

given the

flowing through

gilberts of magnetomotive

one

force.

86

ELECTRICAL

In
force

material

magnetic

will

equal

produced
in

and
a

by

the

flux

permeability of unity,

The

per

centimeter

per

it would

magnetic
non-

permeability,

in

The

centimeter

square

magnetic

latter

material

is said

gilbert per centimeter

in

experimentally, is numerically

material.

non-magnetic

than

permeability.

between

gilbert

its

to

determined

ratio

the

to

flux

more

due

only be

can

gilbert of applied magnetomotive

much

produce
material

which

ENGINEERING.

have

to

producing unit

density of flux.
Problems

Express

The

flux

of

in maxwells

gausses

conductor

of

density, length
it is

equal

is

this

to

by the time
B

in which
flux

/
i)

time

of

velocity.

The

average

total flux divided

per

centimeter.

square

in centimeters.
in

velocity of conductor

the

the

in maxwells.

flux

length of conductor

to

to

it is cut.

density in maxwells

total

"j"

and

product.

per

64,500.

proportional

conductor

(in the C. G. S. system) is equal

f.

Let

generated in

C. G. S. system

the
m.

10,000

Ans.
f.

e. m.

product

e.

intensity of

Units.

inch.

square

In

field

IllustratingMagnetic

cms.

second.

per

cutting the field in seconds.

Then

e.

m.

f.

Blv.

*
R

By substitution

In

the

air gap
maxwells

2,000,000
1200

the

r.

p.

m.

armature?

what

of the

.m.

m.

generator

exists
e.

f.

under
f. is

'

shown
each

in

Fig. 28

pole.

generated in each

At

flux

of

speed

of

conductor
Ans.

on

0.8 volt.

If the
the

above

70

cover

generator,
and

in diameter,

foot

FIG.

poles

of the

cent

per

and

the

the

field

87

foot

one

strength is 5000

of

of

surface

armature

is

armature

representation

Diagrammatic

28,

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

OF

MATERIALS

long,

one

(flux

gausses

electric

generator

illustrating

the

armature

surface,

problem.

density 5000

maxwells

what

e.

average

per

f. is

m.

cm.)

sq.

at

generated in each

conductor?
Ans.

force

mechanical

The

is

density, length of conductor

flux

it is

system
Let

/
B
/

"

equal

to

this

force

mechanical

and

in

the

force

In

of

C. G. S.

the

will

acting

upon

the

ductor.
con-

per

square

centimeter.

in C. G. S. units.

in conductor

/
pounds

product

in centimeters.

density in maxwells

current

the

current.

dynes

length of the conductor

flux

to

product.

Then
In

proportional

volts.

2.034

be

Ell.

/ divided

approximately

by

445,000.
In the
upon

each
when

two

preceding problems

conductor
the

current

Ans.

tending
in each

0.336

to

calculate
resist the

conductor

Ib. maximum

the

force

motion

in

of the

pounds
ture
arma-

is 25 amperes.
force.

0.857 pound.

88

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING.

of

Properties
The

rise

displacing the

of energy

loss

loss

is

lost

in

is most

for

magnetization
and

back

for

permanent

magnetism
Even

In hard

analogous
but

the

to

magnetism

(Symbol

It varies

force
of the

as

shown

latter

at

in

first

29,

produces

be

by

used

retain

its

is removed.
flux

force, but
or

the

and

after

this

is

tion
applica-

magnetomotive
the

force.
ability

retentiveness.
is

conducting

with

the

somewhat

materials,

following

tities:
quan-

composition.
treatment.

/*.

In

any

density will increase

Figs.

coefficient

density.

Density upon
flux

this

to

force

Permeability

(c) Physical

magnetic

As

external

is called

(6) Chemical

Effect of Flux

ability

some

specific conductivity in
less constant.

of

is to

permanent,

more

).

volume

the

which

the

coercive

or

property

(a) Flux

the

Steel

vibration

is

energy

opposite direction

magnetizing

of

work,

in the

produce

mechanical

attractive

to

is much

will

of the

material.

applied magnetomotive

iron

involves

cause

unit

sists
con-

magnetization, comprising

have

must

this

The

giving

iron

amount

current

cycle of

demagnetizing

steel the

Permeability

heat.

direction, then

one

by

the

and

demagnetizing

alternating

subjected

small

retain

to

in

softest

easily removed
of

magnetism

hysteresis. The
and

according

are,

magnetizing

as

magnets

been

of

process

original condition.

after

the

having

in

the

to

molecular

reappears

complete

steel

hysteresiscoefficientof the

important

given

and

magnets,

name

magnetizing
is the

Materials.

molecular

which
the

given

material

is

inherent

to

permeability. The

to

in
a

properties of iron

magnetic

wing's theory, due

to

Magnetic

30,
very

31,

and

given sample of iron

with

magnetomotive

32.

unit

increase

slightchange in flux density

MATERIALS

but

this

the

OF

increases

to

ELECTRICAL

certain

B-H

Its

it

is

for

curve

iron

length, it

values

variation
to

necessary

each

use

material

which
decreases

in

restricts

the

all

the

opposite
to

up

the

the

density in
is

permeability

great

so

determined

problems

involving the

upon

In

magnetic
iron

contains

of

use

constituent, added

The
of

cent

carbon

of pure

On

combined

cent

It

is

by the
and

is
is

reduce

and

possible
addition

aluminum.

permeability, while

to

meability
per-

chilling produces

Pure

p.

to

and

from

3.0

about

to

hand,

steel

cast

of other
These
the

the

has

tensile

from
to

do

not

strength

as

to

or

bility.
permea-

per

the

cent

values

about

high

0.8

to

0.2

4.5

with

mechanical

metals, such
metals

necessary

the

one-half

graphitic carbon
improve

lower

the

important

qualities

with

iron

is

cial
Commer-

most

cases,

many

always

iron

obtain.

mechanical

cast

/A

other
no

ing
anneal-

increases

while

impurities, the
is,in

carbon

the

upon

improve

case

which

iron.

of

effect

combined

molecules

this, while

Similarly heat

This

to

extreme

of the

it is difficult to

number

The

does

ment
treat-

any

hardening.

as

carbon.

casting.

of motion

Composition

general

high temperature,

material, but

being combined

permit

effect.

effect

same

p.

Hardening

very

Effect of Chemical

of iron

motive
magnetofrom

experimentally

freedom

permeability.

has

total

in

an

Effect of Physical Treatment

per

the

to

As

steel.

or

best

decreases.

calculated

be

may

89

plotted against flux

are

figures. The

same

that

unit

per

curve.

the

the

then

point and

permeability is the ratio of the flux density

force

per

ENGINEERING.

0.25

bility.
permea-

properties
ganese
nickel, man-

seriously lower
is

considerably

increased.

Hysteresis Coefficient
accompanied
absorb

the

by

small

least energy

(Symbol

17). High

hysteresis loss, as
when

most

mobile.

the

permeability
molecules

is

will

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

QO

with

law

to

the

and

one

coefficient, however,

and

unit

per

depend

for

units

by hysteresis is proportional
The

The

volume,

per

density.

The

of iron

sample

any

values

of

given

are

~n

if its

cycle of magnetization
numerical

will

values

employed.

hysteresis loss in

The

Steinmetz.

by Dr.

of the flux density.

altered.

flux

of
the

upon

is constant

of

ance
density in accord-

flux

loss

power

unit

per

ergs

the

six-tenths

is not

physical condition
the

that

states

the

determined

experimentally

law

Steinmetz's

as

with

hysteresis loss varies

The

is,

watts

B16

fj X

Ph

io'

where

rj

is the

maximum

is the

is the

hysteresis coefficient;
value

of flux

density;

volume;
of

/ is the number

cycles of magnetization

unit

per

of

time.

Iron

for

over

O.OOI,

inches

and

pure

with

such

/ in cycles

for

armatures

in

minimum
service.

increases

ageing.

with

in the

after

in

inch, V

by

the

it is necessary

employ

to

alternating flux.

cores

for

not

cubic

At

impurities
practically

present
and

generator

largely through

are

is sensitive

(e.g.,above

time, producing

of

presence

particularly in annealing.

overheated

coefficient

second.

hysteresis coefficient
If

have

square

per

quality of iron

transformer

and

physical treatment,
for

per

that

use

improvements

maxwells

is increased

extent

an

iron

in

coefficient

The
to

alternating flux should

with

use

the

Iron
to

the
motor

better

annealed

overheating

90" C.) the

phenomenon

coefficient
called

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

OF

MATERIALS

91

Illustratingthe Use of the Hysteresis

Problem

Coefficient.
generator has four poles,and

is

80,000 maxwells

carrying flux is
(Assume
per

The

minute.

per

rj at

per

Steel for

20

40

Values

cast

29.

Curves

iron.

of the

showing

(This

Am.

Soc.

restrict the

and

for

must

magnets

80

60
of

and

31

of the

32

140

Cm.

are

good

from

best

treatment

molecules

steel,hardened

therefore,the

120
per

qualities of

magnetic

Figs. 30,

100

-Gilberts

the

to

permanent

strongest magnet

THE

UNIVERSITY
OF
r\

ordinary

Transactions

which

maximum

magnets.

can

be

tends

to

increases retentiveness.

degree,makes,
Such

highlymagnetized will retain its propertiesfor

The

and

Testing Materials.)

motion

High carbon

time.

hysteresisloss ?

frequency in cycles

in permanent

use

demagnetizing agencies. Any

once

core

magnetism againstthe action of vibration and other

retain its

FIG.

of the

Approximately 0.3225 K.W.

Ans.

second.)

olutions
rev-

core

is the

What

800

density in the

inch, and the volume

square

in inch system, with

o.ooio

Retentiveness.

flux

maximum

cubic foot.

one

makes

its armature

steel when
an

indefinite

produced by subjecting

ELECTRICAL

92

the

steel to

magnetizing

Characteristics
materials

of its

Various

are

cast

Cast

Iron.

cheapness and

the

ease

FIG.

Curves

30.

force.

40

showing

Materials.

Magnetic

The

portant
im-

steel, electrical steel

cast

useful

very

80

60
of

magnetic

it

120

be

can

the

as

100

-Gilberts

material

which

with

steady flux,

Values

out
chillingit with-

hot, and

(in

alloys.

is

20

when

iron,

iron

only with

used

be

can

of

iron, iron

sheets), wrought
Cast

force

magnetizing
the

removing

ENGINEERING.

account

on

molded.
losses

energy

It
with

140

Cm.

per

qualities

of

and

good

ordinary

cast

steel.

motor

parts

they

for

twice

are

of the
The

gray

chemical

cast

as

heavy

latter
iron

per

be

as

cent;
0.5
as

as

is twice

used

cent; manganese,

castings should

are

soft

for

when
as

flux

as

cent;

of cast

of steel, as

great

that

as

purposes

carbon

phosphorus,

generator

made

are

made

magnetic

follows:

per

When

excessive.

carrying magnetic

composition

graphite, 3.0
per

flux

slightlyvariable

even

0.8

the

possible. Cast

iron

ability
perme-

former.

has

average

cent;

sulphur, 0.06

iron

of the
an

(comb.), 0.5
per

and

per

is

per

cent;

silicon,
cent.
not

2.0

The

median-

MATERIALS

ically strong, its

per

square

per

square

of

that

ELECTRICAL

average

tensile

its

inch, and

Cast

of

its

pounds

such

cases

Curves

40

showing

it is therefore

is

iron

80

60

of

in

except

wherever

frames,

motor

140

Cm.

per

qualities

magnetic

lighter

consideration.

railway

120

100

-Gilberts

used

important

an

found

are

Values

of cast

merits

permeability is high it makes

volume

20

31.

strength 90,000

all of the

iron, and

cast

small

or

Examples

As

than

cores

lightness

FIG.

93

strength being 16,000 pounds

compressive

steel has

cheapness.

magnet

ENGINEERING.

inch.

Steel.

Cast

OF

mild

of

steel

and

gray

iron.

in

and

be

must

the

light

Pole

placed

to

upon

to

them, the
of

the

composition
0.08

per

and

permit

"

cent;

be

be

to

dead

small

save

copper

Average

of carbon

"

per

carried
in

copper

the

by
the

coils

being proportional
steel

for

(comb.), 0.25

silicon, 0.20

motors

placed in restricted

weight

to

weight of
core.

Railway

generators.

them

minimize

must

cores

periphery

chemical

of motors

cores

compact

and

space,
car.

pole

cent;

castings has
per

cent;

manganese,

to
a

phorus,
phos0.50

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

94

sulphur, 0.05

cent;

per

when

the

castings

Cast

flux.

compressive

and
These

figures

and

strength

than

hardness

greatly with

an

square

inch,

square

inch.

strength of irons
well

as

steady
iron,

cast

per

the

as

with

per

pounds

200,000

secured

are

only used

stronger

suggestive,

merely

are

varies

steels

steel is

mechanically

results

best

strength being 60,000 pounds

tensile

average

is

steel

Cast

soft.

are

The

cent.

per

with

as

ical
chem-

composition.
Electrical

alternating flux

of electrical

Parts

Steel.

be

must

of

made

A-

Good

B-Poor

30

90

60

180

150

120

Values

FIG.

parts

Curves

32.

magnetic

always built

are

of eddy

showing

due

currents

permit rolling
used, and

this

into

to

Steel
Steel

270

H -Gilberts

qualities

to

of

very

lowest

matter.

steel

sheets

Such

iron.

360

and

good

iron

poor

the

420

390

steel.

sheet

circulation
To

by the flux.

material

ductile

have

carry

Cm.

minimize

cutting of the
a

330

300

per

quality is fortunately combined

with

the

be

must

good

highest

netic
mag-

ability
perme-

hysteresis coefficient,and the quality is being

constantly improved.

important

the

sheets

qualities. These
and

Sheet
Sheet

of sheets

up

which

practically pure

240

210

of

machines

The

annealing of the

Manufacturers

sheets

of electrical

is

machinery

most

do

MATERIALS

their

annealing

own

contain

trace;

manganese,
o.io

per

steel

forgings

While

so

supported

brought
Iron.

Wrought
machines

at

and

as

just

the

At

Alloys. Occasionally

mechanical

strength and
qualities

nickel

or

As

metal

in
to

an

order

to

are

insulate

are

They
wound

machine

them

an

upon

armature

cloth,

covering

the

upon

insulation,the coils
and

important

rubber,

are

asbestos,

copal, sulphur, various

or

dielectric

excellent
steel

desired

and

istics.
character-

they

are

ployed
em-

conductors

materials.

asbestos

Wires
rubber.

or

porcelain insulators,

or

field

core

cloth

the

coils

tape

In transformers,

the

with

great

line, it is necessary

cotton,

glass

other

which

between

frequently immersed

supplements
dielectrics

of

paper

wire.

the

current

of

or

or

are

cheaper

Materials.

means

upon

by mica, oiled

the

necessary.

insulation

mounted

are

in

alloy of

transmission

or

by

with

covered

or

frequently

were

expensive

very

leakage of

prevent

electrical

arises

possess

Insulating
In

castings

castings are

forgings

case

may

absolutely

only when

steel

requisites. An

forgings

such

itself,

in electrical

used

reliabilitycombined

are

other

some

in

withstand

to

seldom

are

time

one

Steel

magnetic

weak
steel

structure

phorus,
phos-

cent;

per

or

silicon,

circuits.

magnetic

for

employed

by iron

time, because

effective.

0.03

steel

cent;

per

mechanically

forgings

present

Good

it.

upon

Iron

0.05

sulphur,

cent;

per

95

results.

best

carbon,

permit the laminated

to

as

the

cent.

be

may

strains

great

0.3

ENGINEERING.

insure

to

approximately:

sheets

sheet

ELECTRICAL

OF

are

surrounded

in addition

in addition
in oil which

insulating material.

to

oils and

cloth, paraffin,

nates
impreg-

Among

combinations

wax,

of two

the

other

to

following: air, glass,mica,

paper,

if

or

the

lain,
porce-

shellac,
or

more

ELECTRICAL

96
of these.

with

be

must

be molded

must

good dielectric

Each

substance

material,
be

must

(a) Electrical

form;

to

be

may

have

some

is, however,
the

as

selected

its

place for
varied.

are

particular

into

taken

worked

stability,

requirements

for

ical
mechan-

purpose

account:

properties.
fitness; strength, fluidity,ease

(b) Mechanical
durability, and

different

solid; some

following considerations

the

of

are

There

supported.

every

with

materials

being fluid, others

some

tools, others

others

these

Evidently

forms,

ENGINEERING.

other

items

the

as

of

circumstances

working,

dictate.

(c) Heat-resisting ability.

(d) Durability under
Electrical
merits

of dielectrics

electric

Pressure

given this

to

of

the

of the

Specific
of
that

between

be

material
the

termed

poorest,
Inductive

up

by the air

at

the

primarily

been

million

and

ten

vent
pre-

rule

without

reached.

The

thousand

being linseed

volts

oil paper,

and

pressure.

This

is the

given volume
same

to

As

conductors.

has

Capacity.
by

important

most

value

ordinary

up

is the

has

of thickness

being withstood

materials

air at

inch

per

is

Steinmetz

strain

the

one

best

electricitytaken

taken

amount

of the

Dr.

function

between

current

break-down

of the

one

volts
This

their

is sudden,
the

of

material.

the

of

passage

gradient varies

one

distinctive

is the

may

Gradient.

number

dielectrics, as

break-down

inch,

the

rupture

leakage until

per

This

puncturing.

judge the

to

of certain

given thickness

Rupturing

to

name

necessary

property

In order

important

most

chemicals.

and

strength of the material.

Electric

the

without

weather

knowledge

The
which

pressure

of

Dielectrics.

such,

as

necessary.

will withstand
dielectric

of

Properties

properties is
of

action

pressure.

ratio
of

of the
a

If

tity
quan-

dielectric
an

e.

m.

to

f. is

OF

MATERIALS

maintained

between

in

absorbed

each

will

then

known

be

the

will be the
of

the

other

influence
if the

by

unit

per

dielectric.
the

While

dielectric

this

applied

which
feature.

of

with

than

resistance
that

gases,

Air

and

liquids and
other

rule,

not

dielectric

strength.

Any

material

will be

ways

entirely

dielectric

poorest

materials

The
the

as

Even

insulating properties of air

wires

of transmission

in the

lines

of many

case

covered

the

wires

air furnishes

being installed

important
the

upon

the

air.

for
e.

g.,

very

the

dielectric, has

that

being

gradient

short

path,

forty inches.

pressure,

that

so

being much

be

may
e.

The

g.,

the
more

quarter

for

as

as

are,

wires

precaution,

the

principal

gradient depends
separated by

conductors
than

ten

inch,

as

times
for

depends

high than

of

are

peculiarities,the

many

gradient also

greater

only

rupturing

the

length of path between

The

much

divided

be

may

upon

most

is very

Materials.

insulating covering is depended

as

in this

so

conductor.

the

Air

in

importance

greatest

solids.

covered.

insulation.

cially
espe-

insulating

dielectric

Gases.

practical importance

and

great

in

poorest

the

convenience

importance

importance

Dielectric

For

of

direct

no

little

of the

of the

is very

of the

satisfactory in other
The

greater

is

capacity

has

be

may

rial
mate-

alternating.

While

resistance

compared

is

is

pressure

Specific Resistance.

materials

given dimensions

property

strength it

If

pressure.

quantity for another

corresponding

quantity of electricityabsorbed

conductors,

applied

product of this by the specificinductive

upon

if the

into

of

of air of

volume

or

quantity of electricity

certain

dielectric

quantity absorbed

the

be

97

plates separated by air

conducting

two

dielectric, there

other

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

for

upon

low

as

great

long path,
the

air

pressure.

ELECTRICAL

98
The

value,

known

is too

pressure

When

leakage

no

it indicates

out

into

this

phenomenon

small

narily
ordi-

can

approaches

pressure

the

air

high for satisfactory operation

and

loss

power

the

flows

current

discharge.

brush

high that

so

When

it.

through

rupturing

of air is

specificresistance
occur

ENGINEERING.

in

the

well-

appears

the

it represents

as

factor

the

of

safety from

rupture.
and

Glass

Porcelain.

usually made

are

materials

of

electrical

rupturing gradient

to

be

may

permits insulators

which

form

million

strength will allow.

It is

usually the

insulator

that

through

rather
the

determines

somewhat

while

than

resistance

mechanical
heat

take

Cemented

into
as

in

armatures

and

for

other

The

more

around

the

porcelain that

or

inductive

capacity,

enough

not

per

mechanical

as

to

cause

is

its

use

electrically,but

its

difficult.

Its

application
in many

necessary
a

that

way

they

are

required

Mica

is used

the

segments

in

from

supporting

with

pressure.

the
shellac

produced.

This

generators

and

where

reasonable

or

The

cases.

except

segments

of
uses

or

strain

large sheets

micanite

The

of air is

in such

separating

known
the

its

assembled

insulating the

glass

insulator

render

mechanical

no

entirely for
for

excellent

an

renders

be

must

thin

as

the

possess

power.

properties

resistance

sheets
to

is

Mica

that

volts

air distance

rupture.

than

greater

appreciable loss of
Mica.

to

they

The

properties.

be made

to

ductors
con-

both.

or

and

mechanical

quarter

supporting electric

porcelain

or

any

fair

and

for

glass

easily molded

are

excellent

inch

Insulators

and

commutators

varnish

is useful
motors,

for
for

mechanical

structure.

material

lining slots
field

spools

strength is

necessary.

Rubber.
for

Rubber
its water

is

an

excellent

insulator

and

is used

cipally
prin-

proofing qualities. Its principal field of

application

is in

tinning being
of the

wax

compound.

used

it should

is apt

by

In

will

rendering it elastic and

soft

of
as

limited

decreasing

and

it is

of electrical

Fiber.

These

cases,

especially when

paper

is used

work.

Here

moisture

for

the

the

paper

is excluded

afterward

produces

excellent

are

wire.

upon

rubber

which

is

to

manufacture

be

can

materials

conductors

is wound

dry and

by the

of lead

use

right and

left

satisfactory and

loose

for

Soft

wires, and

upon

upon

'

telephone

pipe covering.

mineral

certain

them.

used

spirallayers

with

for

kept from

cable

impregnated

Fuller-board,

fibrous

in

extensively used
flexible,durable

board
it.

Rubber

Wrapped

conductors,

compounds,

wax

popular material

for lead

it

covered

cables.

power

It is

fire

proportion

use

in the

employed

moisture

upon

lightlyin alternate
and

where

apparatus.

and

Paper

freely when

small

will

as

preferred.

sulphur,

when

that

so

in locations

necessary

extent

mineral

temperatures

discouraged
locations

sulphur

with

heat

large proportion of sulphur produces hard

is

is

use

addition

the

by

stand
such

the

ically
coating is mechan-

of fire risk for it burns

source

originate but in damp

to

of the

impregnated

to

soft

conductors,

action

rubber

not

raised

general its

is vulcanized

braids

cotton

be

the

The

copper.

layer of

of the

surface

99

wires.

prevent

Rubber
not

ENGINEERING.

of

tinned
to

the

It is also

ignited.

the

to

upon

protected

it.

insulation

necessary

rubber

soften

the

applied

is

rubber

ELECTRICAL

OF

MATERIALS

absorbs
Hard

It

can

or

hard

be

Paper

worked

much

harder

than

paper

insulating the coils of electrical machines.

and

moisture

fiber

material

has

good electrical properties.

and

is manufactured
like wood

therefore

must

and

in sheets
can

be

be
of

used

Fuller-

protected
some

in

from

thickness.

place of wood

rubber.
makes

an

excellent

support

for .varnishes

and

oil

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

ioo

and

is used

motors,

in

dielectric

in paper,

strength

Waxes

connection

with

When

boiled

paper,

it has

in

coils

covering

"

empire

Various
in

employed

are

gums

for

latter

linseed

great

as

insulating material.

any

Varnishes.

and

"

forming
as

the

transformers.

and

generators,

oil is dried

with

connection

fibrous

mineral

electrical

conductors,

The

supports.

and

waxes

table
vege-

in

mainly

electrical

properties

excellent.

are

Oils.

Oil

increasingly used

is

in

particularly
in

tanks

tension

switches

circuits

under

in

little

oil

arcing.

somewhat

properties

oil

which

it is

For

this

similar

possesses

possible

High
break

to

special

purpose

those

to

placed

point.

flashing
as

tion
insula-

usually

are

of

low

and

immersed

oil with

possessing

oil

strength
are

These

special grade

other

supplementing

transformers.

containing

fluidity, dielectric

for

of

former
trans-

oil

dried

in

is

fibrous

by the
Cloth

and

material,

Yarn.

it supports

when

greater

the

materials

wax,

to

If

but
material.

in

effect

the

are

is produced

as

compounds.

oil well.

It

is used

above,

it

In

As

in the

in

place of

tape,

be

can

for

support

nish,
var-

of

case

paper

saturated

with

readily and

applied

use.

of
to

separate

etc.

oils

some

cases

used

mainly

rubber

mentioned

layers

mainly

and
dried

mainly

braided

these

flexibility is required.

is in universal

Yarn,

in

but

is

Cloth

wax,

paper

mentioned

already

oil residue.

gummy

oil and

As

required.

is

cotton,
the

applied either
of

surface

these

and

to

in

spiral layers

conductors.
act

as

support

Its

purpose

for

perfectly dry its insulating properties

very

few

cases

is

it used

without

some

are

or

is

varnish,
lent
excelother

CHAPTER

IV.

ELECTRIC

CIRCUITS.

OUTLINE.

Installation

and

Construction
Outdoor

Construction

and

Design

of

Alternating
Quantities.

Quantities

IN

Circuits

following

receiver,
as

from

distinct

and

of

"

Displacement
and

the

of
in

Capacity

to

generator

sections

1.

The

outdoor

transmission

2.

The

indoor

will

be

found

The

windings

line.

distributing
in

the

system.

electrical

machinery

connected

with

system.
These
and

different

sections

electrical

separately.
features

All

of

the

requirements
have

may

be

(a)

The

conducting

(6)

The

support

(c)

Switching

of
and

and,
in

features
best

circuit

studied
wires
the

hence,

the

their

insulation.

devices.
101

must

following

conductors.

protective

distinct

and

common

in

and

have

be

"

Alternating

Reactance.

circuit

different

Engine

follows:

3.

the

electric

an

several

and

Phase

"

Inductance

Resistance,

"

Steam

values

Power.

Current

the

in

Effective

"

Impedance

"

wiring.

Quantities

current

Alternating

"

Alternating
Electric

and

f.

m.

Conduit.

"

Circuits:

Alternating

"

e.

line

Conduit

"

Electric

of

Current

Tower

wiring

Open

Operation

Varieties

and

Pole

"

Circuits:

Indoor

Circuits:

Circuits.

Transmission

Line

Electric

of

ical
mechan-

considered

their
order:

cal
mechani-

ELECTRICAL

102

electrical

As

machinery

machines

such
several

windings

will

they

be

of generators,

types

Construction
Circuits

ENGINEERING.

installed

are

National

for

National

Association,
and

of

suggestion

the

at

an

with

revise

engineers and
These

architects

are

National
and

bureau

It

supplies.
as
"

Board

"

passed

by local
information

emphasizes

the

The

code.

the

rules

code

lighting and

power

capacity of wires
The

them.

that
devices
"

risk

are
"

fire risk
made

safe

one.

"

devices

supplies

also

collects
in

appointed

are

and

this way

following of the

the

ordinary

service, specifying the

the

and

and
be

may
a

methods

rules

various

by

be

to

requirements

allowable
in

used

and

construction

circuit

breakers

material,

cut-outs

in

of electrical

fires,and

are

to

bodies

list of such

bureau

careful

inspectors

all of

cover

dimensions,

switches, fuse

of

association

companies.

of insurance

associations
The

local

The

experts

information

an

approved

electrical

about

importance

"

such

Electric

all national

as

annually

meets

Chicago

time

of the

annually

the

interests.

inspectors.

distributes

of

of

insurance

to

rules

insurance

by

time

only

and

approved

are

of

laboratory for the testing of all kinds

publishes from

certain

National

and

in

to

cautions
pre-

rules, known

approved

maintains

with

modified

are

committee

"

representing engineering and

The

These

Underwriters'

code

the

Circuits.

wiring and,

"

rules.

the

indoors

Code/'

the

with

stability and

composed

The

connection

Electric

advisory body

inspectors.

confers

of

Underwriters.

Electrical

of

parts

transformers.

mechanical
All

essential

well, is regulated by the

as

of Fire

Board

"

the

work

outdoor

in

and

motors

against fire risk.

extent,

studied

Installation

and

the

are

permanently

substantial

manner

avoided
to

carrying
installing
tors,
insula-

of
are

of

so

and
maintain

ified
spec-

these
the

CIRCUITS.

ELECTRIC

primarily for durability

to

wires

the

life and

considered.

be

must

results

therefore, justified in

the

other

companies

restrictions

imposing

ger
dan-

crossing with

of

insurance

The

only is

Not

plant important, but

disastrous

erected

are

reliabilityof service.

and

of the

working

continuous

the

lines

Outdoor

Circuit.

Transmission

Outdoor

upon

are,

methods

of

showing

drip

Drip Loop

FIG.

bringing

of

Method

33.

in

construction

line
near

following items

the

Assoc.

From

(a) Insulation
(6) Location

are

of wires
of

circuits

of

guard

with

"

wall,
Ins.

Assn.)

circuits
fire risk

enter
"

or

are

standpoint

form

and

the

the

considered

F.

Mut.

where

cases

building.

insured

an

all

through

wires

hand-book

(From

loop.

line

and

material
to

respect

of

other

insulators.

wires

and

to

protecting wires

or

buildings.
(c) The

use

wires

or

other

screens.

(d) The

proper

(e) Grounding
in any

making
of

of

circuits

joints.
to

prevent

unsafe

rise in pressure

part.

(/) The
parts

use

of section

of circuits.

switches

to

permit cutting

out

ous
danger-

ELECTRICAL

104

(g) The
the

ENGINEERING.

method

proper

of

of moisture

entrance

(h) The

proper

auxiliaries

which

entering buildings

and

location

installation

and

likely

are

safeguard the

to

become

to

insure

to

against

structure.

of transformers
the

and

of

source

special

risk.
Line

Construction.

(a) Overhead

Transmission

poles

upon

(b) Underground
Pole

and

is not

excessive

of the

account

work

insure

safety

Pole

and

chestnut

or

length from

stone

other

wood,

depending

apart.

60

The

pine coated
the

the
with

number

The

insulator

best

for the

where

it is necessary

from

oak,

the

the

butts

poles

pins
latter.

insulators

are

to

cedar, pine,

They

poles

if the

ground

are

are

is used

for

pins

are

to

of iron

be
or

100

heavy,
The

cost

in

range

only where
set

are

is soft
with

surrounded

spaced from

to

from
or

if

broken
200

power

feet
ductors,
con-

cross-arms

usually of long leaf yellow

paint and

metallic
of

high

locality,the

These

longer for light telephone wires.

support

on

telephone

employing

upon

over.

ground, and

distance

shorter

The

is small.

Circuits

cut

are

passed

in the

concrete.

for

and

feet,the long poles being used

be

used

pressure

large cities

degree of durability desired.

must

the

upon

to

in

property.
Poles

six feet

or

number.

line.

the

in

ness
cheap-

is used

of wires

conductors

placed under-ground

durability is desired

extra

which

of the

life and

30

number

or

line

the

distribution

railway

their

Pole

cities where
size

of

account

on

repair.

tower

obstructions
to

the

area

of

to

freight,and

four

where

great

also

are

either:

or

preferred

in

and

for

account

on

pressure

of

and

is used

Conduit

is

inspection and

stretches

cross-country

located

are

in conduits.

of

ease

towers,

or

construction

tower

or

circuits

of

length depending

carried, i.e.,2-pin, 4-pin,

wood, locust

etc.

being considered

ELECTRIC

insulators

The

variety of forms
construction

glass

obtain

strength.

Both

mechanically,

weak

placed

FIG.

the

upon

High

34.

insulator

and

conforming

N.

Y.

passing through

or

distance
It is further
conductor

to

extent

some

decreases
is
its greater

the

with

pin by the

shields

preferred

to

of thin

the
"

to

lower

uniformity of

structure.

conductor

bolt
For

sary
neces-

to

pin.

leakage path from

or

The

top.

creasing
petticoats in-

large top shell

from

rain
In

pressures

Browrn

the

the
base

latter.

with

flashing over/'

glass for high

with

the

shells

ones

of

saddle

cross-arm,

long surface

pin

Company.

with

from

iron

center

is constructed

bottom

of

likelihood

Power

passing around

use

from

the

dielectric

the

provided

in diameter

of

insulator

through

to

side

and

insulator

the

be

must

strength is

much

Ontario

of

through

strap

when

and

inherently

are

dependence

it is furnished

upper

strength the

dielectric

lines

passes

frequently
the

main

volt) porcelain

State

pin

to

the

great

mechanical

of

porcelain

is iron

(60,000

on

The

required.

that

pin which

tension
used

support

combination

glass and

so

both,

or

general principle in their

The

IOS

porcelain

or

being used.

is to

dielectric

of

are

CIRCUITS.

and

general,
on

account

thus
celain
por-

of

glaze is employed

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

106

standard

type

recently

and

is the

This

insulators

less

conspicuous

of insulator

has

about

the

render

to

link

developed.

been

and

hung

of

disks

of

number

links

wire

together with

porcelain strung

has

consisting of

insulator

of size

its limit

reached

form

radically different

The

targets.

as

from

the

the

side,

cross-arm.

conductors

The

FIG.

Insulator

35.

attached

are

moderate

for

shells, and

when

not

heavy,

too

transmission

power

wires

when

the

and

insulators

Galvanized
Their

is
are

for

resist
up

of

to

concrete

side

and

aluminum,

for
with

an

in the

as

of 500

in

position by tie

where

bending

feet

or

durable.

they

and

breadth

lines

occasional

feet

The

of

the
of

base

enables

towers

light

are

them

to

usually built

are

are

tion
construc-

the

towers

cross-arms

cases.

many

The

They

over

pass

chafing.

and

more

foundations.

of

of most

case

replacing poles in

are

section

same.

reinforced

angle-iron

power

at

show

to

bound

are

longitudinal strains.

angle iron and

Conductors

top,

excessive

their

strength and

assembling

the

are

sightly and

attached

f. broken

m.

They

towers

spans

e.

of

upon

prevent

steel

more

their

or

necessary

permits

use

method

lines.

to

line

insulators

the

to

used

with

them
.

are

of

section

hard
of

drawn
steel

copper

where

or

great

CIRCUITS.

ELECTRIC

strength is required.

tensile

is still used
e.g.,

in

steel

and

they

being

are

wires

Overhead

they

likely

are

telephone

gradually

replaced

to

such, for example,

This

insulation

upon

for

FIG.

36.

braid

cotton

which

is

soon

arrester

wire

Bent

of

in the

as

is of

line

is

disturbance

from

with

It consists

used

grounded

to

with

carry

from, Lightning.
of

Ontario

off line

In

in cities.

depended
three

or

Power

layers

Company.

compound

wax

of the

addition

where

charge.

mineral

The

space

two

but

conductors,

is seldom

weather.
most

transmission

power

lightning.

and

of

Iron

copper.

locations

other

merely of

lines

on

required,

systems.

congested overhead
value

not

drawn

in

except

by the action

unsatisfactory feature

hard

by

wire

copper

telegraph work,

and

contact

dubious

saturated

removed

Protecting Lines

in

come

protection.

Horn

insulated

not

are

railway

street

in

still used

are

of

drawn

strength is

great

circuits

feeder

the

soft

Some

where

overhead

107

difficult
circuits

to

the

and

is the

lightning

protection afforded

by

arresters

Such

placed

is

lightning

the

like

bent

be

hot

vapors

tend

is

Fig. 37

finallyis

Cables

Line.

creosoted

the

To

lead

concrete

insure

they

are

located

of

between

manholes.

that
Indoor

cables.

joints

is

the

ening
length-

hold.'1'

to

arc

association

an

by the

of

which
of

use

small

with

conduit

is

to

as

About

500

be

Circuits.

of
of

an

and

wiring

grade.

ducts, and
manholes
in

drawing

easy

branch

at

and

distance

average

located

are

easily made
Indoor

is

pound.
com-

preferably laid in

number

feet

rubber

is almost

permanence

permit*

pipe.

wax

usually straight between

Manholes

may

with

wire

such

water,

desired

any

iron

mineral

of

in conduits

heavily insulated

of
The

distances

such

removal

so

with
and

continuous
at

ter)
arres-

building into

solidity of joints and

built

are

is

"

cross

of cement-lined

or

entrance

covered.

invariably

Conduits

wire

because

placed underground

are

conductor

prevent

to

does
to

by

jute impregnated

or

paper

protecting

of tile,of paper

wood,

this purpose
with

suggested

path for

horn

permit the

to

line.

house.

arrester

Conduit

long

have

so

the

lightning discharge

it

safety is secured

Additional

detached

For

for

the

stations,
sub-

The
"

of

name

and

grounded

afford

to

This

doing

too

arrangement

an

enters.

in

Here

air gap.

follow

may

rise and

companies

insurance

short

automatically.

to

path which

line

which

arc

ruptured

may

across

line

(suggesting the usual

the

that

so

ground

along

Fig. 36.

in

transmission

the

horn

installed

is shown

near

stations

power

sometimes

are

to

in

arresters

arrangement

an

wire

or

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

io8

points

repaired.
comprises

two

general

classes:

(a) Open

or

exposed, and

(6) Concealed.
*

in

The

Chapter

lightning

general principles underlying

IX,

as

they naturally

form

arresters

part of station

are

discussed

equipment.

ELECTRIC

latter

The
1.

Knob

2.

Conduit

3.

Molding.

and

(lined or

From

unlined),

regulate interior

rules

wiring of

the

into

subdivided

be

109

tube,

insurance

The
and

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CIRCUITS.

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wiring almost

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37.

Lightning

moderate

line

FIG.

when
at

installed

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arrester
m.

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f.

house

(from

for

use

hand-book

is liable

to

at

with

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service

Fire

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condemnation

inspection and

time.

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e.

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of
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permanently

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wiring is the
mill

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cheapest form
and

to

some

and

of work
extent

for

it is

largely

residences.

It

ELECTRICAL

no

modified

be

may

supported

are

for

to

to

limited

which

knobs

which
The

it
wires

the
and

has

is derived

wires

usually used

type

the

advantage

possible to change this wiring

in the
the

pipes, and

wood-wrork,

from

it

is

name

which

through

tubes

the

and

with

be

cleats.

It is

the

support

it may

conditions.

inexpensive

The

extent.

which

readiness

wiring

being entirely invisible.

of

the

and

It is also

residences.

with

ease

changing

meet

knobs

upon

the

and

knob-and-tube

Concealed

"

repaired

and

inspected

in

also

advantages

possesses

ENGINEERING.

from

wrall and

wire

the

ceiling spans

is drawn

other

of

use

to

possible

protect
of

sources

grounds."
wiring is the safest but

Conduit

In

wiring.

of

with

common

however,

considered

almost

increased

the

system
outlets

short-circuit
also

to

limited

is

conduits

into

is essential
fire

risk

as

confined

tube

is

offset

flexible

of

location

of

placed

current

on

Mechanical
the

the

any

uity
contin-

wires
of

shall
the

conduit

grounding
ground

to

of

fittings. These

installation

the

continuity

of

This

effects

or

provision that

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in

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the

that

water-tight.

only after

leakage

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is^

used

frequently

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to

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to

extent

great reliance

from

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cealed
con-

conduit

frequently

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fire-tight so

Electrical

complete.

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be

installed.

been

by the Code

is assured
drawn

be

may

it may

locations.

feature

other

the

once

made

are

is

damp

impossible

they have

after

Conduits

are

On

it is almost

as

in
this

and

cost.

floors.

but

necessary

wiring is permanent

class

special safety is desired.

when

locations

exposed

former

concealed

always

not

the

ceilings and

walls, under

in

expensive of all classes

most

to

be

latter

system
eliminate

high

through

resistance.

Molding

work

easily installed

is
in

cheap
old

and

is

buildings.

fairly well
It

is

protected.

rapidly going

It is

out

of

CIRCUITS.

ELECTRIC

favor

and

Design

and

current

of the

In

in heat

the

case

unless

Through

2.

Here

corresponding

roughly

For

pressure.

transmitting

the

to

the

transfer

it may

in

be

of

one

or

of the

energy

when

all of the
in

heat

the

in

the

by

current

The
of

presence

3.

case

produces chemical

electrolyte, except

conductor.

of

seat

conductor.

of the

energy

the

under

come

dissipated

is the

conductor

it will

and
electrolyte

an

is all

current

of the

part

some

dissociation
as

belt

complete, which

ways

electric pressure,

an

the

to

to

conductor.

this

belt

Circuits.

Electric

analogous

be

following

Through

1.

tension

the

circuit must

the

more

is

velocity of the

the

of

Operation

circuit

electric

The

power

more

methods.

modern

power,

the

entirely displaced by

will, in time, be

and

in

that

portion lost

dissociation

is

panied
accom-

in

counter-pressure

the

electrolyte.
Through

3.

In

the

motor

is

power

and

motor

conductor.

transformation

of electrical

into

by the production of

accompanied

ical
mechancounter-

pressure.

Through

4.

If

such

used

or

in the

through

to

noted

production

an

electric

until

the

exactly equal

to

be

continuous
an

direction

from

conductor.

circuit

circuit, either
the

part of

the

maintain

circuit must

It will be
the

forms

counter-pressure

In order

in

dielectric and

dielectric

will flow
a

of

flow

alternating
connection

circuit

dielectric
the

line

of current
pressure

of

the

current

produces
pressure.

through
must

be

dielectric

periodically reversed.

the

preceding

of heat, the

statements

transformation

that, except
from

electrical

ELECTRICAL

H2

other

form

of energy

into

some

of

counter-pressure,

the

this

of

is

transmit

to

maximum

economy

of
and

the

lighting circuit
are

very

not

be

of

railway service,
would

of the

be
an

of

with

e.

f.

m.

highest
increase

to

pay

offset

than

f.

m.

well

classes

of

on

this

range,

20

per

by the

An

on

incandescent

while

reasonable

allowance.

important

influence

the

as

lamps

service

reasonable

be

can

for

large for
5

variety of
the

upon

impose

drive

shop

The

need
range

application

which

used

apparatus

Motor

motor

cent,

of

Current.
which

A
is

primary

which

is called, therefore, a direct

current

This

current.

vary

current

is not

materially from

apparatus

yield

fluctuates

current

in

always

which

receiver

regulation

e.

perform

gives

of

their

circuit

the

not

of the

excellent

motors

for

electric

meant

employed.

in

mission
trans-

per
rent
cur-

performance

line.

Varieties

not

the

Satisfactory regulation

nature

it is

changes

to

say
a

has

also

by the
which

restrictions

various

cent

maintenance.

highly

parts

the

to

is more

saved

ance,
resist-

more

to

the

point it does

to

heat.

other
of

such

the

to

necessarily

of energy

Different

f.

m.

e.

and

generator

certain

have

as

no

satisfactory regulation

must

good,

as

is

presence

resistance

and

and

sensitive

confined

function

is not

for

purpose

of

the

f. is determined

m.

e.

line

of

be

by the

from

efficiencyas the value

cost

of energy

will

The

economy

efficiency,for beyond

extra

form

there

circuit,leaving the

power

maximum

By

the

chapters.

appropriate

evidence

of heat

attention

chapter

part

is the

case

lowest

accompanied

tend, therefore, to reduce

organized forms
In

In

is the

heat

as

is

which

of form.

change

ENGINEERING.

or

the

same

which
and

to

instant.

is also

battery

direction, and

properly

more

only continuous,

instant

considerably

secondary

or

continuous

but

it

Other

unidirectional

rapidly in

value.

does
forms
but

This

OF

THE

UNIVERSITY
OF

ELECTRIC

variety
most

be

may

direction

conveniently termed
of

form

common

very

CIRCUITS.

rapidly and

which

The

pulsating current.

is

current

113

which

one

is therefore

alternates
named

in

nating
alter-

an

current.

work

In direct current
is used

current

and

circuit is

capacity of conductors
if

from

H. P., 500

25

the

with

of such

more

than

25

volts

case

about

50

amperes.

one-half

ohm

table, it

far

as

that
as

The

thousand

per

appears

drop with

1000

feet of it do

the

full load

wire

S. wire

7 B. and

its resistance

reference

By

in this

The

of

wire

the

to

fulfilsthe

is concerned.

cause

ments
requirecarrying

with

ance
allow-

weather-proof wire in the table given in the National

Electrical

Code.

Alternating Current
it is necessary
of the line with

Circuits.
in

reference

neglecting those

case

not

resistance

capacity of this wire is satisfactoryin accordance

for

f., a wire

e.m.

current,

have

may

example,

operated 500 feet

be

drop in

feet.

No.

For

drop.

cent

per

ting
alterna-

the basis of carrying

on

is to

motor

size that

in which

cases

resistance

some

designed

and

volt D. C.

generator

will be selected

in

general

which

have

described

three

and

and

to

(6) Inductance, analogous

upon

appreciable effect.

to

to

shown

was

In

resistance.
inertia.

mechanical

mechanical

elasticity.

operation of the circuit

greatly simplifythe subject.

are

circuit,namely:

mechanical

of. alternating quantities from

there

that

noting the particular effects of each

the

performance

properties,in each special

no

It

only three propertiesof

(a) Resistance, analogous

Before

the

quantities in the electric circuit

defined.

(c) Capacity, analogous

cuits
cir-

alternating current

consider

to

all of its

to

Chapter II the fundamental

were

In

of these

review

familiar

of the

example

erties
prop-

ject
subwill

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

114

in

Alternating Quantities
quantity is

which

one

the

effects

quantities, continuous

the

of

rotation

analogous

main

electrical

to

be

The

these

familiar

the

ting
alterna-

continuous

engine is

steam

it may

nearly

so

used

be

as

the

Fig. 38 shows

starting point in this discussion.

produce

to

By

alternating

produced.

that

apparatus

direction,

engine where

steam

shaft.

its

values.

of

piston is made

the

on

pressure

ting
alterna-

reverses

nature

may

in the

of this is found

example

the

Any

maximum

negative

to

apparatus

Engine.

periodically

reaching equal positive and

adapting

Steam

the

the

familiar

100-

a'80-

10

FIG.

engine indicator

steam

for

The

of

out

in

of the
the

pressure

usual

form
line

subtracting
For

In

cylinder.

is

the

convenience,

in
the

back

displacement

on

for

The

left hand

right hand

card

part,

back

the

plotting periodic
only

shown.

one

from

pressure

pressures

in

one

the

curves

This
the

resents
rep-

other.

tion
producline,

pressure

exhaust

has

diagram

and

card

representing the

is that

Fig. 39 the

base.

ordinates

piston in driving the

by the

done

100

pressures

abscissae.

lower

90

80
of Stroke

cent

card

with

card

the

while

power,

work

shows

of each

part

upper

70

in per

cylinder, the

of the

end

one

60

50

indicator

card

piston displacements

40

Displacement

engine

Steam

38.

30

20
Piston

been
and

steam

redrawn
the

is obtained

forward

net

by

pressure.

direction, e.g., toward

the

ELECTRIC

the

FIG.

cylinder,

the

toward

those

by

of the

end

crank

head

piston is

39.

Steam

The

an

The

it.

velocity and

steam

pressure

alternating

piston velocity
on

the

the

piston velocity is proportional

between

determined.

line and

the

of the

and

long

connecting

form

shown
power,

of

the

pressure

From

horizontal

shaft

the

showing

piston velocity.

or

pressure

center

in

rod.

The

Fig. 39

which

is

and

Fig. 40

e.

f. in

m.

crank

stroke

an

it is

through

sine
the

it is

evident
of

an

the

angle
of the

infinitely

an

then

the

have

alternating quantity.

being developed

velocity ordinates.

to

that

center

pin, assuming

velocity line will

also

may

its relation

and

the

to

line

displacement, is found
and

base

displacement

same

pressure

value

and

is

and

diagram,

power

and

exerted

pressure

point in the

each

at

the

The

net

line

zero

graphical alternating form

pressure,
of

the

above

circuit.

plotted

be

to

drawn

are

below

in

nature

closely analogous
electric

end

now

engine

alternating

CIRCUITS.

by the

piston

by multiplying
When

these

are

at

any

together
in

the

n6

ELECTRICAL

direction, as

same

product

is

represents

Diagram

40.

always the

the

relation

engine

power

in

Fig. (39) and

is

power
are

The

this
out

is

from

gear

rotates

at

on

could

be

the

hence

the

displacement

pressure

of the
It

steam

If it

of

steam

line

power

is shown

and

for

the

the

ity
veloc-

in

plotted by the indicator

of the
is

mechanism

line

This

it is not

is

values

may

would

put

form

the

usually

necessary

employed.

operated by

reducing

desirable, for any

were

on

reference

values.

quantities, but

velocity

of crank.

time

base.

angular velocity, the

uniform

and

and

absorption

an

pressure

were

account

redrawn

line

time

net

engine indicator

crank

into

the

in

were

alternating quantity

Fig. 38

of

cards

cross-head.

diagrams

The

an

as

represent

they

direction.

steam

the

not

If

power.

velocity

source.

long

as

same

indicator

is, the

That

the

given

in the

outside

an

illustration,their

cross-head

of

annular

to

displacement base

on

from

of

product woul-d

showing

of

in this

case

output

an

opposite directions

FIG.

ENGINEERING.

to

the

crank

to

the

the

time,

readily transformed
alternating velocity

employed
use

the

angle between

proportional
be

As

reason,

this

form

for

electrical

in the

case

engine.

is desirable

to

give

names

alternating quantity for convenience

to

the

different

in reference.

parts

of

an

CIRCUITS.

ELECTRIC

series

The

of

positive and

and

Period
time

number

cycles

for

periods

constitute

of

frequencies

from

range

time

of

to

cycles

133

given

frequency

minute.

per

abbreviation

an

as

s.

p. p.

and

cycle is

in

forms

common

15

of

alternations

alternations

and

second)

per

two

between

Alternation

an

The

or

(often written

second

per

cycles

The.

Frequency.

are

alternating quantity

an

alternations, a Cycle.

the

is the

of

negative maxima

successive

two

values

117

mercial
Comin

second

per

engineering practice.
Alternating E.
the

of

armature

north

south

and
then

of

F. and

M.

Current.

electric

an

other.

e.

m.

device

f. appears

for

in the

it to

Sine

Base-of

FIG.

E.

41.

f.

m.

sine

If

in

upon

Fig. 41.

than

e.

the

e.

time

f. from

curve

f.

m.

Unless
form

form.

of Alternator

Wave

Wave

super-imposed

A. C.

an

different

be

upon

similarity.

generator

the

produce

sometimes
may

base
their

of

they might

being
this

on

f. values

m.

e.

Sine-Wave.-one-tfrcumference

base, showing

m.

base

form,

shown,

alternator

angle

on

time

While
in

somewhat
flatter

wave

successive

the

plotted

of

curve

natural

unidirectional

in its natural

E.M.F.

tion,
direc-

one

alternating.

is

changing

circuit

the

of

successive

under

f. first in

m.

words,

generators

conductors

the

pass

e.

other

In

practically all electric

the

generator

poles they generate

in the

supplied with

As

shown

curve

alternators

varies

more

peaked,

taken

as

an

be

often

average

Ii8

ELECTRICAL

It is evident

one.

sine

in

curve

superimposed
that
be assumed

time

the

general the

to

be of the

to

an

sine

Effective
that

value

of

alternating

This

f. is

is this

larity
simi-

alternator

an

curve

sine

is the

e.

f. and

m.

and

replace

may

replacing

curve

quantities which

these

is that

ampere

Average

and

As

it is

be measured

and

chosen

been

select
this

that

an

will heat

which

current

pared
com-

to

suited

be

tial
essen-

to

necessary

shall

have

values

such

often

are

to.

f.,it is

m.

in the

that

reason

Quantities.

current
e.

may

entirely conventional

referred

Alternating

current

current

is

of

Naturally

purpose.

m.

e.

engineering electrical quantities

coincidence

alternating
direct

This

close

sine

of the

base

wave.

of

curve

sine

similarity, a

So

form, and

the

Values

with

f.

strikingly like

cycle of the

curve.

m.

of the

angle base.

possible through

is

curve

the

one-half

m.

e.

of the

this

emphasize
to

e.

in

of electrical

referred

some

To

equal

upon

ordinates

literature

is

form.

angle ordinates

it, the
the

glance that

its base

with

curve

at

ENGINEERING.

of Squared

Ordiaates

FIG.

Current

42.

and

wave

value

"effective"

wire

to

the
An

alternating
of

extent

same

incandescent
current

light as with

an

will
ampere

of

square

as

of

of

alternating quantity.

an

will

lamp

derivation

showing

same,

an

supplied

therefore

of continuous

ampere

give

of continuous

with
out

the

current.

an

rent.
cur-

ampere
same

An

of

amount

effective

ELECTRIC

alternating volt
of

terminals
would
a

heated

be

effective

volt.

shown

squares

and

this

of the

is

heat

of the

average

the

The

in the

topped

In

ones.

cent

per

the

for

the

than

greater

The

sine

the

is also shown
rates

the

of

than

the

less for flat-

effective
The

average.

square

squared

more

and

at

average

of the

always

wave

the

the

as

waves

of

curve

average

average

peaked

of the

case

value.

tity
quan-

Fig. 42 is

Obviously

It is

effectivevalue.

In

same

of the

root

value, being greater

average

be

an

proportional

value.

and

by

resistance.

alternating

its average

circuit.

will not

is

an

its average

instantaneous

square

the

of

with

of

current

average

values

current

produced

is termed

curve

and

of

been

will send

ohm

one

value

the

as

current

squares.

through

circuit

have

alternating volt

effective

same

indicates

which

the

the

of current

wave

the

effective

the

upon

only, that

it would

as

heating value

the

be

that, impressed

f.

m.

extent

same

ampere

the

hence

will not

e.

119

containing resistance

An

alternating

its square,

an

the

to

Joule's law

From

is

circuit

continuous

to

is such

CIRCUITS.

value

maximum

7T

value

is

times

"

the

times

"

the

maximum

the

and

value

average

effective

is

value

value.

V2

Current

Alternating
current

circuit

is the

The

average

instant.
watt

-meter,

product

is the

of the

necessarily the
maximum

as

zero

is

In

the

power

in

product of the

current

and

of

of the

fact, when

other

the

would

f. at

m.

shown

any

by

and

e.

the

two

f. may

m.

is not

amperes

have

happen

maximum

the

that
and

not

one

the

at

occur

same

The

values.

circuit, for it is possible that

it may
is

e.

be

and

alternating

an

instantaneous

alternating volts

of current

case,

which

power,

average

power

generally the
when

The

effective

values
time.

same

Power.

the
the

frequency,

will
average

be

always
power

ELECTRICAL

120

would

then

effective

be

e.

The

zero.

m.

ENGINEERING.

and

quantity by which
in

current

in order

give

to

circuit

the

of

product

multiplied,

be

must

developed, is called

watts

the

Factor.

Power

WattS

P. F.

"

volts
To

determine

the

instruments
The
factor

under

Phase
waves

values

at

sine

to

the

they

of

volts, and

watts,

reaches

43.

place of

in

Alternating Quantities.

time

same

in

are

the

they

peres.
am-

power

by the

Diagram

the

next

of

e.

f. in

m.

fraction

of

The

the

sine

term

amount

explained

as

Fig. 43 illustrates this.

imum
max-

of phase,

out

by that

equivalent angle

two

and

if the

current

illustrating meaning

be

certain

When

zero

to

example,

value

it leads

their

said

are

For

phase.

current

reach

not

its maximum

previous paragraph.

FIG.

ordinary

is explained in the

and

waves

frequency do

commonly

more

of

with

phase displacement/'

same

period before
or

"

of the

circuit

circuit

measurements

Displacement

otherwise

of

expression cos6, frequently used

applies only

section

amperes

factor

power

requires

e.

in
m.

f.

"phase

displacement."

wave

would

be

generated by

being the projections of

being the
axis.
second

values

Similarly the
radius

rotating radius
the

upon

vertical

angle /3 between

of the
current

making

an

wave

angle

i would
T

with

a, the

axis
a

and

and
be

the

the

ordinates
the

sae
abscis-

horizontal

generated by
horizontal

axis.

CIRCUITS.

ELECTRIC

in

difference

The

referred

phase of

to

the

as

and

current,

In

6 is the

cos

Problems

transmission

amperes

K.

W.

What

is the

f. and

current?

m.

sine

is

The

what

produce

to

the

e.

K.

50

required

will be

amperes

the

when

W.

83.3

lags

current

Polyphase
combination

the

differ

is

circuit

degrees behind

10

7.69

the
a

designed

e.

two-phase
to

employ

or

differ

by

in

Fig. 44

and

diagram

of

in
quency,
fre-

same

circuit

is

circuits

two

E.m.f.

Phase

used

is called

are

Waves

e.

m.

f.

waves

in

circuits.

quarter

period

quarter-phase circuit and

such

the

system

2-Phase

line
two

of

are

amperes.

are

single two-wire

t:

transmission

m.

these

example,

For

circuits

more

position, the

phase

the

in which

or

f.'s in

m.

fr

Two-phase

two

Obviously,

single-phase circuit.

44.

e.

in

polyphase circuit.

ft

When

Circuits.
and

but

This

degrees.

33-5

cent.

per

6,600 volt

2500

phase difference

the

in

current

indicates

Ans.

FFG.

m.

f.?

m.

e.

Factor.

pressure

0
many

of

Power

Ans.

How

r.

waves

watt-meter

and

factor

power

angles./S and

60,000 volts

at

flowing.

iently
conven-

factor.

power

circuit

50

e.

and, with

be

may

the

between

Illustrating the Definition of

of

of

difference

angle is usually called

This

i, therefore,

and

121

circuit

is

or

90

degrees.

all apparatus

two-phase

apparatus,

ELECTRICAL

122

e.g./

two-phase

In

motor.

this

single-phase circuits

separate
a

ENGINEERING.

the

case

but

their

3- Phase

45.

Three-phase

shows

120

may

The

be

used

for

Diagram

serve
pre-

showing

Km.f.

Phase

the

e.

Phase

diagram

of

Phase

e.

1 etc.

f.

m.

waves

phase

for

used

transmission.

ing
employwires

adjacent

arrangement

Four

difference

are

tically
prac-

wires
between

Waves

Phase

m.

Wares

three-phase system

power

4- Phase

46.

and

circuits,the

four

Phase

FIG.

always

circuits.

is the

distance

long

E.m.f.
Phase

f.'s between

m.

e.

This

degrees apart.
all

three

corresponding

wires.

three

line

transmission
in the

Fig. 45

f's

m.

are

phase relation.

definite

Phase

FIG.

e.

circuits

two

Phase

f.

waves

etc.

in

the

four

circuits

of

and

six circuits

four-phase system.

adjacent circuits being

with

adjacent phase

two

degrees.

displacements

six-phase circuit, are

however,

90

also
or

three

Six
of

wires
60

degrees, forming

occasionally used.
phases

are

For

sufficient.

most

poses,
pur-

ELECTRIC

The

the

for

reasons

single-phase

that

are

CIRCUITS.

(i) they

and

(2) polyphase apparatus

than

single-phase.

units

defined

applied

the

to

their

the

is

analogous

consumes

hence

current,

this

in

is shown

resistance.

The

where

Fig. 47

is to

current

In

current.

be
e.

f.

m.

direct

elasticity.

to

e.

been

ER

is

I.

given and

of

in

be

ohms

700

calculated

current

the

to

f. will

m.

wave

circuit

has

curve

circuit.

proportion

current

by-point by multiplying together the

pointand

amperes

in ohms.

resistance

Inductance

consumes

of the

change

of

algebraic form,

through

sent

indicating

resistance, inductance

resistance-consumed

of

the

f. in

m.

be

circuits

in

capacity is analogous

e.

wave

with

phase

This

inertia, and

to

and

now

current

performance

mechanical

to

Circuits.

may

useful

be

they affect the

analogous

Resistance

in

analogies will

in which

manner

definitions

alternating

in

of current

flow

copper

briefly discussed

were

These

than

satisfactory

Electric

in

Capacity

II

Chapter

mechanical

.Resistance
is

in

of

efficient and

more

properties of electric circuits

The

and

is

economical

more

are

and

Inductance

Resistance,

rather

polyphase systems

of

use

123

of

rate

f. in

m.

just

current

the

to

e.

proportion

inertia

as

of

change

to

produces

the

in

force

velocity, i.e.,eL=

of

rate

portion
proL

"

"

at

This

is

in

generated

In

current.

there

minus

marked
the
order

inductance
to

is inductance,

equal and

opposite

indicate

to

change

opposes
a

the

e.

m.

e.

f., or

in
an

f.

m.

in

circuit

introduce

to

self-induced

the

change

in

current

it is necessa^
to

that

the

which
e.

m.

f.

"

dt
In

Fig.

47

sending the

the
wave

of

wave

of

e.

current

m.

f. which

through

would
a

be

circuit has

generated
been

by

plotted

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

124

by noting the

rate

ordinates.

4000

3500

of

of current

change

the

measuring

By

for

number

changes

in

of different
current

2500

FIG.

47.

current
m.

f.

Diagram

showing
through

wave

the
700

e.

m.

ohms

f.

waves

res.,

to

necessary
3

henrys

send

inductance,

given

and

20

capacity.

during short
intervals,the

intervals
average

of time
rates

and
of

dividing these

change,

by the time

corresponding

to

the

ELECTRIC

times,

mean

this

in

these
e.

f.

equal
shown

Capacity in
the

to

bodies

change

wave

circuit,as

determine

to

of

circuit

rate

of

change

the

rate

of

pressure.

current

flows, and

the

to

dielectric.
the

time,
the

to

As
e.

the
f. due

m.

long

of

is

is

indicates

resists the

the

In

in

capacity
current
to

is shown

47

from

is the

wave

of

out

charge

or

is

in the
e.
or

m.

condenser.

passing

the

into

the

that

of

e.

into

is

the
and

current

proportional

f. due

m.

that

at

e.

to

the

to

city
capa-

of inductance

with

the

m.

e.

calculate

maximum

the
e.

m.

the

horizontal
of the

area

is

current

the

f. is

maximum.

quantity

(in this
as

has

and

f.

the

integrating the

the

dielectric

by

by

The

When

Then

produced

electricity which

capacity in farads
of farads).

m.

calculated

of

because

therefore, is

millionths

instant

any

ordinates.

the

into

by the

of

the

algebraic form,

In

its intersection

quantity

dielectric
f.

at

instant

of the

changing

flowed

product
any

that

Cut.

is

total

charge is maximum
first step,

at

wave

It

of successive

number

has

in elastic

as

to

f. is

m.

current, whereas

circuit.

wave

the

in it.

change

Fig.

in

an

proportional

f., just

m.

proportional

+l

positive sign here

produce

produced

of current

e.

current.

resists

that

proportional

the

capacity

time-integral of the

flow of

circuit

electricity that

The

requires

e.

the

as

quantity
to

the

flow

f. is

m.

(3

To

to

applied

deformation

quantity

total

in

of the

e.

henrys

line EL.

solid

results

the

in

amperes

generated.

in

opposite

As

applied

change, in

of

inductance

volts

current

and

125

rates

the

the

of

by the

These

multiplied by

are

case)
rates

m.

obtained.

are

second,

per

CIRCUITS.

axis
current

flowed
zero

no

of

quantity

of

The

electricity

by multiplying this
case

successive

20

areas

microfarads,
are

meas-

by

one

has

the

until

one

f. is

m.

quantities of electricityare

corresponding

the

ured

e.

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

126

determined.

been

Beyond

electricity corresponding
and

when

complete

the

start,

for

the

are

The

the

should

the

axis

quantities of

areas

added,

are

quantity

same

negative

point the

horizontal

point the

indicate

f.

m.

wave

maxima

of

reverse

that

maintain

to

necessary

through the dielectric,as

be the

the

successive

positive and

this

of

at

as

e.

f.

m.

same.

e.

wave

with

this

the

to

At

zero.

its intersection

and

zero

is

remainder

subtracted

in the

given

current

solid line Ec, will

by the

shown

produced

the

dielectric,or

iidt.

rJ

If the
inductance
several

required
the

effective
three

of

is the
be.

may

circuit

the

is not
e.

m.

values

of
and

Reactance
If both
the

ratio

e.

m.

true

/. and

capacity

of the

ratio, in

what

the

reactance

and

effective

of

case

in

with

of

these

ordinary

is measured

in ohms.

resistance
value

are

of the

the

m.

f.

circuit

In

tive
induc-

the

frequency

m.

ance
react-

employed.

terms

e.

e.

of the effective

present
total

the

of the

Inductive

cases.

of

cuit.
capacity cir-

the

ratio

the

to

the

resistance

greater

the

are

of

circuits.

is true

given

each
the

form

Fig.

to

between

in

to

necessary.

more

frequency

other

reverse

is

once

current

the

of the

current

like resistance
reactance

f. and

m.

f. is greater
the

will be

relation

series, the

point by point,

Referring

resistance, for the

reactance

name

added,

be

in

are

f. which

m.

must

matter

no

(smaller period) while

The

e.

This
the

same

This

e.

there

the

cited.

circuit, is simply
wave

be

Impedance.
that

values

cases

is, if they

must

of total

wave

it is evident

47

f/s

m.

e.

and

Reactance

successively through the resistance,

capacity, that

and

determine

flows

current

same

in

circuit,

f. consumed

ELECTRIC

of the

that

to

CIRCUITS.

is the

current

127

impedance, which

is also measured

in ohms.

Up

this

to

and

all the

sine

waves

used

may

not.

sine

The

work,

the

with

quadrature

Further, the

of

If in
the

f.

Inductive

where

(with the
its maximum

are

other

ahead.

same

length

value

of the

values

original.

capacity

behind, the

one

and

current

inductive

e.

had

wave

have

2^/is

the

is the

components

f. would

m.

of the

been

sine

been

curve,

angular velocityof
and

eL is the

as

sine

effective

The

curves.

have

been

form,

n}L times

e.

rotating radius

m.

to

necessary

which

would

generate

force the current

through

circuit.
di

J
6L
As

the

and

wave,

circuit.

the current
the

they
in electrical

sine

position from

maximum

would

waves

of the

value

is also

waves

wave

impedance

Fig. 48.

Fig. 47 the

m.

e.

of the

sum

in

sine

If

wave.

useful

very

inductance

current,
sine

sine wave,

of

and

reactance

its derivative

the

form

any

property

f.'s in

m.

the

sum

base) is also

indicated

e.

of the

algebraically,otherwise

90" in phase

reactive

geometric

that

to

the

has

curve

namely,

period, or

quarter

of

apply

assumed

or

said

been

conveniently expressed

be

in

made

statements

be

may

Then

point nothing has

the

imax2 Tifcos

/ma*27r/COS27r/''
2

*max

is the
coefficient,inMX2izfL,

the cosine

curve), the ratio of the

e.

*fL

2ft dt,

COS

"//"

maximum

m.f.

e.

and

m.f.

ordinate

(maximum
is

current

nfL.

This

of

is the

of the circuit.

reactance

Capacity circuit.
r
'

As

the coefficient,

is the
-^7^.*

is

"

-^'

27T/U

This

maximum

is the reactance

e.

sin

7T/?,

m.f., the ratio of

of the circuit.

e.

m.f.

and

rent
cur-

ELECTRICAL

128

the

of

that

ENGINEERING.

that

and

current,

of

the

capacity

e.

f. would

m.

times

been

have

the

represent

FIG.

capacity.

geometrical
e.

f/s

m.

are

Problems

Hence

current.

sums

in

in

circuits

representing the

The

these

tities
quan-

resistance
the

quadrature

in

of

sine

such

and

ez

circuits

and

the

are

and

the

as

reactance

^ei?

induct-

waves.

reactance,

resistance

thus,

squares,

containing

addition

impedances

of the

by the law of

combined

of the

reactances

Diagram

48.

and

ance

that

7T/C

are

e"-

Illustrating the Definitions of Reactance

and

Impedance.
A

transmission
reactance

and
e.

50,000

volts,the

per

Ans.

The
20,000

form

of 250
and

reactance

is the

loo

line has

m.

f. at

the
current

resistance

ohms.
the

What

ohms

the

are

if the

end

and

25 amperes

and

line

generator

the

ductive
in-

an

ance
drops in resist-

drop in the

total

receiver

of 50

load

what

and
e.

power

m.

f. is

factor,

cent?
1250

volts.

charging
volts, 60
current?

current

6250 volts.
on

cycles. What

6375 volts.

cable

system

is its

48,348
is

volts.

amperes

at

capacity assuming

sine

Ans.

10

1.326 microfarads.

ELECTRIC

Applications.

Practical

and

capacity

alternating

In

wires

The

field.

that

long

fact

it

like

that

While

the

from

is

connected

as

they

field

give

receive,

but

current

have

the

line.

it.

and

back

the

the

to

presence

an

important

"

line

the

bearing

is

wire

in

of

is

ratus
appa-

often

drop
the

and

the

little

the

performance

is

line.

power

that

all

practically

siderable
con-

This

"

very

no

in

line

ductors
con-

line.

current

absorb

the

when

current

In

there

and

even

useful

upon

the

pressure

charging

inductive

by

considerable.

length

line

dielectric

the

of

the

surrounded

Further,

great

the

This

of

is

air,

the

must

line.

strong

volts

dielectric,

into

current

is

very

flux

current

transmission

Syracuse.

of

percentage

magnetic

each

not

of

to

account

to

considerable

The

by

of

is

and

quantities

thousand

Falls

on

these

and

field

several

Niagara

flow

air

f.

m.

example,

quantity

total

capacity
in

the

this

separated

are

results

in

e.

of

for

importance.

little

the

effects

Take

produce

may

where

ance
induct-

circuits

current

comparatively

the

supported

129

direct

work

rapidly,

are

magnetic

so

of

are

considered.

be

always

In

current

values

change

CIRCUITS.

they

charging
of

CHAPTER

V.

MAGNETIC

CIRCUITS.

OUTLINE.

of

Illustrations
brake

of

Laws

the

the

of
such

FIG.

generators

and
exciter

railway

motor

netic
mag-

"

effort.

Tractive

Reluctance

magnetic

"

leakage

lem
prob-

"

in

Electrical

Excitation

motors.

"

by

shunt

The

Machinery:

winding

by
"

by

transformer

permanent
series

"

magnets:

winding

"

by

winding.

MAGNETIC

electrical

49.

Street

brake.

magnetic

separate

Circuits

compound

Circuit

of Magnetic

electric

Circuits:

core.

of Electro-Magnets:

Excitation

From

Magnetic

transformer

"

Magnetic

Excitation
of

Practical

is the

CIRCUIT

magnetic

or

circuit

Diagram

is

usually

of

magnetic

showing

greater

material,

the

magnetic

circuits

the

field

in

130

coils

flux

magnetic
The

apparatus.

representing
motor,

path

but

section.

of

in

portion

there

piece

street

are

of
fre-

railway

MAGNETIC

quently

or

one

is

in

gaps

supplied

occasionally in

but

current,

air

more

force

magnetomotive

CIRCUITS.

131

circuit.

the

of

coils

by

Usually
wire

devices

electrical

the

carrying

hard

nently
perma-

steel is used.

magnetized
"
.

Illustrations

Fig. 49
railway
hence

shows

motor.

there

FIG.

50.

section

of

coils mounted

this
gaps
may

There

are

four

Cross-section

pole pieces, two

produce

diagram

north

yoke

In

of

or

and

magnetic

circuits

the

and

south

the

circuits

such
"

Controller

The

m.

indicated

m.

pole pieces and

there

Supply

so

current

produce torque.

is to
in

the

two

for

lifting

core

and
field

supplied by
connected

produce
armature

the

Co.)

poles alternately. The

circuit

flux,

are

armature

f. is

street

by

is used

as

of

section

one

as

of

magnetic

circuit

magnetic

(El.

Circuits.

paths for the

lifting magnet

case.

particular magnetic

react

each

gaps,

upon

against which

the

four

safes, etc.

air

Magnetic

magnetic

lines.

heavy

one

in

are

arrow-headed

of Practical

flux

as

function
in

the

conductors

to

of
air

A
a

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

132

second

illustration

liftingmagnet,

is

of

circuit, one

magnetic

given in Fig. 50.

magnet

designed
of this

as

kind,

Core

Shoe

Shoe

Rail

FIG.

51.

Diagram

of

Westinghouse
parts

FIG.

52.

View

of

the

Westinghouse
a

magnetic

magnetic

of the

magnetic

diagram.

brake,

showing

several

circuit.

brake

of

which

Fig.

51

is

MAGNETIC

from

supported

and

nails

scrap,

The

plates, air
exist

the
A

illustration
which

52,

extent

the

represent

perfect

circuit

air gaps

brake

The

cars.

in

used

to

consists

supplied
in

with

contact

the

to

is transmitted
a

lever

of

is drawn

the

brakes

through
circuit

magnetic

magnet

of

pull which

wheel

The

is

magnet
motion

backward

the

to

the

shoe
horse-

is

current

rails, the

system.

through

When

the

produces

car

rails when

coil.

with

contact

the

the

Figs.

limited

shaped electro-magnet, flexiblysupported, which

into

tween
be-

contact

is shown

brake

magnetic

The

object.

magnetic

railway

street

on

of

pole piece, top plate, side

produce

to

lifted

conveniently.

very

object lifted.

of the

impossible

rails,plate,

handling

products

the

through

section

poles and

third
and

51

and
it is

because

is

iron

133

of

capable

other

many

gaps

is

crane,

circuit

magnetic

CIRCUITS.

air

core,

is

and

gaps,

rail.

Another
in the

class of

magnetic circuit is found

transformer where

alternating current

there

is

shows

air

no

in the

gap

transformer

circuit.

in which

core

Fig. 53

the

path
FIG.

of

the

flux

frame.

around

the

function

The
is to

case

is

produce

of

e.

the

rectangular
flux

f. when

m.

in
the

this

H,

(G.

just

in

as

improved

several
its

are

few

part.

is

it up,

it is

an

copy.

of

the

will

of

modes

prevalence

in

devices

which

in

to

serve

the

is

trans-

simple,

magnetic
Cross-section

cross-shaped

permit

circulation

cooling

oil.

to

of

indicate

application

electrical

circuit.

type

Co.)

former-

in value,

changed

ring of which

Faraday's

illustrations

The

and

sets

E.

cur-

typical
rent, which

53.

of

Core

of

the

machinery.

magnet

is not

electro-magnet
In

fact, there

an

important

In

Circuit.

Magnetic

there

applications

these

magnetic

the

of

Laws

functions

three

are

the

of

flux:

(a) To

produce

otherwise

or

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

I34

f. in

m.

e.

it,

cutting

moving

conductors

electrical

the

in

e.g.,

through

it,
and

generator

transformer.

the

(6) To
located

produce force

(c) To

brake

poles and
described

magnets

chapter.
laws

The

density in the field and

Experiment

shows

depends

in
the

upon

of its cross-section.

area

with

in accordance

pull is exerted

the

that

the

upon

illustrated

been

attraction

mechanical

The

(6) have

(a) and

underlying

II.

Chapter
flux

the

pull between

objects, e.g., the liftingand

attracted
in this

mechanical

produce

and

current

of all kinds.

electric motors

in it,e.g.,

carrying

conductors

upon

following formula:

the

B2
F

"

QTT

where

the

force

equal
A

the

area

the

flux

magnetic

the

cross-section
current

to

of

is first

length the

pound).
centimeters.

in square

density in maxwells

flux

shown

brake

each

air

turned

pull is 88

pulled against the

What

(445,000 being approximately

dynes

in maxwells

the

and

on

pounds.

rail

the

per

Ans.

square

air gap

When

the

pull increases
square

Magnetic

inches

Field.

(52) the

Figs. (51) and

in

is 9

gap

centimeter.

square

per

Illustratingthe Pulling Strength of

Problem
In

in

inches.

When

has

its maximum

shoes

have

1248

to

exists

the

been

pounds.

in each

case?

18,800 maxwells

per

square

inch.

maxwells

per

square

inch.

70,600

CIRCUITS.

MAGNETIC

Excitation

flux

maintain

in

ampere-turns

portion of
several

of the

parts

The

flux

field of

an

in air.

be

set

radially
the

of
per

in the

or

direction

the

per

The

ratio

produced
used

to

the

tion
direc-

circuit

is

of the

is called

of any

total
the

m.

f. in

m.

reluctance;

sity
inten-

square

inch

long (measured

The

intensity
maxwells

hundred

each

and

centimeter

0.635 centimeters
0.635

or

that

long,
Each

59204715

ampere-

density of 60,000

the

gilberts to

While

reluctance.

one

analogous
part of the

cuit
cir-

wells
max-

inch.

it is somewhat

reluctance

of

For

9320

this

/,length; A,

to

electrical

it is

resistance.

circuit is,

fi

area;

/z,

total

quantity

extensively in electro-magnetic calculations

as

up

circuit.

inch

for

set

the

to

per

to

gilberts, so

required flux

ampere-

length

three

times

9320

are

1.257

the

An

gilbert will

flux).

thousand

The

produces

square

the

therefore, required

are,

will maintain

turns

of

Nine

gilberts required

ampere-turn

normal

corresponding

gausses

length of circuit in air.

and

may

quarter

one

added

gaps

centimeter

any

air

length of the

air gap

centimeter.

gilberts

twenty

the

to

generator

field is 9320

square

in

gauss

at

the

required is proportional

f.

m.

areas

of

required in the

density of 60,000 maxwells

in

up

m.

density and

take

example,
to

The

in

w) gilberts. A

(0.4 X

257

intensity of

flux

or

flux

separately and

required

to

number

lengths in its direction.

their

and

the

ampere-turns

their

required

graphically

desired

calculated

are

directly from

produces

turn

circuit

the

ampere-turns

determined
of the

circuit

magnetic

f.

m.

determine

maintain

to

m.

exhibited

was

To

curves.

necessary
a

together.

B-H

the

between

materials

various

the

of

means

be

Electro-Magnets.

Chapter III the relations

In

by

of

135

permeability.

flux

is not

ient
conven-

The

ELECTRICAL

136
Reluctance
but

varies

differs from
with

which

be

noted

of

specificresistance

that

paths

be the
the

in

It

experiment.
in

springs

little when

Problem

there

the

about

are

the

of

Method

through

the

for any

case

affects

electric

air gaps

no

shown

between

brake

shoes

data

given determine

are

of the circuit would

which

in the

air,
by

watch
The

generators.

long and

are

its

to

amounts

to

circuit.

of Calculating Exciting

for Electro-Magnets.

brake

pounds

1250

flux

air gaps

the

Illustrating the

magnetic

entirely confined

were

leakage

Current

In

It will

reciprocal

the

to

only be determined

this

leakage is greatest when

very

flux

neighborhood

the

formula

leakage, however,

some

can

is

constant

by the flux density.

flux at all cross-sections

of which

amount

it is not

electric conductor.

an

If the

is

There

in that

in the

corresponds

the total

same.

resistance
is affected

Leakage.

Magnetic
proper

ENGINEERING.

in

shoes

in contact
the

with

Figs.
and
the

current

and

51

52

pull of

rail is desired, when

rail.

With

the
to

necessary

ing
follow-

give the

required pull :

Number

The
to

is that

air

length

gap

produce
of each

in coil

of turns

perfect
air

gap,

is assumed

contact

the

12

two

between

at

the
shoes

given value,
and

being magnetically

rail.
in

as

The

series.

it is impossible
area

given

CIRCUITS.

MAGNETIC

Solution
The

first step

is to

The

required.

232.2

is

centimeters.

5.38 pounds,

or

by 8

TT

the

pull

The

and

extracting the

per

445,000

Assuming

following results

centimeter

square

magnetic

no

this

current

is found

to

the

12,

be

which

The

nected
current

in

the

251.2

of

number

to

an

will
is to

"

a.

flow

and

Circuits

"

in

it flows

the
the

it.

coil of

one

circuit

into

excite

alternating flux
current

If
c.

the

circuit

3,014.0

required

the

turns,

amperes.

Magnetic

Transformer.

in

mately
approxi-

total

Ans.

Excitation

is

obtained:

are

by

plying
Multi-

gives the

root

leakage

Grand

Dividing

centimeter

dynes.

square

two

inches,

square

square

per

2,394,100

between

36

over

pull

5.38

density in maxwells
7,760.

is divided

pounds

1250

density in all parts

flux

the

distributing the

square

this

determine

pull of

pole shoes, thus

or

137

and

the

of

core,

The

or,

current

continually

The
in

Electric

coil be

the

as

con"

left open,

words,

is known
whether

Machinery.

function

other

Amperes.

ring be

Faraday's

other

first coil.

251.2

of this
to

the

second

rent
cur-

set

up

exciting
coil

is

giving

out

the

first.

and

the

current

Electric
for

represents

line

of

waste

with

by

power,

small

as

the

an

possible.

as

and

Generators

the

producing

There

Motors.

field excitation

in

are

five

electric

possible

generators

motors:

1.

By

permanent

2.

By

separate

3.

By

shunt

winding.

4.

By

series

winding.

5.

By

compound

Permanent

permanent

excitation.

winding.
need

Excitation

Magnet
magnets

magnets.

are

no

longer used

not

except

54.

very

bells.

Diagram

small

of

machines

be

discussed,

as

fields of

for the

Exciter

Alternator

FIG.

transformers

use

the

from

is absorbed

current

from

is drawn

current

current

exciting

The

When

not.

or

lighting companies

exciting

ways

current

coil, additional

second

and

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

138

field

excitation

from

alternator

practice.

such

as

are

separate

used

for

exciter

as

used

in

ringing telephone

CIRCUITS.

MAGNETIC

Excitation.

Separate

supply of
generator

or

separate

excitation

an

external

source,

separately excited, because,

are

that

current,
excitation.

this

For

by

is connected

with

supply the

field, and

in

"

practice of
excite

to

cases

takes

shunting
field

the

"

55.

Diagram

of

shunt

off

the

coils

being
purposes

the

field

connected
a

circuit

so

that

is

current

to

excite

direct

is

armature

terminals

Rheostat

as

used

in

from

named

so

the

poses.
pur-

of

rent
cur-

the

d.

many

field

c.

erators
gen-

motors.

directly to

resistance

commutator

experimental

Field

excitation
and

to

of

part

panied
accom-

place of the exciter

for

winding

magnets,

field

small

necessary

To

FIG.

the

for

exciter/' which

rectify enough

to

shunt

The

usually

"

separate!}^, except

Excitation.

Shunt

some

device

this

is

the

as

uous
contin-

is useless

armature

known

armature

the

another

as

requires

alternator

It is seldom

generator

current

the

the

alternators.

some

In

such

field

the

an

reason,

field current.

the

as

by

machine

small

supplies the

produced

is meant

Practically all alternators

battery.

storage

By

from

current

139

the

brushes.

usually connected

its current

may

be

For
in

ing
regulat-

series

varied,

and

with
the

ELECTRICAL

140

e.

f. of

m.

When
in

machine

some

"

machine

of

field

such

that

f. needed

f. of

m.

e.

the

raise

the
is

strength
saturated,

below

itself,for

f.

m.

critical

this

is

the

circuit

not

f. at

the

the

e.

in

the

the

speed

circuit

field

is

quite
versely,
Con-

the

speed,

will not

produced

enough
flux

the

as

speed, the

dynamo
f.

the

produce

field terminals.

m.

send

produce

to

tain
field main-

rapidly than

the
to

increase

magnetic

speed the

sufficient

rate

field current.

field to

with

more

speed

the

proportionately, for

the

f. decreases

certain

below

An

increases

m.

continues

of the

of the

than

e.

the

revolving in it generates

terminals

greater

Thus

reduces

ampere-turns

unless

field

current

process

in

f.

m.

this

flux.

core

increase

armature

more

increased

armature

field

the

armature

e.

the

the

e.

slight residual
in

the
up

range.

no

f. sends

m.

building
in

is

armature

e.

ampere-turns.

m.

by the

the
and

e.

with

the

of

the

increases

iron

the

at

required number
will

the

rest, there

small

the

which

at

flux

m.

e.

of
flux

of

and

and

up

of the

point is reached

the

"

considerable

is, however,

This

circuit

builds

increase

There

f.

over

from

rotation

m.

saturation

the

until

e.

the

through

the

and

field present

is started

first.

at

armature

produces

adjusted

armature

shunt

the

the

ENGINEERING.

excite

by

the

through

current

tain
main-

to

necessar}^

it.
A

simple

the
a

above

certain

the

e.

coil
is
not
to

the
of

be

less
be
run

m.

conditions.

f. at

that

the

that

that

on

at

the

wire, having therefore

the

if the

terminals
e.

lower

m.

terminals,

higher
by

is driven

separately excited.

speed, and

field
a

at

field

the

at

armature

ampere-turns

and

illustrate

to

serve

generator

field is

Evidently,

self-exciting at
the

the

brushes

measured.
than

that

Suppose

speed and

will

experiment

laboratory

the

of

f. at

the

the

use

resistance.

to

or

of

Let
field

brushes

machine

it is necessary

speed

the

at

will
either

increase

larger size

MAGNETIC

Calculation
The

the

of

flux

m.

f.

be

to

The

e.

f.

m.

for a Shunt

Field.

the

number

determines

gap

the field to

placed on

the

at

previously determined, and

the terminals

141

Proper Size of Wire

required in the air

of ampere-turns
m.

CIRCUITS.

this

supply the

brushes

of the field circuit for

will have

f. will be

m.

e.

resistance of the field coils must

when

e.

f. is

m.

will flow that

current

will

given

its

give the requiredm.

The

first that

all the

solving this problem is

flows

the number

of turns, because

the

through

flows

current

estimated

to

flow

been

same

what

the current
is

resistance

is thus

increased,keeping
be

must

magnetic circuit. The

be sufficient to allow

through it equal

The

ampere-turns.

field

matter

no

length of which

of the

must

turn

one

consider

to

Assume, then, that the

same.

turn, the

one

and

of turns

the dimensions

from

resistance of this
of amperes

the

two

of turns

of the

turn

one

produced,

of turns

inverselyas the number

product of the

the resistance of the coil increases

proportion to the number

reduced

such

given size of wire the

will be

of ampere-turns

number

in

through

This is allowable, for with

wire.

current

f.

of

current

its terminals

to

at

be such that

product with the number

m.

simplest method

applied

been

available

sending the field

through it. The

the

sary
neces-

to

of this

the

number

total number

of

length of wire having

determined, the size of wire possessingit is selected from

the wire table.

Obviously, this size of wire will

first assumed,

it remains

and

of it will be necessary
Each
current

additional

wound

that will flow without

of ampere-turns,
average

reduce

to

turn

until

length of

OF

to

the

turn

TH"

UNIVERSITY

not

determine

the current
around

the

carry

how
to

the

at

current
many

turns

proper

value.

coil reduces

the

affectingmateriallythe number
coil becomes

is increased

so

bulky that

beyond

the

the

original

ELECTRICAL

I42

two

of

dispose
likely

is

of

the

to

the

of

the

surface,

the

or

coil, say

the

which

turns

until

current,
the

In

that

the

by

tables,
which

temperature

degrees

surface
of

number
the

estimated,

watts

number

reduction

is, the

of

product

equal

are

expected
be

is the

as

1 00

(i

to

increase

if

the

ohms,
70

the

in

occur

from

of
its

the

70"

C.

0.004284)

coil.

of

at

rise

zero

copper

it is

zoo

heated,

this

reason

rise

of

This

130

ohms.

of

given

as

perature
tem-

rise

of

cient,
coeffi-

temperature

for

resistance

the

in

with

been

For

to

the

in resistance
of the

has

resistance

proportional
to

increases

cold.

of

resistance

at

metals

kept

be

must

coil

when

value

calculated

proportion

the

all

after

than

it

coil

almost

amount

an

is

example,
is

increase

may

which

of

higher

is much

by

For

radiation

the

at

current,

of

therefore,

and,

to

C.,

radiating

the

as

coil, that

the

resistance

resistance

it is necessary

or

of

consequent

the
of

square

the

temperature,

the

in

ing
surround-

ability.

its resistance

F.

the

calculating

mind

with

lost

watts

by

resistance

radiating

the

the

inch

ability
exposed

of the

the

been

which

excessive.

area

temperature

has

increased

the

known

When

and

radiating

square

in

C.

radiate

will

heat

by

watt,

rise

degrees

be

may

per
per

certain

50

coil

given

watts

it is difficult

become

circulation

and

inches

the

on

than

more

interior

to

is determined

turn

square

its

if allowed

temperature

for

factor, allow

of

in

in

coil
this

beyond

forms

depends

allowable

The

for

insulation

current

the

air and

which

the

make

to

thickness,

heat

the

coil, which

air.

of

in

injure the

to

limit

The

desirable

never

inches

three

or

to

is

It

estimate.

ENGINEERING.

degree

one

degrees
wire

at

C.
zero

MAGNETIC

CIRCUITS.

Field
Given

F.

for

Coil.

Required

2
.

watts

power,

wire, the

of

with

number

250

allows

which

terminal

of

flow

to

current

resistance

circuit

ft.

turn,

all the

Assume

5000

one

radiating

size

The

100

required

length of

Estimated
Estimated

volts

terminals,

at

Ampere-turns

the

of Wire

E. M.

The

of Size

Illustrating the Selection

Problem

143

5000
m.

e.

through

flow

through

is,from

Ohm's

to

volts

1 00

current.

turn.

one

amperes

f. of

the

and

turns

law:
E
R

100

"

of

resistance

in

feet

two

of

wire.

(the quantity usually found

feet

1000

ohm,

.02

5000

contained

is

resistance

this

and

"

The
in

the

tables) is

/IOOO
(

jX

.02

ohms.

10

No.

which

corresponds

gauge

(hot resistance).
determine

To
The
100

the

number

19

to

(Brown

needed

wasted

250

-5-

100

5000

-*-

2.5

watts,

2.5

amperes,

2000.

and

Sharpe)

is 250

required is

of turns

be

S.

and

of

current

B.

of turns

number

power
a

means

and

the

allowable

volts

to

and

this

at

ELECTRICAL

144

this

check

To

PR

4 X

in

controlled
Series

The
for

railway

the

latter

10

ohms.

40

equals

turns

2000

The

the

56.

series

entire

Diagram

of
other

around
of the

the

air gap.

be

and

motors

at

in

with

proportional

full load

sufficient

excitation

to

current

produce

the
to

the
the

few

field

or

as

is used

these

rheostat.

principally

generators.

only for

Of
arc

large enough

is allowed

used

in

to

railway

pass

and

generators.

armature.

the

lating
regu-

would

current

is made

which

current,

field

series

wire

the

resistance

the

current

used, and

are

winding

armature

winding

for

made

such

and

constant

few

field in series

field is thus

circuit,and
should

for

and

for

used

series

The

been

resistance,

this

by

Winding.

has

be

watts.

250

allow

to

would

19

comparatively

lighting. In
carry

order

value

motors

40

allowance

no

No.

larger than

FIG.

of

(2.5)2X

In

resistance.

to

that

noted

resistance

calculation

this

In

wire

be

lost is

energy

be

it may

result

feet, having

4000

ENGINEERING.

current

ampere-turns

The

excitation

in the
on

outside
the

required flux through

field
the

CIRCUITS.

MAGNETIC

of the Size

Determination

preceding

in the

As

of Wire
the

case,

145

for

Series

loss of power

allowable

by the radiating ability of the coil,which

the

which

coil

the

through

will

of

number
full load

The

is 0.004

250

ohm,

this

required

for

Field

Coil.

radiate

250

and

what

turn

by

250

2502

-T-

is

the

Series

the

full load

ampere-turns

5000
feet.

size of wire

is, since

and

watts,

is four

What

is

the

required?

PR,

0.004

ohm.

is
and

turns,
of

feet will have

20

-5-

the

as

of four

turn

one

0.004
1000

the

by

chosen

with

heating

of.Wire

of

20

that

flows

be

divided

length

turns

which

number

produce

of

number
-f-

upon

armature.

resistance

is determined

may

fixed

It must

resistance

5000

is also

turns

amperes.

allowable

of

rate

being this

field coil will

The

of

of the

average

allowable

allowable

the

Coil.

depends

current

resistance

Illustrating the Selection

is 250
the

and

the

case

and

given

number

current

series

current

this

ampere-turns,

Problem

is

produce

The

current.

In

exposed.

surface

Field

resistance

resistance

20

turns

feet is
ohm.

0.0002

of

of

0.0002
x

1000

0.05

ohm.

4
From
oooo

either

form,

the
B.

wire

and

this

S. gauge.

divided
or

table

it may

in

As

several
be

made

is

found

this is too
smaller
of

one

to

correspond

largeto wind,

wires, preferably
flat ribbon

wound

to

it may
square

No.
be
in

edgewise.

i46

ELECTRICAL

Compound
does

machine
it is
the
e.

is

on

Excitation.

produce

not

circuit.

open

f. and

field, which

receives

its terminals

at

FIG.

This

of

when
the

Series

excitation

increase
of the

to

load

the

the

to

(l)

the

to

(3) to the

field

and

in

c.

of

the

as

weakened
the

e.

used

in

f.

m.

which

d.

most

c.

motors.

the

through

flows

extent

d.

terminal

reaction

armature

excitation

some

when

current

f. in

m.

e.

the
the

when

as

loss of

to

the

when

circuit

(2) this reduces

magnetizing

compound

current

field to

current

generator

brushes

reduction, owing

further
less

the

at

of

armature,

number

of

back

ing
weakenampere-

produced.

turns

It is

the

f.

m.

armature;

generators

occurs

e.

excitation

is due

is reduced;

Diagram

57.

an

large

of the

causes

Shunt

great

as

delivering

resistance

m.

ENGINEERING.

of load

field,as

results

on

the

possible, by

produce
and

greater

no

e.

m.

one

the

combining

f. at

or

higher electromotive

machine

field and

that

load,

in

will

up

the

shunt

maintain

and

the
the

same

armature

for

of saturation

limit

currents

armature

if desirable

full load.

the

to

force

are

series
e.

m.

may

the

same.

excitation,
f. at

full

supply

MAGNETIC

of

Estimation

produce

by

be

operated

when

the

upon

sent

field

continuous

to

few

the

give

turns

to

windings

field

decide

the

series

ability

are

now

shunt

and

of

produced

wire.

the

coils

in

both

wire

through

these

As

in

and

series

and

mentally
experi-

series

ampere-

and

is

allowable

shunt

is

turns

series

to

necessary

size

consequent

previous

the

the

determines

the

it

of

source

armature

reaction,

to

may

Having

the

resistance

then

extra

of

the

on

which

other

or

number

of

load

and

compounding.
proper

determine

to

full

by

in

armature

allowable

the

upon

the

and

best

battery

resistance

the

is

to

experience

generator,

current

the

overcome

caused

of

storage

required

turns

requires
it

shunt

desired

determined

f.

m.

turns

The

current.

adjusted

effect

e.

Compounding.

series

purposes

as

from

current

in

loss

}or

of

number

practical

the

147

Required

compounding
For

experiment

wind

the

desired

machine

Turns

of

judgment.

and

Series

calculation

The

CIRCUITS.

cases,

the

losses,
coils.

ating
radi-

which

of

CHAPTER

CONSTRUCTION

VI.

ELECTRIC

OF

GENERATORS.

OUTLINE.

Electric

of

Elements

The

Generators:

Alternator.

The

Armature.
The

core

Field
The

The

windings

armature

"

connection

"

cuit
cir-

to

Magnet.

core

Direct

coils

ventilation.

"

The

the

"

ventilation

"

the

"

coils

excitation.

"

Generator.

Current

Commutation.
The

Armature.
The

AN

the

"

electric

other
is

core

of

generator

is

thermo-electric

and

will

dynamo-electric
electric
term

use

or

and

dynamo."
the

alternator,

and

Generators.

device

for

and

includes
For

at

was

self-defining
motor-generator

this

shortened

to

d.

terms

set, etc.,
148

the

word

is

to

are

The

name

an

meaningless

passing

preferred.

formation
trans-

designate

the

generator,

c.

and

principal

chapter.
used

this

batteries

is the

power

of

definition

purposes

time

one

Fortunately

This

primary

in

was

transformation

energy.

electrical

considered

this

the

practical

to

machine

generator
"

be

Electric

electrical

mechanical
alone

commutator.

into

couples.
from

one

energy

comprehensive

very

the

"

Elements

of

forms

coils

a.

out

generator

of

the

of

disk

Faraday

cutting
of which

depends

direction

of

the

to

flux

the

field.

density,

e.

an

the

direction

and

the

upon

proportional

f. is

velocity of the

the

f. the

m.

m.

e.

conductor

of motion

direction

Further,

to

is that

and

conductor,

to

length of the conductor.

the

different

The

of the

result

forms

in

the

taken

last

century

batteries, this

primary
electric

that

at

power

constructed
electric

time.

generator

is

rectifying devices

had

direct

The

current.

and

thus

the

firmly established.
devised

for

the

a.

and

c.

design

a.

and

construction
for

various

at

one

construction.

minor

and

The
the
time

both

differences

they
tendency

complicated
to

overcome

At

is

toward

mechanisms
the

formers,
trans-

time

present

both

and

well

the

ized.
standard-

machines

simple

as

are

the

was

that

use

are

in
as

duced
pro-

appearance

possible in

simplicity
considered

faults

of

fected,
perwas

apparatus

since

similar

are

systems

c.

common

types

manufacturers

performance,

from

of

in

and

also

including

rapidly.

yield

more
was

1890

and

auxiliaries, and

are

the

of successful

output

position of d.

developed

As

it to

became

alternating current,

generators

c.

construction.
away

has

the

1880

lamps, and

Except
by

commercial

enable

to

development

utilize

to

fore,
there-

were,

of current.

generator

c.

Between

generator

c.

the

was

d.

utilizing the

motors,

and

the

perfect, apparatus

more

d.

result

of

source

alternator, complicated

an

designed

be

to

available

kind

early

supply from,

current

only

same

particular

to

early generators

The

inherently

As

generators.

c.

the

being

supply the

to

for

the

are

developed

apparatus

designed

was

generators

general principle
the

example,

For

electric

by
the

application of

requirements.

d.

generates

the

upon

that

namely,

generator;
field

magnetic

149

principle of all generators

general underlying

The

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

CONSTRUCTION

and

sary
neces-

design

and

essential

The

"

magnet
A

of

set

mounted

on

Provision
of the

"

"armature

it may

or

conductors

field

and

suitably connected
of

relative

for. conveying

from

current

motion

flux.

magnetic

the

and

cuit.
cir-

magnetic

the

maintaining

for

made

"

This

same.

revolve.

preferably part

Auxiliary devices

3.

the

conductors

be

must

for

through

flux

conveniently, with

moved

force

electrical

support,

be

can

stationary

be

may

are

maintaining magnetic

for

magnetomotive

of

source

2.

circuit

conductors

electric

which

of all generators

elements

magnetic

1.

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

150

into

or

the

rotating part of the machine.

The

of the

armature

revolves,

"

constant

current

most

constant

armature
"

in
the

field may

The
the

magnetic

the

nature

m.

m.

as

the

of

detailed

Separate

in most

in

2.

Shunt

circuit
many

across

constant

"

rectifier

"

in

as

alternator/' either
is conducted

current

the

motion

makes

often

member

moving

of

from

Excitation,
the

armature

"

are

an

such

current

the

The

output.

except

as

determines

force

magnetomotive

the

Chapter

continuous

is known

current

the

generator

Excitation

alternators

(4). The

"

the

from

or

of

armature

1.

to

nature

circuit

of

"

few

desirable.
and

source

"

and

Fly-wheel-effect

case.

field magnet

In

revolve

collecting rings
"

either

machines.

in

potential and

through

or

through

winding

the

from

all constant

generators,
current

or

through

in

as

invariably

machine

current

being conducted

current

"commutator

continuous

as

to

extent

some

possible

for

of

sources

auxiliary circuit
are

mentioned

generator

as

under

supplying

used
class

the

field

the

field

exciter/'
that

is

by

terminals.

potential, continuous

connection
This
current

of

plan is used
lighting

in

rators.
gene-

CONSTRUCTION

line

Excitation, the

Series

3.

It is used

field circuit.

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

the

passing through

current

continuous

constant

on

151

current

erators
gen-

only.

shunt

of series

or

is used

either

where

either

where

the

should

of

the

through
and

e.

This

in

combination
"

general,

of exciter

well

as

inherent

All

connecting

holders,
2.

the

alternator.
"

pensated
com-

provides for variable

Alternators
be

can

in

are,

factory
designed for satis-

the

experience
years

gained

in which

nators
alter-

essential
These

whether

for

are:

support

circuit, the

line circuit, such

features

as

for the

winding, the
commutators,

ted
laminadevices
brush-

etc.

The

Field

circuit, the

as

the

to

its field flux

is called

load.

consisting of the
magnetic

the

of

current

use.

current.

Armature,

structure,
for

general

direct

or

method

they

as

comprise three

generators

The

1.

in

alternating

current

during the past twenty

been

alternating

successfully without

alternator

variable

as

an

wound/'

composite

very

regulation through

by manufacturers
have

and
the

compounded,

not

"

exciter, modifying
field

current

field coils, such

series

the

The

load.

line

of the

part

or

produced

the

turn

alternator, and

factor

power

all

of

or

over-compounding/'

name

of the

armature

f. and

m.

"

tors
genera-

is desired

increase

by sending the

winding

series

with

and

tion
excita-

current

pressure

designated

usually

effect is also

compounding
aid

the

alternators

being

arrangement

rise

passed through

and

alternating

perfectly uniform

pressure

is rectified

or

series

Compound

excitation.

separate

of

combination

in continuous

compounding

In

the

and

frequently receives

latter

Excitation,

Compound

4.

3.

The

whole.

Magnet,

field

cores,

Mechanical

including mounting
the

winding,

Mounting

the

of armature

for the

circuit
and

magnetic

connections.
field magnet

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

152

The
Armature.

The

is the

generators,

of the

armature

in

part

which

either

it may

alternator

e.

revolve

m.

or

revolving field alternator, and

names

FIG.

58. View

of

indicate

nator

fact

is that

revolving

w.

from

types

flux

which

of

matter

k.

200

the

the

and
a

The

Alternator.

of the
shall

convenience

of

be

in

(Westinghouse.)

be

or

the
alter-

armature

The

and

of

essential

by the

cut

particular case

construction

In the

stationary, and

standpoint.
cut

of other

as

generated.

field alternator.

this

done

f. is

revolving

field must

be

alternator,

is

ductors,
con-

largely

mechanical

design.
The
to

act

core

as

of the
part

of

armature

the

serves

magnetic

to

support

circuit.

the

It is

winding

and

usually in the

CONSTRUCTION

form

of

thin

stampings

each

other

and

clamps

FIG.

in

inside
The

m.

the

of

in it.

copper

f. is
same

when

frame

is

to

The

and

coils, core

and

laminating

core

currents

the

iron

cast

armature

eddy
do

purpose

the

e.

of

of

iron

conductors,

the

generated

in

it and

directions

as

those

as

iron

current

taken

cuts

is

tends

by the

the

field

type,

stationary.
stampings

circulation

core

or

w.

remain

insulating the

of the

and

k.

200

iron

upon

revolving

frame

bolts
This

cast

and

for

it is to

prevent

from

structure.

machines

(Westinghouse)

details

insulated

of

of

up

together by

outside

the

armature

armature

showing

held

are

153

is built

are

substantial

upon

revolving

Alternator

they

insure

to

as

so

These

steel.

by varnish, and

wheel

59.

electrical

ring is carried

laminated
steel

of

depth and

in radial

inches

few

ring a

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

the

of

local

flux

just

of
or

as

conductor, also,
to

circulate

useful

currents.

in

ELECTRICAL

By

laminating

the

axis

this

insulating the
is

tendency

due

heating

and

eddy

to

in

the

of the

sheet

anneal

form

it for the

has

effect upon
to

by employing

lamination

and

this loss except

good

secure

the

negligible.

kept down
the

to

and

almost

steel, and

no

of

purpose

reduced

extent

is

core

it is easy

planes normal

is rendered

armature

sheets

in

core

large

grades of electrical

best

insulation

to

currents

Hysteresis loss in the

the

ENGINEERING.

material

that

and

to

reducing the hysteresis coefficient.

/

FIG.

of

Diagrams

60.

of

number

used

forms

slot

in

alternator

ture
arma-

cores.

for

forms,

and

sides

completely

formed

place

the

upon

inductance.

small

for

coils must

tops

of

the

be
the

expensive
must

core.

either

coils

secured

slots.
and
be

also

around

the

as

the

The

into

allows

the

"

substantial
the

partly closed-over
method

place,

of
one

into

of

in

its

giving

the

coil has

mechanical

slots, for the

grooves

at

the

near

require

more

coils, which

inserting the
conductor

coil

put

good

slots

tion
insulaof

use

partly closed-over
driven

to

support

hence

as

straight

closed-over/'

advantage

give

various

with

being

coil, and

not

by wedges

tedious

put

does

of

mechanical

before

It has

It

slot

of

is slotted

are

entirely

use

slot

open

insulated

and

circuit

magnetic

support

The

air gap

used

open

gives excellent

coils.

the

upon

the

almost

one

the

slots

permits of the

and

conductors

poor

to

construction

slot

the

top,

open

The

coils.

Fig. 60, from

in

shown

as

with

in contact

core

reception of the

the

The

of the

surface

The

time,

or

CONSTRUCTION

coil must

complete

be

cut

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

at

end

one

155

rejoined after being

and

placed in position.
The

and

coils
molded

These

forms

reduce

to

of

permit

shown

coils is

for

metal
in

order

uniformity

secure

forms.

matter

of geometry

construction.

FIG.

62.

Part

of alternator

armature

method

second

showing

to

of coils
in

the

shapes required.

The

generally used
The

insulation

of

ing.
wind-

of the

Varnished
fuller-board

and
of

there

type

Figs. 6 1 and

usually several

are

shown

62.

in

With

shape is required

size and

one

other

in

Fig. 62 is the

sizes
most

in alternators.
coils is of

of the

largely depends
one

shown

are

Fig. 6 1 but

with

armature,

an

It is

largely

coil

forms

type

this

of the

to

square,

overlapping.

Common

and

and

or

head

lathe

upon

or

manufacture

bent

armature,

wooden

upon

of mechanical

Machine-formed

1.

for

form

convenience

alternator

the

of

cost

The

product.

shape

proper

usually revolved

are

the

and

FIG.

the

to

wire, round

of cotton-covered

formed

are

most

cloth

the

and

paper,
wax

coils.

of

oiled

addition

of the

design and

cloth

compounds,
In

importance,

operation

difficult features

mineral

armature

successful

prime

and

enter
to

the

as

tion.
construc-

paper,

into

upon

machine.

the

cotton

mica,
struction
con-

upon

ELECTRICAL

'56
individual

the

board,
various

fabrics

varnish

or

coil

mineral

together with
of

alternators

whole

In

to

the

insulation

and

the

occupies the
is

forms, but the

m.

to

modern
construct

this

at

pressure

slot

space

bulky for its output.

of

are

different

many

general principle is involved

same

troughs

the

possible

f., but

alternators

for

of

to

cemented

larger portion of the

consequently

windings

Armature

e.

with

sheets

means

coils it is

volts

give 15,000

armature

(mica
By

with

strength and

slot is lined

micanite

armature

layers of the

impregnated

dielectric

varnish).

or

with

is

cotton

the

fuller-

separated by

are

wrapped

insure

or

insulating

is

cases

many

shellac

layers

The
to

wax

fuller-board

of

methods

as

indicated.

repel moisture.
made

the

conductors,

the

and

ENGINEERING.

in all,namely,

ToTe

FIG.

63.

Diagram

of

three-phase
(That

to

connect

winding
This

the
in series

is indicated

phase alternator

conductors

by

as

winding

shown

of

in

but

using

form

of

coil.

section

of

the

one

Fig. 60.)

each

phase

or

symmetrical arrangement

by Figs. 63, 64, 61, 62 and

all of the

conductors

are

59.

commonly

as

In

possible.
a

single-

connected

in series with
a

slots

through

the

of the

parts

produced

by

sections

many

filled with

1^

"3

coils, as

polar

this

involves

of

m.

e.

the

each

the
some

f. in different
field in

same

windings

the

upon

is

space

into

core

entirely

winding.
of

made

winding

Fig. 64 represents

two-phase

coils

:"n

winding

"~T1

.Phase

Phase

64.

Diagram

coils of the
or

Two-phase
with

of

two-phase

general form

two-phase

two

circuit, each
It is

like
of

/ZM

S^m

"3

FIG.

In

cover

Polyphase

space

phases and

circuit.

entirely

cut

time.

same

157

outside

to

would

three-phase

the

neutralization

are

independent

an

Fig. 61.

of

there

to

necessary

and

dividing the

Fig. 63 shows
those

the

at

as

go

coil which

same

directions

opposite
are

with

surface
of copper

waste

as

it is not

single-phase winding

armature

which

terminals

two

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

CONSTRUCTION

winding

in

shown

windings

may

windings

as

be
a

formed

occupying

possible and

Either

with

consist

rule

either

of

connected

pairs of terminals
winding

Fig. 62.

one-half

sometimes

desirable

the

cuits
cir-

outside

armature
to

coil.

of coil.

separate

with

No.2

three-phase
type

two

of the

of

forms

several

using

No.l

connect

face.
sur-

the

points

such

two-phase

for

the

that
in

trouble

windings,

being

f/s.

m.

connection

to

(a). One

is the

This
said

to

be
the

of the

sum

are

The

120

nected

to

Y '-connected
m.

f. between

e.

m.

f/s

which

winding.

they

of the

are

vantage
disad-

and

any

of

three

in

the

consist

generated, the
phase

three

three

position.

windings

joined

may
an

go

For

maybe

it is

^3

that

in

windings is the

same

connected.

times

as

style of

nection
con-

geometrical
the

as

e.

m.

f/s

winding.

either

Fig. 66 shows

is

arranged

is the

windings, and

circuit.

outside

this

In

or

common

thus

armature

line conductors
two

to

the

to

star-connected.

or

armature

the

It has

f. is

be

end
and

e.

in the

winding.

two-phase

above,

apart

coil may

connection

equally

ways.

other

degrees apart

current

wires

the

point and

neutral

of two
each

m.

circuit

outside

of

end

e.

an

degrees

in either

connected

is

interconnected

are

for the

connected.

current.

indicated

as

which

120

the

may

it

other.

the

of

thus

be

into

tap

winding

closed-coil

or

windings

two

sections, in each

This

four-phase

or

affects

one

Three-phase

e.

winding

closed

Any

good

interconnected

of

65. Diagram

to

phase difference

Fig. 65.

in

as

ends, and

desired

give the

will

as

circuits

two-phase

FIG.

series,closing the

in

winding

entire
at

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

158

in the
the

line

y~con-

CONSTRUCTION

three

(6). The

This

line.

the

to

^-connected

between

the

the

of

A-connection

"

of the

of the

sum

Each

in each

current

in

currents

therefore

be

three

of two

line wire

is the

the

terminals
from

to circuit.

at

shaft

line

one

are

side
armatures

rings carried

the
the

the

revolving

collector

geometrical

the

if the

line

will

rents
cur-

contain

Fig. 67

current.

A-connection.

Connection
to

ings
wind-

degrees apart.

120

"

shows

section

armature

winding

currents

times

"

f.

m.

armature.

equal, each

are

geometrical difference
will

of the

e.

in each

that

as

the

case

going

armature

an

adjacent windings, hence,

by all lines

drawn
the

The

winding.

three-phase

windings

In this

same

ing
series, form-

such

and

star-connection

or

of

is the

159

in

connected

mesh-connected.

or

"

GENERATORS.

junctions between

line conductors

Diagram

66.

be

may

is the

is called

FIG.

ELECTRIC

sections

winding,

closed

OF

conductors
and

secured

If the
made
of

the

through

shaft

being brought

stationary the

nections
con-

insulating bushings and

armature

is taken

by the

is

armature

off
and
out

frame.

The

through

brass

well

current

insulated

along the

firmly in place. Stationary

steel

or

from,
there-

surface,

of

copper

or

160

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

"

carbon
them

FIG.

bear

the

through

67.

"

brushes

Diagram

sliding

of

"A"

bed

carried

are

with

the

connection

of

three-phase

brackets

upon

serve

to

line.

The

the

connect

three

brush

armature

armature.

usually mounted

the

upon

plate.
of the

Ventilation
of air to

flow

is made

in sections
so

open

ends

core

and

of the

fans
secure

The

to

core

which

of the

The

the

magnet
to

and

the

well

beyond

their

The

core

winding is made
the
the

flow

of air.

ends

of the

radiating ability.

heat
such

those

as

directly

field

place

to

necessary

(usually the

field magnet

armature

depends

operate.

currents

magnet)

to

has

for

of air.

maintenance

and

it is

windings.

turbines, it is usually

revolving part

the

pole surfaces

and

high-speed alternators

Magnet.

its function

by allowing

possible with

as

increase

to

rapid circulation

Field

little

carried

are

out

steam

the

upon

core

flues between,
as

coils

spread

are

connected

with

interfere

compact,

very

is secured

armature

radially through the

to

as

The

In

mesh

of

rings and

contact

or

windings

holders

the

upon

of

of the

alternator
flux

magnetic

core.

largely

The
upon

form
the

revolving magnet

between

by the

taken

conditions
is of

the

under

radically

OF

CONSTRUCTION

different

mechanical

although

the

of

the

68.

FIG.

View

armature

Hence

the

pole

these
The
cast

by

cycle of
is the

point

second.

per

The

poles

of

core

steel

or

small

are

the

for

result

of

the

upon

of

ing
revolv-

r.

p.

iron

For

pair of poles.

example,

generates

m.

of this

e.

m.

ten-

f. at

necessity for producing

have

of moderate

being

pairs of poles passed

alternators

in machines

steel, cast

same.

solely by

armature

passing

revolving field alternator

sheet

the

conductor

armature.

720

given frequency is that

f. in

number

at

are

one,

(Westinghouse).

m.

e.

the

on

rotating

armature

cycles

frequency

second

per

60

generates

rings

alternator

armature

stationary

features

speed.

collector

161

is determined

magnet

the

and

"spider"

of

electrical

and

poles in the

desired

frequency

from

construction

magnetic

number

The

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

out

poles and

many

output.
magnet
of the

may

be

question

of
on

l62

ELECTRICAL

of its bulk

account

the

bulk

FIG.

69. Diagram

of

and
iron

cast

showing

ENGINEERING.

its mechanical

Not

weakness.

directly objectionable,

of

ventilating system

but

revolving

only is

the

large

field

nator
alter-

(Westinghouse).

perimeter of
flux

FIG.

requires

70.

pole

of

View

greater

revolving

greater

and

as

and

necessary

of

amount

field

of

to

200

k.

for

general

of ampere-turns.

The

(See Figs. 58

given number

core

the

59

allowable

contain
copper

in

alternator

w.

view

mean

and

given magnetic
the

coil

for

(Westinghouse).

armature.)

length of

turn

heating is limited, the cross-S"ction

is

CONSTRUCTION

the

of

When

resistance.
rim

the

to

The

of

rim

poles

FIG.

conductors

copper

cast

strong

forms

part

-steel

poles

fly-wheel
of

the

Field

of

stamping

core

(Westinghouse)

larger

of cast

shown

electrical

showing

in

or

iron.

Sheet

-steel

steel

for

and

the

field

nator
alter-

Fig. 71

for revolving

steel

holes

bolted

are

circuits.

magnetic
as

they

the

down

keep

to

used

are

structure

bolt

163

GENERATORS.

be

must

{munched in sections

are

71.

ELECTRIC

OF

and

assembling

ing
secur-

sheets.

sections
field

is

core

supported
and

groove

tenon

of

formation
Such

flux.

tend

bunches

of flux

iron

tend

As

type

and

to

revolving

weight is
The

is

"

"

snap

generate
field

not

or

always

localize

to

the

the

from

slot to

local

currents

alternators
upon

takes

the

the

are

the

in

assembled
tail
by dove-

structure

for
of

advantage

insuring

obviating

fluctuation
with

present
flux

The

device

through

currents

(directlymounted
supplements

mechanical

poles have

eddy

together.
fly-wheel

cast

other

or

fluctuation

which

bolted
a

upon

rigidity. Sheet-steel
the

and

overlapped

are

"

slot

in the

slotted

bunches/'

they

cut

tures
arma-

As
the

the

pole

therein.

usually of

the

engine-

engine shaft) the field

ture
struc-

place of the fly-wheel, hence

the

objectionable.

stationary field magnet

is simpler in construction

than

of

revolving

armature

revolving magnet.

machine
The

pole

ELECTRICAL

164
either

are

cores

the

of sheet

stampings

assembling

is made
off to

lifted

be

into

cast

are

steel

the

frame.

sections
the

expose

dove-tail

iron

in two

If of the

steel.

cast

or

with

provided

are

large machines
may

ENGINEERING.

that

so

for

armature

and

tenon

The

former,

in

latter
the

after
all

part

upper

inspection

and

repair.

FIG.

Field

72.

of

steel

electrical

for

revolving

dove-tail

Co.) showing

tenon

armature

be

to

cast

frame.

into

of

'ventilation

The
ducts
the

stamping

core

(Allis-Chalmers

alternator

laminated

the

in

the

armature

is

provided

corresponding

structure

practicable

It is not

core.

field

revolving

to

to

such

use

by

air

those

in

flues with

stationary field machines.

coils of the

The
covered

strap

by sheet

winding

exciter

of the

e.

insulation

outer

surfaces

copper

last

The

inserted

with
bent

strap
is

named
between

cotton-

wise
edge-

afterward

turns.

is used

stability and

particularly of the rotating field type.

f. of not

with

bare

or

either

wound

are

mechanical

field coils presents

impregnated
the

m.

wire

Fig. 73.

possesses

large machines

most
an

in

shown

insulated

round

or

square
as

field magnet

over

no

135

volts

strap

the

difficulty.Wire-wound

insulating varnish
of

is used

wound

and
coils

The
on

As

insulation
coils

are

securely taped, but

are

left

unprotected

OF

CONSTRUCTION

that

order

in

FIG.

be

the

plates

in

"

The

is to

parallel, that

there

is

all revolve

not

of

generation
action

Dampers
When
in

solid
the

two

or

current

the

pieces and

the

hold

field

the
of

rotation

of

circuit,

same

if

current

of

with

the

is

running

they do
By

increased.

of

poles.
circulate

currents

use

the
their

by

sheet-steel

steadying

render

and

dampers

the

operating

are

the

these
of

angular velocity.

necessary

used

are

brass
near

function

to

will

punched
to

serve

interchange

in

currents

there

machines

alternators

more

to

that

grooves

steadiness

field, steadiness

poles

pole

These

perfectly uniform

absolutely

are

the

for them

eddy
the

upon

into

by bolts and

or

many

important

is, supplying

at

In

(G. E. Co)..

coil

such

be

must

wedged

most

increase

tendency

are

wound

position by wedges

pole pieces.

revolving part, for when

in

in

edgewise

strap

fastening

grids

or

position.

dampers

directly

strap may

copper

coil insulation.

of the

ends

outer

coils
"

the

chafing of the

copper

with

core

held

are

plates and

no

or

pole

field coils

clamp

165

generated in it.

heat

Alternator

73.

The

exposed edges of the

the

the

radiate

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

less

dampers

important.
The

excitation

auxiliary d.
per
to

cent

125

c.

of that
volts

e.

of

is

alternators

generator

with

of the

alternator

m.

f.

One

provided

usually

capacity of from

exciter

and
may

with

two

range

supply

by
to

of from

several

an

five
80

alter-

ELECTRICAL

i66

with

nators

FIG.

74.

General

or

brass

iron
68

but

its

only

similar
two

the

station.

power

through

current

compound

general form

in

d.

wound

to

c.

revolving field
rings of

collector

generator

those

(G. E. Co.).

shown

in

Fig.

in number.

only radical
and

exciting

of large

view

The
The

in

field current

receives

winding

ENGINEERING.

Direct

difference

revolving

Generator.

Current

armature

between

the

alternator

direct

current

is the

ator
gener-

commutator,

CONSTRUCTION

the device
in
in its

which

ring

other

FIG.

in

75.

each

the

that

fixed

between

the

upon

impracticable

taken

from

it would

as

exactly

number

be
of

along these

respect

f.

e.

with
to

very

difficult

generators

they

of
were

to

if

bear

considerable
a

Con-

in

commutator

they

the

to

insulate

to

flows.

few

years

so

that

Continuous

conductors.

brushes

the

each

rent
cur-

placed

are

generated under

respect

the

plete
com-

oppose

is bare

them.

brushes
f.'s

illustrating the

the

of

conductors

upon

m.

Fig. 75

generators.

c.

of the

allow

lines and

76. Diagram

d.

these

poles, for the

current

no

purpose

rub

may

to

m.

it generates

polar e.m.f/s

FIG.

winding.

brushes

alternating with

e.

forming

revolves

armature

brushes

stationary in direction

are

rent
cur-

consisting of

coils of wire

these

76.

and

armature

circuit,hence

surface

outer

be

may

continuous

alternating

an

Figs. 75

an

illustratingprinciple

the

contact

the

pole, but

commutation,

bearing directly

sider

As

armature

Diagram
of

in

continuously with

circuit.

f. under

m.

is shown

wound

core

it generates

bipolar field with

furnish

to

167

principle underlying the rectifying action

commutator

closed
e.

The

windings.

represents

GENERATORS.

permits the machine

spite of the fact that

the

of

ELECTRIC

OF

the

poles

poles although
Obviously

upon

the

conductors

them.*
size
ago

Instead,
constructed

were
on

it is

the

market.

268

ELECTRICAL

cylinder of
insulated
come

in

each

upon

into

tapped

are

near

Armature

The

the

conductors.

the

windings

of the
of the

invariably revolves.
through

FIG.

View

77.

of

from

d.

The

d.

are

wise
other-

would

commutator

is mounted

c.

segments
shown

as

the

upon

armature

brushes,

mature
ar-

mechanical

is taken

current

c.

for

generator

FIG.

end

commutator

which

wear

equidistant points

at

and

large

which

segments,

core.

commutator

the

These

commutator

end

one

of

number

other, takes

the

Fig. 76 and

shaft

split into

copper

from

ENGINEERING.

78.

if

View

of

from

rings
in

the

and

armature

(G. E.).

from

for

different

reasons

armature

the

armature

large d.

c.

engine

end

ing
showing bondequalizing potential

parts

of

winding

(G. E. Co.).
remained
the
been
the

stationary the

field magnet.
demonstrated
brushes

need

only be

done

It would

be

were

The

brushes

would

mechanical

by

to

revolving

at

impossible

high speed.

revolve

experiments.

prevent

while
satisfactorily
almost

to

with

impracticability of this has

unsuccessful

adjustment

have

the
to

Further,

sparking and

machine

adjust the

is in
brushes

this

can

operation.
if

they

CONSTRUCTION

The

d.

c.

of the

core

revolving

OF

in

machine

fewer

has

greater

in

of turns

coils

The

and

of the

are

in Fig. 79.

They

form

of

Cross-section

79.

d.

in

ally
usu-

the

pole

size

the

and

number

commutation.

coil which

has

large

large inductance.
in

Fig. 6 1 and

in

shown

in

all connected

are

Copper

FIG.

in

current

as

flux per

keep down

of successful

consequently

capacity,
the

of
is

core

smaller

are

to

allow

to

the

reverse

of turns

slots

that

as

same

larger poles, hence

it is necessary

as

coil in order

It is difficult to
number

and

the

same

depth of

radial

of

general, also, the

number,

in

The

alternator

an

169

GENERATORS.

essentiallythe

alternator.

greater than

In

is

armature

armature

is greater.

ELECTRIC

series

section

the

with

ends

Bars

tooth,

armature

c.

and

conductors

tion
insula-

(Allis-Chalmers Co.).

closed, forming
in series two

the

methods

(a) The

series

(6) The

lap

The

series

The
the

connected
"

name

conductors

Reference

to

or

are

coils

winding.

wave

is similar

"

is

given

connected

Fig. 75 will show

to
as

of

ends
this

for

all of the

that

circuit, the

one

shown

that

to

Fig. 63, except

in

series

the

connecting

parallelwinding.

winding

in

In

winding.

used, producing:

are

or

phase alternator
are

closed

which

winding

in

closed

three-

conductors
closed.

are

all of

because

nearly in series

that

the

as

possible.

winding

there

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

there

FIG.

of

Diagram

80.

other

diagram
laid

15

and

cut

out

the

appearance

in

Fig. 6 1

and

the

lines
of

and

pasted

end

be
the

as

in

next

coils

in

top

the

dotted

one.

of

the

coils

that

needed

each

coil

As

are

be

may
to

point

tracing the path of the

and

be

in

the

followed
current

top
slot.

slot -bottom

plane

desired

is very

solid

of

or

upper

the

number

of the

the

slot

one

designated 1,4^, 2t$b,

connections

coils may

plane

shown

The
is

and

exactly

of

bottom

it is connected

this

way
rail-

were

those

away.

side

the

lower
in

like

bottom

coil

diagram

represent

slot

it is in

produce

before

rule

the

in the

third

in the

are

are

If

Coils

corresponding

lines

in

slots

between

cut

place.
side

one

used

as

ring it would

connections

The

turns

wound

the

that

end

plane.

many

connections

plane, solid
top

in

other

plished
accom-

generators.

some

winding

form

placed with

are

slot, the

Dotted

to

armature

c.

developed/'

or

of the

indicate

the
"

flat

out

and

motors

represents

d.

for

winding

wave

and

The

is

this

in which

manner

regardless

Fig. 80.

in

is shown

The

poles.

of

number

of the

in which

one

brushes

between

circuits

or

is, therefore,

winding

series

paths

two

are

paths through the winding between

two

The

points.

two

any

less than

be

never

can

e.

in

or

etc.

m.

by taking
in either

As

f. may

series

small.

slot-

with
The

starting
direction.

CONSTRUCTION

that

Assume
connected
from

coil

to

coil I3,I6

6tgb to

coil

to

H/I4"

therefore
Each

coil

closes

the

bar

shown

as

such

of all the

is one-half

e.

f.

m.

It is useful
the

current

be

used

would

be

choice

The

matter.

As

their

e.

of

number

The

slots

the

filled.

one

more

the

case

15

or

or

one

been

just

very

much

to

prevent

the

less than

taken,

be

uneven

the

Hence
a

four

the

"

hunting

wear.

That

and

It cannot

mechanical

tion.
construc-

geometrical

series,one

coils

close

pole

the

four.

is

of
of

number

"

etc.

used

if the

centers.

of

itself before

upon

Seventeen

19,

or

be

number

number

total

pole

therefore

must

between

be

must

south

multiple of the

tooth

where

conductors

is under

would

f's.

m.

of conductors.

multiple of the number

times

e.

by

the

in

are

would

winding

satisfactory,as
like

filled.

excessive.

distance

the

been

pitch of coils (distance

four-pole machine,

less than
as

as

cannot

or

were

coil

which

produces, therefore,

slots) is largely

of

and

average

because

neutralize.

poles, however,
slots

is not

other

wide

as

the

to

9,I26

produced

f. is desired

m.

e.

f.

given number

the

pole when

approximately
The

sides

two

f's. will

m.

of

of slots and
in

coil

commutator

m.

e.

convenient

number

measured

the

north

for

4,7^ to

has

to

The

large generators

of the

sides

machine

massive

between

under

of the

high

coil

starting point

winding

possible from

to

coil

2t$b to

all slot space

wave

very

too

coil

sum

where

output
in

the

The

series

14,2^

coil

to

12,155

76.

and

is

The

coil

is connected

coils

conductors.

greatest

after

Figs. 80

winding

the

in

to

the

is

winding

junction between

7,1 06

lead

"

brush.

to

10,135

which

8,1ib

commutator

under

coil

5,86 to

171

coil

to

coil

3,66 to

coil

i,4" to

follows

as

15,3^

to

instant
bar

commutator

right is then

8,11 6

Coil

particular

the

to

left to

coil

at

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

This
with
number

slots

poles.
of

slots

would

is
In
is

have

principle is
spur

of

gears

teeth

ELECTRICAL

172

the

upon

and

(or larger wheel

gear

the

upon

pinion the
of

unevenness

is

an

"

"

around

wave

slots

of

tooth

the

the

each

to

ber
num-

contact

added

to

teeth

will be

the

as

series

progressing

adjacent coils
The

in

are

nected
con-

number

same

of coils, in

width

or

other.

coils

same

Fig. 81.

same

be

the

gear,

core,

in

the

connections

indicated

poles and

and

the

around

and

series, as

in
of

instead

but

If

respect

from

lap 'winding is made

winding,

always be in

the

upon

continually changing places with

The

will

will result.
number

multiple of the

even

teeth

same

wear

the

from

subtracted

ENGINEERING.

fact

the

N
13,

FIG,

81.

Diagram
d.

coils

same

c.

in

used

are

following order

the

Coil

8,1ib

forward

paths

many

poles
to

are

in

series of four

cell represents

Each

field.

the
to

They
No

"

the

used

as

in

large

motors.

some

Starting

coil

to

time.

In

poles, for the

as

and

case.

point

9(l2b

each

slot

one

armatures

coils

the

at

coil

same

connected

are

in

coil

to

this

the

c.

converters

rotary

generators,

d.

for

lap winding

before, 8^11 b, from

as

"

of

are

current

e.

this

the

e.

effect

battery connected
m.

f.

connected
can

The

flow

to

-f,

around

"

to

the

cessive
suc-

Fig. 82.
pole of

one

"

as

is similar

in

as

generated under

are

under

generated

opposite directions.
cells of

there

winding

f's.

m.

progressing

10^13^,, etc.,

to

battery

and

circuit

CONSTRUCTION

and

to

the

two

current

in

must

be

points

"

brushes

four
the

utilize the

needed

are

The

winding.
total

The

lap winding
is divided

current

circuits,

that

so

two

the

negative brushes
brushes

are

needed

is used

for

all

conductors

Diagram

showing
of

sections

handled.
is

The

simpler

number

any

There

was

of

them.
of

lap

of the
than

matter

the

This

is

now

commutator.

being located

and

be

nected
con-

for the

series

of armature

small

and

easily

circuit

c.

connected

the

like

armature.

of slots in

number

when

preceding

deal

the

prevented

at

shown

large generators.

battery

d.

interchange of

winding

Similarly

in parallel

of

the

and

lap winding
Practically

case.

satisfactory.

equi-potential points in

purpose

cells

originally a great
by the

outside

1 cells

wound

in

of slots will be

caused

paths

choice

four

be

may

two

must

number

among

up

To

82.

the

four-pole winding

FIG.

173

together.

connected

for the

Only

together.

circuit

outside

an

pairs of positive and

two

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

the

current

e.

m.

end

among

f's.

by bonding

the

with

of trouble

winding,
of the

were

ings
lap windthe

the
core

equal in

not

together

various

number

rings for
opposite

to

this
the

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

174

briefly described.

already been

This

they

and

copper

mica

when

that

so

like the

FIG.

drawn
of

and

83. View

The

important.

stones

segments

are

arch.

an

They

of

section

(G.

ends
cone

by
end

of the

the

with

mica

nuts

end

are

leads

"

from

lugs
the

joined in the

functions.

are

the

from

under

with
"

segments

the

upon

bear

lugs

commutator

the
for

coils
commutator

which

and
or

to
are

E.

Co.), showing

to

The

The

connection

together by hol-

turned

are

shell

segments.

other

to

ments,
seg-

etc.

assembled.

segments

each

lugs projecting from

upon

These

segments.

after

to

which

collars

cone

its

wedge-shaped

are

drawn

commutator

hence

copper

they support
are

forged

or

insulating sheets.

the

collars, insulation,

low

construction

of rolled

segments

radially inward

has

commutator

mechanical

evenly with

down

wear

is

Its

the

separated by soft mica

are

must

consistency

The

Fig. 83.

in

is indicated

principle of

The

Commutator.

The

they

are

segments

be

lugs which

collars

by bolts

the

form

smooth
lated
insu-

are

in

held

place

passing from
are

also

windings.
connected
thus

the

vided
pro-

These
in

perform

series
two

"

The
the

direction, in

some

The

it.

against
vibration

and

pig-tails

heating

by

brushes

and

The

the

brush

position
"

the

arm

to

brushes

prevent

partly

are

connection

cables

or

reduces

connection

the

between

of

the

the

"

in

and
"

the

to

In

operated

is

mounted

backward

brushes

commutator.

ring

or

studs

upon

rocked

or

adjustment

upon

rocker

carried

are

moved

be

can

permit the

to

is

holders.

holders

ring which

radial

rotation, in others,

The

of

mode

frames

the

to

inclination

electrical

the

improving

of

against

brass

soldering of flexible

the

This

them.

to

this

sparking.

permit

to

in

inclined

are

direction

of

purpose

consequent

copper-plated
"

in the

cases

175

pressed

supported

brushes

The

blocks

carbon

springs and

by

holders.

brush

small

are

commutator

or

"

"

brushes

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

CONSTRUCTION

large

through

forward

sparkless

machines

this

and

gear

"

hand

wheels.
The

Field

essential

Magnet

principle from
A

this

case

size of

in

restriction

no

poles

of
iron

of

the

The

With
away

shown

in

from

d.

case

the

pole pieces part

number

Fig. 84.

of

methods

Alternate

of

is in

number

and

of

facturing
manu-

magnets

or

into

cast

of the

alternator

the

circulation

advantage

air gap
of

There

the

is

punchings

this

nation
lami-

eddy
case.

if that

tion
por-

heavily saturated.

pole shoe
a

are

of

up
cast

the

in

better

which

are

usually built

are

is much

generator

next

field

against

additional
c.

The

usually

are

considerations

pole pieces

bolted

the

in

nator.
alter-

armature

poles

and

differ

not

output.

frequency

in the

an

pole piece

punched
by

As

is

operation of
of the

similar

pole pieces prevents

There

currents.

the

punchings

steel frame.

or

the

convenience.

and

stationary and

sheet-steel

of

to

as

revolving

that

determined

be

may

is

alternator

an

does

generator

c.

of the

feature

economy

always

that

noticeable

larger than

d.

of the

can

good
reversed

be

example

cut

is

in build-

ELECTRICAL

76

ing

the

up

core

ENGINEERING.

for

that

so

short

distance

FIG.

Pole

84.

showing

stamping

one-half

pole

steel section

net

for

d.

face

the

pole the

c.

cut

field

generator
to

away

one-half

is but

into

produce

what

(Allis-Chalmers Co.)

core

magnetic

it would

be in

saturation.

ordinary

an

pole.
The

FIG.

fieldcoils

85. Field

coil

are

for

similar

d.

c.

compound
series

that
round

they
or

are

square

usually in

those

to

of the

generator,

alternator

showing

except

shunt

and

sections.

two

wire, carrying

sections:
a

small

(a) the shunt

coil of

exciting current;

and

OF

THE

UNIVERSITY

OF

CONSTRUCTION

such

in

supported

which

of

is

of

coils

The

line

the

series,

coils

the
or

long

shunt,

One

end

other

to

the

connected
are

shunt

brushes

of

section

presence

in

excellent

account

on

each

current.

allow

to

as

important

doubly

coils.

two

manner

are

ventilation

the

carrying

strap,

copper

coils

The

177

of

coil

series

the

(b)

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

the

either

connected

being

across

of

terminals

the

(short

machine

and

across

respectively)

of

the

the

line.

series

regulating

with

in

resistance

series.

windings

is

connected

to

brush,
a

the

CHAPTER

OPERATION

OF

VII.

ELECTRIC

GENERATORS.

OUTLINE.

Regulation:
Characteristics:

Alternator

Heating

"

of

C.

C.

Commercial

Generator

Compounding

Their

output

is

certain

regulated

speed,

Field

"

the

ing
Compound-

constant

current

operation

is

in

of

all

itself

and

with
machines

the

required

variable
may
178

resistance
be

determined

deliver

to

specified

is varied

by

to

as

current,

specifications

case

their

conductors.

by

that
not

is

generator

electrical

regulation

indicating

which

regulation

its

as

into

expected

within

load

the

known

name

is

for

momentary

be

f. which

have

specifications

and

may

when

machine

Occasionally

current

certain

e.

latter
the

by

under

an

value

field

magnetic

alternator

This

mechanical

steady

m.

general

an

constant

of

allowable

devices.

The

ing
Balanc-

"

Efficiency.

"

in

of

produced

character.

regulation,

Saturation

generators

cutting

example

of
and

the

f., frequency,
For

load

of

Principles

"

transformation

through

at

Distribution

"

General

Electric

power

etc.

ation
Satur-

"

Handling.

the

purpose

m.

Synchronizing

Characteristics:

Generator

Regulation.

e.

loss

Iron

"

phases.

"

D.

Efficiency

"

Short-circuit.

"

Handling:

Alternator

D.

Regulation

in

call
in

amount

inherent

or

f.

m.

e.

is

auxiliary

any
to

centage
per-

produce
for
the

by

tain
cer-

circuit.

simple

OF

OPERATION

the

and

tests

in the

form

results

the

and

and

this

the

that

tests

of

be

to

is done

American

of this

these

of

of characteristic

It is necessary
used

ELECTRIC

agree

employed

in

revised

D.

be

to

Committee

Electrical

Engineers.*

from

to

time

of

The

time, forms
and

of

matter

terms

rating electrical machines,

manufacturer

relating to the

paragraphs

graphically

the

upon

Standardization

the

of

between

agreement

always exhibited

are

engineers

Institute

179

curves.

through

committee,

GENERATORS.

report

the

basis

purchaser.

regulation

are

The

follows

as

REGULATION.

(I) DEFINITIONS.
DEFINITION.

The

is the

ratio

rated

load

quantity

(such

the

deviation

of

to

the

normal

has

the

same

of

therefore,

occasionally

and

from

in

vary

the

rated-load

definite

normal

according

rated-load

value.

the

be

and

linear

The

different

qualification

within

price

City.

The
from

between

maximum

tion
varia-

and

no

the

from

intended

is

quantity

the

load,

to

tion
regula-

specified condition

(in voltage, current,

speed,
be assumed
specified, it should

undergoing

uniform

variation

of

specified

that

apparatus

an

for 'use.

which

as

Thus,
a

regulation

constant-potential
when

it possesses

differ

therefore,

may,
the

of

pound-wound
com-

generator,

specified

as

over

an

generator.

difference

terminal

i.e., one

etc.)

to

no-load.

CONSTANT-POTENTIAL

maximum

is not

is intended

value.

load

variation

no-load

regulation

from

no-load

the

of

ratio

variation

relation;

and

its

to

compounded
In

at

regulation,"

speed,

constant

is the

rated

the

of

law

generator
will

value

"regulation,"

term

quantity

characteristic

between

rated-load

NOTE.

the

to

the

maximum

rated-load

(6)

to

speed)

or

normal

"inherent

term

characteristic

regulation

the

simple

between

the

current

its

The

value.

voltage,

value

manner

If

etc.) between
be

from

as

the

If

of

ratio

(a) NOTE.
to

If

STANDARD.

is the
to

meaning

load, the

no

the

voltage,

quantity

regard

in

apparatus

or

terminal

load

(e.g.,constant

constant

VARYING

that

rated

STANDARD.

load

rated

machine

a
as

used.

CONSTANT
remain

of

regulation

characteristic

some

the

range

MACHINES
of terminal

voltage

rated-load

from

the

to

is the

regulation

from

the

rated-load

open-circuit)

to

ratio

of

value
the

the

ring
(occur-

rated-load

voltage.
complete
the

Am.

report
Inst.

of
of

the
Elec.

committee

Engineers,

may
33

be
West

obtained

at

nominal

3gth St., New

York

ELECTRICAL

i8o

CONSTANT-CURRENT

In
maximum

the

operation),

difference

the

load)
The

the

of

the

no-load

secondary
In

In

In

end

speed

of

in

steam

and

In

HYDRAULIC

ratio

level

to

between

In

tail

and

variation

the

prime

the

inherent

regulation
of either

of

the

separately.

no-

Sec.

of

the

the
the

of

no-

load

FREQUENCY
difference

maximum

voltage,

of
the

to

the

ratio

of

to

the

ing
receiv-

maximum

tion
varia-

(with

no-load

to

ratio
rated

the

at

sending end)

rated-load
the

the

between

voltage

the

upon

is

regulation

rated-load

speed.

stant
con-

For

the

speed

to

regulation

the

is

rated-

from

passing slowly

i.e.,at

water;

race),

in

difference

constant

rated-load

speed.

of
For

59-64.

of

of

the

to

connecting

WATER-MOTOR,

of

of

generator

determined

be

generator-unit

load

ratio

function

receiving end,

is the

of

head

should

ratio

59-64.

head

variations

is the

line
as

rated-load

OTHER

or

or

chronism,
syn-

the

voltage)

rated-load

the

the

at

the

consisting

prime-mover,

from

is

AND

the

of

ETC.,

from

Sees.

see

with

non-inductive

terminal

voltage

throttle)

i.e., constant

speed

to

side.

to

the

and

regulation
rated

straight

from

variation

race

speed

in

regulation

ratio

side

slowly

constant

regulation

from

voltage.

regulation

see

pulsation

mover;

the

FEEDERS,

at

drop

from

the

difference

the

GENERATOR-UNIT,
the

mover,

speed

identical

not

MOTOR-GENERATORS

no-load

maximum

(at

of

load.

is the

TURBINE

no-load

the

impressed

from

output

passing

pulsation

of the

of

voltage impressed

pressure

variation
a

and

ENGINES,

STEAM

the

TORS
MO-

rated-load

from

is, therefore,

terminal

of

output

the

constant

mum
maxi-

within

INDUCTION

variation

range

voltage

terminal

voltage
load

(with

the

ratio

rated

at

LINES,

maximum

and

maximum

motor

voltage

the

on

of

ratio

speed.

regulation
at

TRANSMISSION

the

load

in

voltage

non-inductive

the

DYNAMOTORS,

voltage

rated-load

of

is the

values

the

CONVERTERS,

of

power.

within

MACHINES,

CONVERTERS,

terminal

the

voltage

rated-load

the

to

current,

limit

(occurring

MOTORS

primary

constant

rated-load

and

the

(occurring

minimum

is the

value

TRANSFORMERS,

difference

maximum

rated

terminal

OVER-COMPOUNDED

load

In

which

secondary

(at

the

induction

an

synchronous

terminal

of

speed.

motor,

of

rise

ratio

value

or

regulation

rated-load

ratio

CONSTANT-POTENTIAL

In

of

load
of

the

to

the

the

(occurring

rated

regulation

slip

is the

value

the

to

short-circuit,

DIRECT-CURRENT

regulation

its rated-load

-load

current.

from

power

rated

the

is

regulation

the

APPARATUS,

of

CONSTANT-SPEED

In

to

to

operation specified) to

of

range

of

rated-load

CONSTANT-POWER

In

the

from

rated-load

the

to

current

of

from

range

the

MACHINES

difference

within

ENGINEERING.

at

steam

pressure,

the

prime-mover.

is to
the

be

united

contained

prime

conditions

constant

head,

distinguished

generator

with

It

etc.

For

this

from

the

of

includes

reason

the

regulation

in it, when

taken

OPERATION

(II) CONDITIONS

FOR

The

SPEED.

REGULATION

and

speed

of

with

the

e.

should

regulation
EXCITATION.

and

(1)

At

(2)

With

(3)

With

should

full- load

m.

f., except

where

expressly

and

ous
synchron-

As

constant,

power,

computed

the

ratio

determined

under

the

resultant

should

be

taken

the

the

the

should
and

saturation

an

e.

of the

load

to

m.

be

principal load

f.

as

are

of

consumed

synchronous
and

terminal
at

be

On

to

should

its rated

used.

be

the

voltage,

voltage plus

combined

total

the

machines

impedance

short-circuit

to

apparatus

by

current,

current

addition

in

the

ture-resistance-drop,
arma-

corresponding
vectorially

corresponding

internal

e.

to

f.

m.

curve.

designed

to

If incandescent

regulation must

lamps, being

satisfactory load.

ratio

produce

possible, considering the

operated.
the

the

to

as

Characteristics.

Alternators

constant

apparatus,

voltage

ampere-turns

Alternator

Regulation.

in

to

chosen

so

current.

sinusoidal

terminal

be

full-load

When

ampere-turns,

from

i.e.,the

circuits;

should

voltage

at

apparatus

armature-impedance-drop,

obtain

the

corresponding

and

fields.

series-field
and

impedance
of

possible,

as

from

exciting ampere-turns

incandescent

alternating-

motors,
be

is to

circuits, and

full- load

at

REGULATION.

OF

is

far

shunt-field

alternating-current

the

of

voltage.

regulation

and

regulation

shunting

regulation,

COMPUTATION

e.

electric

separately excited

voltage

In

impedance

full-load

the

where

except

receiving

generators
the

in

remain

specified; i.e., the

internal

the

to

is in

current

apparatus,

rectifying machines,

resistance

constant

RATIO.

be

in

resistance

constant

non-inductive

to

of

wave

generators,

excitation

constant

IMPEDANCE

the

the

conditions:

give the required

should

sine

direct-current

as

polyphase

adjustment

the

to

apparatus

commutating,

such

following

field

alternating

refer

In

machines,

the

the

of

which

in

or

understood

be

otherwise.

specified

current

should

load

side

output

quency.
fre-

otherwise.
In

FORM.

the

to

stant
con-

generating, transforming

regulation
is,

at

impressed

constant

at

apparatus

currents,

f. at

m.

expressly specified
WAVE

In

determined

be

is to

apparatus

load, that

non-inductive

to

phase

alternating

alternating

transmitting
refer

REGULATION.

OF

GENERATORS

OF

LOAD.

NON-INDUCTIVE

TESTS

AND

181

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

almost

the

other

nearly

requirements

lamps

be close, but

as

are

to

be

fortunately

entirely resistance, form

hand,

loads

which

have

182

ELECTRICAL

comparatively

low

light circuits

arc

with

and

field of

the

with

than

produced
loads

cause

factor

power

the

the
the

e.

of
f.

m.

lagging

hence

and

output

same

as

seriously interfere

motors,

alternator

cent) such

per

alternator.

falling off of

(say 80

induction

regulation of

the

weakens

All

ENGINEERING.

less

higher

e.

f. is

m.

factor.

power

of armature

account

on

current

resistance.
The

following table*
similar

K.W.

200

illustrated

REVOLVING

"

3-PHASE
PART

that

to

gives the result of

I.

VOLTS"
Per

REGULATION.

rise

cent

GENERATOR

TYPE

ALTS.

7200

nator
alter-

an

upon

Chapter VI.

BELTED

FIELD,

2200

"

in

tests

I2-POLE

in

voltage

"

when

"

600

R.P.M.

load

circuit

is

opened.
FACTOR.

POWER

80

Load.
Per
.

cent
20

.9

18.1
14.0
IO

PART

EFFICIENCY.

II.

FACTOR.

POWER

speed

the

+he

this purpose

For
*

the

The

W.

tables
E.

and

and

load

the

while

of

of this

first part

The

and
M.

curves

Co.

table

contains

terminal
is varied
load

.O

may

of alternator

e.

m.

data
f. of

the
and

in amount
be made

obtained

up

performance

taining
by main-

machine

factor.

power

of variable
are

used

stant
con-

resist-

by courtesy

OPERATION

ance

each
then

and

until

case

thrown
e.

FIG.

86.

m.

terminal

the

off,and
f. is

The

coils.

reactance

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

e.

field

f. is normal.

m.

again measured.

Characteristic

of

curves

The

tests

covers

from

power

quarter

load

under

for several

minimum
factor
load

is its

of
is thrown

at

80 per

factors

3.6

per

off,to
cent

cent,
20.9

power

in

The

is

load

adjusted the
rise

three-phase

minal
terover

alternator

regulation for that

power

adjusted

percentage

k. w.,

200

(Westinghouse)

its value

is

current

speed has been

after the

183

loads.

and
when
per

cent

factor.

The

case.

The

rise ranges

half -load

of

with

and

one

table

unity
one-

184

ELECTRICAL

Efficiency. The
in

each

in

test

with

the

This

is

second

Part

The

and

the

always

Iron

Loss.

of this

This

f.

m.

loss

in

as

Fig. 86

shows

The

iron

on

has

for like the

highest

important

iron

The

is

when
of

up

saturation

terminal

e.

indicates

m.

the

flux.

This
of

curves

terminal

the

different

of

kinds
the

at

iron.

several

Heating.
of

heat

of

the

insulation
excessive

and

heating

carbonize, the
the

latter to

fully with

and

all do
for

As

the

magnetic

cuit,
cirthe

to

magnetization

is made
of

not

of air

up

the

circuit

saturate

different

are

the

at

machines

be
is

deteriorate

this matter

by the

are

results

capacity of

allowable

rise in

The

important.
at

able
allow-

which

liable

to

soften

the

Under

safely operated.

and

to

magnetically by increase

(ageing). The
in the

form, the

output

temperature

may

former

the

most

maximum

hysteresis coefficient

deals

circuit

given, in tabular

are

iron
the

the

dimensions

is determined

tests

the

the

alternator.

by the

rise is fixed

and

current

form.

are

machine
such

temperature,

from

curves

same

this

on

runs

parts

Fig. 86

In

electrical

any

form

The

saturation

The

necessarily of the

not

in

sis
hystere-

directly proportional

samples of iron because

time.

same

differs

curve

several

and

f. is

m.

e.

is

two.

as

machine

and

field

condition

the

iron.

performance,

eddy

plotted between

curve,

minal
ter-

in the

the

upon

losses,the latter being the larger of the

The

characteristics

absorbed

present

is made

less.

even

plotted between

w.

bearing

loss

or

versa.

designed

are

important

k.

and

efficiency

vice

and

generators

curve

friction, it is always

operation.

factor

power

many

loss

the

efficiencyis obtained

other

circuit

open

an

shows

efficiencyat full load

generator.
e.

maximum

case

give their maximum

to

part of the table

I.

largest load
not

ENGINEERING.

Standardization

following paragraphs.

of

Code

OPERATION

The

should

conditions,
LIMITS

of its

RECOMMENDED.

It

remain

to

the

that

recommended

vice
regular serpoint at which
place.
mum
following maxi-

at

takes

material

insulating

is

under

machinery

electrical
allowed

be

never

deterioration

permanent

of

temperature

185

RISE.

TEMPERATURE

LIMITING

GENERAL.

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

referred
to a standard
temperature
normal
of 25 degrees Centigrade, at rated
load under
of ventilation
be exceeded.
not
or
cooling, should
values

of

elevation,

MACHINES

(A)
In

conditions

GENERAL.

IN

machines,
pulsating-current
rectifying machines,
machines
machines,
synchronous-commutating
the
in
the
rise
unipolar machines,
parts specified should
temperature

commutating

synchronous

generators,
and

exceed

not

perature
tem-

room

Field

the

and

following:

50" C.
brushes, by thermometer,
55" C.
Collector
rings, 65" C.
Bearings and other parts of machine,
by thermometer,
armature,

Commutator

and

INDUCTION

ROTARY

(B}
exceed

the

The

APPARATUS.

40"

C.

should

rise

temperature

not

following:

Electric

circuits, 50" C., by resistance.

Bearings and other parts of the machine
40" C., by thermometer.
In squirrel-cage or
short-circuited
55" C., by thermometer,
armatures,
be

may

allowed.

INDUCTION

STATIONARY

(C)

TRANSFORMERS

a.

should
and

exceed

not

in other
b.

APPARATUS.
SERVICE.

CONTINUOUS

FOR

in electric

degrees Centigrade

50

The
rise
temperature
circuits, by resistance;

parts, by thermometer.

TRANSFORMERS

INTERMITTENT

FOR

intended

for

intermittent

In

SERVICE.

service,

or

rated

the

of

case

formers
trans-

operating continuously
of lightin the ordinary case
ing
above
air
the surrounding
not

load, but continuously in circuit, as

the
elevation
transformers,
temperature
should
exceed
circuits
in electric
not
50" C., by resistance
temperature
and
in other
the
after
to the
by thermometer
period
corresponding
parts,
of rated
load.
In this instance, the
should
load
term
be applied
test
not
at

the

until
the

has

transformer

been
due

elevation

temperature

lighting,the

duration

in
to

circuit

of the

for

sufficient

With

loss.

core

rated-load

test

time

to

transformers
be

may

attain

for

mercial
com-

as

three

taken

hours, unless otherwise

specified.
inductionand
circuits
electric
c.
REACTORS,
magneto-regulators
by
resistance
and
other
C.
50"
parts by thermometer,
LARGE
APPARATUS.
a.
Large generators, motors, transformers, or other
in which
overload
apparatus
reliabilityand reserve
ant,
importcapacity are
are
than
grees
defrequently specified not to rise in temperature
more
40
rated
load
and
Centigrade under
degrees Centigrade at rated
55
overload.
It is,however, ordinarily undesirable
to specify lower
ture
temperaelevations
than
degrees Centigrade at rated
as
load, measured
40
"

above.

(D)
In

RHEOSTATS.
HEATERS

RHEOSTATS,
or

with

contact

such

air under
a.

PARTS

rising

in

and

inflammable

OF

part

material,
the

service

RHEOSTATS.

temperature,

under

other
or

electrothermal

material,

should

rise

conditions
Parts
the

of

more

for

liable

than

which

rheostats

specified

apparatus,

portion
50"

or

service

C.

it is
and

no

to

the

above

bustible
com-

in

come

rounding
sur-

designed.

similar

conditions,

apparatus
more

than

i86

ELECTRICAL

50" C., should

issuing

from

RECOMMENDED

HEAT

SPECIAL

IN

they,

should

be

the

hot

nor

combustible

ranged
ar-

air

material.

CASES.

With

INSULATION.

RESISTING

neither

with

in contact

come

can

that

manner

and

material,

combustible

any

such

in

them,

(") LIMITS
a.

contain

not

installed

or

ENGINEERING.

which

in

apparatus

the

lating
insu-

special heat-resistingqualities, a higher temperature

permissible.
intended
b. HIGH
AIR
for service
In apparatus
in places
Temperature.
of abnormally high temperature,
lower
should
elevation
be
a
temperature
specified.
In
OVERLOAD.
which
APPARATUS
TO
SUBJECT
c.
by the
apparatus
of its service
be exposed
is to be used
in very
nature
to overload,
or
may
than
is desirable
rise of temperature
in
high voltage circuits, a smaller
In
overloads
in
liable
not
to
or
low-voltage apparatus.
apparatus
paratus
apbuilt
for conditions
of limited
as
higher
a
railway motors,
space,
have

materials

elevation

is

rise of

be allowed.
must
temperature
d. APPARATUS
of apparatus
In the case
INTERMITTENT
SERVICE.
FOR
for intermittent
the temperature
intended
service, except railway motors,
end
which
is attained
of the period corresponding
elevation
to the
at the
of

term

in

rated

load, should
In

general.

such

should
motors,
the
conditions

the

service

of

the

The

For

field

7.5
this

example,

volts

the

weakening

have

armature
*

The

with

is

curve

paragraph

not

to

absolute

be

the

curve

in

the

of

the

method

simplest

rating.

in

at

in

the

with

another

rate

an

does

for

50

In

application

give

in
This

the

in

loss.
accordance

paragraph

performance

general

furnishes

and

connection

copper

alternator

predicting
and

amperes

plotted between

Code.

not

shows

curve

impedance

armature

effect

amperes,

At

volts.

Standardization
method

mature
ar-

armature

armature

50

saturation

is shown

to

of

values

by the armature.*

order

noting

magnetic

corresponding kilowatts

empirical

an

While

alternators.

field

required
209

briefly describes
appears

the

and

amperes

of the

armature

consumed

short-circuit

the

680

to

and

straight line for all practical

measure

cuiting
short-cir-

by

three

or

required. The

been
of

short-circuit

on

are

amperes

two

to

field and

ammeters

field,combined

the

upon

680

with

gives

correspond

to

is

curve

curve

armature

losses.

through

corresponding

The

purposes.

circuits

armature

current.

elevation,

obtained

data

represents

field current

values

temperature

characteristic, plotted between

amperes,

the

specified for machines

way
including railunder
after
as
nearly as posoperation,
sible
the apparatus
is intended, and
for which
be specified.

the

should

test

short=circuit

armature

the

measured

of

of the

conditions

The

be

the

exceed

not

apparatus

of

satisfaction

it

comparative

if

it is

installed

After

Handling.

Alternator

reasonable

only

load

and

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

OPERATION

insure

necessary

to

to

it from

protect

has

alternator

an

187

speed

constant

the

properly

been

of

effects

and

lightning

disturbance.*

When

Synchronizing.
parallel with

in

in

necessary
e.

f. of

m.

others

the

at

machine

incoming

connected

have

the

is

care

The

instant.

proper

must

fre-

same

Line

"fi

\
Trans

be

to

operation, great

in

already

closing the switches

the

is

alternator

an

\
Main
SwitchX

ns\

aer\
former

\
.

TransTo

former

Generator

FIG.

of

Arrangement

87.

with

lamps,

synchronizing

in

The

the others-

as

quency

phase, otherwise
e.

be

may

the

various
these
the

the

the

is

string of

machines,

This
more

has

as

already
fully

in

between

In
for

instant
devices

indicated

Chapter

touched

IX,

be

exactly

indicate

to

closing the
The

in

Chapter IV,
and

to

switches,

simplest

Fig. 87, the number

Stations

which

current

lamps, connected

upon
Power

order

used.

are

in

for

eous
instantan-

two

any

short-circuit

incandescent

been

also

must

waves

apparatus.

proper

synchronizing

two
*

to

transformers,

will circulate

injurious

operator

without

generators.

c.

difference

the

f. values

m.

a.

m.

e.

and

and

of

between
of

lamps

will be

Sub-Stations.

cussed
dis-

88

ELECTRICAL

in series
of the

being sufficient
When

line.

the

to

the

two

e.

As

bright.

be

other

speed
and

more

the

Usually

some

into

field

the

circuits

of transformers

indicate

the

Switches

the

the

harm

no

While

of

series

for

the

strength of

also

are

upon

pointer

switches.

load

automatically

and
or

of

most

primary

line.

the

all,

cases,

Their

the

chronizing
syn-

market

upon

dial

latest

closing

is varied

alternators

among

machine

one

any

its e.m.f.

with

the

that

of

the

of load

phase

others, and

this

parallel operation of alternators

respect

different

from

Balancing
to

the

obtain

the

phases
the

only be done
at

of direct

that

of

the

best

of

amount

current

switchboard

performance

or

which

position
has

it takes.
is

no

In

radically

generators.

polyphase

by shifting load

by changing

change in field

simply alters the

to

respect

upon

either

is done

The

appreciable effect

can

ful
skill-

through

setting of the driving engines.

governor

order

most

simplest

and

generator

of

few

armature

lamps for

closing the

scheme

with

by connecting the

devices

pulsates

or

revolving

in

chronous
syn-

periods last

even

many

one

lamps

(automatic synchronizer).

Distribution
the

to

the

operation is complete.

excessive

movement

for

the

connected

by the

is

development

dark

speed.

Patented

instant

proper

to

are

lamp.
which

and

circuit,

"

beats

f.

m.

approaches

"

lamps

e.

frequency

same

other

machine

of too

use

is reduced

circuits

synchronizing

pull the

to

requires the

secondary

the

will flow

synchronous

number

of the

the

closed

are

tends

exact

this scheme
and

When

if this is not

but

current

cross

the

the

are

they assist each

of

cross-current

operator
the

light

switches

in

incoming

slowly.

more

seconds

the

the

f.'s

m.

lamps will be dark, when

will

safely at twice

operate

exactly opposite each

and

of

ENGINEERING.

from

outside

circuits
from
one

of

is necessary

alternators.
circuit
the

to

power

in
This

another,
station

Direct
General

rising

is to

maintain

As

employed.
preferred,
because

only for

generators

side

of

brush

inductance

have

self-induced

"

on

circuited

coil.

In

reversing field should

the

case

in

the

around

of

in
the

the
*

The

motor
armature

the

of field

the

machine

for

the
e.

f. with

need

are

m.

pushed

current

f.

f.

this

in the

m.

f.

the

be

load, the
The

(against
opposite

the

to

short-

the

as

in

is not
m.

it.

f.,

m.

In

the
of

account

on

passing

current

of the

much
the

as

load.

direction

direction

this

This

brushes

shifted

of

reversing

greatly weakens

the

produced

armature

stable

its

to

field of the

possible.

more

reversal

commutation

good
as

its

direction

it renders

as

is

"

called

given change

backward

flows

e.

one

and

opposed

magnetic

is

which

plain

from

the

is, in the

in

field.
not

e.

secure

very

machine

brushes

m.

an

that

it is

on

are

also

than

less

it

machine

m.

m.

are

fields

force

stable

as

load,

series coils

shunt

as

be

machine

compound-wound
increase

to

plain shunt

increasing with

the

service

order

machines

to

forward,

of the

account

pound-wound
com-

ment
adjust-

is reversed

reversing

Naturally

strength.

necessary

hand

In order
in

automatic

coil passes

current

coil is situated

rotation,* until the

field

other, its

brushes

the

pushing

by

"

armature

an

Such

the

regulating properties but

generated
f.

m.

e.

Hence

good

"spark

c.

automatically

compound-wound

resists this reversal.

coil may

the

As

the

to

machine

undesirable, shunt

equipped

machines.

shunt-wound

shunt

where

cases,

their

so

f.

m.

produce

f.

m.

e.

to

or

wherever

some

is not

f.

The

e.

rule, however,

not

constant

In

field current

load.

is used

regulation is required.
of

of

practically all d.

m.

e.

increasing

generator

of

constant

produce

even

Characteristics.

function

increase

cannot

it

can

maintain

f. with

m.

e.

obviously
nor

The

189

GENERATORS.

Generator

Current

Principles.

generators

ELECTRIC

OF

OPERATION

with

of

pound-wound
com-

those
For

rotation)
respect

to

ELECTRICAL

loads

of

upon

extremely variable

an

is

in
is

volts
the

is

The

volts.
with

d.

Fig. 88 shows

this

open

circuit

increases

with

delivering 1700

lower

with

decreasing load, the difference

Commercial

88.

Upper

line

of d.

curve

decreasing load, middle

with

the

to

1200

when

produces

increasing, the

1000

compounding

until

525

575

upper

retentive-

1400

1600

1800

Line

Amperes

FIG.

f. of

load
it

trated
illus-

that

m.

e.

the

being due

800

performance
to

an

amperes

is taken

curve

the

similar

generator*

c.

On

VI.

generated, and

armature

imposed

are

railway, the compound-wound

Compounding.

Chapter

as

necessary.

compound-wound

character, such

electric

an

absolutely

Commercial
of

by

generator

machine

ENGINEERING.

c.

(G. E. Co.).

generator

line with

increasing load, dash

line, perfect over-compounding.

of

ness

the

iron

in

the

sufficient series field

load
that
The

the

e.

is said
m.

line

dash

turns

be

to

f. does

not

thus

to

rise

in

connecting the ends

circuit.
*

The

on

account

Standardization
d.

c.

generator

curves

raise

the

of

the

Code,
are

used

machine

e.

m.

The

over-compounded.

perfect over-compounding,
automatically

circuit.

magnetic

proportion

to

of the

f.

e.

which
saturation

paragraph
by courtesy

m.

f. with

the

current.

curves

sents
repre-

be
the

198,

creased
inshow

curves

cannot

of

with

secured

magnetic

states

of the G. E. Co.

that

OPERATION

"

in

of

difference

maximum

connecting

the

voltage

function

as

terminal

the

Field

be

no-load

That

the

by

armature
constant

field current.

The

increase

an

of
the

to

the

terminal
rated-load
of

the

turns

to

curvature

series-field

is varied, the

at

volts

575

shows
to

12,300

of

yielding the

test

curve

from

less

number

current

is maintained

straight line

values

current,

ratio

regulation.
The

is determined

While

load

is, the

Compounding.

used

voltage from

rated-load

the

is the

better

in

191

regulation is the

the

and

of

voltage/'

curves,

GENERATORS.

machines

over-compounded

the

ELECTRIC

OF

it

the

f.

m.

e.

shunt-

requires in this

2600

or

Fig. 89.

terminal

by varying

that

14900

in

data

case

to

ampere-turns

16000

1000

FIG.

89. Field-compounding

field

ampere-turns

curve,

d.

to

maintain

necessary

1200

1400

1600

1800

Armature

Amperes

(G. E.

generator

c.

575

volts

e.

Co.), showing
f. with

m.

ing
vary-

load.

maintain
the

e.

f.

m.

dips

being

and

magnetic
the

volts.

armature

field saturation,

field

more

and

drop
field.

the

upon

proportionately with

The

field

proportional
the

resistance

armature

large than

The

m.

with

m.

f.

small

current.

Saturation.
between

the

of the

account

on

required

armature

of

effect

magnetic

curve

against the

to

the

flux.

circuit

accounts

of

The

begins
the
for

shown

curve

and

ampere-turns

steepness
This

saturation

to

curve

the

in

armature
curve

that

at

decreases

bending

f., which

e.m.

shows

saturate

Fig. 90 is plotted

about

the

iron

350

rapidly above
of

the

is
in

volts
500

compounding

ELECTRICAL

IQ2

already referred

curves

loss

core

armature

e.

ENGINEERING.

Fig.

to.

(in hysteresis and

exhibits

91

eddy

the

ing
correspond-

currents) for

various

m.f/s.

650

600

550

500

450

400

350

300

"ii

250

200

-20

150

100

50

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

Ampere
FIG.

The
per
50

cent

per

90.

Saturation

efficiency

curve

curve,

efficiencyand
cent

load

the

of d.

14000

16000

c.

generator

Fig. 92, gives the

per

cent

18000

22UOO

20000

Turns

load

and

(G. E. Co.).

relation
shows

between

that

efficiencyis practically constant

above
at

95.5

OPERATION

light loads

On

cent.

per

amounting

at

input

of the

friction

about

or

load,

cent

per

k.

21.5

85

or

between

Curves

91.

d.

of

ance

at

as

large

Handling
The
with
the

shunt

When

shunt

by
of

the

of

the

machines
means

Direct

are

movers.

f.

m.

(G.

E.

import-

eoo

700

and

flux) in

load

possible.

as

Generators.

generators

c.

for the
thus

purpose

or

provided

are

of

permitting

adjusting the

operated in parallelthe
rheostats

to

all electrical

in fact

rated

Current

and

(proportional

Co.).

of

of all d.

current

of these

driving prime

e.

percentage

"rheostats"

or

and

generators,

field circuits

resistances
variation

the

500

cent

per

Amature

generator

c.

these

operating

machines,

loss

core

30

indicates

400

Volts

to

amperes,

This

w.

field

because

proportionately large,

are

ICO

FIG.

193

efficiencyis low

the

loss and

loss, armature-core

GENERATORS.

ELECTRIC

OF

load

by varying the

Compound-wound

e.

m.

f.

is distributed

speed

generators

ELECTRICAL

194

be

cannot

If
of

the

take

load

to

its

the

operate

any

other

for

takes

the

fact

will

than

It

To

son.
rea-

share

immediately

motors.

as

its

increase.

almost

generators

following

more

automatically

in

and

directly

reason

f. will

m.

e.

load,

more

parallel
for

machine

one

still

in

operated

ENGINEERING.

will
gin
be-

prevent

1001

10

FIG.

this
bus

known

bar

an

as

distribution

hence
will

proper

Efficiency

coils

series

the

uniform
and

92.

share

if

an

the

all

of

their

the
of
e.

increased

c.

in

bar

line

current

line
m.

or

current

s.

load.

alike

110

(G.

generator

connected

"equalizer"

increase

increase
of

are

d.

curves,

100

80

70

60

50

40

20

by

parallel
This

among

the

and

each

heavy

insures
series

all

occurs

140

Co.).

E.

bus.

130

120

of

will

the
take

the

coils,
chines
ma-

its

CHAPTER

TRANSFORMERS

VIII.

AND

THEIR

APPLICATIONS.

OUTLINE.

Transformer

Construction:

Principles

underlying
Constant

"

Structural

Transformers

Varieties

"

of

formers
Trans-

Transformers.

Summary

"

The

"

Performance

Potential

Features

Lightning
Series

Transformer

Connections

"

Protection

"

from

Auto-transformer.
Constant

"

Current

Transformers.

'

Constant

Current

Transformer

Potential

Regulation

Efficiency

"

Current

Installation

Principles

Transformers

"

the

transformer.
to

it

done.
line

was

In
of

been

the

Fig. 16, contains

found

that

his

until

at

coil

current.

the
to

fifty

J95

he

principle
connected

produced

was

current

was

disconnected.

was

intervening

continuous

when

secondary

available

the

current

momentary

circuit

applied
not

circuits.

Performance.

momentary

primary

have

f., but

the

similar

had

undoubtedly

actually

battery

the

current

in

Faraday

other.
when

along

Current.

Construction.

ring, illustrated

circuit

m.

Exciting

"

Polyphase

on

Transformer

Underlying

FARADAY'S

e.

Heating

"

Transformer.

Transformer

in the

Regulator.

Transformer.
Losses

"

Transformer

one

Current

Transformer.

Constant

of

Constant

"

Characteristics.

Constant

Series

Transformer

time,

Faraday

later

period

If

nating
alterwould

transformation

the

years

duced
pro-

all

that

this

development

Faraday's

of
was

was

ring would

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

196
have

made

flux

magnetic

interferes

with

the

of

Principle

the

the

flux in the
is

and

which

core

each

An

is

thereon

turn

Magnetic leakage

The

the

to

it is
it is

If the

raising

or

lowering

of

the

cover

of

the

ratio

coil.

their

formation
of trans-

of the

In modern
reduced

same

to

coils of part

or

same

formers
transto

and

most
al-

an

secondary

designate those

to

connected

is used

transformer.

current

increase

the

e.

m.

f.

If it reduces

the

e.

m.

to

step-down transformer.

transformer

power.

The

is

device

requirements

for
of

changing

the

form

engineering practice

following varieties:

ratio, employing

(b) Transformation
employing

is the

secondary coils furnish

transformer

(a) Transformation
fixed

The

step-up
or

nating
alter-

Transformers.

general

electric

coils is used

power.

load.

Varieties

In

of

source

the

rent,
cur-

together.

primary

term

the

to

close

very

flux

b}^ placing the primary

negligible amount
windings

hence

coils located

proportional

leakage effect has been

magnetic

the

coils.

an

up

generates

reduces

by the primary

produced

sets

leakage the

by depriving the secondary coil

flux which

the

alternating

other

cuts

of all coils is,therefore,

of turns.

numbers

the
f. and

m.

e.

transformer,

magnetic

no

core

e.m.f.

e.m.f. The

coil of

one

If there

throughout

secondary

and

core,

air between

Transformer.

Modern

to

magnetic
it.

the

of the

and

primary

regulation.

the

furnished

upon

sections

passed partly through

magnetic leakage reduces

the

because

occupied different

coils

secondary

This

imperfect transformer

an

the

series

(c) Transformation

of
the
of

alternating

constant
constant

pressure

at

potential transformer.

alternating

currents

at

fixed

ratio,

transformer.
from

constant

alternating

pressure

to

TRANSFORMERS

alternating, current,

constant

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

AND

the

employing

197

constant

current

transformer.
(d) Transformation
continuous

from

the

employing

pressure,

alternating

constant

to

constant

transformer

rotary

or

converter.

The

"constant"

word

that

mean

there

as

the

is

as

quantity

always

used

in

connection

does

designated is absolutely

so

variation

some

this

due

to

not

constant

imperfections of the

machinery.
Transformers.

Potential

Constant

Modern

Construction.
in

illustrated

FIG.

and

View

93.

(G.

type

E.

of small

Type

Co.

96.

94, 95, and

Figs. 93,

Figs. 93

types,

potential transformers

constant

94

representing the

FIG.

core

H)

and

forming

core

the

vertical

shell

type.

shown

plane

of

has

magnetic circuit and

one

limbs.

The

As

the

discussed

rotary
under

transformer

that

head

is
in

center

inherently

Chap. X.

the coils

has

shell type

rectangles placed side by side, the

*

former

Figs.

of coils and

in

The

general

and

type,

core

Cross-section

94.

(Section

96 the

of two

are

of transformer

transformer.

95

They

are

are

in

Fig.

synchronous

93.

stampings.)

rectangular
placed

"figure 8" form,

tongue

core

upon
two

carrying the
a.

c.

motor

it is

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

198
This

coils.
The

FIG.

formed

are

cores

bolted

clamped

or

View

95.

contains

core

Wayne

from

insulated

together, and

Co.,

FIG.

transformer.

culation

of

with

the

lowest

with

great

The

eddy

coils

are

either

wound

in flat

rings, primary

to

reduce

magnetic

or

square

cotton-covered

insulating varnish
and

varnished

core

and

case

from

is omitted

is
and

or

when
each

complete
which

electrical

of

(Section

in

Fig.

of

stampings.)

95.

cir-

the

of transformer

core

steel,

coils

shown
in

plane

hysteresis, the

is used

and

steel

it is annealed

care.

or

The

of carbon

percentage

parallel.

prevent

to

minimize

To

currents.

in

96. Cross-section

and

A)

Type

thin

of

stampings

shell-type (Fort

of

Elec.

circuits

magnetic

two

in the

secondary

and

wire

and

and

by sheet

transformer

they

of concentric

provision is made

They

separated

are

fiber

oil.
for

with

or

with

taped

are

from

the

micanite.
in

In

round

impregnated

are

is mounted

usually filled with

wound

are

cylinders

being alternated

coils

compounds.

wax

complete
other

coils

The

leakage.

mineral

form

some

protecting iron
cases

the

oil

rapidly circulatingair

TRANSFORMERS

the

through

AND

and

case

around

practices give rise

two

blast

terminals

wires

must

eaves

in order

wood

coils.

oil-insulated

terms

they

elaborate

These

and

air-

The

Summary.

1.

The

coils must

summarized

flux

passes

be

through

which

one

does

the

very

ment.
equip-

potential

each

to

of

are

constant

follows

as

related

so

of

features

convenient

most

part

the

indoor

In

bushings

the

troublesome

structural
be

may

in the

out

celain,
por-

protecting

under

of moisture.

transformers
a

rubber,
locations

outdoor

entrance

brought

be

may

they form

and

transformers

the

tension

high

In

way.

In

in

case

vertically downward

prevent

to

the

through

bushings.

brought

be

transformers

carried

are

glass, or

other

that

no

through

also pass

not

netic
mag-

other.
The

2.

insulation

connection
coil and

the

The

3.

and

in

order

the

core,

coils

the

be

conveyed

in any

which

flux

be

In

Leakage.
in both

these

are

practically interlaced.

move

are

magnetic

under

the

or

alternated
In

at

in

of the

coils

causing undue

rise

be

must

is

kept low

especially true

all times

insure

to

latter

are

in such
the

the

divided
a

constant

leakage is varied

action

whether

of
the

not.

order

coils,the

between

or

the

core

This

magnetized
current

trical
elec-

no

transformer.

high emcienc3^.

must

sections

the

in coils and

and

the

coils

the

without

away

of

part

of energy

insure

Magnetic
same

between

that

such

be

must

necessarily generated

is

carrying useful

are

I.

exist

which

losses
to

coils

must

The

4.

the

can

heat,

core,

of

core.

of temperature

to

the

to

the

through

and

199

transformers.

The

the

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

way

of

presence

into
that

sections
the

current

by allowing the

repulsive force between

turns
former
trans-

coils
them.

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

200

possible

as

and

the

of

in

immersed

which

oil

of heat

proper

primary

and

all

and

which

electric

transformer

the

this

with

Between

permeates

is

sure.
pres-

usually
greatly

and

parts

insulating properties of

the

improving

in

assists

all of

to

other

insulating material

action

combined

addition

In

each

of

perfect

as

individually insulated

are

from

placed sheets

are

coils is made

strength.

dielectric

the

will withstand

of the

wires

separated

are

great

coils

secondary

The

follows:

as

layers

material

insulation

The

Insulation.

2.

the

other

heat

from

materials.

coils

and

thin

as

to

core

surface

in

Hence

This

transformers.
the

as

to

necessary

In

water.

The

is

ating
radi-

transformer
immerse

some

is

in the
the

cases

forcibly circulated

and

the

about

oil
coils

core.

The

4.
in

air is

large surface
strength.

evidently less

large sizes it is

and

dispensed with

and

mechanical

pipes carrying cold

oil, coiled
is

is

of

walls

small-sized

pound

per

has

with

in

ventilation

sufficient

larger.

which

case,

is consistent

as

circulation, carries

oil, by

The

Ventilation.

3.

the

and

core

cf

armatures

selection

of

kept

are

and

generators

application

and

losses

copper

down

by

motors

magnetic

as

proper

conducting

and

materials.

Connections.
with

sections

tension
low

tension

be

used

if there

are

primary

has

and

for several
two
10

primary
times

as

connecting
outside

By

the

inside

rule, made

outside.

connections

primary

to

bushings
as

are,

in at

usually wound

are

brought

through

connections

of
may

terminals

taken

or

coils

The

making

secondary coils the

same

operating conditions.
and
many

two

turns

secondary
as

each

least

plate of

celain
por-

High

case.

the

two

case,

various

and
binations
com-

transformer
For

example,

coils, and

each

secondary, and

TRANSFORMERS

if each

AND

coil

primary

arranged

to

in

volts

to

volts

to

volts

is

changing

various

changed

that

of

side

normally

in

primary

e.

f. of

m.

the

that
out

in

the

2000

series,

1000

parallel,

1000

to

by

For

generator.

ratio

from

to

30,000

(high tension

e.

in

arranged

are

volts.

Four
the

per

dred
hun-

number

in this case) is decreased

6.25

the low

on
.

which

375

certain

m.

it is
without

amount

example,
the

This

when

this increase

obtain

to

of transformation
of turns.

small

increase

into

taps

work

lowering transformers,

with

number

line

it is desired

turns

in

transmission

power

required, and

are

parallel,

constructed

so

by cutting

transform

to

volts
of

of

points

the

railway substation
tension

in

parallel, secondaries

frequently

are

raise the

to

volts

2000

volts.

especially useful

desired

series,

parallel, secondaries

in
100

at

be

may

be

may

volts.

200

to

winding

in

series, secondaries

in

Transformers
the

they

volts.

100

Primaries

4.

series, secondaries

in

Primaries

3.

volts

1000

volts.

200

Primaries

2.

designed for

201

follows:

as

Primaries

1.

is

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

by

cent.

400
Protection

from

large inductance
choking

or

reflect the
with
the

and, therefore, present

action

of the

lightning

winding

disturbance.

insulation

into

discharges back
air gap

upon

In
the

coils
very

lightning discharges.

to

electricity forming

transformer

Transformer

Lightning.

the

Before

arresters.

the

discharge

distance

In

it very

many

great

They
is

ance
impedtend

usually

to

vided
pro-

being reflected

penetrates

depending

doing this

coils.

line, which

have

upon

the

into

severity

greatly strains

transformers

the

the

the
end

ELECTRICAL

202

turns

-transformer

auto

The

uniformly

connected
volts

across

there

as

Current

may

to

the

these

both

used

be

volts

1000

of the

one

in

The

important

transforming

of

as

contact.

the

f. wrill

m.

e.

f. be

m.

secondary

same

line,the

to

the

e.

many

e.

applied
f. from

m.

primary

constant

-circuit

hundred

connections

for

available

it could
with

be
any

is

in

current

the

For

greatest

example,

ratio
current
range

equal
of

of turns

if the

of

the

to

the
If

turns.

which
were

by connecting in the line

number

is in

secondary
is

be
The

connection

which

inverse

will

Fig. 97.

purposes.

is

practically

currents

of

mode

of 25-amperes
used

other

shown

as

upon

by the
the

the

primary

are

were

instrument

primary

and

measuring

multipled

amperes
an

potential transformer

and

secondary

is short-circuited

current

and

Transformers.

transformer, it will indicate

one

line

is, if

Reversing

connected

as

application of this

current

ammeter

carried

used

Current

series with

proportional.

one

volts

will
.

voltmeter

points of

and

m.

secondary.

be

tial
poten-

points and

secondary

if 500
be

the

and

special

will indicate

two

turns

as

may

or

coils

short-circuited, the

an

of the

section

example,

For

connected

if

primary

as

in.

That

turns,

winding

off from

Series

most

of the

special

e.

turns.

1000

turns.

1000

If

has

taken

may

turns,

its

be

number

500

line

between

if

raised.

and

is useful

line,the

included

this

process,

the

turns

serve

be

protect

is

constant

are

winding will

whole

to

ordinary

throughout

part

any

that

an

to

primary

1000-volt

connected

be

consumed

it is

winding of

primary

If the

transformer
be

insulation

single-coiltransformer

or

potential transformer

type of constant
cases.

heavy

extra

lightning effects.

from

them

with

provided

are

ENGINEERING.

the
a

line

only
former
trans-

secondary has

convenient

it allows

as

watt-hour

FIG.

of this kind

the

construction

of

of

these

of

connections

of

applied

be

can

series

to

meters,
watt-

standard
circuit

any

transformer

current

or

is very

ammeters,

electricitymeters

and
and

range

Diagram

97.

arrangement

meters

limited

sizes and

203

An

number.

the

four times

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

AND

TRANSFORMERS

in

circuit.

by the

of the

use

secondary coils

and

need

instrument

insulated

are

be

not

for

used

are

for

convenient

in form
were

been

superseded by simpler

arc

transformers
to

as

as,

the

primary

indicating

in

switchboard

small

work.

other

sizes

At

time

one

but

purposes

only

have

devices.
under

small

the

regulation

usually

ments
require-

same

necessary

as

constant
to

encase

size,they readily radiate

the

generated.

heat

Constant
Arc

the

other

made

now

It is not

of their

the

as

directly in the high tension

loss, ventilation, and

core

account

on

each

constructed

are

potential transformers.
them

from

lighting and

they

Series

Further,

connected

transformers

Series

line.
and

series transformer.

Current

Transformers.

lamps

require for satisfactory operation

When

the

circuit

may

lamps

are

be maintained

connected
constant

in

constant

series,the

by

current

rent.
cur-

in

regulating device.

ELECTRICAL

204

The

most

The

primary

the

automatically, by the

These
of

other

carried

are

The

they

of

transformation

or

that

f.

passing

coils

to

The
over

"

when

constant

the

are

from

core,

tend

to

take

positionthere
ratio of

the lowest
are

the

repel each

there

in contact

highest ratio of

counter-weighted

formation.
trans-

to

such

selves
load, adjusting them-

under
current

cams

coils

extreme

coils

hence

weights and
adjustable

coils,

adjustable

an

hence

and

current

When

secondary

they "float

resistance.

straps

with

secondary

and

secondary

supported

are

provided

arm

in the

Co.) showing

E.

possible. In this

m.

e.

automatically
in load

from

device.

guides and

primary

as

(G.

magnetic leakage, and

The

extent

m.

current

of the

magnetic leakage, and hence

is the maximum

an

in

carrying

are

positions as far apart

is minimum

e.

constant

counter-weight

counter-weight

when

transformer.

constant

movement

transformer

current

weight.

counter-

receives

it maintains

and

circuit

and

end

"tub"

or

98. Constant

coils.

is the series

of this transformer

generator

FIG.

of these

important

secondary

ENGINEERING.

over

coils

are

which

wide

variation

carried

by chains

can

be

adjusted

AND

TRANSFORMERS

to

An

and

mechanical

the

but

light transformer
does

force

not

In

position.

to

coil

the

moves

over

The

counter-weighted.
by

greater
varies

the

controls
than

transformer

the

the

abilityto transform
the
volts

to

line and
that

volts

10

line.

line

There

requirements
I.

and

each

drop
are

three

that
f.

m.

the

similar

moving

two

type

in action

has

f at the

coil.

the

volts

be

will

which

arrangements

part

being

The

be

rounded
sur-

respondingly
cor-

reactance

advantage
that

in its

it is regulating

delivers

generator

requires 85 volts

lamp, 3325

The

flux and

time

to

load.

regulator is simpler

same

having

coil to

magnetic

The

latter

the

the

of the

35-lamp circuit is

per

e.

when

25-

25

minimum

lamp

amperes.

device

circuit.

m.

can

one-secondary

of

example,

For

current.

Assuming

e.

mum
maxi-

current

less than

causes

the

but

the

in series with

reactance

in the

current

of the

basis

transformer, but

less amount

the

an

core.

movement

or

in

the

vice-versa, the

or

from

satisfactorily

their

current

is connected

current

operated

this will be

type

coils.

protected

number

any

regulator is

constant

positions

usually mounted

other, in

each

core

well

usually 6.6

coils to

two-secondary

coil,wrhich

one

is

secondary

current

constant
purpose

only

upon

regulate for

strike

be

secondary coil strikes the

the

The

coils

secondary
when

the

coil

in constant

lamps for which

current

will

and
is

ma}7

rating is made

The

regulated.

is used
flat

are

arc

205

change in position of the

core

sizes

of standard

number

the

with

arms

transformer

small

The

unenclosed.

coils

The

injury.

oil-filled case,

and

of shell

elongated type

transformers

be

lever

magnify the effect of

thus

and

length of the

the

vary

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

2200

operated from
and
be
will

it.

allowing for
consumed

in

satisfy the

35-light transformer

secondary

circuits

may

arranged

be
with

used

and

sufficient

its

primary

numbers

of

206

ELECTRICAL

turns

give the

to

ENGINEERING.

maximum

necessary

secondary

e.

m.

(3325

volts.)
The

2.

lamps

placed
The

3.

may

divided

be

raised

f. may

m.

and

potential transformer,
the

in

lamps

the

e.

f.
well

as

"

Code,

in

as

voltage

As

being injurious
and

in

the

to

The

For

other

The

table
factor

power

factor.

courtesy

the

and

the

table

and

of the

Fort

the

the

the

curves

of
Elec.

"

to

operate

excessive

ageing/'

Code,

for
of the

full

at

Figs. 95 and

Figs.

99,

for

96.

by simple proportion.

in this

m.

coils,

load

regulation is best

e.

perature
tem-

air.

case

leakage of the

Works.

ance
resist-

resistance

in

rise

of

allowance

regulation

consumes

constant

must

such

surrounding

illustrated

magnetic

Wayne

secondary

(at

transformer

in

the

secondary terminal

the

it is worst

which

in

rise

of

197

load

liable

gives the

that

that

The

the

regulation is found

indicates

reactance
This

iron

of transformer

loads

power

following table

shell type

the

the

by increase

50"C. above

exceed

of

temperature,

core

rise,measured
not

paragraph

to

factor

power

in

284, recommend

283 and

in

vary

insulation, causing increase

rendering the

paragraphs

voltage)

Further,

rise
to

ratio

the

produce

falling off of

non-inductive

terminal

excessive

without

is to

type

may

stated

rated

load/'

rated

at

constant

in series with

unnecessary

current

amount.

primary empressed

this

without

current

voltage from

terminal

in

volts

3500

Characteristics.
of

regulation is the

the

lator
regu-

Characteristics.

function

secondary

The

to, say,

Transformer

The

secondary

m.

secondary.

Potential

Regulation.
rated

circuits and

two

regulator connected

Transformer
Constant

into

each.

on

e.

be

f. and
100,

and

at

for

80

unity

per

transformer
thus
101

cent

duces
pro-

interferes
are

used

by

be

rise of

causes

unsatisfactory

the

same

factor
and

3.1

it

of
It

most

should

in

leakage)

power

resistance

the

upon

be
occur

The

transformers.

magnetic

the

necessarily

not

depends

occurs

(caused by

reactance

off.

will

in other

factor

which

at

rise

worst

(impedance)

full load

thrown

cannot

in the

even

reactance

when

is

maximum

power

and

207

reactance

that

fact

cent

per

factor

power

the

that

noted

but

this

that

of resistance

combination

the

case

fact

by the

great is evidenced

very

at

The

perfect regulation.

with

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

AND

TRANSFORMERS

the

former
trans-

coils.

REGULATION

OF

6o-CYCLE,

PRIMARY

PER

POWER

CENT.

1100/2200.

VOLTS

PER

FACTOR.

TRANSFORMER.

K.W.,

CENT.

FULL

REGULATION

100

2.0

95

of

90

2.8

85

3-0

80

3.1

75-

3-0

70

3-0

the

the

losses
The

secondary

curve

different

increases

from

loads

is the

increasing practically in the

same

vary

as

the

square

transformer,

"

total

on

zero

open

loss.

"

of these

in

of

unity
all

at
constant.

amperes,

the

proportion.
currents.

therefore, increase
circuit

curves

same

remain
27

secondary

marked

contains

secondary

density of flux

and

transformer

same

Fig. 99

(63 watts)

loss

core

in this

loss with

1 01.

the

to

losses

losses

of

curves

and

00,

with

load

current

copper

frequency

the

as

primary

total

Figs. 99,

factor.

loads,

core

in

power

power

The

characteristic

The

shown

The

2.5

"""

"

Losses.
are

LOAD.

from

accordance

The
the
with

208

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

Efficiency.

Fig.

the

of

sum

ratio, in

is the

This
the

and

output

value, in this

its maximum

the

shows

100

per

case,

Curves

99.

showing

variation

any

transformer

point depends
A

upon

transformer

small
to

its

supply

furnace

will

Another,

be

which

its normal

light load.
iron

full

full

of

location

the

relation

For

load

transformer

of

the

of the

example,

be

efficiency reaches

with

losses

load.

secondary

maximum

iron

and
to

efficiency

suit

to

an

high efficiencyupon

loaded

losses.

copper

large

transformer, which

continuously

current

designed for
will

to

output

Output

the

load.

the

three-fourths

about

therefore, be designed

may,

average

The

former.
trans-

same

(Fort Wayne).

current

In

at

of

cent,

losses.

K.W.

FIG.

efficiencyfor the

ordinarily

to

but

or

is

electric
full load.

one-fourth

load, will be designed for high efficiencyupon

The

loss,the latter

former
must

have

may

have

comparatively

comparatively

small

iron

large
loss.

TRANSFORMERS

AND

Heating.

Fig.

transformer.

The

1001

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

"

represents

101

"

heat

run

continues

temperature

209

to

this

on

rise for

94.?;.?

same

number

Jfi.8
Load

90|

FjiLLLoad

80

40-

01234567
K.W.

FIG.

Curve

100.

variation

showing

Output
'transformer

of

efficiency with

load

(Fort Wayne).
of

hours.

transformers

As
service

load
for

will

lighting

if the

rise at

allowance.

the

is due

to

of the

coils.

Exciting

applied

of

end

increase

(a) Magnetizing

open

the

core

be

may

does

run

which

greater

exists

for

certain

core.

losses.

current

ous
continu-

example,

considered
not

safe

exceed

the

rise is indicated
in the

oil.

in the

potential transformers.

of:
the

Hence,

thermometer

temperature

purpose

(b) Supplying

in constant

current

for the

that

by

equivalent of

them.

three-hour

than

secondary circuit is

primary

show

curves

greater

to

transformer

purposes

the

the

unlikely that

be

ever

The

by resistance

the

it is

for intermittent

usually employed

are

flows

This

interior

When
into

the

ELECTRICAL

210

is the

This
hours

it is

meter,

and

exciting current

day, and

per

ENGINEERING.

it does

as

of

matter

continually for 24

it flows

as

the

register upon

not

importance

the

to

consumer's

supply

company.

5,

/Hours Bun.
FIG.

10

showing

Curves

1.

in

load

of power

loss

no

line

the
loss.

f.

m.

e.

The

for

Take

1513
hours
at

-hours,

watt

per

least

10

flowing

is

current

or,

say,

year.

As

the

cents

per

have

been

sold

lose

this

much,

for
as

selling price of the

efficiency of
which
all

is most

of

or

hour, the

w.

$54.80.

Of

the

is

loss

for

hours

per

day,

the

rather

The

latter

is

distinguish it from

calculation

of

24
or

energy

hours

w.

would

be

the

might

determining

it is

not

the

energy

former.

not

the

power

efficiency

frequently called
the

is

548 k.

does

company

in

ondary
sec-

any

loses what

company

computed

but

power

shown

whether

watts

Obviously

energy.

performance

watts

course

is

however,

sellingprice of this

important.

the

w.

represents

(or 90" behind)

63

not.

1.5 k.

transformer,

day efficiencyto

example

k.

63

current

with

transformer
loss is

"all-day"

The

Fig. 99.

exciting

quadrature

the

example,

of

(Fort Wayne).

loss component,

core

duration

with

temperature,

of the

it is in

as

of

transformer

magnetizing component

The

in

increase

the

As

all-day efficiency, suppose

an

TRANSFORMERS

the

that

transformer,
hours

three

for

the

and

total

actual

corresponding

values

with

should

deliver

cannot

be

so

'

slight

its

of
to

increase

desirable.
with

the

line

law.

which

the

primary

constant

e.

be

the
or

The
number

counter-weights
decrease

with

variation
of

lamps

in

not

assuming

specified operating
is to

be

used

Characteristics.

f.,this type

m.

of

to

transformer
this

Obviously

the

the

current

current

change

current

may

with

this
e.

is
be

By adjustment
be

may

but

to

This

operate.

load,

current

is necessary

change

practical purposes.

the

of

for

be obtained.

as

all

all

at

calibrated

manufacturers,

entirely negligible,and
for

current

regulation is

transformer

current.

constant

those

are

are

correctly under

should

curves

constant

as

the

usually constructed

are

Current=Transformer

to

and

transformers

secondary

and

regulating mechanism

as

considered

mately
efficiency is approxi-

series

absolutely

the

is

output

energy

than

indicate

constant

-hours

watt

The

watt-hours

transformers, the

When

Constant
Given

45)

16,813

devices

others

instruments

independently

is 1513

watt-hours.

series

primary

these

to

conditions.

cause

of

the

of interest
the

loss

particular instruments,

connection

that

curves) (55

core

The

day.

Characteristics.

for

curves

As

of load.

matter

input

all-da}7or

relation

operation with
in

(from the

Transformer

important
the

Fig. 99, operates

cent.

per

Series

showing

in

211

(5 k. w.) during

all-day

the

APPLICATIONS.

shown

all-day loss, 1813

watt-hours,

The

is

The

15,000

89.2

is

load

copper

watt-hours.

300

or

which

full

at

loss in the

energy

THEIR

AND

m.

series) will follow

is

made
seldom

f.

(that is

straight

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

212

Installation.

Transformer
Transformers
as

treated

are

fire risk

considerable

this

for

and

placed preferably

indoors

installed

is

plan

in
with

manholes

-door

service

underground
In

Fig.

nections.
con-

pole

the

of

mounting

former
trans-

cussed.
dis-

previously
iron

The
to

the
rest

The
from

serve

for

and

the

against

lower.

is

current

received

through

line

the

which

"cut-outs"

fused

from

hang
cross-arm

upper

both

switches

as

opening

is

case

strap -iron

two

which

hooks

is

102

excellent

an

bolted

to

transformers

place the

shown

air.

-door

out

satisfactory

out

in

ventilation

with

the

are

fire-proof

other

or

chamber
to

they

mounted

preferably
brick

of

out

necessarily

When

doors.

are

reason

FIG.

Transformer

mounted

circuit

the

102.

over-load

of

as

devices
transformer.

The

projecting eaves,

tecting
pro-

for

circuit

to

connection

Wayne)
showing

cross-arm,

on

method

and

(Fort
of

primary

line.

the

wires

enter

passing through

and

leave

the

case

insulating bushings.

under

When

transformers

in such

without

burn
is

it is

of

protective devices

heat

will be

may

result.

oil

the

surrounding

is

in

do

generated in
Further

itself

the

risk

it

occurs,

large

amount

much

and

of

age
dam-

large volume

ignited by

be

to

may

While

short-circuit

space

presence

it is apt

as

installed

ignited it

promptly,

small

be

ignite themselves,

act

to

necessary

property.

will

When

not

be

may

oil become

transformers

the

213

they should

case

possible contingency.

if the

this

endangering

likely that

not

In

APPLICATIONS.

large it

very

that, should

manner

are

in-doors.

them

mount

THEIR

AND

TRANSFORMERS

of
fire

originating outside.

of

winding
risk

and

With

secondary
the

will not

be

f.

m.

potential

Transformers
Two

three

or

there

provided that
through

passes

Two

transformers

two-phase
with

as

be

as

also

may

advantage

the

that

one

missing transformer.

ground

its turns.

this

Circuits.

on

paths for the

and

phase of

the

producing

or

The

transformer

flux

three

coils.

may

used
circuit

primaries

(star) connection,

A-connection
be

has

removed

in

e.

case

the

without

remaining

nearly the

is convenient

with

are

two-phase
The

core

which

secondary

operation, the
very

single

invariably employed

(mesh)

secondaries.

This

the

greater

Usually

single-phase circuit.
in

for

impossible

the

above

two

Each

interfering seriously with

combined

accidentally

usually in this country

and

either

arranged

is

transformed

however,

separate

primary

pair of primary

one

are,

circuits

least

at

three-phase circuits.

is treated
may

any

be

may

are

reducing fire

Polyphase

on

phases

in

f.

m.

e.

ary
second-

desirable

it is

in one-half

produced

dangerous

the
neutral

grounded

attain

to
e.

life when

of

point in the

neutral

or

is often

transformer

danger

grounded.

than

middle

grounding of the

The

formers
trans-

f. of

m.

of

the

accident

ELECTRICAL

214

as

it obviates

or

set

the necessity of

of transformers

Phase

FIG.

Core

103.

ENGINEERING.

and

in

disconnecting the
of a'ccident

case

Phase

coils

.Mm--

of core-type

to

entire"bank"
A

of them.

one

Phase

transformer

three-phase

(Westing.

house).

three-phase core
and

In
way

1893 when
there

copper,

from

the

and

but

An

motors.

situation
two

to

secondaries

discussion

as

terminals

of

to

the

machines.

they

as

of

is the
three

Mr.

relative

were

efficient

an

vice

As

versa.

end

of

one

is

for

shown
be

may

tapped

resulting terminals

three-phase circuit,and

if

simplified

transforming

in

Fig. 104 the

arranged in

into
will

of

generators

F. Scott

means

of

circuits

economical

more

are

under

merits

Three-phase

Charles

transformers

two-phase

The

other.

invention

three-phases or
of

mary
pri-

they

projects were

power

engineers preferred two-phase

by providing

connection, that
the

Falls

three-phase

many

if

as

The

cores.

Niagara

much

was

connected

be

preferred for transmission

were

the

separate

upon

two-phase

and

coils may

secondary

mounted

in Fig. 103.

windings is shown

and

the

middle

then

secondary

be

T-

of
the

contains

TRANSFORMERS

number

r.

times

AND

of turns
the

equal

to

in

number

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

\/3 times

^-fb, the

the

three

number

e.

m.

215

in

or

f .s will be

b, or

equal

FIG.

104.

"Scott"

The

from

and

to

105.

in

Fig. 104

Diagram

of

Scott

two

phases.

way,

for

terminals

in

phase position. The

diagram

vector

that

is from

of

representing

by

reversal

transformers.

The
two

changing

vice-versa.

or

other

the

transformers

three-phase, six-phase transformation,

transforming system.

place either

of

phases

each

indicates

secondary
the

three

equally displaced from

diagram

FIG.

two

connection

"T"

or

transformation
to

three

or

from

will take

three

to

Polyphase

currents

the

reverse

an

it is often

FIG.

Transformer

06.

As

three.

circuit

three-phase
will

be

in

total

of

by the
Each

six

the

illustrate

the

as

e.

set

m.

f.'s

of

circuit

indicated

three
with
in

almost

an

the

transformers.
six

(shifted through

transformers

from

06.

formation.
trans-

f. of

m.

is taken
This

case

of phase transformation.
possibilities

80") there

This

is

double

off from
will

complished
ac-

ondaries.
sec-

in

is connected

secondaries
wires

with

to

As

phases

e.

displaced by 60".

Fig

ability

06, if each

six

nite
indefi-

three-phase, six-phase

and

of three

use

six-phase

junctions

Figs. 105

the

produce

to

for

is reversed
six

of

desirable

connections

shown

in

largely through

connections

secondary

example,

transformed

be

may

combinations

of

number

and

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

2l6

serve

the
to

IX.

CHAPTER

OPERATION

AND

CONSTRUCTION

OF

POWER

STATIONS.

OUTLINE
Power

Station

Elements

Introduction

of

Stations

and

other

Source

"

of

Power

"

Switchboards

Auxiliaries

Construction.

Electrical

"

Auxiliaries

Power

Battery

"

"

Auxiliaries.
in

Auxiliaries

Electrical

Protection

Lightning

Plants:

Power

Detectors

Ground

"

Switches

"

and

Circuit

Switchboards.

Breakers

"

Construction:

Plant

of

Examples

Horizontal

Type
wheel

"

Turbine

Hydro-electric

"

Plant

Turbine

Steam

"

Type

"

Plant

Plant

Engine

Steam

Reciprocating

Gas

"

Engine

Plants
Plants

Impulse-

"

Plant

The

"

tical
Ver-

"

Storage

Battery.

Operation
Function

the

of

The

Characteristics:

Load

Curve

load

of

Cost

part

the

of

the

load

Lighting

"

the

of

Electrical

Storage

Energy
for

Charging

station

power

electrical

and

is

originally

system.

substation

plant

for

by

local
the

"

Electrical

Curves

"

way
Rail-

Battery.

or

Station

equipment
It
in

one

distribution.

It
line.

217

is

plant

generated.

transmission

Effect

"

power

is

Records

of

Energy.

mechanical

power

transformed
power

"

term

the

electrical

Factor

Economics:

Factor

of

Load

Effect

"

Producing

Load

BY

The

"

Curves

Station

Power

Stations.

Station:

Power

Station

Power

Power

of

is

in
is

the

which
connected

that

meant

the

which
"

heart

power

with

the
"

is
the

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

2i8

The

1.

of all stations

elements

wheel,

water

The

will deliver

been

in

covered

To

of power.
affects

selection

the

influence

variety of

current

is most
over

An
in

in power

example

the

transform

to

be

trolling
con-

one

any

of

to

for the

is the

sion
transmis-

transmitted
of

plants located
of

the

different

general plan in

latter

the

near

is in

generation of

practice

varieties
in

use

receiving

isolated

form

standard

practice in all large plants

is the
is

and

ones

the

to

stations
sub-

tus.
appara-

plants, such

even

The

located

Power

there
The

use

at

as

they

in the

are

various
of

such

In

devices
devices

purifiers,stokers, etc., is

to

be

present

large

required.
time.

units

of current

is

The

than

in

needed

are

in transforming

usually produced

station.

Auxiliaries.

are

which

power

varieties

the

in

if different varieties

vicinity of the station

of

different

efficiently produced

more

devices

movers

is not

general forms

This

3.

this

is

transformed

in the

but

power

afterward

small

cation
appli-

large office buildings.

(b) The

power

and

case

receiving apparatus

economy

generators

This

needed.
and

those

of separate

use

current

particular

The

Two

distance.

have

be noted.

may

(a) The

the

when

varieties

the

extent

other.

tion
induc-

or

transmission

practicable

any

important

in stations

of

to

engine,

which, in the end,

for

type

generator,

it is

considerable

any

certain

motor

different

economical

of the
as

The

and

receiving apparatus.

The

VI.
to

the

at

Generators.

view

boiler

is that

use

cheaply

Chapter

with

is selected

to

one

most

Electric

The

be

may

engine, synchronous

oil

proper

energy

This

Power.

or

gas

motor.

2.

of

Source

The

are:

connection
for

as

with

the

increasing station

economizers, feed

decided

upon

from

the

prime
omy.
econ-

heaters,
stand-

POWER

point of financial

Switchboards

The

essential

most

Other

and

circuit
As

on

operation.
Auxiliaries.

Electrical

be

These

for transfer
and

of the

of

to

as

have

load

The

in

generator

load

"

In
Proc.
1907.

load

and

Lightning

from

of

its most
A.

I. E.

vide
pro-

avoid

to

give

also

enable

ment
measure-

stations

the

frequently
for

tion
installa-

battery

emergencies

and

battery, properly installed,

the

upon

reliability

and

economy

Plants.

Power

the

switches

one

certain

there

must

be

is

or

mon.
com-

from

by

controlled

danger

provided

another

in

protected
be

must

when

circuit to

features

be

must

current

circuits

for

to

for

ratus
appaferring
trans-

disconnecting

circuits.

Protection.

views

equipment

over-load;

the

to

will

as

to

the

It should

load.

instruments

plants have

of power

opening the

from

that

said

station.

electrical

for

present

the

reservoir

energy

influence

lightning disturbance
devices

be

machinery,

operated and

regulator.

Auxiliaries

varieties

mined.
carefully deter-

output.

an

as

marked

Electrical
All

act

meters,
volt-

circuits,both

generator

measuring

economically

operation of

of the

fit the

to

battery is always considered, and

serve

may

such

daily energy

is installed
to

it may

Battery Auxiliary. In modern

The

5.

be

to

and

be

must

properly distribute

to

with

provided

machines

of feeder

arrangement

switches, ammeters,

fuses, etc.,

designed

the

station, and

transfer

breakers,

must

shut-down

of

general consideration

switchboard

be

features

feeder, and

generator,

29,

of

expense

interest

account

are

of

219

taking into

economy,

depreciation, and

first cost,
4

STATIONS.

Dr.

Steinmetz

lightning disturbances
general meaning,
E., from

paper

as

delivered

thus

in electric
understood
at

21

the

summarizes
circuits:*
now

7th meeting,

when
March

ELECTRICAL

220

dealing with
denotes

electric

all

The

ENGINEERING.

circuits

their

of abnormal

phenomena

lightning, the

protection, lightning

voltage

in electric

lightning phenomena

External

and

and

abnormal

circuits

disturbances

then

due

quency.
fre-

comprise:

atmospheric

to

electricity.
Internal
circuit

lightning, the
its

or

The

their

the

are

1.

Steady

2.

Impulse

3.

Standing

In

order

is

in any

stress

wave

metal

of

which

discharge

used

in

terminals

or

is
of

generator

tric
frequency in elec-

phenomena
is the

to

these

to

and

line wire

this

or

be

other

IV.

short

This

grounded
across

through
"

is the

cylinders

the

horn

lines.
is in

type

to

plan for

distance

transmission

brass

allowed

pass

different

the

are

"

In

general

mounted

adjacent cylinders being separated

rows,
an

inch.

is maintained

arc

of energy:

seat

must

than

on

of knurled

of

circuit.

extent

sub-stations

zig-zag

by

rather

in the

large

number

an

with

met

disturbances

Fig. 36, Chapter

apparatus

hundredths

; that

the

short-circuitingthe line.

jumps

few

lightning, and

surge/'

and

due

stress

the

stations

power,

wave.

the

without

ground

employed.

by

classes

oscillation

or

relieve

to

straight

the

gradual electric charge.

or

the

arrester,

of

generated

of

power

voltage and

medium

traveling

or

highly inductive

in

the

three

same

separated from

which

power

of

internal

or

on

abnormal

doing this is illustrated

wire

external

flow

charge of electricityin the circuit

to

escape

in the

energy

of

disturbances

abnormal

defects

to

frequently destructive.

phenomena

circuits

the

by

for

hence

system,

in the

is, disturbances

about

depending

due

operation, etc., and

Surges, that
brought

disturbances

zinc

Brass
with

is

great

alloys. The

"

non-arcing

"

difficultybetween
combination

of

POWER

cylinders and
in

of these

107.

gaps

and

line wires

For

Small

values

low

be

221

as

m.

e.

multi-gap lightning

indicated

in series
in

is illustrated

arrester,

of line

simply connected

ground

"

multi-gap

Westinghouse

may

the

"

named

gaps,

Fig. 107.

FIG.

STATIONS.

Fig.

108.

line

and

f.

number

arrester,

between

the

Usually

Generator

Erne-

FIG.

08.

few

turns

the

line wire

Lightning

of wire, known
between

connected

arresters

the

"

as

choke

generators

to

coil
and

"

the

are

ground.
connected

arrester

in

in order

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

222

force

to

the

discharge

disturbances
them

of

with

shunted
the

choke

whole

resistance

"

in

As

gaps.

in

to

the

ning
light-

the

overcome

also

been

are

more

tance
reac-

experimentally
reliable

Fig. 109,* which

when

illustrates

"

shunted

is

arrestors

The

arresters.

gap

disturbances

the

difficulty as

greatest

has

arresters

lightning

of

matter

than

shown

as

developments

latest

It

coils.

multi-gap

that

determined

air gaps

the

across

the

the

across

pass

usually of high frequency, it is easier for

are

jump

to

to

one

presenting

the

high

and

of

are

very

Multi-gaps

"'it-OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO^
Resistance

Low

Resistance

Medium

Resistance

High

'FiG. log.

remains

be

to

Detectors.

Ground

the

throws

the

the

that

order

of

arrangement

an

lamps

e.

m.

f. is shown

circuit

is

service

is caused

The

c.

The

Lightning
t

From

in

to

by

is from

Messrs.

hand-book

"

ground

"

1907,

Rushmore
of

the

A.
and

Assn.

I. E.

until

circuit.

In

ground

paper

Mut.

ground

on

develops

another

on

fuses

are

Protection

Dubois.
Fact.

detected,

good plan for low

the

and

E.

of

the

interruption of the

No

a.

short-circuited

line is then

figure

at

as

accidental

An

insulation

be

may

plant.

power

occur

by the

"

ground

Fig. no.f

supposed

the

forming

to

indirectly.

or

the

upon

voltmeters, known

or

in the

detector/7 is located

directly

stress

"

of such

presence

electric circuit is liable

an

conductors

or

Much

equipment.

arrester

ground

dielectric

entire

conductor

other

the

with

connected

become

part of

Any

arrester.

quantity.

uncertain

of

perfecting the

in

done

lightning

multi-gap

and

frequencies

unknown

This

Shunted,

Fire.

Ins.

Cos.

at

melted.

against.

POWER

The

ground

lever

at
I

the

resistance

the

wire

of

Voltmeter

no.

and

the

line.
it is

From

grounded

Voltmeters
wires

and

lamps

be

may

ground and

For

pressure

voltmeters

high

voltmeter

Switches

opening

circuit

practically no

same

e.

f.

m.

If

of

that

as

the

detecting "grounds"

one-half

be
and

calculation

an

may

the

that

of the

reading when

of

"

the

or

the

be

e.

"

ground

f.'s

m.

connected

lamps

through

type

of copper,

the

may

The

be

between

will be

of the

movement

Breakers.

blade

connected

of trouble

indication

electrostatic

Circuit
is

permanently

alternating

of the

and

has

to

made.

needle.

will

resistance

by the lighting of the lamps

or

is connected

full line

for

switch

circuits.

approximate

be
or

electric

voltmeter
an

may

is the

f. indicated

m.

the

resistance

the

e.

the

arranged

switches
in

voltmeter,

"

ground

"

ground

will indicate
"

the

"

voltmeter

one

3, which

point

on

If the

b.

223

by placing

other

voltmeter

resistance

FIG.

and

through

ground

the

is discovered

point

on

STATIONS.

voltmeter
or

low

transformers,

employed.

simplest device

hinged

given

at

one

end

for
and

ELECTRICAL

22A

making
Such

between

contact

switch, with

material

"

can

"

break
be used

Such

FIG.

higher

112.

e.

switch

is

circuits

adapted

three-phase

f.
of

current.

By

Obviously,

with

when
a

switch

e.

moderate
"

to

oil-break

the

to

not

which

under
can

the

f. and

m.

"

length

with

one

oil

be

current.

much

cell removed.

connection

pressure

circuit,

at

purposes

the

meant

with

f. of the

m.
e.

transfer

switch,

ing
insulat-

upon

switch.

quick-break

transfer is

circuits

(See Fig. in.)

slate), and

or

properly proportioned
open

m.

in.

jaws.

properly supported

(marble, porcelain

to

flexible copper

its parts

FIG.

of

ENGINEERING.

or

depended

or

connection
dis-

carrying
upon

to

STATIONS.

POWER

used

be

can

liable

f.'s and

are

In

in

use

general

lever

mechanism.

large

power

located

proof chambers.

The

solenoids

motors,

switchboard
wires

be

thus

reduced

upon

which

the

general

form
its

and

and

designed

voltmeters,
and
the

when

idle.

upon

the

placed

panels
and

or

meters,

such

switches

main

and

wratt-hour
and

and

of

switches

switchboard, the

control

are

metal

and

each

is

wood

is

given

variety in

plant having

general, these

switches

omy
econ-

advantage.

is infinite

too

the

tension
to

mounted,

are

circuits

of

operating board

boards
switch-

for ammeters,
and

circuit -breakers

feeder

view

the greatest

meters

fire

by electric

high
a

and

in

control

provide accommodations

to

watt

If the

In

split tube

is

the

equipment,

requirements.

switch

board

switches

There

high

switches

control

frames

switches

of such

generator

to

blade

to

the

The

matically
auto-

knife

of

out

positions,with

switchboard.

peculiar

open

maybe

high

very

plunger

bars

of insulation.

ease

Marble

name

the

heavy

best

Such

adapted

have

to

from

The

arrangement

own

and

cylinders, under

instruments

are

to

air

or

in size and

Switchboards,

into

operation of the

placed in the

of material

The

away

attendant.

may

immersed.

plants it is usual

circuit -breakers

of the

Instead
is well

plug drawn

metal

for

as

poses
pur-

amperes.

type

plunger

switches

circuit -breakers, either

as

it

renders

-breaking

circuit

available

oil, are

jected
sub-

current.

same

knife

hundred

few

operated.

oil

for

amperes

that

Open

used
a

in

when

work

comprises

and

the

current

burning.

immersed

switch, the

of

tension

by

and

under

100

will later be

that

f. with

m.

e.

switch

manually

or

circuits

volts

volts

500

when

switches,

"

dead

carrying

f. and

m.

e.

commonly

not

are

above

type

of

short-circuit

to

described

e.m.

"

thousand

opening

is the

volts

transfer

to

several

to

It

of 500

circuit

open

225

ments,
special instruas

either

large
are

are

under
to

be

necessary

load

or

mounted

arranged

upon

226

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING.

special operating board

of the

condition
The
the

control

main

The

whose

demands

of the

station

insuring

service

to

indicators

of

illustrate

cut

out

and

charge of

generators

Plant

the

out

energy

having

Steam

the

to

e.

overhead

pressure

feet

of

electrical.

continuous

at

the
and

storage

by hand.

The

k.

500

direct

connected

The
load

14.1

on

front

water-tube

the

boilers

steam

at

150
densing
con-

cycle,

2300

engines between

rated

pounds

the

.of the

cross-compound

generating units
of 1500

energy

is delivered,

in

furnish

to

At

sections.

hour

Coal

three-phase, 25

w.

size.

form, through

Four
each

114

right, the

the

at

space

850 horsepower

pressure

of 1700

the

to

two

maximum

passes

to

and

113

of moderate

switchboard

heating surface

vacuum.

valves

reservoir

the

horsepower

below

chemical

are

low

high and

continuous

with

the

to

generators

Steam

from

it is fed

engines.

load

of the

the electrical

the

feet

pounds

inches

the

meet

output

Figs.

line from

track

which

square

produce

more

or

to

f. and

m.

practice in stations

passed

of 3000

the

the

over

Plants.

Engine

mechanical

and

boilers, into

volt

the

Construction.

standard

is sent

an

above

one

required

as

keep watch

to

which

over-loading of machines,

regulation of

proper

gallery well

Fig. 113 the coal supply is at the left and

from

the

position from

is in

equipment

load

Reciprocating

thermal

show

customers.

Examples

In

in

duty it is to prevent

synchronize and

to

is located

visible, usually in

are

operating floor.
attendants

and

switches.

equipment

generators

table

or

load

of

the

dry

engines

steam

26

at

designed for

are

horsepower

and

tary
momen-

horsepower.
from

both

the

ends,

boiler
allows

boilers

through

to

-inch

outlets.
the

12

This

6-inch

header

header

boiler

located
acts

precipitation of moisture

as

leads,
several

from

steam

the

POWER

STATIONS.

227

228

Drips

steam.

the

Above
and

the

tops

are

main

also

use

located

serving

of the

main

FIG.

valves

at

as

both

is dried

Plan

ends,

the

middle

and

auxiliary

one

supply for the exciter

7 -inch

header

of the

convey

in separators

ends

4 -inch

"

114.

at

is

header

ttmtSiUlU,,,,,*,!,,*,,,,,,,,,,*-*-

steam

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

__f~~'

power

"

as

for emergency

engine.

From

engine leads, with

_._'"

plant

steam

just

arched

of the header.

of

to

the

the

it enters

Winona

main
the

Ry.

Co.

engines.
engines.

The
From

STATIONS.

POWER

the engines the

steam

in

exhaust

heating
The
r.

of

speed

k.

cycles

of

other

by

to

passes

to

the

switches

plant for the

purpose

local

purposes.

railway

in the

as

k.

300
at

k.

no

from

the

and

the

under

The

roof

for

supplied with

the

as

the
trically
elec-

this

power

for

current

is the

same

It consists

three-phase

high-tension line through

described

is

typical of
In

size.

moderate

and

those

bank

smaller

of modern

of

current

of three

is

power

generated
When

receiving apparatus.

lighting service

only single-phase generators

especially if the load

of

stations

horizontal

great

engines

The

latter

such

plants

type

ones,

efficiency.

numerous

are

are

also

size

is not

gives

in order
more

in order

in the

form

plant is for
be

area.

vertical

not

obtain

able
prefer-

wide

and

floor space.

rotative

devices,
to

speed

over

economize

to

high

may

combined

uniform

economizing
necessary

the

distributed

vertical, or

used

tion
construc-

plants the

required by the

smaller

From

line.

along the line.

located

the

oil -immersed,

same

equipment

of each

which

supplying 600 -volt direct

engine is frequently used

In

in

high tension

50

oil-insulated,

w.

transmission.

through

the

of

transformers.

w.

station

The

to

converter,

rotary

volts

375

of

sub-stations

w.

lead

is located

substation

for

frequency

output

transformers,

volts

33,000

k.

200

94

engine, the

steam

electrical

three

of

the

exciters, each

two

The

bank

for

high speed

motor.

conductors

controlled
A

by

approximately

generator
are

delta-connected

f. is raised

transformers

the

There

driven

induction

water-cooled,
m.

atus,
appar-

for district

steam

is

generators

on

second.

per

an

generator

e.

engines and

capacity, one

w.

spheric
atmo-

condensing

supply exhaust

to

requiring 32 poles

25

the

the

to

or

purposes.

m.

p.

it is desired

when

or

disabilityof

of

case

jet condensers,

to

passes

229

effort.

In

practicable in

maximum

plant

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

230

Steam

Turbine

Plants.

Vertical

plant of large size is shown

Type.
in

typical

Figs. 115

No.

FIG.

115.

Section
vertical

West.

turbines
space.

of the
steam

station

power

turbine

N.Y.

of the

Kerr

12363.

"

bine
tur-

These

Co.,

Engineers.

Edison

Detroit

(Figs.

practice.

116.

and

Westinghouse, Church,

steam

and

115

trating
Co., illus1

16

are

from

Elec.).

are

The

of the
most

disproportionate

vertical

type,

noticeable
amount

of

occupying

feature
space

of

minimum

such

occupied

of floor

plant is the

by the

boilers

as

STATIONS.

POWER

FIG.

116.

Plan

of

the

power

station

23*

of the

Detroit

Edison

Co.

ELECTRICAL

232

with

compared
built

was

is handled

Coal

It is first
tower

at

it at

the

dumped

in the

by the

from

into

railway through

horsepower

520

Each

of

feet
steam

is

station

are

employed.

the

hot

surface.

The

the

exhaust

thus

economizers

enters

Here

the

gases

are

feed-water

mains

feed-water

injector
steam

mains

each

from

the

centrifugal

by
The

condensers

well, thus

for

air pumps

completing

alternators

are

the

which
steam

and

emergency

the

in

use.

are

deliver

the

flue

gases.

the

flue
The

has

also

boilers

an

the

12-inch

From

the

supplied with
adjacent

exhausted
the

ature
temper-

through

condensers

air

plied
sup-

volume.

boiler

its turbine

located

steam

the

and

From

surface

pumps

condensed

by

to

goes

to

from

are

240" and

to

each

pumps.

passes

turbo-

this

at

pass

is raised

duplicate and

battery

steam

which

temperature

the

to

auxiliary engines and

95" and

about

cross-connections

with

house.

in

are

supplement

to

turbines

in

delivers

battery

heaters, which

the

from

through

both

reduced

six.

square

boilers,pumped

feed

open

temperature

of

possible heat- saving devices

for the

to

of

2000

pressure

to

capacity.

all

steam

It is heated

pumps.

rated

water

through

boiler

type,

batteries

heating and

pounds

200

w.

feed

of

by spouts

water-tube

in

Each

large that

so

of

are

feet

square

3OOO-k.

well, passes

with

The

of

unit

it is fed

to

delivered

It is there

connected

250" superheat, and

alternator

water

4834

superheating
at

The

and

through hoppers

which

from

discharges

elevator

direct.

boilers

each,

has

boiler

The

it falls

in

located

elevator

The

or

boilers

stokers.

automatic

screen

following mechanism.

an

room.

whence

the

over

cars

boiler

tower

afterward

fifth unit.

the

ally
origin-

as

but it was
illustrations,

automatically

of the

top

of

of the

corner

bunkers

to

shown

as

station

This

engine equipment.

by the addition

extended

cable

the

ENGINEERING.

water

pump

from
to

the

the

hot

circuit.

12-pole',6o-cycle, three-phase, 46oo-volt

THE

O?

UNIVERSITY

of

We"tinghouse,
No.

FIG.

117.

Section

of the

power

plant

of the

Long

Island

R.

R.

Church,

N. Y. 11938.

Kerr

"
En,

horiz"
Co., illustrating

1 steam

turbine

practice (thisfigure and

Nos.

118

to

121

are

from

the

St. Ry. Jour.)-

machines

and
with

The

From

the

is direct

current

Steam

Plants.

of

turbine

radically different
The

fuel

elevated
the

in

power

of

from

station.

Small

The

latter

are

other, each
the
water

located

upon

In

two

heating

type.
surface

Each

with

this

system

the

features

are

just described.
hoist

and

hoisting tower

operated by cable
directly above

has

typical
zontal
the hori-

case

bucket

the

directly

floors,one

boiler

second

other

containing eight batteries of

water-tube

localities.
the

on

station

connects

bridge, delivering the coal into bins

apparatus

different

some

the

are

located

induction

other

Type.

barges by

cars

The

room.
are

service

board

f/s.

e.m.

and

those

switch

sets,

of

motor

oil-immersed

which

and

Fig. 117.

long bridge which

w.

generator

turbine

in

demands

is used

supply is taken
to

of the

Horizontal

from

from

batteries

different

at

plant is illustrated
type

station
sub-

1000-k.

to

motor-generator

lighting and

and

Turbine

turbine

side

the

to

output

large part of the

from

motor-generator

controlled

storage

sets,

the

adapt

to

of

amount

company

passes

substations

to

synchronous

motor-generator

hour.

one

certain

by

current

galleriesat the

transformers,

tion
inducstorage

300-volt, 450-ampere

the

distributed

is

power

capacity

w.

by

It contains

room.

switches

feeder

in

located

and

nished
fur-

are

motor.

generators

and

generator

railway

local

supplemented

volt

500

50-k.

discharge for

lighting plant,

consisting of

set

of

supplemented

amperes

turbine

set

They

m.

p.

exciters

are

the

to

r.

75-horsepowTer three-phase

556

primarily

motor-generator

by

of

233

600

two

exciters

in the

located

driven

by
to

capacity

this is

booster

at

connected

is furnished

power

operate

field current

motors.

While

STATIONS.

they

each, direct

battery of

POWER

two

boilers

5243

square

and
the

on

boilers.
the

over

each

of

feet

corresponding superheating

area

of

1116

of

feet.

square

is fed

spouts,

loaded

pounds

hand

feed

system) and

condensing

Feed

supply mains.
in the

the

is made

heaters
and

case,

are

at

steam

(as this is

wells

waste

water

preceding

hot

from

is drawn

water

deliver

boilers

they

200

200".

superheated

pressure

The

The

which

pits from

fire

the

and

stokers

by automatic

the

cars.

by gravity through

delivered

grates

below

hoppers

small

on

fuel

The
the

to

on

fall into

ashes

as

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

234

the

from

up

employed,

are

surface

the

city

practically
of

general arrangement

densers
con-

is similar.
The

from

steam

5500-k.

one

unit

three-phase

its full load

The
from

exciting

steel

at

from

(a) Two

field

driven, 200-volt,

three-phase induction

w.

supplemented
12.5-k. w.

The

alternator

which

are

switch

is

may

be

rise in

by

the

low

fields

provided

and
m.

f.

exciter

supplied with
of

sources

200-k.

current:

ators.
turbo-gener-

w.

of

set

motor-generator

which
The

feed

capacity for

amperes

induction

an

200-

hour,

one

motor-booster

set

wiring is given in Fig.

tension

draw

to

from

current

by

with

short-circuited

e.

are

of

output.

supplemented

inductance

driven

of

diagram

poles punched

output.

(c) A storage battery of 366

four

windings

of three

one

any

steam

(b) One

has

cycles,

terminal.

per

amperes

for
each

of

volts, 25

11,000

289

on

end

generator

alternator

The

disks.

current

k.

The

rating being based

is sufficient

eight boilers

current

revolving field of the

solid

of

group

turbo-alternator.

w.

delivers

each

an

pair of bus

auxiliary pair.

resistance

through

discharge the

might

otherwise

energy
cause

the

stored
a

into

these

bus

bars.

bars

coils

in their

destructive

battery, engine-driven exciters, and

8.

field

Each

which

1 1

motor-

POWER

STATIONS.

high-tension circuits

The

switching

done

being

by

235

connected

are

in

as

Fig. 119, the

circuit-breakers

oil-immersed

or

Reversing Field Control

Ju/'Junctlonf-o,
Switch

o-

250

fir

ill

"
of

Diagram

low

Fig.

tension

which

Fig.

three-phase
direct

first

the

current

current

through

buses

A
O/

"

r~25iTvoH"FieldBUM

0,0.

and

in this

alternating
for
enters

choke

K.W.

circuit

distribution
at

the

coils

is

system
is to

breakers

to

low

the

right of the
and

the

Long

of the

located,

tion
represented in elevathe

tension

electric

high-tension
(550 volts)

railway system.

illustration

lightning

are

is controlled.

transform

to

current

of

plant

power

Co.

general arrangement

the

Its function

121.

R.

R.

operation of the station

typical substation
in

The

the

the

in

wiring

indicates

120

galleries in which

T
O.

t~I

I
0.0,

VowerGenerator5500

3 Phase

Island

from

250UK.W.

Generator

and

Auxiliary Buses

O0000"

"
Lighting

3 Phase

switches.

Volt

Field

Generator

118.

I""!
0,0.

0,0,

FIG.

Switches

Main

arrestors

and

passes,

mounted

in

ELECTRICAL

236
the

ENGINEERING.

gallery, thence, through

breakers

to

each.

Each

three

banks

disconnecting switches,

of

bank

550-k.

of

transformers

w.

transformers

cuit
cir-

and

containing

supplies

I500r

one

? ?BusJunction

Circuit

if
Lo

Peeders

FIG.

k.

The

speed by induction
shafts

and

From

through
the

d.

the

measuring

c.

underground

Hydro=Electric

than

only

for very

one

heads.

for

low

are

in active

The

small

the

Plants.

are

competition
impulse-wheel

and

used
on

passes

switches

The

Plant.

is in

the

for

heads

their

to

the line.

Wheel

The

steam.

high heads
Both

to

Impulse

upon

the

chronous
syn-

to

current

control

and

is available

water

to

connected

the

converters

thence

and

brought

are

of

plant

power

purposes.

instruments

conduits

depending

one

the

direct

motors

of

ends

the

plant for which

converters

only for starting

used

""-0-

Substations

high-tension wiring in
R. R. Co.
Long Island

converter.

rotary

w.

the

of

Diagram

119.

to

Breakei

impulse

plant illustrated

1 00

in

is the

general

heads, and

moderate
between

wheel

is in

turbine

simpler

way

every

power

and

Figs.

use

they

300

feet.

122,

123,

Church,

Westincjhouse,

'"*"*"';, :;-."-":"."'
FIG.

120.

Section

of

the

No.

elevated

N.Y.

Kerr

7321,.

switch

gallery

Jenerator

he

power

plant

of

the

Long

Island

R.

R.

Co.

Westmrjlwuse,
No.

N.Y.

Church,

UOti.

Kerr

"

Co.,

Engineers.

FIG.

121.

Section

of

typical

sut

Fuses?"

'Lightningand

Auii

liary Transformers

t;ion

of

the

Long

Island

R.

R.

Co.

POWER

and

has

124

secured

been

from

cubic

feet per

miles.

The

of either

head

an

impounding

by

the

kinds

three

re-enforced
last

is made.

the

at

This

consists
into

the

the

water

air

chamber

next

of wood

stave

penstock

through

avoid

of

an

The

gorge.

below
due

6i

buckets

inches

delivers
The

p.

nozzle

to

act

In

with

and

order

of

end

in

normal

impulse
the

to

the

cushion

rim

nozzle

the

to

an

is turned

the

with

cient
suffi-

k.
of
disk

at

w.

double
8

feet

aperture

rib of the buckets.

against the middle

center

large

column.

7-inch

penstock.

water

cast-iron

on

relieve

load,

consists

wheel

flow
over-

to

of 150

output

of

its

water.

is located

changes in the
lower

the

descent

high

of tfie penstock

floor level.

The

m.

of water

has

as

have

diameter.

stream

of

conduit

and

the

is of

spillway is placed

house;

sudden

near

attached

in

end

power

the

to

units

generating

brass

of the

main

times

at

gorge

pipe, and

operated occasionally, maintains

supply of air

r.

strains

from

being of

1766 feet

and

use

line

dam

the

is

cistern

k"wer

length of the

is located

speed of 124

excessive

compressor,

The

conduit

enlargement

pressure

motor

length of

to

foundation

concrete

hydraulic conduit

which

square

of the

part

narrow

pipe, the

is five feet.

147.5

30

capacity, formed

the

total

parallel to the

The

feet

nearest

diameter
middle

at

of

is drawn

construction; that

steel

The

located

flows.

concrete

being the

internal

dam

is

permits the

water

cubic

flow

of

which
The

of 5,000,000

stream

of

feet, one

Water

water

shed

water

impulse wheels.

or

arch

low

average

is 145

pond

concrete

an

draining

used

237

typical of its class.

as

with

second,

turbines

in which

selected

creek

STATIONS.

needle-pointed

core,

which

is

back

moved
of

water

to

2,200-volt
and

by

two

and

by the

forth

jet. The

the

three-phase

governor,

generator

30-k.

w.

d.

c.

of each

alternator, with

58-pole revolving field.

no-volt

varying the supply

thus

Exciting

unit

is

stationary
current

generators

driven

6o-cycle,
armature

is furnished

by

small

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING.

or

THE

UNIVERSITY
OF

POWER

STATIONS.

239

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

240

wheels

of the

type

same

for other

current

At

lines.

large

station

of

amount

this

and

to

substation

third

unit

500-volt d.

requires the

of

use

FIG.

d.

wound

compound

phase, 2200-volt,
is

service

switchboard
with

phases, voltmeters,

the
e.

distance

as

of

the

area

over

Hydro=Electric
an

available

water,

is the

head
center

three-

Arc

light

transformer

plied
sup-

for the

wattmeters
a

factor

power

involve

not

feeder

and

generator

for

is distributed

does

by

motor.

synchroscope

power

covered

has

meters,

and

University.

volts.

2200

and

-hour

The

generators.

f.

m.

watt

of

500-volt,

w.,

driven

current

plant

ammeters

indicator

frequency

this

in

by dotted

640.76T

Cornell

induction

constant

of

direct

potential of

constant

panels equipped

plant

power

-horsepower

50

in the

A-B

generator,

c.

given through

with
The

of the

Section

124.

Section

age
stor-

is demanded

loo-k.

and

shown

power

c.

furnish

is located

and

Ccoss

exciters

The

ones.

projection lantern

as

present

assigned in Fig. 123

space

large

such

purposes,

battery service.

the

the

as

at
a

three
tor,
indica-

ing
synchronizgenerator

transmission

mile.
Plants.
of

160

Turbine
feet

of turbine

and
wheel

Plants.
an

Niagara
unlimited

development.

Falls

with

supply
Five

of

large

STATIONS.

POWER

with

plants, each
in

are

type,

either

shown

in

vertical

126, and

125,

The

127.

horizontal

horsepower

10,000

of the

L.

with

turbines

type

is

comprises*

plant

J.

turbine

stations

these

of

One

power
horse-

100,000

over

wheels

water

horizontal.

or

of

output

operation, all using

Figs.

thirteen

ultimate

an

241

Harper,

Engineer.

FIG.

Section

125.

and

inward

of the
plant of
power
Mfg. Co., illustrating water

discharge.
Five

generators.

being used

output

twenty-five volts
of 300

distance
bars
of

of

140

6500 k.

12,000

The

below
*

wheels

volts

drive

used

are

feet to

the

inches

d.

wheels

the

to

two

the

Six

works

cross-section.

hundred

through
The

speed of 300

station

the

falls.

The

description of

The

r.

p.

is located

plant is

the

at

as

aluminum
are

current

at

m.

building is 500
the

and

alternators

each, delivering three-phase 25-cycle

at

each, the

is transmitted

current

reduction

electric

are

generators

c.

reduction.

and

Power

turbine

connected

for aluminum

square
w.

power

Direct

Niagara Falls Hyd.

practice.

the

bottom

feet in

it will

be

of

the

gorge

length by 95 feet
when

completed.

ELECTRICAL

242

in width.

It is divided

generators.

The

Section

126.

head

the

of

at

falls
the

through

edge

directlyabove

of

an

the

the

separating
for

water

Falls

the

longitudinallyinto

partition, thus

concrete

FIG.

ENGINEERING.

Hyd.

open

cliff.

the

house
Power

canal
The

station, and

the

two

turbines

plant is brought

of

the

and

which

by

the

from
from

of

above

the

Niagara

forebay

Co.

terminates

forebay
is

plant

power

Mfg.

sections

is

in

parallel with

approximately

of the

and
same

POWER

It is formed

length.
feet

thick

controlled

FIG.

to

cut

into

support
are

to

of

the

Hyd.

penstocks

solid

and

racks

the

and

and

thirteen

penstocks is
spillways

descending

of

being

by

firmly
As

wall.

gorge

the

house
power
Co.

them

attaches

the

24

to

the

are

the

Niagara

Mfg.

supported

of the

rock

into

ice from

in

Power

are

which

in

encased
the

to

this

steps

method

of

deprives the penstocks of all flexibilityspecial devices

to

relieve

the

operation of the

plates attached
they will relieve the
The

imbedded

are

of water

switchboard

the

concrete

installed
the

flow

rubbish

prevent

The

reinforced

in which

The

Falls

wheels.

wall, 30 feet high and

concrete

bottom,

243

by roller bearing gates, and

Section

127.

by

penstocks.

9 feet steel

provided

the

at

STATIONS.

discharge from

to

the

and

wheel
on

turbines

of excessive

cases

governor

pressure

the

wheel

gates.

cases

and

These
so

slight increase
flows

out

shock
are

due
ing
burst-

designed that
above

through

normal.
tunnels

located
the

beneath

The

in the

transformers

the

As

used

in stations

serving

Engine

The

high therm
it upon
and

of the

within

the

As

Gas

The

an

inner

is there

hopper
of

the

shells

for

tance
impor-

engine has

gas

plant

power

poses,
pur-

chamber.

superheated

the
before

increasing.
have

ones

been

plant is given in plan in Fig.

and

of
into

through

is

use

efficiency is considered

slack

hence

an

The
passage

it

contains

ordinarily found

is built

is for

their

bituminous

fuel chamber

is the

part
outer

will be

Producer

overhead

upper

and

years

typical small

as

its

small

numerous

plant burns

this

equipment

The

and

difficult conditions,

most

engineers for

of

auxiliary apparatus,

few

satisfactory. A
128.

made

greatest

efficiency of the

attention

large plants

installed

been

and
spite of the complication of the engine itself,

especially that
Several

will not

territory.

extended

o-dynamic

the

in

of the

above

Plants.

Gas

forced

on

the

instrument

supply, and

matter

Series

contains

and

provision has

of

conductors

breakers, and

power

lines,no

that

bars.

bus

operating bench

lightning protection,

the

compartment

circuit

plant is for local

this

and

potential transformers

switch

oil-immersed

long distance

on

elaborate

and

The

crete
con-

streams

unlike

not

through

and

current

measurement.

is

high tension

the

mouths.

room

passes

into

water
over

of the

tunnel

generator

operating gallery with

panels.

an

the

power-operated,

is the

be

of the

to

it flows

exit

appearance

current

basement
reduce

f. for

m.

The

station.

steam

e.

of the

the

At

the

improves

arrangement

located

level.

danger of erosion

diminishes

delivering the

floor and

station

river

the

at

gorge

the

darn, which

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

244

as

in such

which

the

inverted

shells.

steel

slack

bell

elaborate

stations.

concentric

two

represents

is fed

located

in

the

space

between

of the

entering air which

entering the

fuel

the

from

chamber.

inner

In

POWER

following the

air to

and

to

heated

in the

at

various

the

The

of

parts

blower, which
with

air tower

the

delivers

ously
previ-

water

contains

numer-

CD
Superheater

Balancer

the

it is saturated

tower.

gas

CJGJ

Lighting

begin

air tower, wrhere

the

245

through

gas

it is convenient

equipment
the

air

STATIONS.

Superheater

Battery Boosters

Switchboard

FIG. 128.

ous

Plan

tiles

which

received
Next

over

the

through

the

circulates

of

typical

which

air finds

the
from

the

where

exhaust

between

steam

the
the

power

plant.

trickles

water

its way.

air main

air reaches

engine

gas

the

From
a

and

further
which

upward

tower

addition
is

and

outer

air passes

of moisture

discharged

tubes,

World.)

through

the

superheater, of concentric
inner

Elec.

(From

into

is
it.

shells, and
the

hot

gas

246

ELECTRICAL

being inside.

Finally the
the

through

into

then
in

ENGINEERING.

annular

the

chamber

latter

The

after

gas,

air

The

washer

whip the
and

tar

in the

is

and

gas

it passes
box

in

the

ready for the holder

When

from

the

out

tar

from
fed

water

the

into

the

to

the
the

enters

The

in the

remove

direct

rated

output

contains

of 325

auxiliary contains
for

six

controlled
driven

by

on

the
an

of the

charge
"

three-wire

circuit.

ing
gas-collectdust

the

to

which

dust

and

receiving heat

at

time

throws
of

means

the

cleansing

saw-dust
The

tar.

is

gas

is drawn

gas

in

step

matically
auto-

the

cooling it by

last

is

gas

which

engines the

the

which

The

which

rate

next

air tower,

air tower.

is

ings
shav-

and

clean, cool

gas

regulators.

pressure

3-cylinder single-acting engines,

I50-k.
at

d.

w.

in

As

the

the

output
"

system
of

Motor-driven

balancer

e.

m.

of
"

f. between

boosters

80

amperes

battery

engine

are

the

are

and

room

is

battery

storage

discharge of the

located

division

capacity of

with

generator

c.

460 volts.

and

motors.

equal

lating
circu-

gas-cooling tower,

the

cells, with

boosters

auxiliary

maintain

branches

"

by

is delivered
to

The

hours.

amperes

230

the

removing

and

vestige of

to

thus

filled with

scrubber

three

connected

heater
super-

more

it is stored

The

case.

last

the

the

by centrifugal action

same

engines through

station

each

the

fan

washer,

air in the

in which

at

the

tiles and

fan which

gas

is taken

process

then

by

In

The

it.

required for the

holder

to

dust.
to

by its position controls

generated.

heat

some

water

over

to

ber,
cham-

it reaches

through

goes

construction

trickling down
delivered

fuel

containing revolving blades

it with

spray

circuit,is similar

is afterward
now

losing

incidentally cooling

water

same

which

through

the

condition.

producer,

to, here

ing
producer, first flow-

fuel bed, which

leaving considerable

and

main
left.

leaving the

referred

above

the

moist

and

the

surrounding

through

highly superheated

air reaches

station

employed
the

two

also

con-

STATIONS.

POWER

in the

nected

contains

switch-board

The

negative

positive and

panels and

booster

of boosters
States
taken

be

this

The

feeder

stations

is

the

of

feature

for

use

United

should

not

practice.

batteries

Storage

The

panel.

described

plant

are

panels;

general in the

not

American

substations

and

There

battery

wire

middle

or

lines

Battery.

Storage

power

f.

m.

e.

accommodate

to

and

feeder

generator

representativeof

as

panels

numerous

neutral

the

on

and

the

pieces of special apparatus.

of

large number

the

raise

to

values.

desired

the

to

lighting circuits

and

power

247

or

one

installed

are

of

more

the

in

ing
follow-

purposes.

(a) To

straighten the load

curve.

(6) To

keep

heavy load.

(c) To

carry

(d) To

improve

(e) To

regulate voltage fluctuations

up

voltage

entire

on

load

at

times.

engine and

operation.

generator

due

to

in

variation

engine speed.

(/) To
(g)
The

For

by

of

reclaimed
circuit.
as

electrodes

and

positive "active
spongy

lead.

electrodes

and

the

material"

caustic

Edison

lead

producing

through

been

is lead
cell

proposed
general

use

of

may

be

electric

an

as

in both,

electrodes

having

lead

charged, the

peroxide and
consists

or

energy

electrolyte. When

negative,

the

nickel

and

iron

potash electrolyte.

Storage cells give practically a

in the

stored

electrodes

cells in most

sulphuric acid

The

voltage.

possible by

This

have

substances

electrolytes,the

is

energy

current.

connecting

Various

of

electrolyte,in electrodes,

an

electric

an

by

of

equipment.
sub-division

and

storage

changes in

means

and

transformation

chemical

cumulative

substation

supplement

constant

cell)the regulation varying

with

e.

m.

the

f.

(two volts

current

drawn

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

248

the

and

Capacities

charge remaining.

ampere-hours

these

and

greatly with

vary

the

discharge
of

rates

charge

discharge.

and

Cell is the

Lead

The

plates consist

of

and

material/'
distribute

FIG.

grids

it

at

the

and

Positive

129.

grids

uniformly

in power

frames

of

give the

lead

or

to

The

strength).

used

type

being added

antimony

act

the

surface
"

formed

Fig.
of
has

is
on

the

over

negative

129

type
round

shows
in

used
holes

wound
spirallyThe

by
The

of

the

of

of lead

formed/'
passage

both

tape
is

current

openings in the negative grid

tery.
bat-

material

is

by electrolysis.

stations.

that
of

active

plates, negative

on

of plate,

typical storage

the

and

power

many

rosettes
are

sets

and

current

form

one

active

Fig. 19.)

grooves

countersunk

"

rosettes
means

two

of

"

for the
the

In

plates

(the

ical
requisite mechan-

conduct

of

also

grooved

sides of the

the

The

lead

antimonious

plates.

sets

work.

station

supports

time

same

deeply

the

the

as

(See

"

in

rated

are

are

and

The

sides

positive,

positive grid
and

filled with

pressed firmly into place.

changed
in

to

lead

"forming

filled with

fused

peroxide,
"

bath.

chloride

POWER

lead, containing

of

being known

for

plates in

chloride
the

in

"

the

above

peroxide of lead
it

acid
with

solution.

various

later

of oxide

hastening the formation

agents,

those

solution

under

of
When

1.2.

the

lead.

As

PbO,

and

negative

the

from

SO3

Charging

PbSO4.
in

acid
the

of

be

of

stored

active

the

relative

Capacity
can

of

material

phuric
sul-

plates
The

plate, but
of

in

oxidizing

of

also

glass jars and

The

electrolyte

positive active

also

PbO,

upon

not

reduces

only
the

phate,
sul-

lead

depending

active

material.

which

of energy
upon
rate

phuric
sul-

free

set

amount

to

oxides

both

increasing the

in

electrolyte and

The

is spongy

forming

and

is

material

material

to

quantity

battery depends
but

the

positive material

Storage Batteries.
in

specific gravity slightly

cell results

solution, the

amounts

process

years.

addition

tanks.

solution
a

of

in

Plante

negative active

oxidizes

the

for many

wood

discharge proceeds the

absorbing

upon

the

tedious

current

suspended

are

cell is full the

and

production

formation

the

tice
prac-

of Faure.

sulphuric acid

peroxide, PbO2

lead

cells

the

forming,

"pasting"

by the

large cells in lead-lined

of

that

superceded

plates of small

The

is

have

the

was

of

to

part

with

profiting by the

of the

followed

returning in

processes,

process

reduces

for the

time

action

was

"

by Faure,

process

method

Faure's
of lead

oxides

after

Planters

entirely by the

done

was

which

hydrogen.

positive plates

the

upon

in

After

invention

Plante

positive plates. In

the

which

lead.

that

Planters

form

cell

circuiting them

spongy

in

whole

"forming

chloride

and

the

up

the

The

short

indicate
upon

again taken

has

in

to

in water

zinc, the

cell from

zinc

"

made

of

applied.

of

statements

improvements

as

is

pastilles

washed

plates are
The

of

"

chloride

solution

249

quantity

negative plates consists

the

zinc

"

negative lead

active

the

small

the

as

STATIONS.

the
at

quantity
which

the

ELECTRICAL

250

energy

is

drawn

from
of

rate

Similarly the

supplied.

For

discharge.

one-hour

on

power

have

nearly twice

The

capacity

will

it is customary

purposes

The

correspondingly

less

the

to

rate

will

battery

same

capacity if discharged

be

be

can

greatly with

varies

discharge.

this

which

quantity

battery

fully charged

battery

ENGINEERING.

in

five

at

hours.

half-hour

rate.

Battery Boosters
discharge differs by
much

fifteen

as
"

battery

in
The

battery

e.

of

by hand

small

e.

battery

booster

booster

high there

the
with.

important
use

of

which

and

hand

adjunct
the

e.

vice

the

of

the

bulky

booster
series

say

20

is the
coil

may

or

out

lation
regu-

of

series

by

coil

shunt

the

on

by the
field of
rate

of
not

cent.

regulator
be

or

battery is
per

"

in

current

average

efficiency of the

over-charge of
to

the

ing
slid-

in

line

The

versa.

driven

series

The

to

of

f. is increased

m.

adjustment

As

by the

through

battery

net

usually direct

f. is varied

charge
dis-

or

generator

is

the

method

booster/'

case.

f.

m.

cut

booster

flows

discharge.

be

iation
var-

changing

connected

are

better

"

of

use

e.

capacity, connected

occurs

permits

be

thus

line

cells may

which

When

must

the

large

charge

current

m.

e.

discharge

charge and

An

The

current

field.

the

large

booster

booster

cells

directly

very

to

as

usually the

the

to

automatically.

battery.
The

motor.

"

end

which

involving the

the

to

reason

is connected

battery

respect
"

of

this

of cells in circuit

with

by

or

f. but

m.

the

f.

device

is that

the

m.

For

is not

forcing the

number

number

contact

either

the

amounting

cases.

permissable, which

charge and

percentage

automatically unless

of

f of

m.

e.

line, that

upon

simplest method

terminals

with

"

act

vary

The

in extreme

cent

f. is

m.

e.

is to
the

not

considerable

per

floating

it, will

across

Regulators.

and

"

by

dispensed

STATIONS.

POWER

regulator has

The

(a) The
the

the

of

with

varied

it in

relative

values

be

Accumulator
the

the

in

to

For

the

the

takes

the

chemical

their

is

flows

current

with

the

These

arms.

desired

any

expected

Changing
and

formance
per-

which

will

generators,

order

be

the

improving

not

when

that

be

operated
with

it is approximately

Therefore, when

battery

regulation of the

boilers

engines, and

efficiencyit should

electrical

counterbalance

it must

make,

to

volves
again in-

partly in the
In

energy

efficiencyof the cell varies

of

purpose

back

reactions.

losses

fully charged.

for the
the

by

place of the

the

bridge

form

of energy,

waste

it is

one-half

upon

resistances

in accordance

quantity of charge in it, being greatest

load

pressure,

field current

the

Economy.

chemical

efficiency. The

is installed

piles

field circuit

automatically

produce

introduce

not

maximum

at

that

another

resistances

considerable

saving which

the

The

booster

so

in

changes

bridge and

or

Handling.

may

the

upon

thereby.

field circuit

Wheatstone

resistance, partly in the

battery

pressure

coil

battery.

electrical

disks,

The

plunger.

to

in the

The

to

sensitive

arrangement

of the

adjusted

and

produces

are

direction

one

of the

from

"

piles of carbon

varied.

being varied

load.

in the

through

of

coil

connected

are

the

galvanometer

may

disks

-bridge

stone

mechanism.

resistance

regulator

wheat

and

lever

carbon

contact

in the
"

line current

through

Piles

be

may

pressure-producing

the

of disks

which

upon

(b) The
carries

parts

resistance, composed

carbon

pressure

essential

two

251

thus

and

allowed

to

ing
increas-

over-charge

or

over-discharge.

to

A
case

the

battery
described
effect

be

can

than

handled
wiien

of break-down

more

easily for

it is installed
of other

as

apparatus.

economy

in

the

protection against
In

anticipation

ELECTRICAL

252

of

an

the

such

emergency,

his

over-charge
the

shut

of

waste

In

best

of

Depreciation.
of
in

The

station

power

repairs and

maintenance.

manipulated
be

may

caused

the

by

sulphate increases
The

time
of

is

sulphuric

does

harm

no

the

acid

warping

material

mechanical

distributes

loosening
action

in

When

is localized

for constant

of

"

and

plates

active
and

but

the

An

damage

parts

in

are

if

material

not

plates

other

in

spaces

time

are

subject

of

cause,

The

doing produces

so

distributed

condition

unequal strains result.

inspection of the

the

plate.

same

short-circuit
or

at

uniformly

good

proportion

by irregularity of

of the
and

contracts

any

mate
readily esti-

that

is caused

its

over-charge

more

Battery

which

are

knows

insoluble

cell at

the

to

operator

in

reduces

occasional

fully
care-

results

cell and

shows

ditions.
con-

ponent
com-

are

This

charge in

which

full.

If these

uniformly

material.

he

duce
pro-

especially

disintegrate. Great

as

different

expands

of the

when

of the

was

buckling

strains.

plate bends.

cells

the

to

expensive

an

the

solution.

it enables

electrolytic action
active

in

battery

or

is

Even

resistance

the

practical operating

active

charge in the battery

"

adjusted

but

hydrometer

and

the

two

hence

emergency,
are

to

the

cost

indication

best

over-charge the
to

of

contains

conduce

not

only in first

plates

the

given by

it

allowing over-discharge, which

injurious sulphating

capacity.

for

battery

not

naturally

combines

battery

under

storage

will

or

Over-charging

does

discharge

results

average

curve,

that

energy.

hence

preparation

load

operator

of

the

charge and

in the

himself

and

stations

most

duration

the

the

assure

energy

duties, regulation and

and

down/'
to

"

peak

possible quantity

economy.

rate

"

high

battery

maximum

involves

as

"

possibility of

ENGINEERING.

the

current

through

occurs,

the

electrolytic

Hence, the

between

the

the

sity
neces-

plates.

STATIONS.

POWER

of

Operation
of

Function
The

at

energy

unit

fixed

salaries, and

Power

To

whole
a

be

the

which

has

latter

the

depressions.

in amperes,
load

The

ideal

supplying
ideal

and

load

loads, however,

load

during the

24

as

to

as

low

load,

The

therefore

adjusted

to

between

would
the

as

be

station

be

upon

fit the

load.

the

output

the
has

time

of

acteristic
its char-

which

are

straight line

line

actual

over

efficiency

depends

peaks/'

the

it

approaches
A

operated.

electro-chemical

purposes

has

operation is practically continuous.

to

the

varies
as

variable

of load

exceptional.

hours

of

Unfortunately

kind

nearer

can

requires that

kilowatts, and

curve

for

the

are

factor, which

cases

the

current

Such

few

plant

on

characteristics.

plotted between

"

load

economically

very

wages,

assemblage

an

control.

no

Each

curve.

is

it

or

consisting of

more

load

expenses

fuel,

conditions.

are

diagram

this

name

generating

depreciation

it

upon

machines

axis

an

certain

operating

combined

generated

parallel to the

nearly

best

it has

is

Curve.

curve

station

of

includes

covers

certain

the

output
the

day is termed

the

under

cost

the

station

power

which

station

power

The

former

imposed

which

to

Load

f.

m.

efficiencyfrom

of

the

degree

e.

from

with

operated under
station

The

the

auxiliaries

fluctuations

with

of

whole

maximum

power

the

The

hour

kilowatt

per

electrical

produce

Characteristics.

and

obtain

is to

investment.

on

as

machines

station

The

charges.

Station

Viewed

cost

supplies.

interest

and

power

is determined

energy

the

and

Stations.

regulation of

to

as

of

minimum

restrictions
a

of

purpose

Power

Station.

Power

the

253

25

ratio of the

maximum

from
per

The

cent

nearly
in many

load
1 00

is
per

average

given the
cent

stations.

in
The

ELECTRICAL

254

effort is
the

always made

load

factor.

the

curve,

to

In

factor

ENGINEERING.

Fig.

has

which

130,

10

11

Typical

130.

12

load

in

has

130

main

hours

very

little

there

Railway

satisfactory

one

than

operation

is much

at

in
of

the
a

greater
most

in

the

the
are

the

10

11

12

Detroit

fill up

power

day

of

the

and

131

the

can

always

depressions.
is

curve

the

greater

less

reason

tude
magnithe

represents
The

peaks

maximum
A

average.

station

the

which

for

station.

power

peaks, the
Between

the

curve

Fig.

curve

day during which

railway load

case.

to

lighting

load

rapid and

of the

proportion

difficult which

of

lighting load
more

the

of

evening.

to

The

preceding

parts

station

power

tends

Curve.

characteristic

parts

large railway

different

characteristic

two

lighting load

than

power

shows

certain

are

its fluctuations

located

It

Load

lighting load

Co.

as

light is used, but

accompanies
The

naturally occurring in the

one

peak

is the

selected

large station.

that

been

represents

raise

to

as

P. JVI.

of the

curve

Edison

Fig.

curve

Noon

A.M.

FIG.

load

good value.

1234567

12

the

modify

so

be

are

load

railway load
called

upon

OF
THE

UNIVERSITY

OF

Arnpe
Volts

g
P

II
B B

"

"

"p -p

"

w
c

POWER

supply

to

of three

are

kinds

(a) Very

(b) Variations

road

business

to

which

places of business

probably
The

the

morning

day the

about

at

load

the

close

will be

ness
busi-

homes

to

their

them

other

the

purposes,

hours.

spread

with

the

holds
house-

business

somewhat

concentrated

in

of the

and
of

For

the

return

shopping

tions
varia-

with

members

will, therefore, be

evening load

their

and

various

for

town

returning

morning

while

the

down

go

the

natural

residence

from

of

decreases

conditions.

other

the

passengers

in

During

ping
stop-

hours.

the

by

and

connects

and

several

over

depressions, caused

district \vill carry

will

variations

starting and

increases

usually extending

and

evening.

the

to

accidental

to

traffic, due

example,

due

The

cars.

due

and

(c) Peaks
in

nature.

individual

load

255

variable

rapid fluctuations

of the

average

of this

account

on

STATIONS.

out,

high

ve^

peak.
The

in
reservoir

load

for

energy

is
the

have

Fig.
by

the

The

indicates

132

addition

figure shows
from

drawn

and

uniform
in

station

the

of

is

load

hence

the

efficiency. The

load, and
smaller

the
than

The

storage
Other

in

the

The

small

of

all

operate

battery takes

capacity.
the

and

is for

generators

be

railway plant

suitable

station

latter

storage

already outlined.

as

the

cally
economi-

proved

not

imperfections the

battery

generator
would

storage

reservoir.

energy

have

its

upon

generators.

the

desirable.

done

storage

tions
fluctua-

curves

purposes

be

can

the

constant,

purposes

essential

what

load

of the

proposed, for example,

these

spite of

account

very

been

but

storage,

several

serves

the

available

one

satisfactory. In
battery

in

obviously

devices

heat

water

exhibited

present

storage

energy

hot

the

is at

battery

Storage Battery. On

the

Effect of

all of

practical
at

the

capacity installed
necessary

current

if the

high

ations
fluctuin

this

storage

256

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING.

200

"01234567
Minutes

FIG.

132.

Load

curves

of

railway
storage

power

station

battery.

with

and

without

the

POWER

battery

of

regulation

good

e.

by the

performed
Fig.

used.

not

were

is

131

and

light

When

of

up

the

of

units

the

battery

unit
like

station
assist

actual

in

upon

if the

time.

to

This

the

of

rather
It
that

assurance

entire

generator

of

justification for the

it is
use

is

difficult
can

power

of

the

to

be

the

expensive

of

as

the

small
in

saving

engine,
place
to

sent

for

the

tor,
genera-

money

the
a

line
short

particularly

considered

storage

is

very

marked,

as

however,
be

or

battery

in

is disabled

equipment

coming

to

matters

as

of

reduction

importance,

extreme

large plants, and

to

minor

is not

at

large

very

times

Hence,

battery

the

effect

and

engine

an

at

such

number

loaded.

In

down

taken.

the

equipment.

the

is

is

132

use

due

being

boiler

and

even

Fig.

shut

appreciable

no

time

of

starting

for

well

at

mover

or

such

be

function

large that

so

produce

due

saving

is

load

cars

allow

prime

down

stopped.

or

is discharging

clearly the

provided

each

diagram

principal
to

of

will

tween
be-

equipment

into

properly

operation

started

and

which

operation

in

the

one

is divided

line

battery.

battery

station

the

load

very

by shutting

be

the

been

The

from

value

on

peaks

light load.

road

will

made

this

on

starting of

load
units

has

provided
station

the

time
been

is

shows

large

very

of the

adjustment

proper

are

difference

the

one

figure

relieving

The

the

that

has

in

The

presence

heavy

The

The

load

the

by the
the

'versa.

load.

engines.

other

to

the

to

same

note

"vice

line.

load

station

is the

line

is caused

lines

by

functions

which

in

station

heavy

accompanied

time.

same

generator

and

peak

capacity

The

light line is below

of

times

is

important

two

the

at

257

current

that

so

from

the

one

two

the

effect

f.

m.

taken

is installed.

these

Steady

battery

battery
the

STATIONS.

the

battery.

best

ELECTRICAL

258

ENGINEERING.

of

Cost

Electrical

Producing

the

divide

Economics.

Station

Power

of

expense

Energy.
station

power

It is customary
into

operation

to

the

two

general parts:
(a) Operating
(b) Fixed

charges.

Operating
in

"

in

the

repairs,
"

over-head

as

the

charges,

is invested

in

certain

sufficient

provide

certain

are

which

New
a

do

types

Station
be

of

is

not

make

not

"

In

is the

must,

expenses

addition

in

running

repairs which
condition

"

tear

as

whole.

developed

occasionally,

This

out.

worn

operating

the

being constantly

rehabilitated

There

of

and

wear

money

general deterioration

machinery

for the

are

be

independent

the
up

the

the

The

cent.

interest.

for

invested

if

even

of the

meaning

that

so

the

ance
allow-

deterioration.

the

station

(The fuel

be

may

and

makes
water

in

importance

greatest

energy

well-managed

in

Bookkeeping

Records.

producing

items.

allowed

known

placed elsewhere, be

5 per

of

fuel,

wages,

money

plant.

if

above

amount

maintain

must
are

for

be

of machines

station

machines

to

to

necessary

but

this

on

the

on

presumably

This

equipment.

interest

plant would,

and

salaries,

as

sary
neces-

are

charges, sometimes

the

over

must

amount

the

of

the

income

an

fixed

are

which

expenses

depreciation

return,

therefore, be
to

The

etc.

the

earning

all those

plant running, such

and

plant

which

include

costs

keeping

lubricant/

expenses.

power

station

order

that

items

do

of
not

the

at

least

apply

the
to

come

cost

determined.

accurately
records

has

Every
following

water

power

plants.)
(a)

Total

daily energy

(b) Average daily

power

output.
output.

of

(c)

Maximum

daily power

output.

(d)

Minimum

daily power

output.

POWER

(e) Total

daily

water

(/) Total

daily

water

(g) Total

daily fuel consumption.

(h) Periods
this

From

data

(b) Pounds

of

total

evaporated.

deduced:

per

kilowatt

The

obtained

load

calculate
The

the

is

water

indication

into

the

Water

the

to

The

data
of

In

cost

is

that

in order

are

of

construction.

in

is

which

in order

all

part

of the

items

In
in

an

non-

finding

condensing

actually flowing
from

comes

in

the

number

boilers

outside.

of ways,

through

uring
meas-

is

actually weighed.

sufficient

to

permit the

unit

of

energy,

fuel

station

best

its cost

for this purpose.

feed

not

In

water

determined
to

obtain

system.

boilers.

the

generating

The

to

directly useful

the

plants the

some

permit the comparison

similar

be

from

condensing plants it is also

used

being

mentioned

the

also

determined

is necessary

small

be

may

convenient

hoppers.

daily

curve.

leakage in the

commonly

are

It may

output

measure

only

as

consumption

most

of

necessary

meters

Fuel

in

and

efficiency of

boilers,

total

are

plants this information

plants it is

the

be

outputs

is desired

amount

evaporating

load

factor.

bought,

of the

condensing
the

load

consumption

water

where

maximum

The

curve.

load

power

of

means

ments.
indicating instru-

hours."

by twenty-four

minimum

and

of

will then

power

by

integration of the

by

output

by integrating the

Maximum

the

divided

output

of coal.

pound

per

or

operation.

generated.

frequent readings

daily power

auerage

energy

meters

from

plotted

hour

in

are

is determined

output

energy

integrating watt-hour
curve

machines

evaporated

water

daily

various

be

may

of coal

259

consumption.

during which

(a) Pounds

The

to

STATIONS.

basis

of

cost

with
of

others

they

of somewhat

comparison,

are

but

lation
calcu-

included

however,
as

some

260

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

plants

of

pound
this

small

use

with

water

fuel

small

very

and

evaporate
of

quantity
by

efficiency is counter-balanced

and

coal, but

deterioration

large

interest.

The

following table

by

sub-division.
for

of

amount

comparison

different

types

DISTRIBUTION

of
of

Mr.

This
the

OF

*Trans.

table

various

prime

G.

H.

Stott*
also

items

in

indicates

contains

useful

stations

A. I. E. E.

AND

Vol.

OPERATION

xxv.,

p.

CHARGES.

26.

data

employing

movers.

MAINTENANCE

factory
satis-

STATIONS.

POWER

of

station

Load

the

stations

the

for

of

efficient

large, this by
therefore; in

the

load

factor.

may

be

and

time

station

power

expedients

for

The
demands

which

second

Customers

low

other
been

station
rates,

to

use

may

connection

with

established

to

is

also

current

very
some

consume

light.

with

lowering

these

the

peaks

of

business

the

careful

when

aging
discour-

for

energy

to

which

the

use

the

the

load

special industries
at

of

at

purposes

times

when

tion.
consump-

station

through

power

maximum

power

management

customers

attention.

their

their

greatly increase

power

and

heads:

most

rates

example,

plants

increase

to

use,

great

peaks.

one

for

tion
opera-

curve.

encouraged

stimulating

fixed

The

light loads, and

receiving

the
For

by

light load,

demand

are

constructed.

the

compared

than

purposes

of

results

small

is

development

preferential

as

Customers

times

is

given

are

the

increases

method

are

demands

at

power

of that
The

of

encouraging

idle

portionatel
dispro-

and

in

are

batteries

storage

in

saving.

general

two

of

cause

operation

to

stands

and

the

and

installed

be

maintenance

offsets

means

effect

high-load factor

machines
for

under

of

use

the

high interest

is the

fillingin the depressions of the load

which

items

efficiency of

equipment

and

the

Various

summarized

The

(b)

the

for

made

must

This

expense

no

problem,

(a)

equipment

of

the

while

be
involves

charges.

operation

charges, and
is

of

the

comparing

factor

the

large fixed
in

sub-division

must

demands.

part

greater

load

sufficient

heaviest

the

In

allowance

low

depreciation, for
meet

the

to

Factor.

due

factor.

load

of

regard

expense.

Effect of
various

in

differs

Practice

.261

for
has

ing
light-

attractive
times

of

factor.

In

have

the

been
normal

262

ELECTRICAL

Charging
based

for

but
the

high

the

usually charged
discount

interest

do

month)

per

they have

little control

Customers
one

determined

follows:
'

by the

as

equivalent

be

the

primary
the

might

for all

fact

to

be

is the

majority
*

A.

to

energy

usually

use

power.

are

charged by

the

rates

being

by the actual

as

such

system

per

kilowatt

is

as

day

the

rate,

be

should

but

charged.

on

excess

This
load

'

system
factor

he

per

is

For

rate.

for
rate

system

30 hours

charged

example,

kilowatt

of 5 cents

is very

certain

consumption

-hour,

consumption

demand
in

his

-hour,

electricity

for

amount,

cents

15

charged

maximum

of

demand

secondary

follows:

as

to

'

of

consumption

maximum

month,

or

lower

consumption

form

above-mentioned

at

be

for

rate,

rate

equivalent
per
per

month,

kilowatt-

widely used
employed

as

in

and
a

in

great

of cases."

Quoted

I. E.

well

one

certain

of his

per

of the

use

'

use

excess

rate

hour

the

than

the

charged

primary

to

greater

and

is

of hours

for all the

to

of

example

small

of

they

energy

as

The

factor, and

system/'

demand

with

is made

worth

which

at

load-factor

maximum
An

customer
'

number

time

are

The

known

"

of

form

consumed.

energy

month,

dollars'

using large quantities of

another

or

the

over

consumption.

greatly affect the load

not

of

customers

connections.

five

to

one

purpose,

kilowatt-hour

per

per

service

is understood

development

monthly

dollar

one

and

(using from

customers

cated,
compli-

This

Small

rate

the

upon

meter

on

load.

maximum

charge, usually

the

encourage

station

certain

somewhat

are

reasonable.

more

to

the

depending

minimum
cover

in

of rates,

systems

underlying the systems

much

stated, is

factor

Modern

demand,

purpose

prices appear

load

Energy.

maximum

when

previously

as

Electrical

the

upon

ENGINEERING.

from

E., April,

paper
1907.

by

Mr.

J.

S. Codman,

Proc.

(not Transactions)

CHAPTER

ELECTRIC

MOTORS

X.

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

AND

OUTLINE.

GENERAL

Construction

and

Underlying

Synchronous

a.

Shunt

"

The

Motor

of Electric

Principles

motors

c.

and

PRINCIPLES.

Induction

"

a.

compound-wound

Interpole

d.

Motors:
motors

c.

motors

c.

Series

"

Series

"

motors
c

a.

motors

motor.

Characteristics:

General

Principles:
Series

"

a.

d.

Series

c.

Synchronous

motors

"

motors

c.

a.

Shunt
The

"

motors

c.

and

Induction

"

a.

compound-wound

Interpole

motor

d.
Motor

"

c.

c.

motors

motors

"

and

Handling

control.

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES.

Starting:
General

Principles:
Series

"

Series

d.

General
"

a.

c.

c.

and

Induction

"

a.

compound-wound

d.

c.

is

field

(in maxwells

produced

current.

quantities.

conductor.

With

in

c.

motors

motors

"

is

This
the

c.

g.

is
current

force

in

area),

the

s.

units

true

the

263

c.

motors

motors

"

the

to

length

the

force

field

of
in

Whenever
of

strength
of

the

is the
the

the

by

torque

or

presence

regardless
and

c.

field.

magnetic

proportional

unit

per

In

the

d.

over-load.

mechanical

upon

a.

compound-wound

conductor

which

Induction

"

against

produces
current

motors

c.

and

Protection

"

of the
exists

a.

Shunt

"

motor

force

the

Synchronous

motors

motors

electric

current

these

Shunt

"

motor

c.

motors.

c.

d.

reaction

and

motors

Principles:
Series

Series

the

c.

a.

Control:

Speed

AN

a.

Synchronous

field
of

the

conductor

product

of

-velocity of the
same

relative

264

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

directions
either

the

force
field

of the

will be

in the

current

will

or

direction.

same

the

reverse

reversal

direction

of the

force.
There
first

are

the

number

of

all

the

are

the

c.,

single-phase

(6) in adapting
e

g.,

propelling

is to

operate,

space

under

ample

space

and

The

motor.

is
used

be

motor

types

types.

The
of

Type

single
d.

c.

for

requirements

Series

d.

c.

been

e.

g.,

be

to

done,

tools, etc.;
in which

placed in

be

supplied with

which

are

good
but

same,

All

motor.

it

limited

others

have

as

not

the

satisfactorilyas

rule

there
of

reverse

illustrates

single

or

excellent

an

the

usual

Synchronous

two
erator
gen-

cannot

several

are

generator

above

Corresponding

alternator,

in the

however,

motors,
for

variety of

the

performance

generators,

as

Generator.

statements:

Type

of

Motor.

single

motor,

or

poly-

phase.
alternator,

Induction

motor,

polyphase.
Shunt

generator.
d.

Compound

have

work

produces normally will operate

Non-synchronous
Shunt

of

prevails, while

when

generator

polyphase,

or

forms

surroundings

must

moisture

following table

Synchronous

ciples
underlying prin-

good dry ventilation.

commercially

motor

kind

the

to

motors

equally good

an

at

c.;

driving machine

cars,

some

a.

the

to

necessarily the

not

are

cases

and

variety of supply,

the

to

motor

where

any

it

which

current

g.,

market

The

different

the

polyphase

or

c.

the

cars,

Practically

a.

motor

street

e.

the

upon

following conditions:

the

(c) in adapting

and

same

the

(a) in adapting

motors

bewildering.

appears

developed under

d.

of

types

many

c.

c.

(not largely

Series

motor.
d.

Compound

generator.

generator

d.

d.

c.

c.

motor.

motor,

used).
In

addition

corresponding

there

are

generator

several

types

is in commercial

of

motor
use.

for

which

no

Construction

and

Synchronous

a.

Any

single

and

number

rule

such

of

from

current

current

is

it

same

produces

exciter

As

generator.

hence

and

motor

f., frequency

m.

e.

as

as

self -starting. It is excited

not

separate

the

at

phases which

motor

will operate

alternator

polyphase

supplied with

when

Motors.

Motors.

c.

or

Electric

of

Principles

Underlying

265

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

AND

MOTORS

ELECTRIC

with

direct

poles of fixed

has

polarity.
Suppose
to

circuit

will flow

alternator

an

through

the

(armature

member

be

and

will

produce

separately excited

field

and

an

field.

by the inertia

magnet)

nected
con-

Current

frequency.

windings

absorbed

or

its armature

f. and

m.

the

will be

alternating torque

e.

armature

upon

that

and

rest

of proper

alternating reaction

be

at

of the

The
ing
rotat-

will

rotation

no

produced.
If the

which

rotating member

the

line

is

frequency

speed) and

then

rotating

member

line, the

first

be

brought
by the

generated

the

be

armature

speed

at

chronous
(syn-

armature

connected

continue

will

the

to

the

to

synchronous

at

speed.
It will also
because

by the

are"

time

polarity
before.
to
"

that

its

reversed

Hence

speed the field flux and

the

it

driving

relative

same

in

finds

which

it

itself

it is necessary

in

to

field

bring

before

speed

That

quarter

the

the

of

opposite
period

rotating
motor

is,
has

conductor

located

was

armature

direction.

armature

an

this

does

will

part
fall

step/'

Starting

synchronous

"synchronizing"
lamps

in

It

current

synchronous

exactly
into

the

load.

the

direction
that

to

in

always

for

torque

synchronous

at

current

produce

is suitable

an

to

motor

alternator
indicate

is

exactly the

and
the

the

same

attainment

same

process

arrangement
of

as

of

synchronous

266

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

speed. *

After

the

has

motor

in step until over-loaded

which

design,

usually it

but

"

extent

that

the

resistance

break

be

load, the

between

when

principle

chronous

the

to

driven,

an

of

axis

the

is

moment

The

will

stop,

upon

generated

in

moving

point

of the

induction

motor.

cranks

spring

only possible
rotating

are

When

speed.

so

will

to

until

upon

maximum

and

started
with

current

the
upon

rotative

small

will

the

driven

jerks
the

strength of the spring

be

may

speed
be

turning

alternate

points from

synchronous

performance

plane

spring. Obviously

the

of attachment

in

driving and

produce

the

upon

armature

is

which

displaced

are

point is passed the

this

poles produces
this

cranks

placed

at

through

of the

member

principle underlying

is

spring will be stretched

tne

be

driver

crank

field

connecting

two

tne

may

the

distances

the

Fig.

cranks,

shafts). If A

After

and

reaction

mechanical

in

rotating

angle ft (measured

point will depend

the

by

transmitted

an

motors
Polyphase synchronous
line through lowering transformers

the

the

nous
synchro-

shown

tnat

that

to

driven

the

bring

or

upon

the

so

the

produced.

break-down

the

two

being

synchronous

rotatmg,

load

increased

spring is stretched

the

syn-

motor.

normal

and

with

illustrated

transmission

the

at

illustrating
of

two

Such

S.

dynamometer

is

B, through

and

Transmission

be

may

Power

133.

133.

of

simple mechanism

the

upon

varies

performance
motor

shaft

load,

over-load

being based

latter

The

the

The

withstand

to

duced
pro-

of the

down/'

expected

torque

rise of temperature.

allowable

FIG.

the

breaking down

before
may

rated

the

times

more

an

or

it will remain

synchronized

overcome

will carry

motor

to

instantly stop

it will

when

such

to

sufficient

is not

been

the

axis.

by connecting
field circuit
the

eddy

effort
without

understood

open.

currents

sufficient

load.
after

to

to

The

study

ELECTRIC

Induction

(asynchronous)

induction

The

of
in

of

follow
the

the

and

motion

of the
e.

eddy

field.

This

More

than

fifty

years

that

discovered

field may

be

by

from

produced
of

means

principle discovered

and

commercially

Dobrowolsky
coils
vertical

diameters

field,cutting

therein

currents

the

nating
alter-

Ferraris

by

by

Tesla,
cular
cir-

Two

together with
FlG-

and

coinciding

right angles.

at

metal

pivoted

Apparatus

T34-

the

with

currents

in

rotating

field

from

the

the

position in

space

instants

axis

the

induction

quarter-phase

The

The

the

current

is

perpendicular
is maximum

in

the

I.

coil

flux

which

which

intermediate

therefore
between

complete

rotates

those

at

is maximum

quarter

and

zero

has
so

in

the

cycle
coil

shifted

doing.

revolution

synchronous

mentioned

results

instant

this

by 90", cutting the sphere in

to

This

phase

At

coil

to

(two

because

coils.

zero.

in

produces

corresponds

moton

currents

revolves

sphere

within

phase

therefore

current

magnetic
At

is

in

coils

or

produced

current

former

cycle of

that
axis

magnetic

The

two

quadrature).
is

is

The

following facts.

when

later

Inside

to

principle of

sphere.

supplied

are

the

and

original rotating

illustrate

planes

to

rotating

Brown.

placed

are

magnetic

was

tendency

illustrates

applied

and

had

fore
be-

magnet

later

polyphase

the

discovery of the

stationary

Fig. 134

currents.

latter

The

f. and

the

Ferraris

the

m.

upon

the

to

ment
experi-

assistant

an

Arago rotated

magnet.

reacted

field.

coils

him

led

that

noticed

disk, produced

latter

which

while

Faraday

electro-magnetic induction.
disk

of the

logical development

267

Motors.

c.

interested

so

laboratory and

metal

which

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

a.

is

motor

Arago

Davy's

laws

AND

MOTORS

the

i.

its

Each
of the

speed.
flux

is

268

ELECTRICAL

depending
the

FIG.

eddy
certain
The

flux,

speed the

would

135.

the

View

field

current

per

be

a.

induction

c.

amount

produce
of

induction

138 operates

of

upon

the

rapidly

necessary

While

sphere follows
the

as

The

at

be

generated

sphere "slips

to

cause

required torque.

field it would

(Allis-Chalmers

motor

position

coils.

two

would

currents

of torque.

source

by the

to
cent

no

as

eddy

no

in the

currents

synchronous

at

by the

cut

there

behind

relative

jointly. It occupies

speed, for if it revolved

be

and

coils

two

the

upon

field rotates

slower
not

the

by

produced

ENGINEERING.

"

Co.).

sufficient

The

slip is

136,

137,

synchronism.

motor

the

illustrated
same

in

Figs. 135,

principle

as

the

and

rotating sphere.

ELECTRIC

MOTORS

AND

THEIR

APPLICATIONS.

269

ELECTRICAL

270

The

coils.

may

the

FIG.

The

137.

of

armature

windings

revolve

may

coils in the

support.

are

winding

construction.
metal

It

shows

Fig. 137

rest.

of

circuit connected

primary

two

ENGINEERING.

coils

Primary

and

alternator

an

and

in

The

sphere is made

the
The

Figs. 6 1 and
secondary
of

copper

of

a.

circuit

its

same

induction

diagrams

form

63

c.

stationary

with

the

are

as

of

in

alternator
the

corresponding
in

the

motor.

preferred for

bars, mounted

at

and

core

as

of coil and

are

the

to

sphere be held

winding

windings

applicable here.
shown

if the

connections

and

corresponds

remain

model

primary

the

line

it may

or

Ferraris

core

the

to

plan
motor

to

slots

the
upon

MOTORS

ELECTRIC

laminated

The

to

and

torque
these

in
"

built

able

country

replace the

primary
"

known

as

from

It is evident

of any

field magnet

will

result.

It

is

apparatus

for

shown

similar
in

Fig.

be

a.

is

known

induction

c.

similar

the

to

as

motors

desir-

motor.

that

squirrel cage,

above
and

removed

the

that

is slotted

the

winding
disk

radially.

of

that

upon

this

is

motor

variety of

the
when

the

if the

squirrel cage

induction

an

supplied with
by

reason
20

of

replace it,

when

furnished

greatest

It is sometimes

made

statements

alternator

Further,

normally
*

the

the

the

secondary.

secondary

phase-wound

or

"

to

ends.

confine

induction

most

winding

distinction

phase-wound

and

conductors

with

bars

the

at

to

arrangement

an

and

core

order

271

sphere being inefficient

of this type.

are

In

core.

in

metal

secondary

cage

138. Secondary

to

the

heat, the

least

"

form

by rings

they will produce

particulars.* Such

in this

FIG.

this

paths in which

the

squirrel

in

is made

the

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

all short-circuited

and

core,

secondary

currents

AND

used

modified

as

rent
cur-

an

Faraday

ELECTRICAL

272

armature,

rotating field is produced

circuited

secondary

it is not

As

order

starting,

at

to

obvious

an

the

to

motor

it will

continue

does

because

so

have

of the

secondary

takes

the

polyphase induction

but

motor

will

not

and

if

to

revolve

of

at

in small

obviate

the

necessity of

m.

yield

Series

a.

motor

feeble

and

with

As

the

is produced
is open

sides

of

out

sufficient

Such

general

accelerate

use

Motors
small

on

ing
demand-

purposes

very

satisfactory. To

of the

links

copper

coils, and
the

with

phase

to

these

main

coils

and

field

starting torque.

is

now

during

the
this

and

when

supplied with

passes

through

self-starting possibilities
As

generates

rotating part
operation.

the

eddy
is

to

speed.

and

armature

the

polyphase

therein.

currents

brought

of

produces

armature

series,will
alternating

and

conductors

armature

evident.

poles
and

the

the

in

field connected

and

current

same

commutator,

armature,

direction

one

in
for

reason

motors

this cuts

the

current

The

are

secondary

rapidly.

starting, small
the

armature

in

produce torque

field the

"

for other

they

on

consisting of

current.

and

It

phase in operation,

pick-up
in

speed.

circuits.

one

are

of

Motors.

c.

magnet,

but

"

type

f. somewhat

m.

but

nor

speed,

to

and

speed it will tend

hand

placed

brought

primary

will

outfits

circuits

primary

primary

applies

efficient

as

slightly reduced

with
low

is not

been

of the

units, and

(shading coils) are

produce

it has

rest

heavily loaded

power

the

missing

very

fans, in sewing machine

and

at

single-phase induction

of the

latter

of

one

after

the
from

even

not

the

type.*

also

motor

in

is self-

motor

synchronous

induction

combination

start

if started

but

opened

the

over

polyphase

be

place

motion

any

advantage

the

short

synchronism.

single-phase motor,

polyphase

will drive
below

satisfactory. If all but

as

which

speed somewhat

torque,

principle of the

The

necessary

produce

to

ENGINEERING.

The

flux

re-

nous
synchro-

rotating field
weak

torque

field circuit

MOTORS

ELECTRIC

the

at

verse

with

At

applied

few

and

the

difficulties

nected
con-

satisfactory heating been

series type

railway service

to

produce

required long experience,

have

years

the

present

has

273

To

torque.

lines

commutation

proper

overcome.

produce

along these
within

only

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

and

time

same

satisfactory motor
and

AND

of

a.

particularly

is

motor

c.

interurban

long

on

being

lines.
In

series

the

from
144,

except

and

d.

that

of

Thomson

series

is the

It
combined

and

of

circuited

When

motor.

off

thrown

and

synchronous
is

Shunt

with

much
is

the

d.

same

e.

m.

than

circular

frame

same

generators

slightly different,but
appearance

of

d.

tator.
commu-

repulsion
the

to
are

as

short-

repulsion

automatically

are

to

One

use.

the

starts

motor

rotate

at

nearly

starting torque

Motors.
excellent

an

and

motor
,

that

as

produced
As

speed.
their

otherwise
motor

into

greater

c.

makes

applied

give nearly the

brushes

brushes

Elihu

coils.

Wound

f.

poles

connected

the

then

permits

generator

c.

of

series

employs

continues

shading

Compound

smaller

general
a

This

speed.

shunt

will

machine

possible with

and

The

the

and

armature

upon

coming

and

motor

the

and

is

speed the

to

up

is

motor

motor

starting. The

at

bear

commutator

induction

an

143,

Prof.

by

has

motor

form

starting. A

of

secondary

which
which

single-phase induction

principle in

1887

in

induction

modified

Figs. 142,

greatly

commutator.

brushes
of

differ

not

larger number

repulsion motor,

in

in

invented

motor

form

with

equipped

through

is

does

motor

c.

illustrated

motor

c.

it is

short-circuited

than

a.

proportionately larger

type

type

series

the

appearance

mechanical

they

is shown

project four pole

motors

cores

are

in
and

as

are

tor
genera-

usually

construction
the

same.

Fig. 139.
coils,the

The
From
usual

ELECTRICAL

274

for

number

d.

also machined
The

latter

FIG.

the

securely
firm

forming
surface

and

requiring but
blocks

c.

shunt

to

The

The

circular

field

ring is

bearing frames.

for

pole

the

brushes.

two

in brass

usually, in

than

attached
in

similar
series

or

to

the

small

the

carbon

commutator

rocker

motor

of

winding,

wave

are

the

armature

those

to

large generators
of

appearance

coils,are

slotted

spring fingers against the

holders

general

The

brushes

The

their

arm,

all of

but

otherwise

parts

is shown

in Fig. 141.

Compound-wound

motors

are

projecting pole shoes

coils.
coils

to

(Allis-Chalmers)

with

cores,

of

attachment

motor

ring, the

machine-formed

connected,

concentric

compound-wound

field

the

simpler construction

similar.

of

cast-steel

pressed by the

carried

size.

the

carry

method

or

supports

carries

generator,

to

by the

d.

moderate

self-oilingbearings, perfect alignment

support

of

ends

ring. The

field

bolted

and

the

at

View

139.

of

motors

c.

is secured

which

ENGINEERING.

similar

to

the

shunt

motors

ELECTRIC

MOTORS

AND

THEIR

APPLICATIONS.

275

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRIC

with

the

either

of

MOTORS

two

which

assist the
is thus

be

may

when

out

cut

(b) Connected
strength with
This

speed.
shunt
for most

Series

The
forced
has

maintain

tends
is

connection
a

speed

series

The

normal

coil

speed.
the

maintain

to

service

other

and

torque.

such

seldom

field

uniform

necessary

as

regulation quite satisfactory

purposes.

d.

Motors.

c.

from

series motor
to

taken

the

on

in

indicated
and

attachment

to

of series

Fig. 142

the

car

are

secured,

support

from

on

cranes,

it is most

closed

is of such

case

axle, and

cars,

which

railway motor,

water-proofing
the

street

under

it has

in which

environment

peculiar form

View

142.

the

(that is, under

operate

FIG.

As

and

of load

in

heavy torque

field,it weakens

shunt

the

differential

motors

elevator

reached

in

and

field,it produces

has

is used

coil which

armature,

for

277

excessive

or

oppose

increase

series

the

useful

motor

to

APPLICATIONS.

purposes

shunt

full

under

starts

the

in series with

to

as

THEIR

for two

and

ways

starting and

at

of

single exception

(a) Connected
direction

AND

(G.

E.

the

etc.)

familiar.

Co.).

shape that

and

been

the

means

axle

and

pactness
com-

of
truck

278

ELECTRICAL

frame
of

the

series

smallest

field

FIG.

steel for

It is of

of solid

The
enable

to

coils and
the

it

to

top

it

railway

serves

the

spread

as

or

show

144

motor,

frame

project four

the

the

having

air gap.

the

ance
appear-

is of

magnetic circuit and

steel and

to

cast

(G. E. Co.).

open

octagonal form

case

out

reduced

are

The

armature.

series

laminated

is

except
very

in very

short

pole horns
The

ing
protect-

pole

pole

to

port
sup-

cores

are

necessarily large in proportion in order

produce

wound,
on

which

essentials

case.

armature

wave

apart

or

reliabilityare

Figs. 143 and

circular

From

motors.

bolted

of

lightness,and

the

or

View

of

parts

and

magnet

143.

case.

cores

the

motor,

possible number.

of

large

Simplicity and

provided.

are

ENGINEERING.

the

required torque.

requiring

of the

two

commutator.

brushes
The

It is

which
same

are

always

to

series

placed 90"

general form

of

MOTORS

ELECTRIC

coils, Fig. 145,

armature

in series

mounted

attached

Armature

144.

is of the

holding mechanism
are

upon

the

to

FIG.

radially,but

as

They

are

coils

of

be

thus
When

series

railway

brushes

the

placed because

remain
the
while

motors

are

placed

Fig.

brush

holders
which

is

adjustable

are

motor.

on

motor

the
must

neutral

operate

perfect commutation

provided, it is satisfactory under

the

of

ferential
provide for circum-

to

necessary

equally well in either direction, and

cannot

The

They

case.

found

motor.

insulating material

of the

rule it is not

thus

The

simplest construction.

half

as

railway

are

that

to

Fig. 83.

in

series

of

Armature

adjustment
axis.

of

279

in generators,

used

frame

upper

145.

those

is illustrated

commutator

FIG.

as

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

plan of winding is similar

The

motors.

The

80.

AND

upon

cars

the
which

stances.
circumrun

in

280

ELECTRICAL

direction

one

the
in

best

ENGINEERING.

(single-enders) the

only

position. The

wires

lead

insulating bushings, the

both
be

in the

changed
In

attention
oil and

overflow

self-greasingby
without

their

allow

the

to
case

from

out

connections

to

These

the

to

track.

The
of

means

the

on

the

at

shaft, and

Oil

these

made

and

discharge

allow

or

are

wicks

keeping

commutator.

oil wells

or

for

tion
injure the insula-

would

bearings

rings

these, special

as

design of devices

produce sparking

connected
the

on

being brought

to

case.

therefore, placed

are,

the

through

little attention

so

to

of the

coils and

chambers

into

given

out

grease

of the

rings

receive

be

must

terminals

shifted

are

controller.

which

motors

carried

are

field circuits

and

armature

brushes

will

the

oil

self-oilingor
for weeks

run

attention.
The

of

description
of

type

general

series

motor

the

to

in crane,

the

railway

will

apply in

smaller

elevator

and

models

used

other

service

requiring large starting torque

a

Interpole

given

to

which
field

regular
cuits

of

Diagram
of

the

cir-

interpole

with

has

coils

carrying all
AT

..

line

current.

is

arrangement
function

The
a

of the

reversing field for the

passing under
as

commutating

the load

Motors

load

is

than

The

brush.

larger when

equipped
those

the
the

with
not

coil

so

"

or

inter

"

reversing

current

is

the

smaller
or

in

pole is

"

more

The

""

to

"

produce
that

is,

stronger

difficult to

of

this

Fig. 146.

field is thus

result

of the
of

interpole spark less under

equipped.

ones

part

commutation,

undergoing

series

or

diagram

given
"

name

between

poles,

motor

load.

is the

Motor

shunt, compound

motor

146.

and

speed varying inversely with

The

FIG.

to

the

reverse.

heavy
intro-

ELECTRIC

duction
for

of

higher

An

e.

600

about

this

of

1 00

circuits

railway

before.
the

the

it

considerable

be

may

designed
was

volts.
f.

m.

e.

in

saving

set

1200

line

distribution

of

range

be

previously

allowable

the

281

can

limit

The

in

or

motors

interpole

cent

per

means

line copper

in

or

f. than

volts;* with

increase

is that

improvement

m.

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

AND

MOTORS

line
be

may

on

loss

tionately
propor-

increased.

Characteristics.

Motor

The
the

important

degree
and

torque
The

wrhich

to

in

a.

these

varying

not

the

drawn
that

by

curves

known

"

as

form,

the

factor

in the

speed-

factor

power

the

power

upon

the

curves

armature.

of

field

the

of

field

leading
to

of

corresponding

to

cases

field

current

the

current

of

value

produces

current.

field

their

are

both

the

upon

weak

armature

account

on

The

effect

machine

same

factor

therefore,

of

the

portant
im-

curves

efficiency in

power

strong

relation

efficiency
of

only
the

showing

factor.

output.

"

bottom

the

unity

curves

those

those

from

given

speed, the

The

current.

and,

and

showing

latter,

efficiency and

armature

current

circuit.

electric

torque-current,

constant

generator,

effect

for

is, produce

motors.

different

with

current

lagging

current

the

as

the

the

indicate

that

the

upon

current,

curves;

excitation

marked

effect

their

produce

are

operated

work,

speed,

motors

being maximum
has

their

which

Motors.

c.

substantially

when

they perform

alternating

curves

of

those

efficiency

Synchronous
As

are

include

and
of

case

motors

speed, and

former

torque

of

curves

current

The
are

characteristic

unity

power

282

Induction
In

FIG.

as

abscissae

147.

illustrated.

this

of

power

about

curve

twice

during normal

power

rises

uniformly
load

rated

load

(A.

motor

horsepower

The

ordinates.

as

induction

C.

Co.).

corresponding

the

until

after

which

at

been

the

that

if still further

produce

to

loaded

horsepower.

steeply
That

to

ing
produc-

off, at first
zero

after

is,if the load

input will proportionately increase

If the

over-load.
first slow

is

motor

it falls

reached.

maximum
it will break

The
of

load

thus

down,

Finally, it will stop.

motor

will

and

will

motor

output.

100

is 50

the

this

about

c.

a.

plotted with

are

variables

motor

is increased

motor

the

of

curves

point has

break-down

great

several

curves

rapidly, finally descending

slowly, then

the

The

induction

for the

curves

input.

amperes
The

the

and

Characteristic

load

rated

the

given the important

are

previously

input

42

Motor?.

c.

a.

Fig. 147

motor

on

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

128

down

becomes

too

decreasing the

curve

shows

horsepower
when

that
and

delivering

The

required
The

k.

1.5
to

when

w.

ampere-input

low

power

factor.

the

power

component

magnetizing
the

as

is

The

of the

the

has

efficiencycurve

it falls off

rapidly because

wrhile

input is increasing.

the

break-down

efficiencypromptly
The

cent,

per

that

in

uniformly
break-down

due

the

to

electrical

other

output
the

break

Here

decreasing

are

-down

point

zero.

plainly that

show

speed falling off but

over-loaded.

is, the

with

compared

the

as

usual

Beyond

curves

the

heavily

is

motor

three

slip

speed motor,

constant

the

and

speed

to

gradually, because

rapidly

speed and

the

falls

with

value

point is approached.

until

the

power

region.

form

machines

the

rises

in that

factor

power

no

rapidly and

Finally,

current

that

is small

more

increases.
the

first

at

current

then

component,

approached

reduction

the

with

of

current

rises

curve

of

factor

power

point

The

is

losses.

8 amperes

at

an

light. This

running

friction

and

magnetizing

point indicating

is

begins

curve

at

motor

magnetic

overcome

input, indicating

the

axis

the

283

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

the

cuts

curve

power

input of

AND

MOTORS

ELECTRIC

The

speed

slip

is within

this

is

slightly until
full

at

this

load

is
of

amount

synchronism.
A

different

circuit

secondary

for illustration

speed

motor

Series

a.

The

of

set

has

to

proper

is the

power

motor

is very
motor.

less

when

produced

resistance, the

normal

values

for

the

set

used

constant

Motors.

those

in the

or

is

size.

characteristic

similar

greater

representing the

of this

c.

characteristics

of the

d.

place. The
factor
similar

of

curves

curve

to

c.

series

type, the

that

in the

motors

c.

details

only additional
which

a.

are

of which

curve

working

already described

of

are

very

given

importance

range

for the

of the
tion
induc-

284

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

20

30

Total

FIG.

148.

Characteristic

curves

40

of

50

Intake

Current

d.

c.

shunt

motor

(A.-C. Co.),

MOTORS

and

Compound=Wound

Shunt

Fig. 148 represents

The

speed

of characteristic

from

decrease
load

875

r.

slip in the

speed characteristics

This

indicates

between

the

two

m.

p.

at

full

to

the

similarity in

the

types.

the

in the

steeply than

less

light load

at

r.

corresponds

indicates

and

as

828

to

cent.

per

rises somewhat

described,

motor

load

no

motor

curve
efficiency

The

5.4

or

induction

at

m.

p.

(10 horsepower)

base.

current

on

shunt

of the

curves

practically straight and

is

curve

285

Motors.

c.

previously illustrated, plotted

motor

last

d.

set

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

AND

ELECTRIC

field

is

current

large

proportion of the total.

The

horsepower
to

necessary

Before

starts

curve

excite

the

overcome

reached

been

intake, the

j-amperes

field and

the

has

half load

at

current

friction.

no-load

it becomes

continues

and

practically straight.
effect

The

would

field

increase

of
be

the

series

decrease

to

with

torque

affecting the
loss in the
but

series

it would

be

for

Series

d.

different
affects

would

decrease

the

without

current

tially
substan-

without

The

curves.

slight effect

the

correspondingly

current

horsepower
have

strengthen

ential
differ-

and

material

these,

upon

purposes.

torque

heat

increase

effect

upon

the
the

horsepower.
Motors.

from

both

and

negligible for all practical

characteristic

The

149

c.

to

speed

input

any

efficiency or

given

efficiencyand

connected

the

winding would

winding
speed

winding

those
the

represents

series

of the

constant

and

current

speed
a

of

curves

of

set

to

the

radically

are

speed types.

from

curves

motors

greater

The
extent.

railway

motor

torque

Fig.
viously
pre-

described.
The

torque

curve

indicates

proportional

to

the

that
current.

the

torque

produced

At

values

low

is practically

of current

286

the

ELECTRICAL

net

value

is small

torque
it follows

through

FIG.

torque
On

would

it

40

30

20

10

be

account

the

field

and

Characteristic

149.

of

account

on

friction,but

straight line law.

armature

ENGINEERING.

of

curves

proportional

of the

saturation

curve

follows

As

the

might

be

50

60

series

of the

inferred

90

80

railway

flows

of

square

that

100

the

110

(G. E. Co.),

motor

magnetic

small

current

same

70

the

to

above

the

current.

circuit this is not

case.

The
reason

produce
smaller.

speed
that

as

counter

As

speed tends

the

e.

become

m.

f.

increases

current

saturation
to

nearly

equal

of the
constant

to

law

hyperbolic
the
the

magnetic
until if

speed
line

e.

circuit

for

the
to

necessary
m.

f. becomes

increases

perfect saturation

the
were

the

reached

shunt

of

2.

after

with
of

the

has

to

are

the

to

of

and

motor

normal

speed

constant

speed.

against overload

motor

load.

maintenance

brought

the

motors

safety

of the

or

been

of all

application of the

sudden

unduly

similar

Control.

is, with

nature

speed

of

Protection

3.

the

Variation
motor

be

practically the

is

motor

and

Handling

Starting properly, that

in accordance

would

motor

motor.

operating features

important

1.

series

the

shunt

Motor

The

series

287

motor.

of the

that

as

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

of the

curve

efficiency curve

The
same

speed

of the

that

to

AND

MOTORS

ELECTRIC

and

against

load.

Starting.
When

motor

impedance
As

rule

injurious

these

to

desired

load

also

example,

flow

of current

limit the

As

in

soon

such

such

the

cut

nature.

of

flux

speed that

of the

This
which

the

of

rush

elevators
rest

and

require

the

it be

moving

line

part

difference between

to

of

m.

is

motor
more

or

ditions.
con-

the

rotate
a

counter

e.

loads

operating

begins

cutting generates

For

crane

They

field whether

produce

starting.

if the

motor

device

of the

even

upon

the

nature

of

rate

current

will

as

or

applied.

of

Hence

The

starts.

opposes

The

current.

cars,

from

part

m.

value

more.

the

depending

moving

the

such

f. is

e.

line wires.

no

sudden

an

prevent

upon

suddenly

conductors

flow

and

street

acceleration

as

rotating

the

to

tools,

gradual

the

current

machine

conductors
a

the

restrictions

started

to

to

imposes

capable of making
less

and

motor

only its resistance

when

small

too

starting torque

be

cannot

rest

are

the

to

is necessary
the

the

to

it possesses

is at

f. and

fixed
e.

m.

or

/.

limits

automatically takes
the

line and

counter

288

e.

ELECTRICAL

f.'s is

m.

the

just sufficient

resistance
of

motor)

is

motor

(in a d.

required

shows

counter

of

input

4660
The

amperes.
counter

At

f.?

m.

e.

e.

and

windings

this

is the

excessive

Motors

with

line.

speed

to

same

by

These

of

After
e.

the

under

starts

armature,
The

be
the

line

at

raised

the

light, i. e., without

the

of

is

requires
to

an

21.2

the

load.

power

be

circuit

and

the

full value

brought

connecting

The

full

to

safe

speed, the

is reached.

of

hence

the

When

motor

motor

synchronous
and

the

it may

poles.
started

speed has

been

starting is complete*

described, requires the

factor, and

by the

the
be

must

the

applied

The

in

generated

line

value.

rotating field produced

currents

the

transformers

impedance

current
some

must

parallel

be

motor-starters).

the

an

tion
opera-

in

may

lowering

as

the

but

The

power.

alternator

through

the

produce

load

under

an

attained

excited

through

would

polyphase,

limit

of the

is weak,

field may

low

until

eddy

Starting by the method

current

to

has

reaction

starting torque

reached

What

apparatus.

of

source

applied

once

sufficient

upon

ciency.
effi-

only overheat

driven

started

exciter

or

rotating part

f. may

m.

be

when

the
the

to

be

is not

armature

ohm.

flow

not

connecting

motors,

opening

would

outside

an

that

as

f. cannot

m.

Its

cent

per

corresponding

could

of the

(usually auto-transformers
e.

80

sparking, but

cannot

by

circuits

armature

at

shunt

c.

pulley.

horsepower

which

which

amperes,

synchronized

the

is 0.3

case,

current

injuriously rapid acceleration

be

at

c.

213.65 volts.

cause

Synchronous

d.

a.

drop is,therefore, 6.35 volts, and

possible

is 734

armature

this

armature

deliver

in

armature

the

start

the

To

watts

f. is

m.

it will do

(in an

220-volt

against

current

impedance

horsepower

that
of

the

or

example,

deliver

to

required

the

motor)
For

resistance

The

send

to

c.

circuit.

the

efficiency curve

the

ENGINEERING.

have

use

of

large

disturbing

effect

by

start

to

cases

motor

Fig.

indicated

in

connected

to

the

where

121,

shafts, auxiliary induction

their

practice is
have

converters

rotary

number

bring the latter

This

synchronism.

which

motor,
smaller

it to

allow

to

slightly above

speed

main

with

provided

in many

is better

It

line.

auxiliary induction

an

be

must

the

poles than

to

of

means

connected

if direct
of

regulation of the

the

upon

289

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

AND

MOTORS

ELECTRIC

direct-

for starting

motors

purposes.

The
d.

and

converter,

rotary

generator,

c.

machine

other

is

battery forms

storage

separately excited

d.

c.

as

before.

Induction

horsepower)

so

quickly

but

load

The
m.

e.

Such
a

upon

greatly affect

be

at

started

first,which

The

graduation

with

its extreme

taps

to

by

motor

lever

they

motor

usually forms

other

hence

under

small

load,

are

ones

of

e.

m.

f. is

located

sliding

outside

the

it

by
to

an

transformer

responds

All

for

part

small

not

large
which

type,

same

up

rectly
di-

does

current

e.

m.

An

arm

case

f.

proceeds.

auto-transformer

line and

contacts.

or

(say

small

acceleration

as

one

is drawn

thereto.

of the

provided

connected

terminals

through

size

but

starting

to

connected

current

supplied with

gradually increased

is

small

connected

apparatus
and

its

as

desirable

revolving part is light and

excessive

is

motors.

unloaded, be

f. that

synchronized

it is not

of

current

starting, but

for

are

On

speed

to

auxiliary starting

line, and

squirrel-cage motors,
must

if

may,

the

instant.

an

of the

to

this

Polyphase Motors

the circuits.

to

as

current

have

Motors.

direct

it is

and

motor

system

direct

should

converters

such

entirely upon

depend
more

in

Even

shunt

or

some

especially if

brought

is

if

current.

equipment,

converter

motor

end

c.

and

converters,

of the

part
The

usually available.

to

several

employing

large system

d.

direct

generating

already

the

from

started

be

may

synchronous

of

combination

intermediate
controlled
travels

over

ELECTRICAL

290

these
the

gives the operator

and

contacts

of

duration

is cut

this

way

The

primary

to

acceleration

the

lever

entirely

the

circuits

are

is

resistance

within

slip collar

and

into

is

the

the

the

has

motor

e.

of

satisfaction

the

as

in

external,
is

current

brought

resistance

manipulated

by

(The latter

phase-wround

is used

daries.)
secon-

introduction

the

then

must

current

be

slip rings. The

through

Hence

current.

effect upon

the

lamps

driving loads

induction

when

it is

line

regulation is

operating

are

which

preferred

require

upon

gentle

motors

have

they

been

brought

the

speed.

to

The

difficulty is

This

starting them.
of which

ways

reasonable

with

operate

following

are

the

cipal
prin-

Shading

the

out

starting torque.

in several
ones

for

and

satisfactory starting qualities

incandescent
for

or

in

line,
cut

shaft.

the

upon

primary

is
be

and

primary

very

principal difficulty is in
overcome

the

wound

slip rings. The

country

starting

excess

g., when

Single-phase

As

save

started

the

to

may

armature

sliding

revolving

circuit,

same

primary

to

are

are

first and

at

through

applications in which

increase

the

starting resistance.

directly

resistance

simpler, but

little

important,

of

stationary secondary

phase-wound
draws

secondaries

secondary is revolving the

carried

be

large

The

box

of resistance

for

over

speed

circuit

circuits,which

connected

resistance

If

and

control

reaches
of the

out

introduction

practice is preferred in this

taken

desired

motor

phase-wound

permit

if the

also

may

the

secondary

proceeds.

case

to

out

in the

secondary

which

with

motors

resistance

the

the

current.

Induction
with

When

start.

starting transformer
exciting

ENGINEERING.

core

flux
which

coils, small

copper

overlapping
changes
are

out

in
of

and

these

links,

placed

are

linking with

the

primary

shading coils,currents

phase with

those

in the

around

are

primary

the
coils.
duced
pro-

coils.

ELECTRIC

The

result

is the

is sufficient
is not
flux

As

great.

the

increase

until

to

primary

Hand

of the

forced

of

the

the

used

be

coils.

shading

cut

to

of

the

cuts

also

are

the

increase

which

rate

it

of

out

strength

continues

acceleration

to

plan is adapted

This

motors.

starting may

effect

and

resistance

starts,

which

currents

current

The

mechanical

speed is reached.

normal

small

very

if the

secondary

generates

revolving field.

of the

the

as

291

irregular rotating field which

an

secondary

soon

field and

phase with

that

the

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

production of

start

to

of the

only

AND

MOTORS

these

By

replace the

or

the

means

by combination

field and

primary

supplement

to

of its

m.

f. with

m.

rotating field is produced

is

secondary

already

as

described.

Phase-splitting devices
a

divided

circuit, currents
if

example,

will

parallel they
maximum
be

to

of

started

main

and

the

The

field.

also
the
This

the

which

Such

it.

The

is beneficial

primary

current

is

current

plan is used

at

weak

of

If

90".

like

the

the

in the
current

be

produce

the

it neutralizes
and

improves

successfully in

motor

phase

divided

circuit

through

be

produced

The

starting

the

through
this

and

be

not

wattless

power

leading

rotating
cut

is

lagging component

the

power

of

few

out
sumed
con-

current

the

factor

combined

desired

need

motors

speed.

speed, for practically no

of

in

second

short-circuited

leading current,
will

the

passes

reaches

motor

For

having

currents

torque.

arrangement

presence
as

other

may

condenser

motor

the

with

when

draws

primary

line

same

other.
connected

are

rotating field will then

start

out

each

reactance

of the currents

auxiliary winding

in

displacement

one

will

be cut

may

the

and

in

produce,

to

phase with

auxiliary circuit

motor,

motor

the

of

from

an

winding.

condenser,
with

out

through this while

sent

the

when

have

two-phase

device

draw

possible phase

be

may

resistance

employed

be

may

of

thereby.

horsepower

292

ELECTRICAL

capacity. The

condenser

ENGINEERING.

is

for

bulky

too

with

use

large

motors.

The

successful

The

use.

to

The

starting device, already mentioned,

commutator

commutator

brushes

circuit

connections
that

The

produced.
short-circuited
Series

in

which

applied

various
the

to

This

is done

pass

under

in

series

which
m.

This

through

hence

produces
C.

shunt

in series
shown

with

in

firstclosed
any

current

that
flows

by

in

disturbance

are

started
A

armature.

is
the

through

may

the

taps

e.

contact

f.

m.

more

segments

is

current

its

counter

own

the

current

factor

power

to

coil,

reactance

regulation of the

with

and
line.

adjustable resistance

starting box,

attain

connected

because

low

the

tion,
applica-

The

starting

usually employed.
flux

field of

required connections.

favor

regulator has

in series,

by including

introducing

in great

not

resistance

variable

speed.

points of connection.

the

motor

m.

motors

the

the

is

such

Fig. 151,
so

e.

scheme

drawn

D.

with

is

commutator

secured.

controlling the

for

in

the

sliding

fingers, making

the

reduces

where

flow

is

is increased

controller

contact

plan

connect

e.

in the

short-

secondary

the

but

starting torque

transformer,

be

between

turns

to

numerous

may

terminals

motor

second

f/s

m.

e.

transformer

secondary

with

action

currents

with

primary

and

important

most

line, is provided

the

reaches

armature

nected
con-

armature.

brushes

and

out

follows:

as

current

net

started

be

may

started

are

the

across

from

the

as

railway service, their

they

secondary

cut

are

soon

motors

c.

a.

The

is

motor

by transformer

considerable

brushes
as

the

the

starting and

at

secondary

force

of

direct

rotating field.

directions

such

but

in the

produce

cannot

in

as

short-circuited

are

current

generates

winding

secondary

is in

The

its normal

armature.

If

similar

to

that

field circuit
value
the

is

before

field

and

ELECTRIC

circuits

armature

will be

current

of

the

is

value.

in

The
in

the

but

few

therefore,

never

for

is

duration

of
of

amount

gradually
the

is in

device

moving

spring, solenoid

device

elevator
of the
and

at

is

except
switch
a

and

"

dash

cannot
a

predetermined

wound
the

that

speed has
maintain

regulation is
to

apt

the

series

motors

c.

reached.

not

occur

speed

winding

be

the

An

starting

from

the

it to

allows

car,

ate
acceler-

be

regulation than

load

is of such
and

series

nature

need

heat

if the

if sudden

winding

connected

produce

to

short-circuited

will then

motor

motors,

requires special

winding is added

it may

The

like shunt

started

sometimes

series

necessary,

the

motion.

service.

closed

motor,

are

winding

If the

If the

the

near

or

by

rate.

series

better

left in circuit.

are

opened

starting torque,
been

is

resisted

control

to

be

steady

in elevator

trusted

of

may

be

may

starting

means

This

insure

to

be

switch

d.

connections.

powerful

"

pot

by

lever.

motion

by the

of the

automatic

the

The

accelerates, the

control

box

is

resistance

continuously.

motor

The

made

controller, located

Compound

the

absolutely essential

hence

motor,

out

resistance

oil

or

the

as

usually

period being determined

motor

operator

car

the

the

or

adjustable air
a

circuit

cases

many

is

starting resistance

left in
as

maximum

starting box

The

accelerated.

be

to

resistance
for

cut

armature

certain

carried

seconds.

acceleration

mass

to

in the

current

be

The

field

resistance, the value

the

current

ance
inductthe

prevents

instantly.

through
the

of the

because

inductance

conductor

to

resistance

Such

limit

to

resistance

circuit

an

line

the

to

proportion

should,

The

293

instant, excessive

same

armature

reaching its full value

is selected

of which

the

at

by the

circuit.

connected

next

small

drawn

field

from

current

closed

are

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

AND

MOTORS

that

be

differentiallyit

less

series

and

coil

is

good speed
over-loads

heavy
not

after

cut

may

out.

be

If

short-

ELECTRICAL

294

circuited
The

circuit

Series

d.

the

larger current,

produce

to

great

the

as

least two

motors

current

then

current

for

and

the

motors

they

are

connected

The

in

are

across

contact

very

(armatures,

the

under

solenoids.

the

The

car,

are

of

end

primary

speed

against

often

the

given service.

smaller

ing
start-

is

possible

as

speed)

resistance,

is

cylinder
which

various

upon

bridge
of

parts

the

resistances). The
thus

are

In

made.

performed by large switches,

the

under

of

equipments

In

the

in the

made

segments

connections

pistons

motorman's

or

electric

control.

Control.

load

resistance.

way

starting

are

car.

coils, and

of any

By

the

the

by hand

to

field

factor

nected
con-

starting

one-half

about

copper

function

determining

the

rotates

Speed
The

always
be

may

far

as

operated by air-driven

latter

as

out.

function

same

be

are

same

changes mentioned

of

starting resistance

proceeded

(that is,to

fingers connected

large cars

located

has

insulated

combinations

necessa^

the

motorman

mounted

equipment

the

at

ordinary size, the

which

When

cut

for the

located

these

parallel, in series with

again gradually

controller

there

and

with

not

One-half

saved

shunt

railway work,

starting. The

is thus

series

In

and

motors.

used.

in

connections

need

current

car

the

is greater

series motor,

of

both

acceleration

the

is

be

may

with

which

for

given torque

field flux

same

instant

the

serves

resistance
all out

the

upon

torque.

already

as

than

given starting torque.

in series at

resistance

better

starting

excess

the

reduce

speed is reached.

with

starts

motor

principal application of the

the
at

the

when

started

that

reason

it would

removed

are

series

The

for

be

may

motors

c.

described.
motor

otherwise

starting, as

at

short

ENGINEERING.

This

in the

of review

is to

motor

speed

selection

of the

produce

desired

requirement
of motors

for

is
a

speed characteristics

ELECTRIC

of the

MOTORS

various

THEIR

AND

the

motors

following

APPLICATIONS.

295

will be

summary

useful

in

studying the subject of speed control.

of Motor.

Type

Synchronous,
Induction,

a.

a.

Characteristics.

Speed
Absolutely

c.

constant.

falls off

Practically constant,

c.

slightlywith

increase

of load.

Series,

a.

Shunt,

Varies

c.

d.

c.

d.

Compound,

to

With

c.

Same

Synchronous
the

line

unless

a.

frequency

these

a.

have

the

altered

are

series,

as

and

otherwise

speed,

designed

be

may

for

shunt

combines

and

characteristics.

motors

c.

c.

a.

winding

differential

series
c.

load.

induction

constant

Series, d.

with

inversely

Similar

there

c.

speed determined

of

number
is

field

control

no

solely by

poles.

of the

Hence

speed of such

motors.

Induction

a.

motors

c.

known

are

although the speed falls off by

full load.
line

The

frequency

alter

the

done

done

give

the

number

speed is

"

in
"

series
is

and

increased

motor

Series

a.

c.

tap
the

transformer
motor

naturally.

best

are

varied

starting them.

variable

speed is thus

e.

m.

This

naturally

characteristics

for
a

heating.

from

f. is

readily varied.

in

By

only

to

elevator

exceptional.

motors

already described

order

considered

be

gives such

For

secondary

load

to

by the
way

to

ma}^

be

resistance, which

objectionable in spite of the

not

should

the

slip. This

size in

characteristics.

this

the

secondary

of small

motors

no

speed is fixed

poles, and

increase

to

forcing series characteristics

motor

of

from

cent

per

no-load

or

inserting excessive

by

service

and

running

sometimes
to

synchronous

few

speed motors,

constant

as

force

them

and

crane

reduced

practice of
speed

series

speed by the
means

ciency
effi-

constant

The

is

of the

a.

c.

method
multi-

produced
efficiently

and

ELECTRICAL

296
Shunt

and

d.

compound=wound
normally of

motors,
efficient

ENGINEERING.

speed control

(a) By variation

of the

applied

(b) By variation

in the

field

the

noted,

before

As

counter

the

in

equal

Hence

armature.

to

the

proportional

applied
but
better
*

motors

e.

this is

plan is

This
in
counter

showing

f. may

m.

does

e.

not

be

take

applied

speed that

such
e.

the

f. less the

m.

conditions

being the

applied

-110

circuits

multi-voltage

reduced

line

f. of the

to

the

by using

speed

frequency
motor.

same,

f.*

m.

e.

drop

The

Volts-

line
of

is the

a.

e.

c.

shop

for

some

Volt

motors.

of it in resistance

it is inefficient.

good practice because

apply
the

m.

methods.

f.

m.

to

provide several

to

not

which

two

-80 Volts-

Diagram

150.

of

range

to

other

-60 Volts-

duction
in-

strength.

-250

FIG.

e.

tends

motor

f. is

m.

e.

speed will be

the

the

wide

while, like

speed characteristics, permit

constant

over

motors

c.

m.

f.'s

by

synchronous

controlling

factor

multi-wire

and

induction
rather

than

ELECTRIC

AND

MOTORS

such

multi-voltagesystem

or

which

is used for

drivingmachine

By the

tools.
f/s

m.

e.

297

illustrated in

that

as

producing different

armatures

APPLICATIONS.

THEIR

wide

Fig. 150,
of several

use

of

range

e.

f.

m.

is obtained.
Resistance

inserted

must

to the line

e.

strong

and

vice

generate

f.,they

m.

Hence

one.

increase of

versa.

This

counter

must

e.

results

speed through

principlecannot
there

is not

in the

armature

as

the current

reverse

combining the variable

By

motors

duces
pro-

practicallyequal
field than

weak

be

applied too far for the

sparking

at

enough flux left

to

the

and

adjustment of field

will remain
wound

e.

f. with

m.

series

properly

variables field

the

will rise

or

d.

c.

change in

and

motors

e.

m.

dividingthe

speed is then

determined

be further affected
this

while

that

was

done

e.

m.

effect of the

the

to

f.

compound-

m.

In

reason.

by connection
f. equally between

by altering the

number

f.

practice

them.

The

The

speed

is to shunt

of field turns,

the field coil with

"

diverter."

to

m.

ally
by changing the field strength. Form-

f is thus reduced, the flux is lessened

is increased

e.

of the motors

by the load resistance.

method
satisfactory

more

same

diverting resistance,frequently called

field m.

of

m.

motor

changes in applied

to

for the

f. is secured

in series,thus

but

e.

speed of the shunt

according

respond

motors

just as do shunt

may

fall

given

motor

winding.

Series

the

the

current

practicallyconstant,

motor

mutator
com-

coils.

practical requirements. With

all

meet

in

weakening of the field

regulationit is possibleto adjust the speed of the shunt

to

the

in field circuit resistance

that if the field is over-weakened

reason

f.

m.

faster in

run

increase

an

an

results in

field circuits of the

speed by alteringthe field strength. As

variable
armatures

in the

produce the requiredcounter

THE

UNIVERSITY

e.

m.

and
f.

the

The

speed

ELECTRICAL

298

ENGINEERING.

Motor

of

gives, with

which

the

result.

application naturally

is selected

of

characteristics

the

From

Applications.

For

the

speed regulation, produces the

with

minimum

determined

the

by

most

or

transforming

cases

a.

transforming

desired

operates

small, isolated
sometimes

it is desired

selected

is installed

suit

to

be
to

use.

supply,

the
the

adapt

to

is

generator,

the

both

purposes.

two,

three, four

c.

or

six-phase

to

bear

to

two

lap wound
six

or

the

in the

either

a.

the

common

use

both

generator.

used

is

as

machine
as

is

and

direct
It is

so

called

Driven

such.

used

an

used

c.

end

limited

as

like

drive

outside

extent.

bed

same

and

form

same

chronous
syn-

d.

any

substations

to

the

alternating current,
to

converter

rotary

current

inverted"

an

from

armature

giving
of

it is called

cipally.
prin-

sets

the

plate,with
alternating

out

It

converter.
source

c.

generators

"motor-generator"

d.
"

railway

upon
the

of the

will operate

also

in these

from

motor

in

with

arranged

were

arranged in the

are

deliver

usually mounted

Operated

form

for

single, three, two

back

converter

will

motor

the

on

used

provided

If brushes

would

are

d. c., and

or

c.

are

current,

it

Converters

machines

out

Such

synchronous

The

whole

and

motor,*
generator.

rings

bonding

and

motor

being
is

rings for

respectively.

alternator.

synchronous

armature

The

another.

to

winding
c.

collector

practice the rings

In

armature.

of

d.

principal application

variety

one

armature

same

Fig. 78 the

in

shown

from
combination

converter

upon

find their

motors

c.

current

converter

rotary

In

may

which

is either

apparatus

Synchronous

as

supply

motor

and

torque

necessan^

motor

of motor

type

supply, the

current

of

fields

several

other.

each

d.

available

depreciation.

type

the

In

in

of

variety

case

any

and

attendance

the

plants

their

motors

power

is

not

and

"double-current"

in

ing
giv-

MOTORS

ELECTRIC

stiff

drives

motor

an

of the

generator

c.

When

between.

coupling

a.

APPLICATIONS

THEIR

299

synchronous

of

number

same

phases

self-defining name

the

frequency, it is given

different

but
"

flexible

or

AND

frequency-changer/7
Whenever

a.

absolutely
the

line

c.

It is seldom

synchronous

used

in small

a.

motors

is

speed

constant

is

motor

sizes

from

machine

the

an

adopted.

of the

account

on

desired

difficultyin

starting.
Induction

fairly

c.

speed, fair

constant

construction

of
keen

competition

characteristics

are

Among

drive.

drive,

fan

with

shop

in

are

(their operating
in

the

a.

variable
of

end

c.

speed
motor-

drive, especially line shaft

machine

drive

other

residence

small

tool

in which
fan

drive;

tilating
ven-

fairly constant

and

being usually the

current

simplicity

motors

motor

are:

individual

drive; tool and

(a.c. lighting

shunt

c.

The

similar) except

all kinds;

desirable;

is

speed

of

d.

applications

contrasted

as

the

very

the

sets

generator

with

in which

starting qualities and

requirements.

the

are

in all lines of work

used

are

machine

drive

only available

power

source).
Series

for

motors

c.

a.

railway service

They

give

as

long

the
of

motor

the

interurban

lines
factor.

d..c.

motors

driving of machines
also

in

they

but

They

rated

same

require rotary

Shunt

of

use

return).

predominating
lines

which

to

are

competition

output,
the

exclusively

peculiarly well
they

as

heavier

(the rails being

the

transmission

current

series

used

are

adapted.

single-phase

are

than

hence

motors

d.

mainly

on

is

system
used

c.

these

on

substations.

pre-eminently

requiring speed
with

almost

trolley wire

are

Direct

are

and

one

where

converter

used

present

large starting torque

they require the

used

at

are

the

adapted

adjustment.

induction

motor

to

direct

They
in

constant

are

ELECTRICAL

300

speed work.

The

latter

the manufacturers
in

succeeded

ENGINEERING.

has

the

of d.c. motors

developing

commutation.

Hence

have, through long experience,

of

type

simplicity,but

of

advantage

with

motor

brushes

and

commutators

perfect

almost

give

paratively
com-

little trouble.

Compound
service

d.

in

which

and

reasonably

The

best

the

the

speed

or

requirements
d.

requirements

of

meets

allowable

Hence

the

Take

for

drive

would

motor

the

upon

railway

it at

unless

it is large enough

motor

automatically

desired

torque

On

level the motor

the
the

to

just

value

Further,
excellent
Another

very

requiresthree
motion

transverse

travel
similar

of
to

of

for

without

the
those

crane

series

until

up

as

of the

series

to

electric

motor

series
the

of current.
is cut

mechanical

down
ance.
resist-

frequent stops, the

motor

utilized.

are

application is in electric
field.
raise

trolley,and
whole.

when

that

speed

current

involves

motor

: one

the

overcome

shunt

as

demand.

draft

the

the

load.

railway service.

upon

unnecessary

important

the

load

such

to

the

speed

same

service

to

grade.

heaviest

the

down

to

motors

of

Such

load.

it is desirable

in

motor

climbing

railway service

example

pounding
com-

absolutely

greatly with

destructive

speeds

necessary
as

of

the

which

vary

of

starting qualities of the

service,

crane

to

car

slows

produced

in

and

practically the

level, resulting in

is

Differential

requirement

prevalence of this type

example

is reached.

speed

perfectly adapted

almost

are

permit the speed

to

full

special nature.

requiring large starting torque

or

of

class

large starting torque

increasing with

speed

limited

elevator.

occasional

very

motors

c.

is the

to

are

when

speed
this

all of

are

applied

are

constant

example

constant

Series

motors

c.

The

railway.

Such

crane

the

load,

third

for

second

mally
nor-

for

longitudinal

requirements

are

very

ELECTRIC

MOTORS

AND

Protection

kinds

Two

fuses

of circuit
and

to

violently

which

are

other

devices

The

current,

the

solenoid

which

151.

over-load

the
"

in the

in

upon

attracts

Starting

switch

the

box

circuit breaker.

closed

where

cases

switch

is often

against the

c.

shunt

armature

an

It is sometimes

ance
resist-

trigger.
passes

attached

motor.

is excessive
Such

are

fuses,

to

position by

iron

an

for d.

current

opens.

is closed

made

occurs

proportional thereto,

current

trigger. When

tripped and
"

is held
or

addition

In

vice:
ser-

they

melting, which

in

depended

breaker

are

proportions, and

circuit.

and

Fuses

automatically operated

circuit

spring and

FIG.

to

short

fail,an

Such

line

through

under

in motor

used

are

breakers.

damage

prevent

usually installed

installed.
of

opening devices
circuit

301

Over=load.

alloys of various

usually enclosed
very

APPLICATIONS.

Against

mechanical

of lead-tin-bismuth

THEIR

the

trigger is

arrangement
a

separate

is

an

piece

ELECTRICAL

302

of

but

apparatus

form

of

part

trigger

the

excessive,

in

the

connection

it

with

the

is

shunt

d.

When

this

plan

switch

when

the

current

restored

the

to

starting

motors

c.

box.

starting

releases

and

ENGINEERING.

is

may

employed
becomes

position

the

by

spring.
An

circuit

additional

installations

to

fail

should

arises.

frequently
starting
which

is

to

be

release

the

in

of

when

trigger

forms

the

motor

line

which

the

line

m.

e.

of

part

f.

m.

e.

contingency

solenoid

second

the

usually

in

desirable

case

restored,

device

consists

also

motor

then

This

and

box

the

protect
should

and

is

breaker

function

falls

the

of

below

predetermined
Fuses

circuit

usually

excess

are

when

value.

selected

the

and

than

must

illustrated

in

breakers

exceeds

more

current,

is

circuit

current

considerably
starting

This

151.

adjusted
certain

normal

be

Fig.

provided

to

open

This

value.

full-load

for.

current

the

is

as

ELECTRIC

CHAPTER

XL

LIGHTING

AND

ELECTRIC

COMMERCIAL

Incandescent
Incandescent
Arc

Incandescent

Lamps:

Lamps

General

Lamps:
"

Produced

of
Arc

by

The

Vacuum

Tube

The

Mercury

Vapor

Fields

of

Light

and

of

Electric

Lamps

Light

"

Lamp.
Electric

of

Lamps.

Production.

Light

of

and

Light

Illumination.

Heating.

Electric

high

by

the

of

350"

the

At

substance

melting

the
may

the

by the

air

from

be

of

of

motion

is in

or

of

The

highly
303

in

heat

temperature
up

to

of

such

particles, and

filaments

refractory

by
of

solid

absorbed

filament

prevented

erated
gen-

energy

intensity

the

of the

general
it.

around

carbon

above

off, increasing

rapid

filament

but

the

lamp

through

all the

incandescence

The

of

current

heat,

as

part

temperature
off

light is given

is caused

of

low

light

electric

an

passes

point.

of

of

passage

resistance.

C.

into

transforming

incandescent

The

Manufacture.

Lamp
for

by
of

Lamps.

Lamps.

device

lamps

Arc

of

Arcs

Lamp.

Incandescent

lamp

"

Enclosed

Illumination.

Incandescent

Forms

New

Arc
and

Open

"

of

Operation

"

Lamps.
Carbon

"

Commercial

is

Manufacture

Lamps.

Application

Efficiency
Units

Arc

Nernst

The

Principles

Construction

LAMPS.

Lamp

The

"

HEATING.

the

the

position
decomtion
extrac-

incandescent
metal.

Plati-

ELECTRICAL

304

num.

the

was

the

at

first material

satisfactory

prove

The

different

the

kinds

best

the

At

tested

carbon.

carbon

the

substance
Threads

plants

numerous

time

present

the

in

carbon

available

every

of

of

of

one

metal

of the

incandescence.

produce

to

source

fibers

and

with.
from

Edison

It did not

distillation

replaced by

was

of which

determine

to

of the

necessary

filament

development

for this purpose.

used

account

on

temperatures

metal

ENGINEERING.

mented
experi-

were

filaments

of

formed

are

cellulose.
consists

complete lamp

of the

following parts

(a) The

bulb.

(6) The

filament.

(c) The

base, which

(d) The

connecting wires between

The

includes

of

manufacture

the

the

support
the

for the

filament

consists

lamp

of

filament.

and

the

the

base.

following

processes

the

(a) Forming

filament.

(6) Carbonizing the filament.

(c)

"

"

Flashing

the

the

(d) Blowing
(e) Mounting

bulb.

the

(g) Testing and

Carbon
which

has

is

proper

blocks

changed

"squirted
a

form
with

the

the bulb.

bulb.

into
or

from

form
wool

from

vegetable

called

amyloid

which

has

fiber of uniform

section.

The

"

through

fiber similar

to

that

fiber is wound

produce

wrapping

plate into

die

the

are

then

ment
treat-

digested
die

plates
tion
soluwhich

alcohol

by the
blocks

carbon

required shape

of fibre

by

cellulose

produced
upon

thread,

been

through

The

prepared
to

either

made

is drawn

tough

The

the

placing in

thread

form.

tough

it into

method.

are

sulphuric acid,

cellulose

forming

sets

been

air from

and

rating the lamp.

filaments

in
into

sealing the filament

and

(/) Exhausting

filament.

of

loop.

placed in

first
of
The

carbon

ELECTRIC

surrounded

and

box
with

its

fiber.

The

box

with

white

heat

and

allowed

until

volatile

all

cooled

electrical

for

FIG.

to

of

heat

This
where
process

and

in

The

current.

layer is densest

described

on

needed
is

is

an

carbon

to

known

raised

removed

in the

form

temporarily

filament

incandescent

gas

hottest

"

by

gas

is

of

parts
a

uniform
"

flashing

has
of

mounted
heated

are

lamp.

of the

means

decomposed

upon

temperature

electric circuit and

as

to

it

are

produce

the

After

layer of carbon
the

in

matter

high

hydro-carbon

is supplied

box

removed.

are

They

305

gradually

at

hydro-carbon

deposits

it is most

volatile

been

filaments

to

high temperature.

electric
the

Parts

152.

the

of

has

matter

connection

The

remain

granular carbon.

but

pure

dust.

contents
to

slowly the

down

exit

permit the

to

vents

carbon

by

HEATING.

AND

LIGHTING

by

the

filament.

the

filament,

section.
and

when

The
the

carried

"

only

at

ordinary

still

in

metallic

more

in

The

for

the

is thus

production

filament

then

as

carbon
becomes

operated
"

is known

provement
im-

recent

be

may

is

lamp

filament

and

filament

filament

carbon

character

higher efficiency. Such

smooth,

depositing the surface

higher temperature.

much

The

operation is
has

temperature.

in this line consists

at

and

suited

better

moderate

the

appearance

surface.

and

The

incandescence.
flashed

granular

durable

more

in which

vessel

metallic

apparently

rendered

the

lost its

it has

on,

hard, and

"

from

is removed

filament

of

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

306

at
"

metallized

filament.
The

is mounted

filament
of

means

method

carbon

takes

place of the

the

method

once

for

leading-in wires,

the

only

one

wires

are

the

either

bulb, which

from
with

tube

the

by

piece of tubing

sealed

the

is then

soldered

attracted

the

of
much

the

of the

end

After

pot.
the

bulb

through

the
small

for this purpose.

tip is sealed

The

over.

base

and

the

lamp
nals
termi-

contacts.

of metal

ductile

filament

lamps which

entirely different
like tantalum

metals
is

requires great skill

higher than

into

bulb

the

wire.

the

pump

to

When

it

vacuum

porcelain in the brass

production of the filament

although

ing
by blow-

one

sealed

attention, involves

processes.

prepared meanwhile

in

manufacture

platinum
for attachment

been

air this

is the

expansion

end

at

has
a

available

glass. The

flared

been

of

direct from

the

on

tube

of

soldering

only metal

in molds

of

means

of the

mounted

are

The

removal

or

filament

air is removed

After

has

tubing

that

to

into

sealed

then

is the

by

joints. This

-plating and

its coefficient

as

supports

the

upon

electro

Platinum

employed.

sufficiently near

to

the

deposited

paste

wire

platinum

upon

on

has

recently

manufacturing
employed

are

comparatively simple matter,

account

The

conductivity

that

of carbon.

of
Hence

of the
the
the

is

metals
use

eter
diam-

small

of

very

long

ELECTRIC

such

tungsten,

as

As

followed.

is

filament

used,

are

example,

an

follows:

as

The

tungsten.
"

flashed

at

in

of

the

and

The

oxide

and

filament

Operation

incandescent

The

Lamps

operated.

lie

The

light given off by

lamp

the

light will

e.

an

length of
life

f.

m.

watts

"burn

out"

rapidly.
life and

at

to

e.

m.

f. is

The

practical efficiency

should

used

depends

largely

compromise

upon

at

more

lamp
will

between
of

graphically in

shown
which
the

ating
oper-

relation

The

operation.

Fig. 154.
be

lamp

filament

the

because

is,therefore,

efficiency of
power

By

higher efficiency. The

sooner

There

candle

value

rated

is

certain

per

power.

the

than

it

filament

carbon

an

entirely

which
at

watts

candle

per

greater
and

candle

and

produced

will, however,
distill more

and

2.5

be

of

the

for

values

at

operation

for

Lamps.

depends

temperature

purchased

are

average

between
at

construction.

lamp

of

specified consumption

with

power.

ready for

Incandescent

amount

upon

f.

form

of

incandescent

m.

is

tantalum

lamp.

e.

to

carbon

filament

in incandescent

use

The

153.

heating

The

leaving the metallic

FIG.

filament

off in gaseous

passes

of

the

and

temperature.

oxidized

by

tungsten

is next

by surrounding

high

resulting

carbon

removed

tungsten

then

production

carbide.

metallic

atmosphere

the

tungsten

with

prepared

is

hydrogen

absorption

filament

the

is first

high temperature,

very

in the

tungsten

filament

be

must

electro-plated with

is

this

producing

filament

carbon

and

"

of

method

one

metals,

procedure

round-about

3"7

non-ductile

When

is necessary.

diameter

wire of small

HEATING.

AND

LIGHTING

the

filaments

regulation of the

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

308
line

lamps

be

may

limits, say

perfect regulation is

If

f.

m.

e.

10

cent

per

the

Where

used.

or

e.

low

more,

had, high efficiency

to

be

m.

f. varies

wide

between

efficiencylamps

abso-

are

110

1 108
"106
b

.2104

96

10

20

30

40

FIG.

candle

lutely

above

and

power

e.

that

this

At

to

candle

power

3 watts

per

of

78,

best

to

or

produced,
A

candle.

2.8
run

is

candle

watts
an

per

140

160

in

they

the

upon

general

higher

sensitive

less

positive temperature

determines

and

them

to

200

lamps.

are

of their

190

lamps

voltage

incandescent

have

180

170
of

power

in

variation

of

150

candle

general principle of the

relation
the

best

specificcase.

power

further
power

candle.

of

of 28, and
The

lamp

at

100

e.

e.

m.

volts.

m.

f. be

and

f. to

no

20

being
volts

consumption

watt

purely

assume

then

efficiency at
is

f.

consumed

consumption

increase

m.

If the

be

may

e.

watts

lamp.

watt

watts

the

incandescent

56

consumes

3.5

efficiencywith

of

lamp

volts, 60

104

produce

may

f. it

m.

130
or

filament

account

on

same

candle-power

e.

increased

f.

m.

variation

the

illustrate

To

life

filaments, and

adopted for

be

to

120

110

filaments

efficiency applies

of life to

100

normal

effect

the

The

coefficients.

90

life of carbon

carbon

changes of line

values

80

below

Metal

necessary.

efficiency than
to

70

and

showing

Curves

154.

60

50

Percentage

which

it is

commercial

and

life is shortened

the

is

point

economic

efficiency. The
"

it

suggested

been

The

following problem
"

in

Problem

Illustrative

incandescent

an

Given

will

point

"

life.

is meant

by

of the economical

determination

the

lamp.

of electrical energy,
of

consumption
2.5

ceases

following data:

the

Cost

lamp

useful

what

illustrate

to

serve

lamp

of the

end

the

of

smashing

term

for

name

This

point/'

smashing

term

lifeof

as

"

The

cost

power.

the

life of

useful

or

f.

m.

e.

the

increase

economical

of

of

which

at

saving of

the

to

out/'

burns

has

the

equal

limit

the

obviously

long before

is

lamps

the

renewing

of

point is reached

3"9

increase

with

efficiency increases

the

As

matter.

HEATING.

AND

LIGHTING

ELECTRIC

lamp, 3.2

7 cents

per

watts

per

Initial

hour.

k.w.

candle

power

Cost

power.

of

22

6.0

12
400

500

900

Hours

FIG.

155.

Curves

in

consumption

lamp,
and

6 cents

watts

The

per

the

are

carbon

The

candle

without

hours

shows

each.

calculation

of hours

the

showing

as

curves

made

affecting the
selected

details

of

incandescent

filament

of life and

on

the

result.

for convenience.

the

calculations, and

power

lamps.

candle

basis
In

and

power

this
The
the

of

life

power,

from

given in Fig. 155, secured

be

may

of life,candle

relation

number

any

case

tests.

sand
thou-

one

following table
curve

in

Fig.

ELECTRICAL

3io

156 is

graphical representation

cost

of

case

is about

thousand

26.5 cents,

the

for somewhat

less than

different

of

and

be

obtain

to

hours.

300

the

of

for

cost

they have

different

will affect

same

operation for this

this minimum

replaced when

be

of energy

cost

hours

minimum

The

results.

these

burned
of

cost

lamp
the

results, and

different initial

efficiency

lamp.
"

The
the
that
as

lamps

will not

conclusion

of the

candle-power

requires that

or

ENGINEERING.

of metal

case

the
in

Whether

smashing

candle

the

point

not

as

filament

The
an

as

does

power

other.
or

"

described

does

in carbon
not

fall off

lamp

apply

filaments
as

efficiency is also

incandescent

not

as

for the

well in
reason

rapidly in this

maintained.

better

should

case

be

allowed

to

ELECTRIC

itself

burn

the

the

candle

beginning

the

to

end

this decrease

lamp

carbon

AND

HEATING.

entirely upon

depends

out

from

LIGHTING

the

decrease

of its life.
amount

may

in its efficiency

With

the

dinary
or-

one-third

to

of

power.

27

400

Life

FIG.

156.

between

Curves

useful

filament

The

require

lamp
that
of

it may

highly refractory

in the

air.

The

and

becomes

therefore, has
called,

increases.

Hence

if connected
it there

temperature

forms

when

to

of this

coefficient.

lamp

to

has

and
the
a

wire

as

high

when

cold

Nernst
the

lamp,

filament

is

ature.
temper-

negative temperature
as

would

supply

resistance
is well

operated

very

conducting

decreases

across

in series

The

order

filament

it is

and

glower,

bring it
nature

Iron

in

non-conductor

it is unstable

is inserted

filament

Nernst

heated.

is, its resistance

directly

incandescent

of

protected only by its

is

of carbon

cost

operating

employed,

with

1000

lamps.

the

is

material

conductor

filament

In

is

incorporated

coefficient,that

out

filament

heating device

total

standard

earth

rare

Such

melting point.

life and

oxidized.

900

Lamps

protection for the

vacuum

be

not

700

600

incandescent

The

Lamp.

Nernst

500

of

the
be

temperature
burned

soon

mains.

To

having

adapted

to

tect
pro-

positive
this pur-

ELECTRICAL

3I2

This

pose.

of the
To

ballast

American

the

position
consists
wire

of

covered

and
is

heater

cut-out

incandescent
and

with

as

at
soon

with

wound

cut

efficiencymuch
The

for

heater

the

As

clay.

of circuit

by

an

through the glower.

an

frosted

street

high resistance

higher than

light is of

through

in

in horizontal

The

of fire
out

flows

current

as

an

or

glower is held

directly above.

starting it is

lamp.

interiors

for

it is enclosed

protecting layer

distributed

when

heater

through it.

exhausted.

the

lamp

clay tubes

more*

lamp has

Nernst

The

the

only needed

automatic

of

been

in resistance

current

oxidization

air has

type

with

or

one

from

the

decrease

fairlyuniform

wire

which

from

glass tube
In

iron

the

for the

compensates

maintains

glower and

protect

ENGINEERING.

the

excellent

globe is

lighting. The

nary
ordi-

quality
factory
satis-

very

mechanism

Line

Ballast

Glower

FIG.

makes

it

occupies
arc

Diagram

of circuits

position midway
Fig. 157

parts

of the

shows
Nernst

Nernst

in the

expensive, and

necessarily somewhat

lamps.

various

157.

between
in

the

diagram

lamp.

lamp.
in this respect it

incandescent

the

arrangement

and

the

of the

LIGHTING

ELECTRIC

Arc

arched
is

lamp,

Principles.

The

form

vapor

of the

given

when

apart, and

the

to

form
this

hottest

terminals, which

carbon

requires

following table from

for

most

do

common,

given the

reason

MAINTAIN

form

not

MATERIALS

zinc
for

are

this

metals.

VOLTS

OF

REQUIRED

TERMINALS

OF

TO

DIFFERENT

Initial
-.;;.".

Platinum

."

.
.

,.

,,

...

.....

27

..,...*

Volts.

35

Iron
t

"

Nickel
.

26

26

.;....

Copper

23

Silver

15

Cadmium

10

of

luminosity
the

to

terminals

is

(FLEMING).

Carbon

partly

required

of which

Material.

The

metals.

readily and

in

arc

between

m.

e.

arc

an

BETWEEN

ARC

the

will

an

f. than

m.

metals,

NUMBER

THE
AN

e.

few

non-arcing

name

SHOWING

TABLE

which

produced

higher

between

produce

that

Fleming indicates

of substances.

number

material

will

drawn

are

other

is

arc

these

f. maintained

heated

which

vapor

m.

e.

or

when

when

from

horizontal

Davy's

incandescent

circuit

metal

vapor

The

manner.

of

derived

arc,

in

absorbed

is sufficient

any

conducting

of

there

Practically

them.

electric

name

stream

terminals

the

connects

The

313

Lamps.

General

the

HEATING.

AND

between

arc

and

vapor

when

an

partly

these

are

of

Arc.

In

the

to

the

nature

to

carbon

arc

terminals

two

incandescence
be

raised

the

to

is

due

of

the

sary
neces-

temperature.
The
out

Carbon
very

coming
d.

c.

little visible
from

lamps

represents

the
or

the

from

itself

vapor

gives

radiation, practically all of the

incandescence
both

appearance

the

of

terminals
of

pairs

positive terminal

the
in

a.

of

carbons

c.

lamps.
with

light
in

Fig. 158
the

arcs

ELECTRICAL

3*4

between

terminals

lamps.

In

end
at

the

d.

a.

and

c.

point .which is the

FIG.

158.

Appearance

hottest

the

of

of

it emits

and

the

d.

itself furnishes
from

the
arc

85

about

perhaps
of the

tip

light

the

enclosed

greater
The

distance

than
in

manner

carbon

positiveterminal
as

natural

alternating arc
zone

equipped with

in the
the

d.

the

c.

requires a

c.

the

the

arc,

comes

small

very

is the

rent
cur-

tity
quan-

in

same

separated by

are

forms.

Fig. 159.
which

reflector

crater

arc

alternating

light is radiated
in

4000" C.

to

remainder

condition

the
to

is

may

by the

teristic
charac-

crater

of the

The

usually above,

light downward.
render

projection lanterns,
arcs,

of

light. The

the

carbons

reflector, throwing

d.

the

The

open

is shown

In

and

tips, a

of the

available.

total

both

arc.

3500

the

from

which

arcs

from

at

In

comes

The

arc.

and

arcs

open

negative carbon.

although here

arc

of

cent

per

c.

a.

material

of the
the

the

at

arc.

cent

per

being given off by the

the

and

c.

enclosed

contains

region about

is estimated

crater

for the

and

open

positive carbon

enclosed

temperature

c.

rapid volatilization

by the

this

d.

the

lamp

c.

formed

crater

for

ENGINEERING.

the

which

be

formed

acts

The

upper

light

preferably

are

in

vertical

their

by

which

the

Bremer

and

strontium
of very

In
a

of

these
vapor

the

that

lamps,

these

lamps

lamps

acts

produce

as

comparatively

little

great

nearly thirty times

as

great

filament

incandescent

Flaming

arc

terminals,
itself.

arc

have

luminous.
such

In

From

arcs.
"

as

light

from

comes

of the
the

particles
of

presence

temperature

lamps/'
terminals

the

convey

ance
appear-

arc

the

between
to

production
the

naming

lamps

as

as

that

of

that

of

the
the

the
and

calcium

as

The
those

been

these

terminals

heated

carbon

ordinary

bon
car-

lamps

efficiencyof light production by these

as

ten

the

the

The

substances.

times

nearly

vehicle

the

reduces

arc

known

are

lamps produce

resulting in the

carbon

carbons

light-producing
in the

materials

arcs.

c.

a.

carbon

made

been

and

c.

arc

lamps

arc

highly efficient

the

path which

the

to

and

arc

tips. The
is

added

luminous

substances
so

Blondel

are

of the

itself has

arc

d.

the

from

out

in

improvements

successful

most

from

of

light being given

practicallyno

lens.

carbon

incandescence

the

light by

light

standard

The

of Arc.

Forms

New

of

distribution

of

Diagram

159.

negative

light is then

The

condensing

the

315

by setting the

or

positive tip.

the

toward

efficientlydirected

FIG.

of

front

in

somewhat

carbons

inclining the

position by

HEATING.

AND

LIGHTING

ELECTRIC

arc

and

carbon

lamp.
are

best

adapted

to

the

lighting of large

ELECTRICAL

316

light, while

of the

Arc

Magnetite

The

lamp, which

arc

which

the

of metal
done

in the

maintain

if for

carbons

which
arc

the

the

arc

for

lamps

flaming
in

one

magnetite.

the

trimming

that

tion
consump-

need

or

constant

adapted

to

direct

only be

The

is

the

lamp

depends

gives rise

to

alternating
of

in shunt

with

circuit

constant

it is desirable

cases

to

potential circuit.

constant

lamps

current

Either

the

series

constant

of

type

and
be

may

of

is for

lamp

distance
current

springs and

The

arc.

general types

and

to

current.

consists
the

struction
con-

it is easy

circuit, as

predetermined
a

The

act.

especially designed

constant

or

terminals, when

two

of circuit

circuit

many

on

maintained

out

cut

drawn

variety of circuit

such

In

the

then

the

series

in

multiple

regulating mechanism

in series and

usually

be

necessary.

be

fails to

potential lamps.
or

are

must

must

upon

operate.

arc.

maintaining

the

distance

and

produce

to

devices

several

This

regulating mechanism
of

order

placed in contact,

current

in

In

lamp

therefore, series

are,

multiple

The

to

are

constant

operate

between

factory
satis-

as

of

other

slow

regulating device

lamps

they

is best

purpose

not

color

lighting, is

the

and

Lamps.

off.

burn

current

The

for street

so

first be

lighting alone

maintain

There

The

form

high efficiencyand

distance.

reason

of

for

successful

at

arc

an

must

desired

any

upon

in

arc

terminals

the

as

the

the

Arc

of

Construction

apart

control, is

very

is copper

is

arc

provided.

long intervals.

at

The

being adopted

terminal

one

be

lamps.

Lamp.

is

power.

objectionable in confined

are

under

less

or

light is produced

bluish

more

high candle

very

must

of incandescent

that

as

ventilation

good

hence

spaces,

at

given off by the lamps

fumes

The

light is produced

the

as

spaces

ENGINEERING.

or

m.

f.

is

supplied.

of

solenoids

arrangement

lamp, the

e.

the

of

coils

differentialand

the
and

Fig.

coils

shunt

the

the

4,

former, the

the

In

shunt.

coils

The

carbon.

upper

tends, when
raise

it.

tends

to

The

follows:

into

comes

formed
soon

clutch
The

arc.

no

current

soon

as

current

is

the

the

becomes

arc

The

is thus

arc

differential
the

maintained

action

mechanism
"

across

In
taken
there

of

the

the

shunt

by
is

in the

current

when

occupied

is

and
the

the
when

is turned

current

spring pulls the

drop in

e.

spring and
Multiple

carbons

f. increases

m.

clutch

the
arc

voltage, hence
in current

the

they touch

lamps
the

instead

arc

the

shunt

the

accident

to

out
"cut-

voltage

coil, its place being

As

the

position
tinuously,
con-

coil is

energized.

fed

together,

are

short-circuited

the

shunt

in the

spring pulls

shunt

is

When

purpose.
are

carbons
coil

apart.

until

descend.

excessive

the

off, as

on

As
shunt

automatic

similar

until the

arc

and

lengthens the

coil overpowers

the

is loosened.
are

designed

mechanism
of

series

no

cut

was

is thus

arc

to

any

an

lamps the carbons

current

coil

coil.

serves

clamping the clutch

When

by

prevents

shunt

there

spring which

no

the

and

If

series

length under

long,

too

lamp

of

lamp

coils.

two

in

are

carbons.

carbon

uniform

is

lamp

energize the

to

upper

becomes

the

terminals

the

at

the

arc

short-circuits

off the

long enough
the

The

arc

descend,

to

the

apart.

and

the

carbons

flow

to

gradually burns

current

rod

flowing the

begins

rod

differential

and

current

across

the

operation of

sufficientlythe latter allows

coil

allow

in

control

grip the

to

is connected

and

shown

carrying the

main

clutch

raising

which

the

action, pulling the carbons

and
as

which

As

long rod

for

used

are

armatures

the

cause

When
As

contact.

to

317

carbons.

coil carries

coil

the

release

coils

engages

series

shunt

shortening the
as

turn

energized,

series

hinged

upon

in

HEATING.-

lowering the

for

act

clutch, which

the

AND

LIGHTING

ELECTRIC

voltage

must
as

to

be

operate

on

susceptible

in series

lamps.

constant

to

change
solenoid

the

series with

in

the

When

current.

and
to

the

is

ballast/' of

lamps, for the

the

of
is

of

the

junctions

lamp

the
In

will

voltage

general the

on

to

to

220

in

taps

be

applied

in

resistance
The

current.

by

d.

c.

ment
move-

dash

pot,

It is possible

by connecting

circuits

current

single coil transformer

sub-divided

evenly

multiple lamps

circuit.

volt

440

or

that

so

the

among

is obtained

satisfaction

best

contact

multiple lamps

several

operate

alternating

on

in

is used.

desirable

this

do

to

the

down

f. is

m.

resisted

the

lengthening

are

e.

and

c.

when

even

ballast

series,for example,

in

a.

when

cuts

in all

arc

steadying the

mechanism,

It is sometimes

The

when

coils in

clutch

carbons

the

in

reactance

purpose

irregular unless

with

shunt

hence

and

solenoid

series

In

the

amount.

operation the

by the

apart

terminals.

"

release

to

certain

in

not

drawn

are

place of the

its resistance

increases

arc

being

below

is reduced

current

the

takes

arc

its function

series lamps,

of

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

3I8

lamps.

by avoiding such

special arrangements.

there

mechanism

important
the

enclosing globe surrounds

An

for the

air
The

are

globe is

f. and

current

in the
in the

improvement
saving

in

in

given
arc.

by

to

While

enclosing globe the

certain

lamp

is, however,

requires two

the
sets

the

more

of

12

ten
side
out-

amount

drop in
with
of

resulting diffusion

main

it

encouraged.

consumption

power

lamps

least

at

passages

causing

open,

lamp.

from

away

illuminating efficiency offsets the

trimming

all-nightopen

open

the

the

modern

of the air is not

the

longer than
a

carbons

regulating

of

oxygen

tight but

circulation

producing

than

is absorbed

is

arc

the

in most

arc

the

to

parts

unnecessary

life of
air

not

small, and

enclosed

m.

keeping

increasing the
The

times.

of

purpose

thus

and

e.

other

are

addition

In

Arcs.

Enclosed

and

Open

less

light
and

loss.

The

advantage.

An

-inch

carbons

each

ELECTRIC

of which

will burn

nearly

operate

in

hours

100

standard.
was

This

actual

candle

in candle

rated

certain

will

At
but

power

electrical

produce

measurements
are

purposes,

the

The

Vacuum

Tube

tube

vacuum

diameter
desired
in

the

them

to

the

of

the

such

light.
tube

Carbon

and
air

pressure

maintain

to

mains.

containing

mercury.

contains

action, and

at

Over
its upper

porous

the
end

its

meter
photo-

as

in

except

comparing

is

bundle

produce

the

circuit
tends

too

It

tube.

produced
connected
further

to

great

the

between

is

current

in

inserted

are

within

gas

provided.

inches

is conducted

tube

carbon

modern

1.75
to

as

primary

prevent

plug is
a

of

about

the

The
to

*a regulating valve

glass tube

other

or

regular service
itself in

given kind

avoid, for commercial

terminals

current

with

pressure

with

lengths

raising transformer

exhaust

sumption.
con-

measurements

arrangement

glass tube

high voltage required

in

in

of

to

not

are

power

power

power

general

in

used

low

by

The

the

quantity
ends

of

cated
indi-

light sources.

lamp.

is

candle

to

than

lamps

arc

p.

The

arc.

light. Hence,

better

c.

Lamp.

shows

Fig. 5

of

the

f. and

m.

being

2000

smaller

an

difficult,and

it is much

efficiencyof various

in

used

quantity

reference

any

e.

as

arc

were

lamps

p.

at

time

present

lamps

arc

c.

is much

in current,

are

make,

to

easy

2000

consumed

lamps

power

definite

time

one

and

were

the

lamp will

enclosed

entirely nominal,

was

in such

rating.

At

p.,

c.

watts

450

power

by the

rating

in which

one

1200

The

319

pair.

one

Lamps.

power,

HEATING.

hours.

10

on

Arc

by

candle

8 to

from

Light Produced
rated

AND

LIGHTING

decrease

consists

of

plug ordinarily covered

movable
of iron

glass tube
wires.

These

which
form

ELECTRICAL

320

the

of

core

solenoid

tip of the

the

admitted
of the

is drawn

current

the

the

increase

to

and

The

it would

This

solenoid.

metallic
other

the

reservoir.
allow

to

thus

the

The

the

tube

is

This

lamp,

direct

When

once

of the

In

flowing back

to

the

Fields
Incandescent

connected

to

of the

end

overhead

an

of

of

an

The

of

the

it may

for

reservoir

consists

are

limited

extent

is

in the

used

for

on

fills

efficiencyis
tilting

action

of the
hand.

by

essentially

vaporization of
the

tube

and

re-evaporation.

Application of Electric

lamps

the

electrolytic nature,

and

of which

it is tilted

otherwise

tilted

is maintained

(see Fig. 6)

rising, condensing

vapor

be

terminals

arc

and

from

remote

vapor

lamp

of

electrode,

one

two

the

the

canopy

action

feet

reservoir

tube

that

so

started

for

shops, offices, etc., for the

and

to

forms

mercury

connect

forms

some

lamp.
the

mercury,

ance
higher resist-

greenish light of high intensity and

being

allowed

were

much

as

current

glass tube, several

mercury,

entirely automatic,

current

solenoid
in

vacuum

more

result.

is mounted
to

placed in

is

magnet

the

at

of metal

arc.

produced.

thus

the

increase

If the

and

metallic

tube

volatilization

tube.

the

The

stream

start

by the

air

of

being located

the

point the conductivity

The

essentially of

consists

mercury.

gas) is

Lamp.

length, exhausted

in

(or other

through

operation would

Vapor

lamp

air

eventually produce

unsteady

Mercury

and

improve.

to

of the

core

line

primary

diminishes, therefore

pressure

the

from

the

by the solenoid

up

and

certain

with

is drawn

core

to

the

as

tends

vacuum

raises

Up

tube.

increases

gas

the

series

plug is exposed

carbon

the

to

in

connected

When

transformer.

of the

ENGINEERING.

street

the

Lamps.
illumination

of

dences,
resi-

lighting of large interiors

lighting. In spite

of

the

low

efficiency the

safe

and

lamps

convenient

permits

uniform

number

of

to

in the

such

the

that

where

lamps

located

of the floor,incandescent
of

rate

from

to

10

feet of floor area,

A
allowance

laid

down,

of

light is

for which

purpose

the

special requirements
contain

Assembling

processes

former

The
would

addition

to

incandescent
Street

the
or

one

or

practiced

to

in

large number

incandescent

are

operate

circuit

with

the

can

be

constant

latter

than

series

incandescent

whole

more

the

general and

large shop

work

the
of

room.

same

the

machines
in

lamps
either

be

might

may

is done.

incandescent

limited

by

essentially

best

accomplished

current,
a

circuits

troublesome

to

because

by
it is

potential

constant
are

in

operate

While

objectionable.

constant

at

arc

the
of

Further,

potential lamps,
economy,

copper

of

means

cheaper
the

series

tain
main-

to

While

lamps.

operation they
than

not

distribution

giving good
is

is

lamps

extent.

best, therefore, in parallel. For

lighting

street

the

incandescent

light in streets, the

and

in

Each

more

standard

advantageous

lamps

floor and

fine

on

be

can

lamps.

arc

are

residences.

largely affect it.

both

general lighting which

although

units

small

with

lighting by

popular

going

be

square

nation.
efficient illumi-

very

which

require special lighting.

provided

be

thousand

example,

at

average

general rules

no

with

For

machines

an

satisfactory in

planned

may

at

and

designed

tance
dis-

reasonable

walls, ceiling,and
is

room

building is

the

per

for which

in view.
of

number

is

one

be

lighting must

such

within

soft, uniform

color of the

the

as

of

lamps

p.

allowance

similar

The

All

produce

c.

large

development.

recent

lamps, distributed

16

20

of

construction

be

may

of

use

units

lightis satisfactory,especially

lamps

the

cool,

are

size of the

light by the

of the

high temperature

they

small

the

of the

color

The

large interiors

In

and

operate,

321

because

popular

are

distribution

lamps.

HEATING.

AND

LIGHTING

ELECTRIC

lamps

are

for

on
a

the

given

ELECTRICAL

322

of

amount

the

ENGINEERING.

illumination, for several

following: First, there

is

current

smaller

mechanisms

and

of

more

circuits

more

be

must

are

reasons,

used.

them.

with

Third,

which

among

are

Second,

their

they

the

regulating
much

are

less

efficient.
Nernst

lamps

lighting.

Their

used

are

high

both

circuits

forms

lamps

softened

light is

as

their

the

thus

Vacuum

tubes,
from

"

the

They

standard

and

street

the

be

sanded

or

be

can

in

glass the

Their

work.

opal globes

efficiency is great

ciency
effi-

high

surrounded

only in outdoor

enclosed

outdoor

interiors, although

most

arcs

other

by
ing
Flam-

account

on

enough

offset

to

adapted

are

agreeable and

to

indoor

of

good color.

constructed,

are

walls.

efficiency of the

The

permit them

to

only

to

tion.
illuminaThe

mainly designed for support

compete

with

is not

lamps

the

lamp

arc

for

lighting.

Mercury

and

lamps

present

high enough

alternating

multiple.

purposes.

case

Their

ceilings and

outdoor

when

light is soft and

at

as

the

incurred.

tube

The

for

many

is the

intensity.

loss

where

utilized

rule, must

and

on

f. than

m.

e.

bright for

satisfactory for

arcs,

of

suitable
too

are

globes, which

best
in

by enclosing globes of opal

is best
clear

higher

them

operate

connected

interior

lamps.

most

are

lighting. They
when

on

incandescent

of

Arc

always

are

satisfactory

most

are

and

They

for

and

street

efficiency commends

quality of light is excellent.

current

for

the
where

vapor

lamps

used

peculiar actinic

values

the

is not

color

green

artificial skylights
is

are

"

independent

light is being found

of the

valuable

general
light

are

objectionable.
of these

constructed
of the

for

sun

in

in

making

lamps

illumination

appreciated,
By

means

the

exposures.

shops, wharves

and

of

grapher
photoThe
houses.
ware-

ELECTRIC

AND

LIGHTING

the

Introduction

general

electric lighting is presented.

of

electric

is

produced

the

lamp

of

and

heat,

in

appears

at

the

efficiency secured.

the

lamps
The

convenient,

have

TABLE

table
these

1905

light sources
other
the

from

forms

tungsten

Quoted
a

in
paper

they

the

of

the

LIGHT

use.

electric

of

by Wedding,

used

are

the

in
of

source

form

the

the

power

forms

of

increased

and

electric

lamp

because

they

do
are

cool.
relative

VALUES

the

OF

SOURCES.

Since

lamp

the

have

International

before

of

values

preparation of this
been

invented.

lamp promises most,

incandescent

Proc.

of

COMMERCIAL

in

forms

these, light

new

years

forms

indicates

now

part

developed

ordinary

VARIOUS

various

all of

is wasted

few

been

RELATIVE

SHOWING

In

of

status

commercial

small

past

safe, cleanly and

following table*

The

used
a

the

light-producing

any

but

produce light cheaply but

not

various

in

power

best

light. In

electric

and

gas

The

inefficiently,for
portion of the

major

of

summary

briefly described.

are

323

Illumination.

Light and
In

HEATING.

the

Electric

Cologne

and

Light

Electrical

Of
when

Assoc.

Society.

for

ELECTRICAL

324

form

present

and

source

for

the

the

and

power

hence

illumination
at

absorbed

by

reaches

the

the

to

be

light affects its value

as

which

Illumination
this

from

and

Second,

light

rapidly

more

less

of

the

indicate

light and

of

end

color
facts

These

between

desired

light

satisfactory

most

Third, the

made

few

proportionately

illuminant.

is the

intensity is
hence,

reasons.

large candle

distributed.

circumstances.

be

must

of

are

illuminated.
an

necessarily

several

give the

not

atmosphere,

object

distinction

do

luminous

high

very

light

produced.

not

for

sources

widely

ordinary

under

produced

illumination

be

must

will be

watt) do

per

light

placed far apart,

sources,

the

power

efficient

very

which

in

light (the efficiencybeing measured

efficient

most

First, these

of

in candle

convenience

produce

of illumination

sources

the

distinction

intensity of illumination

the

amount

with

terms

even

subject of electric lighting

the

efficient

most

about

on

lamp.

arc

between

made

be

must

The

of carbon

studying

In

will be

available

commercially

ENGINEERING.

electric

standpoint all light-producing devices

ination.
illum-

lighting
be

must

judged.
Efficiency of Light Production,
The

thermodynamic

difficult to
the

wave

determine

radiation.

producing

efficiencyof light production

All

source

lengths.

as

of the

It would

be

radiated

in visible

wave

some

determine

definite

indicates

that

that

lengths

and
of

to

Numerous
Dr.

Roeber

Angstrom.

if all of the

energy

length of

wave

is absorbed

by

of radiations
small

the

states

are

absorbed

energy

have
that

Angstrom's
radiated

these

ratio of energy

total

tests

light

of various
of

part

if the

convenient

very

value.

this ratio
is

form

Unfortunately only

the

upon

which

energy

off in the

goes

visible.

had

it depends

is very

by

been
the

made

best

to

mination
deter-

determination
a

black

body

ELECTRIC

appeared

candle

to

watt,

0.115
This

power.

gives

in

general, as
For

length.
certain

per

lamp

which

candle

Mr.

Lewis

luminous
sources

Dr.

has

from

P.

the

Roeber

2.8

Angstrom's
gives useful

the

OF

VARIOUS

per

comparative

the

per

spherical
per

cent

LIGHT

as

table

published by

data

regarding the

candle

various
power,

efficiency.

AND

as

tantalum

mean

efficiency of
watts

wave

considered

efficiencyof 3
A

the

stant
con-

spherical candle
that

watts

EFFICIENCIES
IN

apply the

to

mean

coefficient.

corresponding

LUMINOUS

particular quality

greatly with

or

be

spherical

mean

efficiencyis

thermodynamic

would

power

safe

estimates

(or thermodynamic)
and

the

is not

It

about

for

horizontal

reciprocal of the commercial

TABLE

value

325

8.7

to

efficiencyvaries

mean

consumes

calculated
E.

of

watt.

power

watt

one

practical purposes

number

power

or

upon.

the

HEATING.

AND

spherical candle

mean

light experimented

of

light, one

as

equivalent

LIGHTING

POWER

SOURCES.

TION
CONSUMP-

light
the

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

326
Units

of

produces

Light

quantity of light

certain

although this intensity may

An

incandescent

axis

yield its maximum

is

tube
the

lamp

produces

rather

large diameter

to

would

be

The
the

produced in

standard

amyl

the

acetate

certain

and
become

this

is 88 per

candle

of the

cent

is the

is the

direction

square

of the

the
*

The

light
French

angle which
lumen.
meter

equal

4-0-

intensity

distance
to

In
is the

unit

-=-

from
.88

or

used

was

ing
consum-

for reference
has

although the

candle

has

standard.

candle

The
A

power.

hefner

If

or

by

standard

spherical candle

surface

candle, is

from

normal

as

meter

power.

is

tensity
in-

foot in

one

candle-foot

or

light source.

the

direction

hefner

one

distance.

meter

One

the
to

by

produced
lux.

The

intensity of

produced
at

the

intensity of illumination

distance

illumination

lumens.

hefner

produced

direction.

the

quantity

'the source,
14.3

candle,

is

power

calculating the

square
of

arc.

expression candle

upon

considered

rays.

subtends

The

by the

minute,

standard

is

of

quantity of light as

standard

be

produced

from

of

long tube

quantity in this country.*

of

are

use

intensity

intensity in all directions

surfaces

surfaces

lower

ing
specifieddimensions, burn-

horizontal

other

inversely as the

one-half

of

standard

foot-candle; upon

These

to

same

country

light would

of illumination
horizontal

tip about

intensity of illumination
in

standard

loop will

quantity of illumination

per

its maximum

out

quantity of this
This

wax

in this

standards

gave

of

filament

practicallynone.

replaced by the hefner

power

of these

burner

its

to

of

practice the

firmly fixed

base

Formerly

quantity

from

candle

one

hefner
gas.

long since been

unit

the

space

intensity and

of

light from

of the

produce the
small

intensity,

in all directions.

same

it is necessary

very

definite

light of much

obviously

source

plane perpendicular

the

through

lamp, hence

arc

at

intensity. Through

delivered, and

vacuum

than

in

viewed

lamp

light

the

be

not

passing through the middle

and

this

Illumination.

and

by

spherical

illumiin

solid

It is called

lumen,
candle

at

power

one

is

LIGHTING

ELECTRIC

nation

at

be

must
a

produced

FIG.

60.

the

showing

by light

Chart
30

effect

Fig. 160

added.
and

room

point the

any

of

inches

is

located

illumination

for

cooking,

room

with

of

floor.

warming,

as

far

as

the

heat

transformation

room

sources

plotted for

chart
a

given level

shown.

as

Figures

electric

Electrically produced

contributing light

illumination

an

Electric

Closely allied

of all

327

intensity in all parts of

sources

from

HEATING.

AND

by

four

indicate

light

sources

candle

at

plane

feet.

Heating
lighting is the production of heat
and

for

metallurgical

is convenient,
from

the

cleanly and
electric

purposes.

efficient

circuit is

con-

ELECTRICAL

328
The

cerned.
For

most

efficiencyof this transformation

production

heat

example,

that

suppose

9477.

Each

total

energy

B. T. U.

is

cents

is

low

efficiency as
heating the

of

cost

of electric

status

of the

passage
a

wire

cent

heat

is

through

resistance

of

cost,

great

current

for the

worth

if

This

heat

liquid

all

the

as

total
the

expense.
to

cases

This

creasing
in-

an

by

the

may

be

fused

solid

cooking

and

or

efficiently

illustrates

is used

in

the

allowing

high resistance.
a

vice,
ser-

coal

combustion,

produced

alloy, in

energy

of

standpoint of

electric

water

into

Even

cent.

one

the

the

goes

U., and

B. T.

per

is but

heat

is

heat

pound

required heat.

water

The

the

heating from

extent.

in

25

hour

w.

figure for residence

if all of the

10,000

the

and

price of electrical

average

radiation.

no

spite of the

In

If the

cents

27.7

produce

would

required is

k.

to

to

weight of the

One

7,373,000.

an

will produce

burned
an

hour,

be

there

cent,

quarter

is

hours.

w.

raised

be

B. T. U.

of

to

For

means.

the

Assuming

number

expensive

is to

water

cent.

per

equivalent to 778 foot-pounds

is

w.

wil

cost

and

water

k.

per

the

of

1 00

this

by

2,654,000 foot-pounds, hence

to

require 2.77 k.

10

the

represented

equivalent

foot

60" F.

62.35 pounds

at

will

cubic

is
is too

energy

practicable

from

boiling temperature
water

electrical

the

purposes

render

ENGINEERING.

in

or

carbon.

of

Applications

usual

warming

the

silver

other

or

heater

exclude

air and

deliver

all radiation
Electric
where

the

without
be

must

cooking

on

energy

coil of

of iron

wire

immersed

in

loss to

prevented

to

cheap,

and

coils

body

maintain

large scale is carried

is

room

german

produced

refractory material

The
the

of

or

be

to

temperature

oxidization.

prevent
heat

electric

is

be

may

For

Heating.

If the

alloy.

high the wire

very

to

Electric

where

be

to
a

on

the

are

is
to

arranged
heated,

as

high efficiency.
at

Niagara Falls

cleanliness

and

ELECTRIC

convenience

obtained
is

warming
simplicity
in

greater

welding,

is

car

of

account

on

warming

water

Electric

cost.

cities

practice

metal

is

surfaces

the

produced
which

has

temperature
and

together

the

being

discontinued

substituted

to

been

reached

in

of

weld

obtain

the

in

two

welding
firmly
is

method
and

rails

heat,

pressed

This

bucket

to

of
the

are

results.

plates

electric

When

surfaces

tires,

fish

of
contact

joined.

the

wagon

attaching

imperfect

be

to

excellent

an

application

the

by
are

manufacture
and

important

most

resistance

etc.,

hot

the

329

economy.

For

in

in

This

and

HEATING.

for

practiced

operation.

instances

AND

compensate

generally

of

many

the

LIGHTING

barrel

used

hoops,

electric

railway

work.
For

metallurgical
between

current

for

furnaces
is

of

cryolite

and

resistance
For

are

flow

is

useful

for

surrounded

of

the

the

cryolite.

contained

in

the

cauterizing

the
the

passage

of

of

very

high

these

tric
elec-

In

clay

and
of

of

wires,
and

the

the

heat

ature
temper-

resistance
the

aluminum

necessary

of

the
trodes
elec-

carbon

carborundum

carbon

wounds

fire

between

the

platinum

source

manufacture
at

resistance
In

against

current

contact

work,

by

In

the

to

materials.

is maintained

the

surgical

due

gives

refractory

desired.

cryolite

the

and

is

arc

as

fused

by

melting

the

concentrated
bath

terminals

carbon

temperature

heat

the

purposes

furnace

the

core.

heated

by

other

similar

the

current,
purposes.

XII.

CHAPTER

MEASUREMENTS.

ELECTRICAL

torsion

control

The

"

electro-dynamometers

ammeters
ammeters

"

permanent

meter
electro-dynamoMovable

"

magnet

ammeters

magnet

with
control

gravity

for

ammeters

magnet

coil

dynamometer
with

Shunts

"

Permanent

Movable

"

electro-

electro-dynamometer

The

"

Portable

"

Current.

for Measuring

Instruments

Soft

"

core

ammeters.

Coil

and

plunger

ammeters

Ammeters

"

with

rotating

soft

iron

cores.

Instruments

for Measuring

Instruments

for

resistance

Measuring

for Measuring

Instruments

for

Induction

motor

ELECTRICAL

the
be

total

indicate

to

is

power,

disposition

an

energy

in

of

or

monthly

meters

"

load

the

for

number

of different

plant,

(i)

quantity

plant

power

(3)

In

etc.,

are

the

among

necessary

must

(2)

to

the

lar
Simithe

measure

plant

power

for

needed

or

Upon

meter

machines.

checking

indicators.

factor

consumption.

wattmeters,
the

for

electrical

generated.

energy

are

the

ard
(4) Stand-

calibrating

the

instruments.

important

(5)

an

the

voltmeters,

necessary

High

"

motor

Power

"

required

with

required
of

amount

operating

Commutator

"

indicators

are

premises

instruments

The

Energy.

Frequency

"

are

ammeters,
proper

"

voltmeters

voltmeters.

meters.

consumer's

meters

wire

Power.

connection

installed

Electrostatic

"

Hot

instruments
in

purposes

f.

m.

Measuring

Instruments.

Special

e.

voltmeters

ammeter

Instruments

Quantity.

are:

energy,

electrical

quantities

(l) current,

(2)

(6) frequency,
33"

of

which

quantity,
and

(7)

power

measurement

(3)

e.

m.

factor.

f., (4)

MEASUREMENTS.

ELECTRICAL

for

Instruments

The

alternating

current

the

of

measurement

divided

be

may

Current.

Measuring

for

used

instruments

331

into

roughly

direct

three

and

general

classes:

carrying

current

instruments

but

Such

and

coil

reaction

the

employing

forming

core,

direct

The

coil

carrying

when

fixed

is made

with

with

is wound
coil and

fixed

through

the

coil.

is

the

about

The

current

cups

into
the

in

movable

number
its axis.

In

coil is

one

spring, the

end

to

on

the

function

other

is carried
the

which

torsion

head

soft iron

used

either

for

tends

The

arranged

The

tro-dynamo
elecof

measurement

series,one

being

into

ally
usu-

surrounds
normal

the

terminals

the

or

zero

to

that

movable

coil

When

dip.

coils in series the mechanical

two

of which

original position.
a

ing
measur-

perpendicular

plane of the fixed coil,this tendency

its

the

or

net
mag-

for

and

the

into

to

coil

permanent

of turns,

of

nent
perma-

coil,which

reaction
the

the

Control.

for

The

smaller

passed through

be

coils connected

movable.

rotates

mercury

current

only useful

Torsion

position, the plane of the movable

of the

either

can

constructed

of two

up

other

the

and

fixed

the

measurements.

current

Electro=Dynamometer

current,

between

current

which

combination

alternating

or

for

adapted

field of the
is

nating
alter-

or

currents.

Those

3.

direct

These

electro -dynamometers.

as

is fixed, this class of instrument

direct

either

to

carrying current,
As

coils

two

deflecting force.

known

are

mechanical

using the

between

particularly well

are

being movable.

magnet

of the

source

instruments

magnet

reaction

equally applicable

are

Those

2.

the

as

currents

latter.

mechanical

using the

Those

1.

is

to

to

rotate

restore

the

coil

being resisted
the

spring is attached
with

movable

pointer and

coil

movable
at

by

its upper

scale

so

that

ELECTRICAL

332

the

to

necessary

be

can

the

restore

form

this

of

instrument

that

to

balanced

to

View

161.

normal

both

and

of

the

force

its original position

shows

equilibrium

head, with

of the

diagram

the

the

convenient

has

been

movable

Siemen's

and

are

established

coil in

electro-

coil,there

fixed

plane

dynamometer.

rotative

two

forces

other:

deflecting force

its square,

the

produce

to

coil to

Fig. 161

when

against each

The

1.

movable

spring

electro-dynamometer.

by twisting the torsion

FIG.

the

to

readily measured.

popular
In

given

of twist

amount

ENGINEERING.

force

due

the

to

current

by the

being produced

and

proportional
in

current

same

coils.
The

2.

through

restoring force
an

angle which

due
is

to

the

twisting of the

directly proportional

to

spring

the

force

produced.
From

by the

(i)

to

If
the

CD

(2) it follows

angle of torsion
root

square

and

is the

torsional

of that
the

of

angle,

square

the

of the

due

to

the

current,

measured

as

spring, is proportional

that

or

angle of torsional
deflection

that

the

angle of torsion

to

the

is proportional

current.

deflection, and
one

unit

k is

of direct

constant,

current

and

MEASUREMENTS.

ELECTRICAL

obtained
as

by

silver

with

comparison

calibrated

by

of

instruments

alternating

consideration

coil is

of

instrument,

of the

independent
the

further

without

the

current

all alternating

as

the

for

adjustment
is evident

as

tro-dynamo
elecuse

from

rotative

of

tendency

direction

of the

direction

reverses

current,

fundamentally,

be

following facts

direction

because

direct

must

current

of the

The

1.

such

k"*.

means

is correct
an

standard

current

voltameter, then

current

as

direct

I
When

333

the movable
in the

current

in

both

the

at

coils
same

time.
The

2.

the

to

turning

of the

square

The

movable

and

values
force

to

direct

The

of

current

currents

Kelvin
used

root

square

this

the

square

the

square

ically
inertia,mechanthe

root

the

of

the

of the

deflecting
position is

zero

which

is,

squares

of

current,
of

mean

alternating

instantaneous

of the

coil in its

value
of

of
from

electro -dynamometer
the

effectivevalue
it has

when

the

of

may
an

be

used

for the

alternating current

been

calibrated

with

Gravity Control.

by reference

of
to

standard.

utilizing the
or

of the

(or Thomson)
in

received

movable

Electro=Dynamometer

instrument

proportional

values.

form

wave

any

the

effective

The

determination

that

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hold

instantaneous

Summary:

two

averages

the

to

by definition,the
the

impulses

current

necessary

proportional

its property

coil, through

hence

of the

coil is

movable

current.

integrates the
current,

of the

moment

case,

but

Another

general principle of the interaction

current

same

balance.
the

on

itself,is known

(See Fig. 162.)

attraction

which

No

results

as

torsion
from

of
the
is
the

334

of two

tendency
of the

As

ENGINEERING.

coils in

parallel planes

magnetic

circuit

weighed.

The

is
of

ELECTRICAL

weight

at

force

there

is
be

after

calibration

can

scale

deterioration

no

form

It is not

The

162.

Kelvin

principle is

portable form, the torsion

head

is not

for the
are

springs and

changed

current

springs

to

is allowed

is

as

instrument.

soon

as

to

bear

the
the

accuracy

for

constant.

the

is

not

meter
electro-dynamo-

ordinarily used, but

the

resistance

of

is thus

relation

to

coils,movable

two

of

coil

cannot
are

used

calibrated

in
over

being standardized
After

calibration

long time, the only parts subject

duced.
pro-

current,

and

through

be

the

is made.

slightest deflection
movable

of

ammeter

an

against the

definite

instruments

length of the scale instead

one

no

contacts

mercury

These

of

in standardization

hence

reading instrument

positions of the

supplied
the

as

deflect

to

direct

deflections

relative

restorative

favorite

producing

in

The

current.

balance.

When

used

coiled

ing
plac-

of instrument

type

portable and

be

coil

certain

great

current

Electro=Dynamometers.

movable

the

of instrument.

FIG.

Portable

in this

it is therefore

and

that

so

length

this attraction

supply the

to

upon

the

utilized,and

is calibrated

arm

depended

laboratories.
commercial

is

them

particular place indicates

gravity alone

about

shorten

to

fixed,
The

the

control

portable

the

entire

mination
by the deter-

they keep their

to

deterioration

MEASUREMENTS.

ELECTRICAL

being the springs and

the

commercial

alternating

forms

of

electro-dynamometer
Shunts
that

for

the

springs of

the

the

at

control

movable

to

adjusted

so

the

properly called

in

selecting the

so

that

the

the

market.

It is evident

dynamometer-type

have

sufficient
To

the

The

of the

due

through

pass
"

the

is often
is taken

care

Metal

or

of the
with

possible is used.

as

desired

resistance

variation

seriously.

low

to

greatest

to

culty
diffi-

through

deflecting resistance

change

made

This

this

current

shunt

or

coil.

shunt/'

resistance

coefficient

deflect

movable
"

"

flexibilityto

avoid

of the

part

ammeter

anything but the smallest

carry

but

to

as

material

temperature

alter

not

send

satisfactory
using the

Ammeters.

sufficiently sensitive.

proportion through

will

the

coil,the major part being allowed

resistance

and

to

of

ammeter

upon

time

same

it is customary
the

are

portable

large enough

and

currents

render

principle

number

current

Electro=Dynamometer

be made

cannot

bearings.

335

shunt
current

ature
temper-

Fig. 163

Line

FIG.

shows
of

the

having
which

is

R,

is
If

measurements.

resistance

there

principle

principle which

shunt

electrical

the

showing

163. Diagram

r,

the

ammeter

useful

the

is connected

resistance

of the

current

shunt."

in many

one

measuring
to

"

kinds

instrument/

points between

two

will

divide

in the

depends

upon

7~"

proportion
several

"

"

factors.

The

exactness

of

this

division

ELECTRICAL

336

1.

If the

instrument.

The

of current

resistance

of the

with

of leads
to

that

which

leads

the

and

of the

its range
used

is made

164. A

shunts
may

thus

Permanent
ammeter

was

permanent

with

the

shunt
low

is calibrated
used

as

small

with

in

it.

or

and

by

the

careful

connection

The

resistance

possible in proportion

as

that

commercial
used

form

with

the

employing
field

may

of instrument

shunt.

instrument

same

One

ammeter
a

and
be

may

fraction

of

one

amperes.

One

Ammeters.

to

shunt.

varying from

currents

relation

magnet

of ammeter

form

thousand

magnetic
some

more

given rise in temperature,

is made

greatly increased.

Magnet

permanent

bearing

be

several

to

be

may

in this way

ampere

and

proportionately changed.

be

commercial

Fig. 164 is shown

Several

to

shunt

increases

between

contacts

of

instrument.

FIG.

In

resistance

are

contacts

with

instrument

the

construction, and

shunt

will be

This

leads.

instrument

of the

instrument

division

the

coefficients

temperature

resistance

of the

that

less than

2.

of

equality

The

ENGINEERING.

the

as

the
be

the

of the
of

reaction
source

current.

movable, and

of

Either
the

earliest forms
a

current

on

of
a

deflecting force
the
choice

coil
of

or

one

the
o'r

ELECTRICAL

the

other

plan leads

properties, each

Movable
bar

is very

field

produced

wide

magnet

wire
is

its center,

the

to

over

disposed

so

considerable

position of

coil is

the

draw

to

axis

the

to

that

the

latter

the

accuracy

from
the

Among

1.

good

for

number
fixed
2.

be

may

the

In

made

and

magnet

field at the
is perpendicular
in the

coil.
of the

familiar
for

accurate

magnet

to

obtain

debar

the

In

these

are

such

determinable

to

as

the

even

forces

reasonable
the

meters
galvano-

semi-portable class.
movable

need

no

is carried

current

no

of the
as

and

order

The

current.

certain

to

fairly uniform

magnet

ammeter

moving

large
thus

make

to

as

the

through

these

is desirable

larger than
The

system.

the

trol
con-

is

deflecting

by increasing the

magneto-motive

force, of the

coil.

Simplicity.

"of instruments
The

is

of

coil

is such
or

are

field

following:

As

control

of turns,

of

qualities of the

Sensitiveness.

necessary

value

currents.

portable

springs there

force

subjected

of

mentioned

be

may

the

construction
the

which

proportions

is

action

the

under

of

of the

drical
cylin-

of current

outgrowth

an

galvanometers

the

galvanometers

is

axis

short,

strong

magnet

action

the

A
of

center

of the

the

to

magnetic

coil.

scale.

direction

The

toward

determination

absolute

coil.

just described

sine

and

tangent

of the

magnet

instrument

The

the

produces

of the

part

pointer attached

of the

concentrate

which

usually spring-controlled and

zero

highly magnetized

but

influence

to

as

combination

advantages.

flowing through

current

small

lozenge form, pivoted in the

with

deflections
is

by
of

coil

sensitive

characteristic

marked

inherent

Ammeters.

337

of

instrument

an

having its 'own

type

Magnet

magnet

at

to

MEASUREMENTS.

limited

As

there

of this class

popularity

are

few

can

be

and

cheap parts

the

cost

kept low.

of instruments

of the

type

described

largely due

is

the

to

advantages

inherent

is

needle

The

movable

coil, which
and

magnet,

this

point is that,

second

is the

in

in many

case

instrument,

is the

by the
as

165. Section

of the

to

between

its

The

between

the

allow

thin

poles

coil,which

The

permanent

commercial

principal parts

embracing

varies

ing
read-

greatly

D'Arson-

of instrument

of

in which

magnetic field.

conditions, is shown
bar

permanent

D'Arsonval

space

in

current

of

system,

difficult the

current

acting.

of the

Ammeters.

Magnet

adapted

inertia

the

constantly

always

render

parts

simplest form

consists

Fig. 165, and

FIG.

the

ment
instru-

of the

circuit

is

of the

that

of wrork.

classes

Coil, Permanent

coil is deflected

The

moving

the

galvanometer

val

of

account

on

weaken

in

force

numerous

magneto-motive

to

are

deflections, especially when

Movable

of

vibrations
of the

as

ammeters

its

instruments.

frequent calibration

magneto-motive

counter

its

counter

in time

tend

hence
As

is necessary.

large

to

offsets

lose

to

magnet

complicated

more

over

bar

defect

This

subjected

the

from

forces

of the

tendency

force.

magneto-motive

the

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

338

the

of U-form

magnet

Weston

ammeter,

ified
mod-

galvanometer.
fixed

poles and
surrounds

cylindricalcore
the

core

the

is
core,

of soft iron*

just sufficient
to

move

to

freely.

MEASUREMENTS.

ELECTRICAL

which

of wires
the

sensitive

very

inertia
the

has

vibrations

by

the

with

magnet

satisfactory degree of

very

The

commercial

modified

in

torsional

control

Fig.

View

66.

is

Weston
within

the

movable

For

convenience

coil is
In

coil

mentioned

the

to

by that

the

the

to

of the

of the permanent

gives

magnetic field.
galvanometer

are

The

portable.

showing

support

of

enclosed

shunt

instrument.

by jewelled pivot bearings.

placing the control

placed perpendicular
addition

the

the

large that

so

makers,

instrument

ammeter,

being provided
in

is

replaced by spring control, the

the

of

damping

"aging"

D'Arsonval

the

make

to

to

is

generated in

currents

magnet

permanence

of the

forms

order

of

property

artificial

duct
con-

galvanometer

seriously affected
the

its

means

time

same

practiced by instrument

now

as

the
The

eddy

by

magnet,

at

coil.

permanent

is not

fact, combined

This

the

of the
The

force

permanent

important

means

core.

magneto-motive

coil.

the

vertically with

suspended

position and

from

and

to

and

poles and

its

its

control

current

of the

that

plane coinciding with

coil is

the

laboratory form

In the

339

the

advantages

magnet

the

axis

of the

plane of the magnet.

already

uniformity of the deflections

cited, should
which

are

be

directly

proportional

of

property

the

to

damping

out

it

with

surrounding

by

larger eddy

currents

66

is

be

current

in

placed

is

the

small

wires.

resistance

and
in

ways

this

of

mass

be

can

measurement.

of

is

ammeter

tend

to

circuit

be

inherent

the

of the

that

tension

principle leads
different

fundamental
under

underlying

types
facts

which

magnetic

of

commercial
to

These

in which

the

core

is drawn

2.

Those

in which

the

core

is

axes

between
in

instrument

the

variety

based

or

direct

principle of
of

this

of

naturally

apparently
the

but

types

the
from

application

The

of

rent
cur-

circuit

reluctance

field.

on

form

magnetic

follows

may

be

cally
radisame

classed

Those

two

of

means

circuit their

shunt

ammeter,

1.

the

by

is utilized

development

all.

it

alternating

that

so

the

apply

it

currents

switchboard,

reaction

parts

to

general heads

two

various

the

the

on

the

where

large

with

An

The

of

current

ance
deflecting resist-

for very

material

for either

minimum,

of the

calibrating the instrument.

used

the

Fig.
ciple
prin-

case

instrument,

mechanical

magnetic

themselves

'arrange

shall

in

in

of the

part

part of the

construction.

ammeter

principle

the

is connected

The

Ammeters.

in the

The

locality

considered

be

As

coil.

form

shown

using the

small

is small, but

wires

comparatively

ammeter

with

case

proper

these

must

Core'

current

of

As

of

much

which

instrument

but

convenient

any

instrument

while

Soft

same

measured

be

to

form

movable

the

placed in the

is

The

ammeter,

through

sent

in the

galvanometer.

electro-dynamometer
can

cylinder, in

copper

core.

The

coil is increased

of the

generated than

are

instrument.

straight line law/'

vibrations

D'Arsonval

of the

"

commercial

modern

commercial

the

as

the

poles and

high resistance

in

current

is known

what

have

They

ENGINEERING.

ELECTRICAL

340

being in the

same

into

cylindrical coil.

placed eccentric
line.

with

the

coil,

MEASUREMENTS.

ELECTRICAL

Coil

and

and

ammeter

of the

one

into

plunger is drawn

coil.

is minimized

and

the

hysteresis loss is made

the

best

is the

There

least

combination

when

with

to

respect

is very

small
the

when
certain

The

and

not

small

of current

instrument

are

is useful.
This

gravity control.

the

coil

is, therefore,

convenient.

been

Practically

switchboard

ments
instru-

gravity control

introduced

portable, the

sitates
neces-

for

the

making

the

simplest being

gravity control.

This

type

other

forms

even

largely superseded

with
of

various
the

instruments,

in which

the

It is also

unit

are

this

located

it into

There

the

use

as

of

symmetrically

per

ammeters

springs for the

by

Rotating Soft Iron

the

In

order

rotating

that

is, the
A

respect
total

to

core

combine

core

stitution
sub-

has,
for

piece of
to

soft

solenoid

reluctance

of

all of these
have
that

as

the

iron

and

desirable

been
of

devised,

all soft

reluctance

located

will tend

of the

coil

inexpensive, but it

instruments

reduction

The

Cores.
and

general principle

same

circuit.
with

is accurate

ammeter

portability.

movable

type

portable,

ammeter

plunger type

magnetic

circuit

drawing

deflections

possible.

as

use.

Ammeters

employing

is

the

levelling.

been

switchboard

core

purposes

they

plans have

however,

or

position.

this

plunger

of

of

for many

are

magnetic

region that

coil and

plunger

features

the

it is in this

careful
Various

this

which

and

current

the

force

that

related

so

the

to

by eddy

of fine wires,

position is approached.

instruments

all of the

lacks

this

are

iron

possible by using

as

in

the

coil, but

over

is permanent

and

plunger

is far from

and

best

the

as

range

coil

and

core

reluctance

the

core

maximum,

The

soft

core

bundle

small

as

nearly proportional

as

are

it of

by making

material.

deflections

heating of the

The

currents

in which

is that

earliest

of

simplest possible form

The

Ammeters.

Plunger

341

to

magnetic

take

of

within
a

core

the
and

position

circuit is mini-

ELECTRICAL

342

mum.

An

The

current

illustration

iron

View

Fig. 167.

core,

the

plane of the coil.

which

which

This

The
that

when
lies

core

is the

relative
the

are

and
to

for

definition, electrical
time, that

action

to

per

its reluctance
coil

of

axis
of the

are

limit

the

the

coil, in
to

in this

ampere

so

of the

circuit

proportionately large

the

ment
instruthe

near

the

Any
current

quantity

accumulate,

which

will prove

is the
the

to

the

instrument,
and

Quantity.

Measuring

is,it is proportional

its duration.
to

in

scale.

Instruments

By

the

reluctance

are

of

ammeter.

core

and

core

reached

in

deflections

uniform, but

not

of the

center

The

extent.

of rotation

position in which

approximately

Fig. 167.

axis, lies approximately

positions of

the

axis

coil, soft

pointer has

position it improves

maximum

its

in

position of the pointer

zero

inclined

to

shown

the

to

the

Thomson

is also inclined

is maximum.

the

principle is

At

core.

of the

the

scale

of this

-carrying coil is inclined

thin, flat, soft

arranged

ENGINEERING.

product
average

action

allows

of

current

of which
the

and

current

result

satisfactory quantity

is proportional
of

this

meas-

MEASUREMENTS.

ELECTRICAL

device.

uring

electrolytic action
material

deposited
give

it will

extensive

lighting

for incandescent
with

and

direct

combination

A
for

of

measuring

in

the

definition

of

is

which

metal

unit

of

the

The

of

absence

electrolyte

of the
the

metal

nitrate

depositing

is

time

for

total

time
of
to

and

an

this with

comparing

given

of current

current

the

more

This

to

is

anode

of

ease

of

almost

it is found

that

sulphates

the

of

the

cleaning.
any

for

salt
silver
when

best

are

is

account

on

purposes

the

in

cathode

the

in

common

the

rate

at

use

the

by obtaining
a

an

average

-hour, and

half

by dividing

indicated

deposited in the voltameter,

the
of

is very

weight deposited by unit

deposition of metals
constant

Silver, copper

with

and

zinc

are

and

useful

by the

quantity

corresponding
conditions

standard

of solution

most

ments.
reading 'instru-

of direct

current

average

present

the

it still remains

period, at least

density, temperature

manipulation.

referred

solution

calibrated

extended

constant,

electricity. The

pressure

voltameter.

and

of

calibration

of metal

amount

by

of

be

can

over

constant

The

measurements,

Ammeters

in

was

electrolyte arranged

is

and

is not

for the

means

meter

the

zinc.

voltameter

commercial

of

nished
electricity fur-

of

calibrating

preferred, while

the

of deflections

as

deposited, but

and

convenient

the

be

copper

Although

known

oxidization

be

to

and

deposited,

for

may

weighed

displaced by the

was

current.

be

preferably of platinum

of

at

purposes

voltameter,
of

to

product

cathode

is

silver

the

the

if the

use.

anode,

purposes

form,

one

in

now

and

quantity

it

until

current

devices

convenient

the

collected

form

of

rate

and

current,

to

This

time.

measuring

for

use

be

proportional

the

and

the

to

cathode

the

at

quantity

current

average

proportional

is

the

of

The

mentioned.

requirements

the

fulfills

current

electrolytic effect

the

example,

For

343

of method
for

of

calibrating

ELECTRICAL

344

the

purposes,

ENGINEERING.

first named

being the

reliable

most

most

ana

easily handled.
The

electric

readily

quantity

to

subjected

to

By
of rotation

of the

and

current

of

means

the

quantity.

this

country,

all

practical

magnetic

total

general there

between

The

high

drawn

electrometer

torsion

"

deflection

the

to

of
in

use

two

wires

they

"

on

the

an

indication

of

the

resistance, while

without

in

is shown

arranged
the

line.
of the

for

of

to

scale

quadrant

mechanically

the

rotation

partial deflection

of the
An

Fig. 168.

This

connection

indicate

the

presence

is calibrated

is evidence

so

apparatus.

in

ground

the

amount.

of
of

read

to

severity of the ground.

a

very

that

so

permanent

ground
The

ing
employ-

instruments.

like

laboratory

pointer indicates
a

attraction

ammeters

arranged

are

f.

m.

e.

instruments

operate

produced

and

in

negligible in

will be

instrument

an

f.

m.

mechanical

simply

These

that

detector

ground
as

speed

measure

auxiliary resistance

circuit

the

will be

such

the

in volts

rent.
cur-

preferable for

electrostatic

as

are

usually employed

of

between
of

e.

first is the

Voltmeters.

ground

having

except

head

example
is

and

deflection

principles employed

known

are

voltmeters

from

Electrostatic

that

Measuring

The

of

class

resistance

current

the

general

considered

are

two

are

attractions

other

is

in

not

electricallycharged bodies, and

these

brake

revolutions
are

for

instruments.

measuring

the

to

purposes.

Instruments
In

of

meters

energy

proportional

directly proportional

Coulomb-meters
as

motor,

strength is

constant

mechanical

or

number

of

is

is made

armature

the

which

of the

armature

field

itself

another, lends

or

The

magnetic

turning force

form

one

measurement.

in

operating

when

in

motor,

full

fairly low
a

very

high

MEASUREMENTS.

ELECTRICAL

resistance

between

detector

is the
in

Fig.

wire

the

the

and

The

ground.

ground

principal application of the

electrostatic

practice in this

As

commercial

lower

which

of

two

country.

connected

are

meter
volt-

shown

pairs of metal

of four

consists

68, the instrument

the

345

in^

rants,
quadand

together

Ground

FIG.

The

68.

electrostatic

grounded.

Each

wire, either

direct

ground
the
to

occurs

normally
the

the

arranged

there

exists

grounded

line wire.

capacity

is when

the

vane

is

ground

The
of

the

of

the

and

to

When

quadrant
to

the

connected

take
is

instrument

directly under

line

one

potential between

tends

vane

detector.

resistance.

difference

quadrants

the

high

which

as

pairs is connected

upper

through

or

ungrounded

in
which

of

voltmeter

tion
posi-

maximum,
In

quadrants.
9

the

single-vane form

voltmeter
volts
direct

is

adapted
It

upward.

low

only

to

it is

voltage

very

described, the
high

pressures,

equally well

operates

When

current.

principle in

of instrument

desired

instruments

to

on

use

electrostatic
from

1000

alternating and
the
number

electrostatic
of

vanes

ELECTRICAL

346

ENGINEERING.

and

of

sets

quadrants

is known

Ammeter

Resistance

High

described

only

that

so

This

resistance

in

series

the

several

used

on

form

of

in

for several

combinations

in

have

may

that

and
to

16,000 and

voltmeter

of resistance

indicating instruments

combination

with

draw

small

very

proportion

as

When

proportional

to

series with

resistance

In
ammeters

current

practice the
are

the

the

uously
continabsorbed

6oo-volt

ohms,

shunt

in

line.

it may

the
be

used

as

indicating parts

substantially the

same.

it
When
a

With

in

current

they

as

the

major

instrument

it is useful

across

150-

appreciable.

current,
The

and

proportion.

measuring

line

any

possible

as

is not

shunt.

milli-voltmeter

connected
the

of

or

case.

essentially voltmeters

are

through

for

for

power

75,000

as

drawn

described

volts,

same

loss.

in

ranges

current

proportion

flowing

usually known
purposes.

shunts

of

high

as

standard

connected

serious

other
the

when

be

may

one

high

as

is

arranged

are

in the

amount

produce

outside

purchased

be

cool

resistance

be

line.

partly

or

volts, 150

15

should

strument
in-

resistance

example,

on

the

the

deflecting part

of range

remain

may

the

case

may

voltmeters

sufficient

be

this amount
The

they

circuit

voltmeter
volt

of

inside

voltmeters

For

used

voltmeters

that

not

be

may

Standard

resistance

may

either

one

voltages.

from

windings and

the

that

so

more

instrument

order

outside

located

or

volts.

The

located

winding

the

sufficientlyhigh

is drawn

partly in the instrument

resistances

two

and

of current

of

one

equally satisfactory

is made

resistance

amount

voltmeter.

Any

will be

multiplier. Usually these

with

range

is

When
as

600

small

electrostatic

ammeter

an

ment
resulting instru-

The

Voltmeters.

the

resistance

case.

known

as

when

voltmeter

as

employed.

multi-cellular

as

be

must

gives

for
a

is
many

reading

connected

in

meter.
high reading voltof

voltmeters

and

MEASUREMENTS.

ELECTRICAL

The

of

expansion

At
very

generally used

have

been

is taken

cord

wires

of the

by

up
to

In

passes.

some

the

with

this

is

hence

for

deflection
The

is

proportional both

proportional
series

torsion

with

e.

head
m.

f.

commercial

dynamometer,
a

the

to

e.

it and

coils carry

fixed

and

If the

power.

will be
This

line

the

by

form
as

it

to

instrument

in

the

moving

coil deflects

other

form

of

instrument
the

the

f.

m.

for

coil is made

line,and, if the
of the
current

practicable for
electro-

ammeter

against the resistance

which

reacts

against this is proportional to the

current

e.

instrument

by reference
in

the

the

large resistance

is not

proportional

wattmeter.

of

which

product of the

made

to

in

the

of

case

is

beat."

angle of torsion

the

of

wire

ments
Instru-

dead

movable

across

the

current,

spring, the scale being calibrated

Any

"

and

form

inserting

proportional

and

use

f.

m.

the

able
desir-

Power.

in the

current

is

deflection.

current

best

connecting

the

the

to

which

over

rapid fluctuations

to

instrument

an

is the

mitted
trans-

because

Measuring

obviously

electro-dynamometer

measuring

in

is

wattmeter

spring is

voltmeter

steady

The
which

drum

frequently called

are

Instruments
The

wire

sensitive

gives

quality

small

reactance

no

It is not

coils.
and

current

hot

the

ways

There

into

formed

in

of this

indicating pointer through

an

they

of slack

amount

motion

but

were

described.

ones

certain

The

work

rent.
cur-

principle

current

the

by
a

causes

spring.

instrument.
not

alternating

of

passage

measuring

this

employing

largely superseded

expansion

for

instruments

some

for

by the

heated

voltmeters

time

one

when

wire

in

is utilized

current

Instruments.

Wire

Hot

347

the
the

and
e.

to

m.

of

standard.

field

can

which

current

f. will be

be

factory
satis-

ELECTRICAL

348

ENGINEERING.

Instruments

far the

By

commercial
These

based

are

the

upon

the

total

its

cost

watt-hour

adapted

direct

current

this

Commutator

by the
The

separated

the

of

axle

which

is wound
so

that

passes

motors,

the

of

The

moving

resistance

either

with

The

as

of the

located

at

to

armature

bottom

the
of

use

also

serves

A,

to

nected
con-

line, carries
This

avoid

armature

inductance

alternating
axle

rents.
cur-

S, and

in all direct

the

current

of silver

to

Rr is placed around

in series with

the

by the

being made

case

field sufficient

motion

or

the

upon

winding

extra

is connected

weak

direct

is produced

series with

f.
to

of

tator
commu-

field

the

form

form

armature

m.

e.

commutator

in this

commutator

in

ing
alternat-

of

The

across

the

is mounted

through

brake

to

R2

mostly used,

form

The

part.

For

simplicity.

which

space

light non-magnetic

armature

small

(or
electric

small

perfectly uniform

used

latter

connected

of

measured.

of

Fig. 169.

are

proportional

be

and

producing

by

the

oxidation.

armature

friction.

it may

current

the

is

upon

The

prevent

which

the

in series with
current

in

field is maintained

coils

admit

is shown

metering

of

is

standard

placed

meters

of its greater

The

bills

estimate

an

be

to

measurement

account

on

of

forms

the

to

also

energy

motor

Meters.

coils C

that

are

energy

Usually for the

meter

energy.

and

are

commutator

adapted

Motor

motor

two

the

is used

motor

practical

measuring

purpose

so

called)

are

variety of

energy.

induction

for the

Practically all

purposes

is also well

current

line.

the

to

for

meters

generated

they

as

Energy

stations

made.

meters

motor

and

readings.

of energy
be

may

used

are

for

premises of all customers,

in power

amount

Energy.

of all instruments

which

the

upon

switchboards

on

those

are

placed

are

Measuring

important

most

use

for

it for the
the

overcome

is resisted
of the

case.

by

purpose

effect
an

of

tro-magneti
elec-

Perma-

MEASUREMENTS.

ELECTRICAL

nent
a

disk

copper

eddy

'armature

be

may

FIG.

the

of

Thomson

169. The

the

The

axle.
of

hollowed

dials

Ordinarily

dial

figure,one

to

k.

w.

The

admit

to

revolution

the

armature

train

and

power

in

supported

jewel

alternating

The

of the

by

scales

means

of these

expected in the
of

revolution
hours

w.

of the

ends

recorded

are

of power

range

k.

10

conical

of dials.

complete

one

the

to

the

to

or

dial

right hand

the
k.

w.

right
hour.

corresponds

hour.

Induction

special form

velocity of

for direct

meter

to

suit the

corresponds

In the
one

to

is

armature

ment
adjust-

proper

circuits.

of the

upon

adjusted

circuit.
hand

gear

are

out

revolutions

worm

the

magnets

watt-hour
current

bearings PP,

By

rotates

field it generates

magnetic

practically proportional

made
axle

The

line.

the

cuts

resist its motion.

which

position of

the

field in which

magnetic

disk

the

As

D.

currents

of

in the

produce

MM

magnets

349

Motor

of

rotating

For

Meters.

alternating

single-phase induction
part

is

disk

or

motor

shell

of

may

current

be

work

employed.

metal, preferably

ELECTRICAL

350

The

aluminum.

by

is, if

That

between

in

currents

recording

the

coils

are

moving

mechanism

different
the

and

each

reactances.

other

in

as

largely
angle

an

of

induces

devices

braking

same

rent
cur-

combination

The

45".

The

the

are

portional
pro-

displaced from

differing by

say

part.

current

rotating field which

coils,one

two

other

of

currents

degrees,

90

by

phase position of the

the

windings

carry

produces

currents

the

largely resistance

will

and

zero

these

These

45", and

say

coil has

one

they

reactance

f.

displaced by

also

and

line current
m.

e.

angle,

an

is

the

the

to

other

rotating field is produced

carries

of which

ENGINEERING.

the

eddy

and

the

commutator

already described.

motor

Special Instruments.
practice it is desirable

station

In

instruments
of

factor

power

of two

displaced

induction

motor

with
the

allowed

which
field will

one

inductance,
upon

farther

axle

tend
the

coil be

move

the

will

be

of

the

behind

be

may

in

The

depend

the

two

high resistance

phase.

e.

As

the

circuit

inductive
the

frequency

If the

m.

f.

In

that

the

the

upon

coils.

zero

increases

and

resistance

force

phase

of

will
the

placement
dis-

winding

other

currents

the

which

to

If the

the

be

to

the

degree

and

moving

attached

frequency increases

the

its

it will indicate

revolve.

will

by

had

above

pointer be

illustrated

Suppose

phase displacement of the

frequency.

and

rotating field by

meter.

scale

to

rotate

of

the

in

If

over

currents

made

of

described

tends

to

frequency

general principle of such

principle

spring

to

the

of
of

by

boards
switch-

displaced coils carrying electrically

meter

energy

the

upon

the

production

typical frequency

restrained
and

the

This

currents.
to

axle

The

current.

of

indicate

will

mechanically

reference

part

the

is that

instruments
means

which

have

to

large

depend

two

the

its current

circuit the

rents
cur-

tance
reac-

lags
cur-

ELECTRICAL

is

rent

in

always

increases

there

increased

torque

farther.

The

in

form

of

series,

the

and

e.

the

m.

current

is

f.

phase

the

of

are

and

unity.
displaced,

displacement

e.

f.

As

of

are

in

phase

torque
is

with

field,

the

it

indicate

windings,
the

circuits

primary

m.

deflects

will

two

parallel

rotating

produces

and

calibrated

polyphase

produces

factor

power

to

those

as

winding

when

for

in

frequency

which

field

contains

other

the

as

the

circuit.

the

indicator

instrument

connected

Each

in

the

Thus

secondary

properly

current

f.

m.

movable

when

factor

power

e.

351

rotating

the

upon

the

the

stronger

scale

of

with

phase
is

The

frequency

MEASUREMENTS.

produced.

and

phase,

one

windings

the

are

motor.

is

torque

that

is,
of

nected
con-

In

induction

position
bearing

line.

the

an

one

definite

the

zero

when

the

current

relation

XIII.

CHAPTER

INTELLIGENCE.

OF

TRANSMISSION

THE

OUTLINE.

Simplex

Telegraphy:

Automatic

Devices

Subscriber's

Station

Wireless

Office

The

"

Ringer

Circuits

Distributing

"

The

"

"

Telephony.

in

suggested

signals

speech

or

At

current.

distances

to

the

be

may

distance

great

time

present

transmitted

with

(6) Telephony,

of

(c) Combinations

of
is

telegraph
miles,

the

electric

worked

over

the

and

phone
tele-

gence
Intelli-

miles.

thousand

one

transmit

to

by:
or

without

wires.

and

without

wires.

with

Telegraphy,

possible
means

thousand
than

greater

by

the

three

than

distances

over

it is

introduction,

the

greater

(a)

Printing

Telegraphy.

Receiver

Central

The

"

The

"

and

Receiving

"

Wireless

"

Transmitter

The

Quadruplex

"

Systems

"

Telephony:

As

Duplex

"

telephony.

and

telegraphy

Telegraphy.
Telegraphy,

Simplex
of
has

briefly
in

an

"

former.
of

the

circuit

interval
the

dash/'

by
for

Morse

and

intervals
"

in

of

dots

accordance
known

with
therefore
352

and

greater
"

and

three
dashes
a

as

as

interval

long
the

designed
Morse

ing
clos-

duration.

long

produce

the

mitted
trans-

are

less

the

code

great,

thereby

or

times

ber
num-

very

Messages
key,

dot

and

the

is not

of

about

which

over

12.

page

depressing

being

Combinations

alphabet,

on

is termed

latter

lines

on

transmitted

described

system

electric

short

The
a

this

be

to

messages

been

used

as

the

letters

by

fessor
Pro-

alphabet.

TRANSMISSION

THE

alphabet is the

This

in

one

general

it is also

telegraphy, and

INTELLIGENCE.

OF

in this country

use

in

used

353

form

modified

for land
for

ocean

telegraphy.
closed

the

In

relays

keys and

the

circuit

short-circuited

key being normally

When

use.

switch

the

lever, which

makes

high resistance
they

due

wound

are

signals

line is not

and

that

so

great.

not

unusual.

the

circuit

for

the

closed
the

at

transmission

time, hence

the

of

which

other

for

several

receiving instruments

local

primary

takes

transcribes

is used.

under

the

Fig.

earliest

stylus, carried

used
at

of

to

insulation

use

an

this

e.

f.

m.

only in the

length.
with

the

is
The

12.

page

from

current

sounder

storage

usually

receiving

by

and

ear

by typewriter.

or

of

stations,

large offices from

in

by the

direct

record

writing

practical form

by Morse

on

for the

terminal

account

in

10,

from

where
kind

be

can

receiving instrument

by hand

desired, some

developed

one

On

furnished

in very

message

it either

The

or

in

special purposes
is

the

illustrated

as

operator

For

at the

miles
are

The

generator.

or

sounder,

battery,

relays

necessary

simplex lines, and

hundred

The

battery

located

generators

volts

200

of circuits

case

current

the

on

operator

one

it is impracticable
difficulties,

than

greater

The

which

higher is

or

lines

of

simplex line is supplied by storage

on

but

by

message

usually in large cities.

are

and

electrical

or

the

the

are

with

all of the

system

time, and

same

simplex.

name

operation of the relays

battery

circuit

relays

ohms

key

of

required

of 150

in

not

means

The

of current

amount

line,each

line, the

of fine wire

relay resistance

In the

operate

the

12,

page

when

by

contact.
turns

many

the

the

use

produced

10,

switch

to

are

breaks
the

to

by

desires

operator

opened, and

is

in series with

connected

are

Fig.

in

illustrated

system

of

which
end

the

ment
instru-

printing instrument

or

telegraph receiver
a

of

from

paper

the

tape

armature

was

is drawn
lever

of

ELECTRICAL

354

the

sounder.
and

The

is moved

paper

stylus indents

the

corresponding

FIG.

ENGINEERING.

of the

One

170.

the

duration

the

to

by

the

the

it

importance,

is

treated

fully

more

dots

or

the

circuit.

the

on

line.*

receiving instruments

of

matter

in

Registers used

Morse

ism,
mechan-

dashes

current

Washington-Baltimore
As

with

paper

of

original

clock-work

is of
on

the

greatest

359

of this

of direct

ation
oper-

page

chapter.
In

simplex

well

as

is limited.
line

about

nearly
be

of

by

of

Fig.

10,

and

back
*

This

Cornell

of

means

from

current

in

two

except

in
of

that

armature

instrument

University.

is

unlike

in

the

and

one

consist
Museum

must

of

connected
inter-

supplied

repeater

the

is

shown
both

of two

over

lines

is

supplied with

must

over

circuits

division
The

is

repeater

preserved

Longer

sources.

not

on

climates,

Each

repeaters.

relays,

The

carried

electric

separate

modified

contacts.

be

can

dry climates.

independent

the

range

length in damp

series

lines the

working

miles

thousand

composed

with

Direct
miles

400

in other

as

posed
com-

in
front

relays

Sibley College,

suitably interconnected,
in

directions.

both

connected

as

If the

the

to

INTELLIGENCE.

OF

TRANSMISSION

THE

solenoid

it is necessary

355

work

to

of

terminals

line be

the

of

transmitting section

line

the

the

relay, and

the

Receiving

Sending

Ground

FIG.

Repeater

Simple

171.

terminals

contact

of the

line with
can

messages

necessary

connections

be

sent

in

to

have

for

simplex

only.

Such

an

is

fore
therein

the

repeater
of

Ground

Diagram

instruments
works

It

Line

of

Repeater
but

it

Fig. 171,

arrangement

Ground

172.

in

complete

Line

FIG.

only.

connected

repeater

line.

direction

shown

shows

172

one

receiving division

the

direction

one

second

Fig.

with

in

battery in circuit, as

direction.

reverse

operating

connected

are

fresh

Circuit

is

known

without

repeated by

hand,

any

Circuits

omitting
as

showing

the

principles involved

detail.

an

automatic

attention.

especially where

repeater

Messages
one

are

central

because

sometimes
office

is

re-

356

ELECTRICAL

quired
local

to

lines.

Cable

The

Chicago and

Duplex
known

the

the

to

furnish

to

and

west

is

It

possible, by

this

line

over

fresh

arrangement

simplicity the

Station

local

circuits

sounder
this

these

divides

relay

differentially

can

the

the

winding

not

tized.
magne-

be

best

understood

out

the

connections

various

possible
the

keys

the

relay solenoids

current

binations.
com-

hinges of
through

passes

by either

or

Differential

through

Circuits.

resistance

of

One

paths.

two

is

Duplex

Rl

divides

if

differentialduplex

the

both

to the

the

are

From

Telegraph

the

at

derlying
general principle un-

by tracing
with

is sup-

that

so

of

cores

this

system

and

equally between

halves

two

The

Station

S^

relays

points,

Fig.

omitted

are

the

nections
con-

in

diagram, and

to

current

the

The

relays. Current

central

the

messages

by diagram

S2 represent

invention

an

time.

shown

are

plied

equal

between

transmit

same

wound

173.

for

current

e.g.,

of

means

the

at

from

FIG.

automatic

1000

east,

differentially-wound relay, to

directions

For

is

Commercial

of the

500

of

number

Boston.

for
173.

operation from
of which

line to

Office

Central

between

System.

as

both

in

function
route

en

messages

York

has

the

long transmission

New

Company

repeaters,

in

from

repeat

ENGINEERING.

of the

equally through

the

or

the

artificial resistance

R2 (either

line)to the earth.

wiiich

of

If the

relay solenoid, the relay

current

armature

is

TRANSMISSION

THE

be attracted.

will not

If for any

relay will operate.

the

A, wishing

send

to

Current

Kv

INTELLIGENCE.

that

the

artificial resistance

The

through

the

but

half

which

it flows

because

then

current

The

K2.

flows

through

he operates
A

direction.

other

particular instant

the

through
If

both

each

oppose

flow

can

sections

batteries

through

artificial

resistance

the

therefore

the

are

This

the

at

there

is sufficient

extra

operators.

Lines

may

Wheatstone
*

There
and

be

must

are

to

obviously
other

to

the

as

present

time

be

transmit

going
the

at

mitted
trans-

direction.

same

time,

no

the

current

fore
there-

flow

through

follows:

From

the
the

relays, through
The

receiving

by the local batteries, but

if

two

separate

results
any

warrant

system.
operators

messages.

as

the

by another

two

the

the

other

batteries.

operated

to

at

relays

line

duplexed

is
if

ceiving
re-

ing
sendto

signal is

does, however,

of the

business

the

first message

line, and

keys, through

bridge duplex

or

the

both

transmitted

duplexing

efficiency,and

in the

the

message

in the

depressed

Current

back

instruments

used.

be

of

key

sending

to

that

depressed the

not

before, but

other

through it.

grounded

signals

to

The

signal

to

The

ment,
instru-

own

depresses key K2, and

Kl is
as

his
B.

transmit
the

line.

of

contact

Suppose farther
to

the

windings.

back

in Station

A, while

He

line

keys happen

batteries

the

key

its

nothing from

desires

in Station

receiving operator
the

B.

and

Rlf

energizes relay S2

of

is able, therefore,

in Station

operator

Station

at

depresses his key

line

the

through
hears

Station

at

operator

one

the instrument

Station

at

operator

in

earth

to

passes

sending operator

but

equally

through battery Blt through key Klt through

relay Slf dividing between

current

divide

not

operator

Station

to

message

357

it does

reason

Suppose

flows

OF

in

the

method

at

each

when

duplexed

of the

employment

This

were

doubling of its

line is

lines

known
is

the

as

illustrated

station;

one

to

in

ceive,
re-

ELECTRICAL

358

diagram,
which

Fig.

is

is well

ENGINEERING.

The

174.

familiarly used

adapted

well-known
for

The

purposes.

Line

FIG.

the

Bridge

174.

diagram,

from

the

it will

divide

the

The

is

there

because

relay

bridge-arms being

the

so

the

and

of

paths,

two

line, and

Station

difference

no

by

Station

at

artificial resistance

C, and

at

Referring

duplex.

flow

and

bridge-arm

between

Circuits.

operator

will

D,

bridge-arm

relay 5r

the

current

bridge-arm

through

other

Telegraph

differential

that

The

through

earth

Duplex
the

suppose

depresses his key.

to

[Ground

essentially different
to

is not

method

Station

Ground

resistances,

unknown

measuring

telegraphic

to

bridge,

Wheatstone

one

R2t

Station

at

circuit

will not

be

ing
contain-

operated
its

potential between

minals,
ter-

adjusted that this will be the

case.

When

both
oppose

duplex, each

keys

are

each

other

relay then

Quadruplex

depressed
in

line,

the

being operated

The

Telegraphy.

fourfold

the

time.

This

is

possible by

relay.

One

is

the

types

of

by transmitting

described, adjusted
minimum

to

value.

operate
When

time

same

as

in

by its

efficiencyof

increased
same

the

at

two

current

employing
Morse

the

current

below

this

teries
bat-

differential
current.

own

messages

standard
with

the

the

line
each
two

may
way

be
at

distinct

relay, already
above
value

tain
cer-

is sent

TRANSMISSION

THE

line the

the

over

of

"

the

The

pole.

Morse

of the

relay,which

in either
to

send

by

means

two

The

while
is

these

two

wire

same

transmitting keys,

the

other

the

by

relay it is possible
at

the

time,

same

the

reverses

current.

differential

or

in

current

strength of the

bridge

other

standard

by

of which

one

changes the

duplexed

of

when

changes

to

is attracted

types

relay

the

to

of the

armature

core,

the

pole, and

one

to

magnet.
electro-

an

coils of the

responds

The

over

messages

of two

line

With

being free

is attracted

armature

soft iron

to

relay is

permanent

poles of
the

through

current.

has

direction.

current,

the

polarized relay therefore

direction

is
other

is attracted

the

second

armature

between

armature

359

The

hinge, the

is sent

current

is reversed

current

the

forward

direction,the

one

Its

the

at

INTELLIGENCE.

respond.

to

variety.

and

When

the

"

pole being

one

play backward

in

relay fails

polarized

magnet,

OF

system

previously described.
It should

be understood

'

do

systems
In

order

insure

to

that

contain

not

of

use

described

learned

details

with

met

by

is necessary.

The

in

point

to

serve

practice.

from

other

reliability,

function

practical experience.

typical, and

are

graph
descriptions of tele-

lighting disturbances, and

details

numerous

only be

can

the

above

rapid working, non-interference

circuits,protection from
the

the

of these

The

systems

out

the

the

original receiver

ciples
general prin-

involved.

Devices.

Receiving
used

by Morse
This

paper.
was

found

indented
instrument

unnecessary

part of the

register,as

the

made

sounds

Mention
in

the

has

also

As

already stated

dots

and

dashes

is known
in

most

operators

by it.

The

been

made

as

the

became

of the

electroscope receivers, which

moving

Morse

to

cases

sounder

on

use

register. It
the

skillful in

was,

recording

interpreting

therefore, developed.

still older
were

strip of

pith-ball, used

supplanted

by

the

ELECTRICAL

360
needle

telegraph

still in

common

latter

delicate

very

by Sir William

be

powerful

supported

is

coil

by

other

When

end

its motion
the

dash, and
In

order

to

Cuttriss

the

consists
ink.

to

flow

of the

small

Thomson

in

Attached

soft

This

is

the

the

which

bell

comprising

an

and

mits
trans-

line upon

wavy

the

to

telegraph alphabet.
capillary tube, it is

is in

The
certain

the

like

the

an

the

make-and-break/'

of

piece

magnet.
electro-

varied

by

solenoid

solenoid, connected
"

flow

small

is

magnet
closes

as

improvement

is located

this

in

use

It is known

tape

adjustable

tape.

direction

deflected

siphon is

somewhat
a

reservoir.

one

of the

and

opens

arrangement

battery, and

in

of the

auxiliary static machine.

more

paper

flux

magnetic

an

end

vanomet
gal-

corresponds

recorder.

rendering

lower

under

vibrator

electric

an

for

the

to

iron, and

of

means

with

device

the

paper

siphon recorder

siphon

to

coil, which

ink

an

coil in

of the

through
a

this

produces

dot

the

to

to

magnetic

The

of

other

between

moving

direction

one

given

D'Arsonval

large telegraph offices in this country.

many

of

in

ink

modification

over

siphon, which

current

cause

plays

small

movements

dips into

correspondently

by connection

electrified
A

the

in the

one

is

latter

to

tape.

tube

is

nection
con-

capillary glass tube

through the movable

sent

other, the

to

which

but

recorder

The

in

use

which

through

thread

developed

for

in the

feeble

circuits.

suspended

as

passes

of

end

of the
is

is

suspension.

by

upper

current

the

or

fiber

transmitted

are

siphon, the
The

current

in

siphon

name

electro-magnet,

line

The

cables

are

to

was

Kelvin)

coil of fine wire

adapted

recording instrument

The

sounder

in local

currents

over

discovery.

register and

(late Lord

used.

this instrument.
a

of

form

Oersted's

being well

strong

transmission

can

poles of

the

to

Morse

former

Thomson

with
current

the

the

use,

the

currents,

Professor

after

soon

telegraph and

needle

The

ENGINEERING.

cuit.
cir-

mechanism
in

series
The

THE

TRANSMISSION

of the

armature

filled with

vibrator

mercury

reservoir.

reservoir

the

be

can

its rate

varied, and

the

brokers'

Morse

code.

offices

this
"

principle of these
The

to

comprises
for

c,

turning it through
This

letter.

when

definite

the

Automatic

wheel

its

have

been

at

rate

transmission.
to

be

are

hole

other

is
on

The

simplest

perforated with
one

side

to

holes

The

dot.

position.

of

increasing line

simplex

to

This

sides

duplex

or

possible by manual
have

been
into

brought
The

use.

of the

may

be

line.

center
one

only
tape,

paper

dash, while
tape

is

magnet
electro-

an

proper

employ

both

the

tape

paper

general principle need

systems
on

The

speed automatic

purpose

methods

ticular
par-

while

by

the

is

clock.

or

high

as

to

power,

over

the

corresponds

side corresponds

to

of

great

a,

pawl-and-ratchet,

gradually coming

and

impulses

alphabet; for

wheel

rotated

as

are

of

watch

type

of such

several

general

receiving apparatus

spring.

or

messages

number

complicated,

outlined.

which
A

of the

motive

for the

times

many

perfection, and

details

of

number

devised

The

to

step-by-step mechanism

own

been

efficiency by transmitting
lines

that

to

has

Systems.

quotations

number

is either

weight

stock

for

familiar

not

angle corresponding

pressed against the

automatically

systems

with

mechanism

requires

escapement

demand

one

any

The

wheel

furnishes

pawl-and-ratchet

certain

letters
etc.

similar

escapement

an

of

three,

rotating type

is

sends

number

this

follows:

as

apparatus

in

screw

controlled.

legibleto

is

with

tube

especially important.
"

partly

vibrating glass tube

reporting the

tickers

impulse; 6, two;

one

or

is

the

the

There

will be

glass tube

rubber

of vibration

In

transmitting

corresponding

in

Systems.

361

adjusting

an

of mercury

amount

it

to

by

of

means

telegraph record, which

with

attached

connected

By

Printing Telegraph
a

has

and

mercury,

INTELLIGENCE.

OF

on

the

perforated

ELECTRICAL

362
with

hand

by

automatic

aid

punch

is

circuit

of

be

operate

any

to

respond

to

kind

This
of

either

chemically prepared

be

colored

no

limit

when

the

current

and

the

the

of

is

that

the

one

or

in the
be

responding
cor-

made

sufficientlydelicate

plate

receive

film,

or

latter

or

the

sages
mes-

strip

upon

by electrolysis,will
it.

through

which

is then

There

except

metal

particles

radiate
of

property
or

of

by the

set

as

throughout

affecting the

space.
contact

electrolytic cell.

an

of

impulses

sensitive

upon

induction

an

consists, therefore, in

telegraphy

space

to

discharge from

the

receiving these

Fig.

The

have

through

above

may

tape

properties of the instruments.

waves,

operation of wireless

and

current

apparatus,

chemical

electric

waves

out

line

which

passes

speed of the

up

resistance

the

to

The

paper.

Telegraphy.

coil sets

the

under

passes

it is necessary

the

Wireless

hole

current

photographic

of

mechanical

transmitter

an

or

its variations.

upon

to

punch,

fingers, so

reversing

high speed work

very

the

key

contact

recorder

double

In

fingers, sending

to

These

used.

whenever

completed

direction.

For

simple

pair of metal

the

of

may

beneath

is fed

other

the

ENGINEERING.

electro-magnetic

The
ing
send-

waves,

involving

arrangements

property.
shows

175

in

diagram

wireless

simple

telegraph

circuit.
It
the

of

consists

two

parts,

the

In

the

receiving apparatus.
coil

are

battery and

interrupter 7, bridged
key is depressed the

the

primary

high frequency
is the

spark

e.

gap,

which
flows

current

induction
m.

f. in its
which

In

coil, and

this
is

circuit

of the

and
tion
induc-

there

is the

condenser.

When

intermittently through
produces

secondary.
is

apparatus

circuit

primary

key.

across

the

of the

transmitting

adjusted

Across
to

intermittent
the

ary
second-

discharge

when-

the

ever

the

height.

In

of

great

form

is

in the

suspended

network.

other

nected
con-

air from
"

this

The

is

gap

large stations

very

wire

363

spark

of the

side

wire, which

aerial

an

considerable
takes

One

key is depressed.

with

INTELLIGENCE.

OF

TRANSMISSION

THE

"

aerial
terminal

Spark

gap

circuit

of

in

secondary

induction

coil

o-

L
Coherer

Relay

Sounder

Ground

Ground
"

Station

Receiving

FIG.

of the

Elements

175.

spark

is

gap

electro-magnetic

Station.

Transmitting
of

simple Wireless

Whenever

grounded.

the

from

emanate

waves

Telegraph

Circuit.

key is depressed,

the

aerial

throughout

space.

The

waves

through

received

are

the

"

coherer."

In

greatly reduce

waves

parallel with

Whenever
flows
waves

the

through
cease

The

the

the
the

the

coherer

resistance
circuit
coherer

aerial which

second
latter

consists

of

is
a

grounded

glass tube

filings. In traversing these

fine nickel

partly filled with

the

on

of
and

contact

is
the

resistance

coherer

operates

filings retain

between

and

battery
is
the

filings

relay circuit.

reduced,
relay.

their

them.

low

current

When

the

resistance

364

ELECTRICAL

positions, and
shake

them

it is necessary

loose.

through

modified

on

the

be

extended

to

The

it

several

possible

miles.

sending, the

two

are

These

rotate

arms

to

flow

circuits.

definite

resistance

through

the

These

currents

By

currents.

for

of

means

pencil, which
The

stylus.

forces
lever

exactly

the

the

contains

stylus

the

to

right angles.

at

the

vary

resistance

in

stylus corresponds
The

which

currents

the

to

ances.
resist-

in

solenoids, which

are

proportional
these

duce
pro-

the

to

operate

cores

of

motion

the

sending

ingenious details

numerous

for

and

paper,

for

one

Attached

mechanism

follows

instrument

moving

which

of

writes

circuit.

received

are

Gray

sending operator

inversely proportional

are

cores

The

parts,

approximately

each

tus
appara-

distance

two

position of the

in

lines

their

upon

Each

be

may

Elisha

over

of

switches, and

contact

kind

this

of transmission

range

by Prof.

paper.

directions

nected
con-

miles.

consists

strip of

of

delicate

handwriting

receiving.

having

electric

two

for

to

receiving

messages

more

invented

apparatus

upon

arms

With

device

other

or

conditions

thousand

transmit

The

stylus

relay is

equipment

principle the

several

to

other

With

miles.

same

Telautograph.

makes

with

of

of the

sounder,

suit various

hundreds

operated

and

vibrating tapper

circuit

secondary

described.
to

have

to

battery

in detail

transmitted

may

The

already

apparatus

ENGINEERING.

insuring

reliability of

operation.
field of

The
As

of

number

receiving instruments

station, it is possible
of

important

other

desirable.
desired

to

For

to

information, and
in

at the

details

same

of

an

may

autograph

secure

example

notify

of the

is rather

application of this instrument

be

operated by

and

this is in many

in

one

copies of orders,
cases

writing several

order, it is possible

to

do

or

very

where

large establishment

time

limited.

it is

ments
departthis

by

of

means

the

of the

number

INTELLIGENCE.

OF

TRANSMISSION

THE

The

telautograph.
instruments

in

365
has

government

large

operation.

Telephony.
The
is that

by

variation

variation

by the

action

controls

the

circuit

of

in the
of

sound

circuit

waves

be

may

speech

produced

which

diaphragm,

upon

essential

The

of

This, in telephony, is caused

resistance.

the

of

parts

the

telephone

are:

(a) The

transmitter,

(b) The

receiver, which
of

device

(a) An

raising the

the

because

large, and

(b) A

switch

for

found

is

drop in
for

by

waves

net,
electro-mag-

an

current.
to

necessary

render

are:

small

in the

current

small

transformer
is

transmitter
f.

m.

e.

This

efficient

for
sary
neces-

circuit
the

across

is

variable

transmission.

connecting the transmitter

communication

(c) A

by

for transmission.

the

is too

sound

ance.
resist-

by the variable

are

coil,which
pressure

resistance

attracted

These

practicable.

variable

the

reproduces the

auxiliaries

induction

too

contains

is excited

in turn

practice, several
above

which

diaphragm,

which

the

in

current

resistance.

means

In

transmission

general principle underlying the

circuit

when

is desired.

ringer for

attention

attracting the

of

the

party

desired.
In
will

connection
be

with

mentioned

in

circuit

the

other

are

describing the

auxiliaries

actual

which

operation

of

telephone circuit.
The

Transmitter.

is shown
of

soft

sound

in
iron
waves

Fig. 176.

The
The

placed opposite
against it.

of

diagram
essential
a

Behind

modern

parts

mouthpiece,
the

are

which

diaphragm

transmitter
a

diaphragm
directs

the

is mounted

ELECTRICAL

366
variable

the

cell, which

resistance

partly

filled

between

two

other

the

ENGINEERING.

with

loose

terminal
the

to

of

carbon.

granular

carbon-faced

attached

consists

short

This

plates,

diaphragm.

is

carbon

fixed,

being

one

The

tube

vibrates

latter

Cell containing Electrodes

and

FIG.

176.

with
the

the

and

diaphragm

Granular

of

parts

Granular

Carbon

produces

Carbon

Telephone

variable

carbon, thus

altering its resistance.

terminal

is surrounded

by

of

escape

parts

U-shaped

coils of fine

magnet

permanent

wire.

produce

diaphragm

metal

magnet,

around

Variations

corresponding

prevent

which

is supported

hinge.
disk

of

to

able
mov-

transmitter

case,

soft iron

parts

upon

The

particles. The

substantial

comprises

Essential

177.

flexible

carbon

adjustable clamp

an

receiver

FIG.

loose
in

mounted

are

by
The

the

Transmitter.

pressure

granular

the

of

Essential

loose

placed

which

Bi-polar Telephone
in the
motion

current

of the

the

near

are

poles

wound

Receiver.

surrounding
diaphragm,

the
and

THE

thus

the

reproduce
than

rather

used

sound

change in magnetic
small

very

receiver
The

in

small

of

the

the

office.

The

ringing

is

current

ringer itself

The

FIG.

is under
When

NS.
in

one

in the
on

the

armature

in the

in

Fig.

polarized

Alternating

an

by the

on

is reversed
that

solenoids

permanent

side, and

one

when

with

marked

magnet,

the

through

sent

so

of

permanent

weakened

solenoid,

the

Bell.

of

action

of

principle

MM,
magnet

strengthened
the

alternating

is

current
current

the

clapper vibrates.
subscriber's

illustrated
the

circuit

This

central

the

by

permanently

not

Circuits

Magnetic

poles induced

are

other.

armature

use

is

current

direction, the

reversed

The

influence

the

the

ringing

the

is illustrated

This

Current

but

of

calling subscribers.

the

on

ringer is

of the

Diagram

178.

the

supplied by

furnished

operates

of the

armature

for

was

by the

operated

polarized relay already described.

178.

essentials

is used

current

Originally this

telephone.

magneto-generator

present

with

Fig. 177.

Alternating

Ringer.

greater

in current

The

is available.

is

magnet

produces

it

given change

367

permanent

because

core,

for

f. which

m.

shown

are

circuits

At

m.

flux

waves.

soft iron

INTELLIGENCE.

OF

TRANSMISSION

in

Fig.

receiver
then
c.

is
As

station
1

in
13.

1, page

hangs

complete

modern

When

upon

through

alternating

current

telephone
the

hook
the

telephone
switch

ringer

passes

is not

H.

The

and

the

through

is

system

the

in
line
denser
con-

con-

*"

ELECTRICAL

368

will not

denser, which

ringingcurrent

meets

receiver

In

great obstruction.

no

When

alternating
the receiver

ringercircuit is disconnected,and
circuit is connected

transmitter

and

of subscriber's

forms

some

direct current, the

conduct

the hook, the

is lifted from
the

ENGINEERING.

to

station,the direct

the

line.

current

for

battery. This arrangement is,

however, being rapidlysuperseded by one in which both ringing
talking is supplied by
talking current

and

is

system

is

come

naturally known

from
as

the central office.

batteryor

common

Such

central

system.

energy

local

simple

given

in

FIG.

179.

of connections

set

The

Fig. 179.*

Diagram

of

for

battery S3^stem

common

connections

pair of Circuits in

for two

Common

subscribers

Battery

Telephone Exchange.
are

shown

in this

diagram.

The

central part of the

represents the apparatus in the central office. The

lines are

FIG.

subscribers'

brought into the office through protectors and lightning

The

arresters.
*

diagram

179

is

wires

are

connected

with small

reproduced by permission

Telephone Practice.

from

K.

springsknown
B.

Miller's Modern

as

THE

TRANSMISSION

INTELLIGENCE.

OF

369
v

"

connections

jacks/'

of

wires

diagram

by

the

The

circuit.

plugs

the

inserted

are

the

plugs

are

three-wire

by

between

call.,which

and

ans.,

the

connections

cord

made

are

When

plugs/'

jacks they make

in the
the

"

in

cords, terminating

which

with

springs and
indicated

are

in

and

answering

ing
call-

plugs respectively.
In

order

through the operation of connecting

follow

with

The

the

that

Suppose
talk

the

subscriber

one

the

on

the

on

small

is

lamp

indicating the call

the

presses

the

closes

operator

jack of the

disconnects

subscriber

desired, and

Klf by

pressing

the

contact

with

alternating

as

the

Lj

is

the

from

office.

When

the

times

to

operator

usually called

circuit
is

the

over.

the

to

the

and

number

thus

"

making
As

soon

calling lamp
his receiver

extinguished by the

transmitters

or

indicating

These

condition

supervisory lamps.

lamps

of the

at

7^

The

being
the

plied
sup-

central

receiver

his
R

ation
oper-

line circuit.

main

relay

the

ringing key

removes

returns

the

The

(which

cam

large battery located

subscriber

lamp

conversation
the

the

his circuit, and

corresponding

that

are

from

is

inserts

calling plug into

subscriber

talk, their

now

either

hook, he breaks
the

can

current

lamp.

line

supervisory

is in the

relay Rlf which

subscribers
with

second

hook, this calling lamp

of the
two

the

"

relay,

the

ringing circuit.

current

the

line
then

before,

as

office

operator

operates

springs apart

calling plug is inserted

lighted. When

the

to

thereby
the

the

inquires as

inserts

then

operator

the

At

listening key K, by turning

springs apart) and

two

The

wanted.

The

operator.

plug, which

answering

the

the

to

hook,

of

operation

desires

illustration.

his transmitter.

the

lighted by

the

the

to

subscribers.

side

of

from

simplest

two

up

side

lifts his receiver

calling subscriber

be

left-hand

right-hand

short-circuitinghis line through

a

it will

diagram

the

understand

to

to

the

closing

opens,

the

operator

indicate

at

to

circuits,and

all

hence

ELECTRICAL

370

Telephone
defines

lines

telephone

The

the
for

office

in

reach

the

including the

jacks, and
The

several

of business.

calling circuits
size each

operator

subscribers, these

the

various

the

sections

In

very

district

in the
district

in the
as

board,

of another

district

already
and

denominated

connected

are

of

"

"

in

or

sections, placing within

hundred

calling jacks in

ing
answer-

large office.

depends

operator

one

to

the

In

"

jacks of all

in

multiple in

The

which

operators.

is

It is

time.

usually several
"

lines,so

be

in

of the
a

to

separate

scriber
sub-

in

one

subscribers

multiple board

ordinarily called
are

central

that

connected

circuits

operators
A

arrangement

equipment.

an

office may

office.

This

such

trunk

dred
hun-

one

offices of moderate

connected

are

the

upon

answering

present

there

by

gram
dia-

The

the

subscribers'
A

shown

relays, etc.

given office terminate

described,
the

of

distributing

circuits,the

switchboard.

at

large exchanges

offices,which

supplying

jacks,

reach

the

ordinary arrangement

for

connecting
inter-

reliability.

fiftyto several

multiple board

name

for

answering

jacks being
of

community."

plant

easily handled.

can

equipments

ordinary circumstances

be

can

"

calling and

each

to

Under

the

gives the

from

to

apparatus

panels

thousand

assigned

number

amount

into

operator

one

cord

necting
intercon-

telephone

more

protective and

the

comprises

is divided
of

the

or

switchboards

increasing efficiency and

Fig. 179,

switchboard

the

and

supervisory lamps, the

the

one

power

which

authority

sub-station

the

subscribers; the

switchboard

The

contains

all purposes;
for

apparatus

and

for

same

supplying telephone service

the
for

the

B. Miller
in

equipment

to

lines

K.

Mr.

establishment

organization of

an

connecting

telephone

current

"an

as

According
is

Offices.

containing

center,

telephone exchange
offices, and

Central

office

lines/'

the

necessary

and

Exchanges

telephone

ENGINEERING.

for
board

the

"

"

convenience
or

separate

TRANSMISSION

THE

of the

section
"

is the
"

The

"

B
"

lines, but

when

subscribers

This

"

operators.

directly with
"

the

lines.

"

board

in other

the

circuits

office districts

wanted.

are

It should

be

in

use
"

lines

"

the

are

connect

37!

trunk

connections

no

they

the

to

operators

make

operators

trunk

the

the

board, and

subscribers'
with

is devoted

board

same

INTELLIGENCE.

OF

"

transfer

of

this

between

number

of

subscribers

only.

subscribers

in turn

and

section

in

which

named

operator

subscriber.

from

makes
this

the first operator

the

to

is connected

the

way

call

second, then
the

to

interconnect

the

board
switchfies
noti-

what
in

number

and

calls

been

by trunk

subscriber

circuits

The
the

last-

desired

transferred from

to the third.

others

is

charge of the

is located.

has

of this

operator

operator

connection

the

connection

of

The

subscriber

second

circuits

auxiliary switchboard,

an

third

When

subscriber

the

plan is the

calling subscriber

calling jack.

notifies

the

In

is to

charge of

plug in the

ascertains

board

board

in

in exclusive

handles

sections

of the

operator

operator

by inserting

different

in

is not

radically different
operator

desired, the

wanted,

country.

board

multiple

this, each

second

second

the

In

two
are

that

system.

limited

stated

The

auxiliary

lines, and
in

its function

various

parts

of

office.

the

The

purpose

of the

construction,

large numbers

of

transfer
which

plan is

becomes

subscribers

are

simplify the

to

complicated

very
to

be

board
switch-

served

by

when

multiple

board.

The
of
to

one

or

suit

single
any

power

e.

more

the

plant in

telephone exchange
sets, the

motor-generator
available

or

polyphase

m.

f.

The

source

of

power

supply.

is of about

or

30

usually

being selected

motor

alternating current,

generator

consists

This

direct

volts

e.

may

current
m.

f. and

be
of
of

ELECTRICAL

372

few

horse

used

for

necessary

the

the

for

circuits

the

calling

In

generator.

The

purposes.

current

plants

power

for

ringer is

to

also

are

operating the

motors

generators.

Telephone

Distributing Circuits.

circuits

for

circuits.

power

The

employed.
with

dry

For

subscribers
from

the

loosely wrapped,

spiral layers alternately right and

of the

sufficient

distance,

from

to

200

limited

pounds

300

The

they

supported
insulation
hard

the

poles
from

range

resistance
drawn

side, into which

is used

instead

per

copper

consists
the

joint is then

The

ends

extent

circuits.

to

are

mile
wire

made

wire

the

Even

where

is in

is the
to

use

prime
to

50

The
1 00

the
wires

to

sideration.
con-

mile,
are

megohm

The

joints in

the

Mclntire

with

tubes, joined side by

be

joined

several

times.

to

avoid

are

inserted.
This

joint

danger of destroying

by heat.

troubles

avoid

to

purpose

capacity.

wire

40

copper

of the

in

separated

weather.

wet

of two

between

used

Iron

are

in order

of solder

The

giving about

in

insulated

being laid

65 feet in height.

spirally twisted

strength of the wire

Conduits

to

are

usually used, weighing

cheapness

glass insulators

upon

This

connector.

30

in

cables

conductors

placed from

are

central

and

wires

copper

is

mile.

per

covered

electrostatic

copper

only where

but

extent,

drawn

phone
tele-

already described

left hand.

the

the

conductors

keep the

to

minimize

to

pole lines, hard

For

and

is

wrapping

loose

of

distribution

pairs of

are

with

that

circuits, lead

conductors

paper,

construction

underground

overhead

for

cases

many

The

connecting the

for

essentially different

office is not

the

addition

supplying alternating

of

purpose

battery is ordinarily

storage

complete switchboards

supplied with
and

capacity.

power

supplement

to

ENGINEERING.

such

large cities
incident

to

interurban

to

the

increasing

an

use

conduits

of

overhead
are

not

conduit

employed,
the

is

cities,

large

it

as

INTELLIGENCE.

OF

TRANSMISSION

THE

impossible

is

suburbs

the

from

used

373

handle

to

the

to

lines

many

of

centers

in

city

streets.

Telephony.

Wireless

has

of

and

The

these

attempts

of

intensity

circuit.

Such

an

electro-magnetic

circuit.

for

spark
The

telephony.

necessary.

the

of

waves

The

metal

coherer

The

the

from

operated

arc

gap.

high
in

connected

arc

as

more

the

same

transmitter

described

delicate

of

means

frequency
circuit

d.

nature

is

those

is

of

sensitive

electrolytic

former.
trans-

produces
emanating
in

connected

not

microphone

circuit

c.

as

is

and

currents

primary

miles.

telegraphy,

wireless

by

ful,
success-

several

over

on

in

schemes.

reasonably

be

to

varied

is

of

source

"

whistling

used

telegraphy

telephony

carried

been

waves

wireless

wireless

appear

is

waves

these

The

from

now

has

of

form

of

success

devise

to

transmission

same

the

"

inventors

inspired

Some

The

the

arc

enough
receptor

is

APPENDIX.

of

Fields

Application

Although
well

peculiarly
of

adapted
while

be

can

equally

division

by

seen

the

of

fields
of

study

is

each

current,

This

uses.

rigid,

not

performed

continuous

or

certain

to

be

can

Current.

the

table.

Current.

Alternating
1.

Power

2.

Incandescent

transmission

low

static

small

or

large

over

transmitted
to

Arc

large

over

lighting

Current

3.

work

alternating

application,

following

of

Continuous

and

Alternating

classes

many

either

by

of

by

pressure

areas.

high

at

areas.

and

pressure

of

means

formed
trans-

constant

tial
poten-

transformers.

lighting.
In

locations

many

business
current

is

these

operated
and
very

In

in

its

series

of

others

the
and

economy

on

The

satisfactory.
parallel,
on

in

continuous
a.

devices

lamps

lamp

convenience.

lamps,

arc

in
also

may

case

lamp

potential

constant

c.

circuit

potential

constant

which

ing
light-

arc

current

regulating

current

operation

use

alternating

cases

with

in
for

for

enough

not

the

generators.

arc

is

warrant

to

preferred

For

there

series,
be

are

ated
oper-

adjusted
would

employed.
4.

Constant

speed

speed

and

motors

motors.
374

in

few

cases

variable

be

APPENDIX.

5.

Electrical
Such

furnaces.
as

1.

Incandescent
small

etc.

the
Arc

especially in

areas,

lamps

be

can

the

the

large cities, in which

for the

used

tricts
dissary
neces-

pressure

economically

in the

lighting.
uni-directional

lighting, pulsating
On

continuous
driven

current

from

Variable

current

being

adapted
generally
the

is

speed

Such
tools

and

of
in

purposes

While

called

varied

in

when

the

factories

in
line

the

shafts

served

by the

current

by

speed has
the

mentioned,

the

for
for

and

motor.

speed these

been

set

In

load.
the

of

power

large cities.

motors

various

of

means

of

driving

general

districts

crowded

constant

speed

regardless of
motors

etc., is best

cranes,

includes

motors.

used

are

gradually

which

potential series, continuous

Constant

the

motors.

traction,

constant

used.

alternating

being

Practically all of this line of work,

electric

arc

standpoint,

lamp

arc

to

field.

the

speed

is well

transmission

the

from

current

superiority of

the

of

account

current

5.

crowded

transmission.

The

4.

rundum,
carbo-

lighting.

of

3.

of

Current.

Over

2.

manufacture

the

for

used

are

graphite,
Continuous

375

be

may

devices, but

thus, it is maintained

previous

the

speed varies

with

class

the

of

load.

Electrolysis.
continuous

The
in

the

reduction

current

of metals

finds
and

an

the

excellent

field

production

of

APPENDIX.

376
chemical

many

battery

storage
and

compounds
a

stations

power

Historically the application

uses

first, but

was

is first.

current

It

simpler.

in pressure

in

it may

important

over

long distances

and

said

be

that

possible

the

to

Basis

the

on

the

of

various

alternating
it may

practically

be

loss.

no

of electric

power

companies

possible, which

Pressures

is

generator

that

manufacturing

all directions

develop
apparatus,
circuits.
on
alternating current

the

fact

with

these

the

as

transmission

the

forced

in

lighting

to

to

now

easily produced

more

it has

of

Classification

current

stationary apparatus,

point makes

This

lines

continuous

its superiority, however,

owes

transformed

is

latter

adjunct

the

is found.

of the

in importance
The

useful

very

In

cheaply.

very

can

to

used

be

Employed.

Alternating Current.
1.

1,000

to

potential,usually single

volts, constant

3,000

phase.
Applicable

to

former

the

constant

2.

volts,

constant

pressure

by

to

2,000

either

Or,

in

operated

be

may

transformer

current

regulator.

is maintained

current

constant

arc

parallel

from

on

lamps
to

100

250
line

the

from

potential transformers.

(or more)

7,000

current

incandescent

or

For

by

constant

or

potential, reduced

constant

lighting.

incandescent

and

arc

volts,

constant

potential,

usually three-phase.
This

is used

for

transmission

power

miles, particularly for

ten

railways in large cities.

current

in

rotary

which
500

the
volts

For

is transformed

converters

power
pressure.

can

located
be

power

distribution

this purpose
to

in

under

purposes

the

continuous

for

nating
alter-

current

sub-stations

economically transmitted

from
at

OF

THE

UNIVERSITY
OF

APPENDIX.

3.

6,000

two-phase

80,000 volts, constant

to

potential,generated

transmitted

three-phase,but

or

377

on

three-phase

line.

Transformation

two-phase

from

three-phase is

to

easily accomplished in static transformers.

high

purposes

several

to

up

used

are

pressures

being generated

at

for the line by

4. Miscellaneous

miles, the

moderate

means

of

pressures

used

transmission

power

hundred

is raised to

volts which

10,000

for

These

of

pressure

the

power

about
desired

pressure

formers.
potential trans-

constant

for electro-chemical

and

electro-metallurgical
purposes.
This

is

current

is then

and

pressure

usually generated

desired.

stepped down

It is converted

for electrolysis.The
the

used

process

at

the

and

to

fairlyhigh
any

sure
pres-

continuous

to

pressure

depends

number

of tanks

rent
cur-

upon
nected
con-

in series.

Continuous
1.

Current.

6 to 350 volts,constant
This

includes

of various

formation
2.

50 to

The

reduction

constant

standard

of

chemical

volts, constant

550

lamps and

the

potentialfor electrolysis.
metals

and

the

compounds.

potentialused

for incandescent

potentialarc lamps.

for the two-wire

and

from

are

pressures

from

208

to

to

104
500

250

volts

for the three-

wire system.
3.

of both
In

1 10

to

550

constant

and

addition

to

there should

volts,constant

potential used

for motors

variable speed.
this classification upon

be mentioned

the constant

current

pressure

system,

basis
both

APPENDIX.

378

current

they
except

motors

are

where

used

this

on

no

other

source

is

Occasionally

purpose.

continuous

the

their

of

current

popular
From

purposes.

and

satisfactory

not

are

out-of-door

for

used

are

amperes

This

current.

for

especially

lighting
ten

continuous

and

alternating

is
is

to

available.

three

be

arc

to

constant

circuit,

current

use

for

disparaged

but

REVIEW

QUESTIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

of

1.

Give

2.

Describe

3.

How

synopsis of

its

is

4.

What

5.

How

6.

What

7.

Why

the

applicationsof

applicationto

the transmission

is

electrolysis?

is the electric

power.

Luminescence

in the

lightproduced

is

current.

of mechanical

the electric current?

lightproduced by

is incandescence

electric

the

three
the

current

lamp

arc

Give

How

in the vapor

lamp

examples.

only

for the

means

distance

long

transmission

?
intelligence

8.

How

9.

Describe

is this

10.

Upon

11.

Describe

12.

Give

13.

What

14.

How

15.

What

accomplished
principledoes

the

operation

simple diagram
essential

the

telephone.

of the

telephone

1.

Of

what

Explain

3.

With

whom

4.

What

was

three
the

the

By whom
Who

improved

7.

Who

discovered

was

the

energy

period of

the

upon
that

this machine

By whom

were

the first example

was

what

modern

materials

separated

invented
in what
be

engineering consist

period of mystery.

into

type of apparatus
is

did

Of

what

did it consist ?

manner?

conductors

and

non-conductors

?
electricity

this lead ?

Benjamin

379

transmitted?

of the storage of

electrical discoveries

of the

preparation begin ?

and

could
electricity

What

of electrical

first electric machine

9.

what

the close

at

scientific

result of his work

8.

For

in electric generators

I.

development

of the science

did the

5.

11.

circuit.

generation of

periods does

status

6.

To

same.

DEVELOPMENT.

2.

10.

of

the electric heater?

CHAPTER
HISTORICAL

diagram

of the

produced

be said of the

with

telegraph operate

parts constitute

is carborundum
can

the electric current

simple telegraph system,

what

with

Franklin

noted?

12.

What

discovery led

13.

How

did

For

15.

By

of the Voltaic

the invention

to

facilitate

invention

is Sir

what

and

whom

16.

What

17.

Describe

18.

whom

By

Humphrey
in what

the

was

the

noted?

Davy

manner

To

the

was

disk ?

Arago

To

and

experiments

19.

At
How

21.

Discuss

does

time

what

much

Describe

23.

What

discoveries

of

of the theory of electrical

of the transmission

growth

of electric

development

the

lead

early experiments

of

of the

intelligence.

development

Discuss

26.

Trace

the

development

of the electric generator.

27.

Trace

the

development

of the transformer.

28.

Discuss

29.

Describe

30.

Discuss

31.

What

development

the

applicationsof

other

the

been

have

electric current

When

weaker

What
How

Arago disk, from

the

what

occurs

does

What

will be

is substituted, what

magnet
law ?

is Ohm's
does

the

to

center

rim, what

this show

the

result?

To

what

clusion
con-

speed

How

it be illustrated ?

may

of the disk

of rotation

affect the e.m.f

How

proportional?

How

produced

is the

what

and

of current

product

e.m.f. in

circuit

demonstrated?

this be

may

How

does

the

is

ELECTRICAL

What

electrical

supplied to

power

What

and

the identity of mechanical

How

mechanical

through

this lead?

is this effect shown

To

flows

is reversed

If the current

5.

10.

II.

show?

this

does

What

4.

9.

in electric traction ?

made

QUANTITIES.

does

7.

did it lead ?

transmission.

CHAPTER

8.

what

To

engineering?

chemical

of the electric motor.

developments

FUNDAMENTAL

to

of electric traction.

development

recent

made

been

have
electricity

development

the

of electro-chemistry?

storage battery.

of power

development

the

this time ?

at

lighting.

the

to

machinery

What

may

did it lead ?

25.

6.

lead?

electricityand

Faraday.

invented

24.

If

his discoveries

between

period begin ?

this

known

was

the

22.

3.

electrical

DEVELOPMENT.

20.

2.

did

what

connection

discoveries

what

first electric motor

the

was

COMMERCIAL

1.

of

development

discovered?

magnetism

occurs?

cell ?

further

the

apparatus
14.

this

Joule'slaw

power

be shown?

electrical power

from

taken

generator

compare

it?
How

it be illustrated ?

may

UNITS.
are

Define

12.

What

is the

13.

What

is the

14.

Name

15.

What

the

and

legalstandards

11.

legalunit
unit

of electrical

define

is inductance?

the

How

is it defined

absolute

energy?

practicalunit
Name

they differ from

of resistance;of electromotive

of current;

unit of power

do

How

and

of electrical

define

380

its unit.

quantity.

units?
force.

with

the

of

16.

What

is

17.

What

is the unit

18.

Define

capacity?

following units

the

of power,
of

(i) Unit

of

its unit.
field ?

magnetic

in the

absolute

e.m.f., (c)

of energy,

(/) Unit

define

strength of

magnetic field,(b) Unit

Unit

and

Name

of

(g)

Unit

C.G.S.

or

of current,

of

Unit

Define

it.

(a) Strength

system:

(d}

Unit

resistance, (h) Unit

of

quantity, (e)

of

inductance,

capacity.

19.

What

are

20.

Give

the

the

propertiesof

three

corresponding

the electric circuit ?

mechanical

analogies.

CHAPTER

III.

MATERIALS.
1.

For

what

purposes

materials

are

2.

Classify the

3.

Define

4.

Why

5.

Describe

the

6.

Describe

the process

7.

Compare

copper

materials

conducting
is copper

Discuss

9.

How

the

by

which

copper

by

which

aluminum

and

Name

the

and

aluminum

10.

Discuss

11.

Under

of

steel

common

as

conditions

OF

MATERIALS.

12.

What

13.

Define

the

14.

Define

temperature

15.

Summarize

is

is

prepared.
strength,

the

for

metals

pure

in

their

electrical

properties?

carrying current.

conductor.

what

PROPERTIES

prepared.

(a) Conductivity, (b) Tensile

to

as

material

conductors.

as

use

carbon

is

manipulation.

alloys differ from

alloys in

machines?

groups.

important conducting

most

process

iron
do

in electrical

materials.

(c)Weight, (d) Cost, (e) Ease

8.

four

into

used

are

liquidsused

conductors?

as

specificresistance?
circular

the

mil, the mil-foot.

coefficient.

propertiesof

About

what

is it for

copper?

(a) Copper, (") Aluminum,

(c) Iron

and

Steel,

(d) Alloys, (e) Carbon.

16.

is

What

MAGNETIC

wire

gauge

Discuss

the B.

"

S. gauge.

MATERIALS.

17.

Name

18.

Define

19.

What

20.

Discuss

21.

Define

22.

Define

magnetic

23.

Define

the

24.

Discuss

the

25.

Discuss

the

the

material.

magnetic
is

materials.

magnetic

magnetic

induction?

Ewing's theory

of

magnetism.

permeability.
flux.

maxwell,

the

production
mechanical

gilbert,magnetomotive
of e.m.f.
reaction

ty

conductor

between

force.

cuttinga magnetic

magnetic

field and

field.
conductor

carrying current.
26.

What

is

27.

What

factors

the effect of each

In

28.

Give

29.

What

what

cases

an

Define

hysteresis?
influence

of these

is it desirable

hysteresis coefficient.

permeability of

magnetic

material?

Discuss

factors.

expression for

is retentiveness

the

?
?

the power
To

what

loss in
is it due

iron, due
?

In

to

what

hysteresis.
cases

is it undesirable

30.

Discuss

the

magnetic propertiesof (a) Cast steel,(6) Cast iron, (c) Electrical

steel.

31.

is

What

INSULATING

B-H

curve

it show

Of

33.

Name

34.

What

propertiesshould

35.

What

is dielectric

what

inductive

use

the

insulatingmaterials?

are

principalinsulatingmaterials.
these

materials

strength?

Electric

What

37.

Discuss

be

can

and

said

the

of the

specificresistance
of

insulatingproperties
and

fiber,waxes

ELECTRIC

1.

Of

According

distinct

what

3.

In

4.

Describe

5.

In

what

air, glass and

Of

IV.

7.

Name

does

these rules

are

classes

electric circuit consist?

an

rules is all indoor

the overhead

what

compiled

transmission
indoor

may

parts may

wiring
?

enforced

How

the

system;
be

wiring

installed ?

By

whom

adopted

underground system.
?

grouped

Discuss

these

classes

as

to

three

influence

in

electric circuit consist ?

an

varieties

the

8. What

of

Distinguish between

current.

propertiesmay

these

electric circuit have?

an

alternatingcurrent

ALTERNATING

11.

porcelain,mica, rubber,

yarn.

(6) durability,(c) appearance.

expense,

follow

of dielectrics?

varnish, oils,cloth and

sections

what

to

way

what

6.

9.

Specific

CIRCUITS.

2.

10.

rupturing gradient?

pressure

CHAPTER

more

possess

capacity?

36.

(a)

MATERIALS.

32.

paper

does

What

circuits than

kinds.

Which

in continuous

of these

of

are

circuits?

current

QUANTITIES.

Define

Alternation, Cycle, Period, Frequency.

What

law

does

the

ordinary alternatinge.m.f.

approximately

current

or

What
?

is the

What

effective

is its value

12.

What

is the

13.

What

is the

14.

What

is

15.

What

effect does

sine

factor"

expression for
by

meant

circuit have

current

for

"power

on

of

value

wave

of

alternatingquantity ?

an

So

also for the

phase

the power

value.

average

circuit?

average

power

in

relation

of

in the circuit ?

"

Express

of

out

and

current

circuit?

alternatingcurrent

an

alternatingquantitiesbeing

two

the

is it determined

How

phase

voltage in

alternating

an

factor

power

"

as

function

of this relation.

16.

What

is

What

18.

How

circuit ?

INDUCTANCE

RESISTANCE,
17.

polyphase

effects have
may

three-phase circuit

and

the effect of inductance

capacity in alternatingcurrent

circuits?

be

So

expressed in

an

equation?

also for

capacity.
19.

Describe

brieflythe

irregularcurrent

flowing in

20.

If

ohms, what

circuit has

drop

in

method
turn

of

voltage occurs

determining

the effect in

through inductance,

resistance

CAPACITY.

AND

inductance

circuit ?

two-phase

of

when

ohms

50
a

circuit ?

382

current

and
of

resistance
an

10

and

inductive
amperes

circuit of

certain

capacity.
reactance

flows

of

through

100

the

CHAPTER
MAGNETIC

CIRCUITS.

1.

What

2.

Give

illustrations

3.

Give

three

4.

Give

the

flux

V,

is

circuit ?

magnetic

practicalapplicationof

of the

functions

of

the

magnetic

circuit.

flux.

magnetic

equation for pullexerted

by

in

magnet

of

terms

of

area

and

contact

density.
5.

What

is

6.

What

is reluctance

7.

What

is

B-H

curve

is its formula

magnetic leakage?

does

How

expressed?

it be

units may

what

In

What

it represent

loss?

How

it be

may

low?

kept

8.

density in

flux

Knowing

excitingwinding,

how

magnetic circuit,length of path

the necessary

may

and

in the

turns

be found?

current

TRANSFORMER.

THE

9.
flux

is

What

play

in its

transformer?

OF

five ways

GENERATORS

10.

Give

11.

Describe

each

12.

Knowing

the

number

machine,

AND

part does

magnetic

MOTORS.

of the above

excitingampere-turns

to

loss in excitation

watts

of

of

the field excitation

in which
of the ways

of turns, resistance

results be

What

purpose?

performance?

EXCITATION

of the

is its

What

be

may

produced.

question.
be used

and

and

winding

generators
in

shunt

age
generator, the volt-

length of field turn, how

mean

size of wire

determined

How

may

is the
the

checked?

13.

In

14.

Answer

what

is the series

cases

question

15.

Why

are

16.

How

is the

for the

12

often

generators

series generator.
with

provided

of series

number

proper

used?

winding

compounding
give

to

turns

winding?

certain

degree

of

pounding
com-

determined?

17.
wound

simple diagrams

Give

for the

shunt

the

wound,

series,and

generator.
CHAPTER

CONSTRUCTION

OF

VI.

GENERATORS.

1.

What

are

2.

What

apparatus

the essential

of all electric

elements

the forerunner

was

3.

Along

what

4.

What

three essential

lines did

found

are

generator ?

first develop ?

the generator
features

generators?

of the modern

in all

generators?

ALTERNATOR.

THE

5.

Describe

the

armature

6.

Describe

the

field magnet

the

current

7.

Describe

8.

From

9.

Describe

what

Discuss

alternator

11.

Discuss

two-phase

12.

How

adequate

alternator.

collectingdevices.

coils of these

10.

is

of the

is the field

source

the

of the alternator.

current

for alternators

machines.

windings.
and

three-phasewindings.

ventilation

of alternators

3*3

secured?

taken

the

compound

CURRENT

DIRECT

THE

13.

What

GENERATOR.

radical

differences

with

the aid of

diagrams

armature

of direct

exist between

14.

Explain

15.

Describe

16.

Discuss

the series

17.

Discuss

the

18.

How

the

lap

the

direct

current

used

are

19.

Describe

the

Describe

the field magnet

21.

How

machines.

current

in

the

cases?

two

commutator.

do the series

How

of the

winding

and

d.c. generator.

the shunt

the field coils connected

are

OPERATION

ELECTRIC

OF

1.

What

is the

2.

What

is

What

by

regulationof

the

Of

with

the

armature

any

constant

generators?
?

machine
current

Of

waterwheel

generator

Of

determining regulationof generators,

for

the conditions

of the

and

other

VII.

of electric

general purpose

meant

are

rules

as

specified

A.I.E.E.

CHARACTERISTICS.

ALTERNATOR

4.

What

5.

How

characteristic

are

does

What

do

what

they show

voltage regulationfor incandescent

lamps

compare

Why?

has

effect

and

curves

allowable

the

for motors?

that

6.

usually differ in

GENERATORS.

potentialgenerator

constant

the

of the field

winding
each

with

CHAPTER

3.

"

appearance

22.

commutation.

parallelwinding.

brushes

many

operation of

the

winding.

or

20.

with

and

machine

by

alternator

the

the power

factor

of the circuit upon

the

regulationof

nators
alter-

7.

Explain

the

8.

What

is

meant

9.

What

is the saturation

10.

What

11.

What

obtained

What

13.

How

purpose

curve

heating in

is

an

alternator

an

Of

What

what

Upon

alternator?

the alternator?

circuit

short

the
does

is meant
is

of

what

does

it depend ?

importance

temperature

is it?

rise is allowable

of machines?

What

12.

of generators.
efficiency

of the

by the iron-loss in

causes

windings

in the

importance

it show

by

the

characteristic

What

of

practicaluse

"synchronizing"

alternator?

How

is it

of it ?

of alternators?
conditions

What

synchronizingaccomplished?

an

is made

must

be

met

What

is served?

14.

Give

15.

How

the

diagram

of connections

the load

may

be

for

synchronizing two

properly distributed

between

alternators.

alternators

operating in

?
parallel

16.
D.C.

17.

How

are

the

phases

changing

balanced

as

to

load?

CHARACTERISTICS.

GENERATOR

Why

of alternators

cannot

shunt

generator

maintain

constant

terminal

voltage with

load?

18.

Explain

in detail the

19.

What

meant

is

by

take

operations which
"reversing field"
384

place during

commutation.

20.

Draw

and

explain the shape

21.

Draw

and

explain the

22.

How

23.

Why

is the e.m.f. of generators

of

governed

of

curve

d.c. generator.

generator.

connected

in

parallelwithout

an

its action.

Explain

is the load

How

compounding

curve

generators be

compound

cannot

"equalizer" ?
24.

of the

saturation

distributed

between

d.c. generators

CHAPTER

operating in parallel?

VIII.

TRANSFORMERS.

1.

What

2.

What

phenomena

3.

What

imperfectionsexisted

4.

Explain

5.

How

6.

What

"step-up

the

"primary

are

8.

Describe

9.

Distinguish between
For

which

the

apparatus?
transformer

operates.

its action ?

coils"; "secondary coils"; step-down transformer";

general definition

the

looo-volt

to

10

i,

transformer

transformer
and

core

12.

How

13.

What

14.

Discuss

the series

Discuss

the

primary

and

secondary

two

coils with

(a) Magnetic leakage, (b) Insulation,

to

as

losses.

copper

protected from

transformers
an

transformers.

"core-type"

two

varieties.

possibleratios of transformation.

give the

(c) Ventilation, (d) The

is

having

four

Name

potentialtransformer.

constant

"shell-type" and

the modern

are

of the transformer.
of the

the construction

Discuss

15.

of the transformer?

transformer"?

Give

11.

in this first

principlesupon

7.

10.

the elements

did it illustrate?

magnetic leakage affect

does

ratio of

first contained

apparatus

lightning?

auto-transformer?

constant

transformer

current

or

(a) Construction, (b) Application.

to

as

current

transformer

as

current

regulator?

How

(a) Construction, (") Operation,

to

(c) Application.
16.

What

is the

constant

does

it operate ?

For

what

is

it used?
TRANSFORMER

CHARACTERISTICS.

17.

Define

18.

About

this

regulationfor
what

per

potentialtransformer.

constant

be

regulationmay

cent

from

expected

good

transformers

of

type?

19.

What

20.

Define

efficiency.

21.

About

what

22.

Discuss

23.

What

connected

losses

the

in transformers?

occur

efficiencyof

is the

to

given

the

losses

depend?

potentialtransformer?

constant

value

of the

excitingcurrent

when

the transformer

is

line?

What

determines

25.

What

is the

26.

What

loss of power

27.

What

is the core-loss

28.

Distinguish between

"all

these

transformer?

transformers.

heating of

determines

for the

modern

do

what

Upon

is it determined

How

24.

the

the

voltage to

which

magnetizing component
does

it is safe

of the

to

connect

the transformer?

excitingcurrent?

it represent ?

component

of the

excitingcurrent

"energy efficiency"and

day efficiency"?
385

"power efficiency." What

is

29.

Discuss

the characteristics

30.

Discuss

the

31.

How

32.

How

currents

33.

How

transformers

are

used

in

be

six phases be

may

of the constant

polyphase systems?

used

from

produced

two-phase

three-phase

to

three-phase system, by

the

of

use

IX.

PLANTS.

1.

What

is meant

by

2.

Discuss

3.

What

governs

4.

What

power

5.

What

6.

Discuss

7. How

the

is

Describe

9.

What

of power

source

auxiliaries

the

the

be used

to

in the power

plant?

in electric circuits.

protectedfrom

detectors

knife

plant.

power

is its purpose

What

typicallightning

ground

are

usually installed

are

switchboard

for

of electric generators

the choice

electric circuits

Describe

PLANT

"power plant" ?

the term

lightningphenomena

are

8.

10.

from

change

to

CHAPTER
POWER

transformer.

current

of transformers.

transformers

may

transformers

installation

the effects of

lightning?

arrester.

and

how

they used

are

switch; the oil switch; the circuit breaker.

CONSTRUCTION.

11.

In

12.

Describe

13.

In such

14.

W7hat

15.

How

is the direct current

16.

What

chief differences

17.

Describe

18.

What

the

Winona

station

the steam
a

piping in

station about

provisionis

is the coal handled

how

what

made

consumption

supplying direct

for

expected ?

be

may

for local railway

current

excitingthe fields of alternators

the vertical steam

mark

stored ?

this station.
steam

for

and

here

generated ?

plant from

turbine

use

the

rocating
recip-

engine plant?
the coal

economies

of the Detroit

handling system
are

in

attempted

handling

plant.
feed

the

water

in the

Detroit

plant?
19.

Describe

the chief features

20.

Describe

21.

What

22.

Describe

23.

Trace

24.

Describe

the

the

Island

Long

plant.

typicalhydro-electricplant.
be said of the

can

of the

gas

path

of
efficiency

producer

of the

the electrical

of the

air from

engine plants?

gas

plant.

the inlet to the gas

equipment

of the gas

tank.

engine plant.

BATTERIES.

STORAGE

25.

Why

26.

Describe

27.

What

storage batteries

are

the

by "straighteningthe load curve"

28.

How

29.

How

does

30.

Why

is the storage

31.

Describe

32.

What

chemical

33.

What

determines

storage batteries
the battery

the

stations?

in power

typicalbatterycell.

is meant
do

installed

keep

improve engine

batteryoften

chloride

the

up

take

the amount

and

installed

accumulator.

changes

voltageof

Why

the

generator

386

loads?

performance?

in substations?
so

which

named

place during charge

of energy

plant at heavy

can

and

discharge?

be stored

in

battery ?

34.

How

35.

What

is

battery booster

36.

What

is

booster

37.

Under

38.

What

can

39.

What

is

capacity of storage

is the

what

Describe

by

the

the

Discuss
What

is the load

curve

42.

What

effect may

the storage battery have

is the

What

typicalshape

CHAPTER
is torque

2.

To

3.

What

controls

4.

What

causes

what

led

have

Explain
Give

Describe

9.

How

is the synchronous

10.

How

is the

INDUCTION

12.

the

Explain

the

What

Describe

15.

How

is

A.C.

different

types of

motors

the corresponding types of generators,

motor.

of this

motor.

started ?

motor

principleof

the

production

of the

"

and

slip

to

of the induction

motor.,

started ?

motor

of this motor

speed

motor.

rotatingfield.

is it due

what

the construction

the

induction

be controlled

MOTORS.

How

18.

Of

19.

For

20.

Describe

does

the series

parts does

what

it consist ?

is this

service

what

operate?

motor

a.c.

motor

the

repulsion motor.

the

shunt

adapted

Why?

MOTORS.

Describe

22.

How

23.

In

does
what

different

SERIES

D.C.

24.

What

25.

To

26.

"

may

17.

What

motors

controlled

is the induction

How

SERIES

21.

and

the synchronous

construction

speed

Explain

13.

D.C.

of the

development

MOTORS.

14.

16.

of d.c. motors?

this.
analogy illustrating

mechanical
the

MOTORS.

7.

curve

X.

of rotation

the

to

principleof

the

the load

upon

curve

proportional?

the different types of

A.C.

of this

electric motor?

an

the direction

8.

11.

in

produced

is this torque

SYNCHRONOUS

6.

characteristics.

station

power

Name

"sulphating"

OPERATION.

41.

5.

efficient?

most

batteries ?

and

"buckling"

terms

40.

1. How

carbon-pileregulator.

operation is the battery

depreciationof storage

be said of the

STATION

POWER

of

is its purpose

What

regulator?

conditions

meant

rated ?

batteries

To

the

wound

motor.

compound

ways

may

effects

are

differ from

motor

series

the

secured

in

field of

the

this way

the shunt?

compound

motor

be

connected

MOTORS.

influences

have

governed

what

of
peculiarities

what

classes of service

the

construction

development
have

is the series

387

motor

these

of the series motor?

led?

adapted

Why

THE

INTERPOLE

27.

What

28.

What

29.

How

MOTOR.
is the
is the

does

d.c. power

interpolemotor?
object of

the

the

use

is this

How

interpoles?

of the

make

interpole

motor

for greater distances

transmission

possiblethe

of

before

than

accomplished?

CHARACTERISTICS.

MOTOR

30.

What

the

are

of the

characteristics

important

(b) Induction, (c)Series

following motors:

(d) Series d.c.,(e} Shunt

a.c.,

chronous,
(a) Syn-

d.c.,(/)Compound

d.c.?

31.
32.

are

the

What

do

they illustrate

F-curves

(c) Armature

motor,
33.

of the

What

the

Explain

for

current

of

shape

34.

does

How
the

35.

shunt

field

factor, (6) Best

but

output

varying

for

following curves

induction

the

for the

current

field current?

(a)

motor:

factor.

slip,(c) Power

speed of

the

constant

the

Amperes input, (6) Speed and

does

(a) Power

to

as

motor?

synchronous

wound

motors

motors

vary

with

vary

increase

of load ?

How

efficiency
vary?
does

How

speed

the

the tractive effort vary

MOTOR

of series

with

the

input ?

current

does

How

STARTING.

36.

How

What,

38.

How

in

39.

Give
How

41.

Describe

for

methods

speed

of motors?

typicalmotor

with

starter

CHAPTER
INCANDESCENT

Howis

underload

speed controlled

the

and

overload

release.

XI.

LAMPS.

1.

Upon

2.

Describe

3.

In

4.

types ?

converters.

started ?

motors

that of other

differ from

motors

starting rotary

single-phaseinduction
the

startingof synchronous

the

three
are

the

general,governs

does

40.

generallystarted

motors

are

37.

what

What

the incandescent

principledoes

what

of the carbon

the manufacture

of the tungsten

is the filament

manner

in "watts

consumption

is the average

lamp operate
of the

filament

lamp

lamp
?

made

candle"

per

of carbon

filament

lamps?
5.
and

what

does

way

regulationof

the

e.m.f.

at

the

lamp

terminals

affect

the life and

candle

its life

?
efficiency

6.
of

In

From

the

on

curves

increasingthe e.m.f.
7.

Explain

8.

Describe

ARC

the

308

p.
the

at

determine

lamp by

the effect upon

cent; of

per

decreasing it

per

cent.

"smashing point."

term

the Nernst

is

Why

lamp.

ballast

resistance

necessary

LAMPS.

9.

Upon

10.

Why

11.

In

principledoes

what

used

is carbon

what

ways

do

What

new

13.

What

materials

14.

Distinguish between

of
are

arc

used

the

lamp operate

arc

lamps?

arc

d.c. and

12.

forms

in

a.c.

lamp
to

series

differ?

arcs

have

recently been

replace carbon,
and

in the

multiplelamps.
388

developed ?
magnetite lamp

power

15.

Describe

lamp,

the
How

17.

Compare

does

light,(c) Life

"ballast

steady the

resistance"

and

open

enclosed

rating of

the

in

lamp.

the

shunt

arcs

an

arc

(a) Efficiency,(b) Distribution

to:

as

current

of

lamps.

arc

LAMPS.

19.

Describe

the

20.

Describe

the mercury

FIELDS

tube

vacuum

lamp.

OF

ELECTRIC

APPLICATION

OF

lamp.

vapor

21.

Discuss

the

applicationof

22.

Discuss

the

applicationof

23.

Discuss

the

applicationof vapor

LIGHT

AND

24.
The

lamp,

of carbons.

Discuss

VAPOR

the differential

multiple lamp.

16.

18.

operation of

and

the construction

LAMPS.

incandescent

lamps.

lamps.

arc

lamps.

ILLUMINATION.
do

How

carbon

followinglightsources

the

filament

lamp,

the

as

compare

common

lamp,

arc

to

cost

the Welsbach

candle-hours:

1000

per

lamp,

gas

sene
the kero-

lamp?

in

25.

What

26.

What

common

OF

Define

28.

How

29.

What

between

"light"

and

"illumination"

of lightproduction by
efficiency

the

the electric

lamps

ILLUMINATION.

AND

the "hefner,"

the "foot-candle."

the intensity of

does

is the

lightradiated

intensityof lighton

candle, and

ELECTRIC

to

as

be made

LIGHT

27.

standard

gas

be said

can
use

UNITS

should

distinction

making

with

point vary

feet in

screen'4

angle of 45

an

from

degrees with

horizontal

distance

direction

the horizontal

from

HEATING.

30.

How

is electrical energy

31.

How

is this process
efficiently

accomplished?

32.

How

does

the

certain

compare

flame

33.

What

of

cost

the main

are

transformed

heating a

applicationsof

into heat?

electric

CHAPTER
MEASURING

of

amount

by electric heater

water

and

heating?

XII.

INSTRUMENTS.

1.

For

2.

What

quantities

3.

What

classes of instruments

electrical

what

are

measurements

measured

are

instruments

required?

by them?
are

used

in the

of

measurement

current

ELECTRO-DYNAMOMETER.

4.
5.

Describe

Why

direct

and

6.

How

flowing?

the

is the

electro-dynamometer.
electro-dynamometer

equally adapted

to

the

measurement

of

alternatingcurrent?
do

deflections

the

of the

electro-dynamometer

Explain.

7.

What

types of this instrument

8.

What

is

an

ammeter

shunt?

have

been

Explain
389

developed?

its

use.

vary

with

the

current

PERMANENT

9.

MAGNET
How

Describe

11.

What

12.

Describe

13.

What

14.

How

SOFT

deflectingforce produced

is the

10.

AMMETERS.

the

movable

the

be said of the

can

these

are

Upon

what

16.

What

types of this

17.

Discuss

the

18.

Discuss

the

principledo

is electrical

20.

Upon

what

Describe

23.

Discuss

EOT

have

been

the

operate?
developed ?

meter.
meter.

QUANTITY.

quantity?
methods

MEASURING

electrostatic

the various

of

measuring quantity based

E.M.F.
?

in these instruments

employed

principlesare

voltmeter.

types of

high-resistance-ammetervoltmeters.

INSTRUMENTS.

WIRE

24.

meters

inclined-coil

principlesare
FOR

22.

beat"?

these

MEASURING

What

What

meter

Thomson

19.

21.

"dead

coil-and-plungertype

FOR

INSTRUMENTS

ammeter.

METERS.

15.

INSTRUMENTS

magnet

regularityof scale of this meter?

made

meters

CORE

IRON

sensitiveness,simplicity,
portability?

to

as

coil permanent

moving

meters?

ammeter.

magnet

be said of this meter

can

in these

Explain

principleand

the

of the hot wire

mechanism

meter.

WATTMETERS.

25.

To

26.

How

27.

Of

28.

Describe

29.

For

80.

Discuss

what

what

31.

Why

32.

What

33.

of wattmeters

the deflection

must

is this

accomplished?
typicalenergy

kinds

is the commutator-type

the induction-motor
limited

specialinstruments
brieflythe power

How

be
intelligence

may

meter

adapted

Why

house

meter.
to

circuits ?

a.c.

needed

are

factor

in

and

fullyequipped

the

frequency

CHAPTER
1.

meter?

meter.

of current

is this meter

Discuss

is the energy

practicalimportance

what

proportional?

be

power

meters.

XIII.

transmitted

by

the aid of the electric current?

TELEGRAPHY.

2.

simplex telegraphy

Discuss

of

(") Connection

and

keys

relays in closed
of

(d) Receiving instruments, (e) Range

3.

duplex telegraphy as

Discuss

Method

of

circuit

transmitting messages,

systems,

(c) Current

operation,(/)Simple diagram

(a)

to

of apparatus,

of circuits,
(c)Operation
of

(a)

to

as

Differential-wound

supply,

of circuits.

relay,(b) Diagram

(d) Efficiencyof the system,

(e)Bridge system

duplexing.
4.

According

5.

Discuss

to

what

principlesmay

line be

telegraphic receiving devices;

the

"quadruplexed"
needle

telegraph; the

syphon

recorder.
6.

Explain

7.

What

the

principleof

automatic

systems

the
have

printingtelegraph systems,
been
39"

introduced?

or

the

"ticker."

WIRELESS

TELEGRAPHY.

8.

Explain

9.

Give

10.

principleof

the

diagram

the

Explain

spark

gap,

THE

TELAUTOGRAPH.
11.

What

12.

Explain

coherer, (e} The

is the
its

telegraphy.

simple wireless system.

of (a) The
aerial, (6)

action

(d} The

wireless

of the

induction

The

coil, (c) The

"tapper."

telautograph?
operation.

TELEPHONY.
13.

What

general principleunderlies

14.

What

are

15.

Discuss

the essential
the

16.

Discuss

17.

What

is the

18.

What

is

of transmission

transmitter.

"ringer"?
"central-energysystem"?

19.

Describe

the

Describe

the

telephone "jack."
operation of connecting the apparatus

of

central-energysystem.
What

is

speech?

telephone receiver.

20.

21.

of

parts of the telephone circuit?

telephone

the

the method

telephoneexchange

22.

What

is meant

23.

What

is the

24.

Discuss

telephone system

25.

Discuss

the

26.

Discuss

the status

by

"

"

multiple board

"transfer

equipment

system"?
power

distributingcircuits
of wireless

plants.
of

telephone system.

telephony.

391

two

subscribers

in the

INDEX.

telephone,

board,

"A"

circuits,

A.

C.

A.

C.

motors,

A.

C.

power,

113.

C.

series

motor,

C.

series

motor

A.

C.

series

motors,

A.

C.

transmission

of

as

I. E.

A.

I. E.

30.

18.

efficiency, 184.

Alternator

efficiency, data

Alternator

e.

Alternator

excitation,

138.

Alternator

excitation,

165.

m.

f. wave,

182.

on,

117.

40.

coils, 164, 165.

cores,

Alternator

field

magnets,

199.

definitions

of

regulation,
code,

standardization

main

in

tower

in

179.

Alternator

extracts

plant,

gas

plant,

gas

of

Alloys, steel,
Alphabet,

245.

transformers,
74.

79.

telegraph,

current,

Alternating

current

current,

current,

113.

e.m.f., 117.

and

fields

of

applica-

value

heating

of

the, 118.

quantities,

effectfve

values

8.

Alternating

Alternator,

Gramme's,

of

poles

on,

182.

in,

quantities

in

the

steam

114.

393

40.
40.

187.

handling,

Alternator

heating,

Alternator

iron

Alternator,

352.

of, 374.

Alternating

Ganz's,

Alternator,

Alternating

Alternating

160.

field, number

Alternator,

Alternator

210.

95.

Morse

Alternating

245.

materials,

resistance

as

Alloys, fusible,

161.

161.

All-day efficiency

engine,

40.

Alternator

field

179-185.

1 1

40.

Alternator

Air

of,

Meritens',

Alternator, Ferranti's,

90.

151.

of, 117.

transformers,
E.

cation

definition

dielectric, 97.

Air

Alloys

181.

characteristics,

de

of, 183.

curves

field

E.

from,

161.

Alternator

Air-blast
A.

128.

telegraph, 363.

magnetic,
a

Alternator,

49.

251.

telegraphy,

152.

160,

characteristic

Alternator, Deri's,

electricity, Benjamin's,

of

Ageing,
Air

railways,

waves,

Aerial, wireless

brushes,

Alternation,

48.

car,

sine

in

Alternator

Alternator, compensated,

283.

272.
for

electric

Advances

Age

49.

handling,

Accumulator

armature,

Alternator

characteristics,

152.

Alternator

Alternator,

119.

A.

Addition

265.

synchronous,

A.

Adam's

Alternator,

370.

184.

loss, 184.

Kapp's,

40.

Mordey's,

Alternator

regulation,

Alternator

regulation,

40.

181.
data

Alternator,

revolving

Alternator,

revolving field,

Alternator,

revolving field, view

Alternator,

Schuckert's,

Alternator,

von

armature,

Hefner

152.

152.

of, 162.

40.

Alteneck's,

Alternator,

Westinghouse's,

Alternator,

Westinghouse,

view

Alternator,

Zipernowski's,

40.

40.

40.

of, 152.

INDEX.

394

Alternators, distribution

of load

Arago, Dominique-Francois,

among,

188.

Arago,

Alternators, early,
Alternators

Arago's

39.

parallel,188.

in

disk

Arc, forms

24.

of, 37.

papers

experiment,

24.

of, 315.

Alternators, synchronizing, 187.

Arc

lamp applications, 322.

Alumina,

Arc

lamp, Blondel,

Arc

lamp, Bremer,

315.

Arc

lamp carbons,

80.

Arc

lamp construction, 316.

Arc

lamp, development of, 34.

Arc

lamp, flaming, 8.

Arc

lamp, magnetite,

76.

Aluminum

compared

with

76,

copper,

77Aluminum

for power

Aluminum

manufacture,

lines, 106.

76.

75,

Aluminum,

propertiesof, 76.

Aluminum,

specificresistance

Aluminum,

of

lamp,

lamps, 6,

Arc

lamps,

Brush's

Arc

lamps,

constant

Arc

lamps,

309.

Arc

lamps,

coil,342.

Arc

lamps, development of, 34.

Arc

lamps, differential,316.

Arc

lamps, early, 33.

Arc

lamps, enclosed,

Arc

lamps,

Arc

lamps, flaming, 35,

Arc

lamps, lightproduced by,

Arc

lamps, multiple,316.

Arc

lamps, shunt,

coefficient

of,

81.

Amber,

reduction, 78.
early knowledge of, 18.

American

gage,

Ammeter

and

Ammeter,

inclined

Ammeter

Weston,

338.

Ammeters,

coil and

Ammeters,

electro-dynamometer, 331.

Ammeters,

hot

Ammeters,

plunger, 341.

wire, 347.

movable

coil, permanent

338.

magnet,

Ammeters,

permanent

Ammeters,

soft core,

Ammeters,

straightline

Ammeters

magnet,
331,

331,

336.

340.

law

in, 340.

rotatingsoft-iron

with

8.

mercury,
313.

work

cores,

S. definition

C. G.

Ampere,

definition

Ampere,

Electric

of, 68.

of, 59.

potential,316.

constant

locomotive

named

work,

mathematical

Ampere-turn,

m.

m.

f.

24.

of, 85.

Angstrom's coefficient,324.
Annealing,
Annealing
Anthony

effect upon

and

Moler, 39.

Application of
Applications of
of,

permeability,89.

steel sheets, 94.

electric

lamps,

electric current,

i.

Applications of

320.

motors,

298.

sis
synop-

35.
work

Farmer's

35.

on,

315.
319.

317.

Arc

lamps, series, 316.

Arc

light,first,24.

Arc

lightingin Paris, early,34.

313.

Arc, volts required to maintain

of

Arcs, distribution

the, 47.

Ampere's

ers
transform-

current

Arc, luminosity of,

341-

Ampere,

316.

current,

constant

35.

on,

for, 203.

83.
shunt,

shunts, 335.

Ammeter,

316.

Arc

propertiesof,82.

temperature

Aluminum

35,

Arc

summary

Aluminum,

of, 81.

315.

Arcs,

open

and

313.

315.

enclosed, 318.

Armature,

alternator, 152.

Armature,

Gramme's

ring, 39.

Armature

coils, 155.

Armature

coils for

Armature

core,

152.

Armature

cores,

d.

Armature

cores,

eddy

Armature

of generator,

Armature

of

Armature

of the electric

Armature,

an,

lightfrom,

railway

motors,

279.

generator, 169.

c.

currents

in, 153.

151.

railway motor,

279.

generator, 150.

Paccinotti's, 38.

INDEX.

Bi-polartelephone receiver,366.

ring,38.

Armature,

Blake, Francis,

Siemens', 38.

Armature,

395

32.

forms, 154.

Blondel

arc

ventilation, 160-162.

Blondel

flaming

Armature

slot

Armature

Armature,

view

Armature,

views

of

Blower

stationary,153.
large d.

of

c.,

168.

lamps,

in gas

315.

Boat, first electric,43.

winding, 2-phase, 157.

Boosters, battery,250.

Armature

winding, lap

Bottle, electric,21.

Armature

winding,

parallel,172.
d.

series

169.

c.,

Armature

winding, 3-phase, 156.

Armature

winding,

Armature

windings, 156.

d.

wave,

Armatures

of d.

Automatic

repeaters, 355.

c.,

generators,

c.

168.

telegraph systems, 361.

telegraphy,30.

Auto-transformers,
Auxiliaries

Bremer

flaming

lamps,

and

202.

stations, 218.

Brown,

Thomson,

or

Balancing phases

in

188.

Barlow, Peter, 26.

Barlow's

wheel, modified

Bases

for incandescent

Battery

and

boosters

Battery storage,

holders, 175.
holders

work

lamps,

of, 52.

for d.

Brushes

in

generators,

c.

of

battery plates,252.

up

of

load

Graham,

for incandescent

Bentley

Electricity,18.

lamps,

308,

tricity,
Elec-

8.

and

Knight,

Bequerel'swork
Berliner, Emile,

electric

of, 47.

electro-chemistry,
37.

32.
car

transmitter, 32.

curves,

car

37.

in

254.

304.

referred

to, 88.

at,

46.

of

of, 326.

lamps,

arc

319.

incandescent

lamps,

309.

Capacity analogous
G.

elasticity,71.

to

S. unit

of, 70.

Capacity

of storage

batteries,249.

Capacity

in electric

circuits,125.

Capacity,
Capacity

Exposition, electric

Berliner's

in

Rise

definition
of

power

Capacity, C.

Intellectual

Bequerel, A. C.,

B. H.

Candle

the, 47.

Berlin

Candle-power

31.

Franklin, electric locomotive

Benjamin,

curve,

excitation, 140.

Candle-foot, 326.

telephone,31.

named

175.

alternators, 160, 161.

Candle-power,

Benjamin

35.

for, 79.

Bauxite, 76.

Benjamin, Age

39.

regulators,250.

n.

of

279.

generators,

Candle, Jablochkoff, 34.

Bell's

Kassel,

motors,

lamps,

arc

Railway Co.,

Building
Bulbs

304.

railway

on

Brushes

Buffalo

26.

form

for

in electric

Battery,the storage, 36.

Bell, Alexander

at

F., 35.

Brush

Buckling

electric motor,

35.

83.

gage,

Brush

Brushes, carbon

333.

polyphase circuits,

Barlow's

lamps,

L., transmission

Brush, Charles

Brush's

board, telephone,371.

Balance, Kelvin

315.

arc

Sharp

C. E.

Brush, work
"B"

133.

132,

41.

starting,289.

motor

in power

arc

Bridge duplex telegraphy,357.

Automatic

in

80.

Bremer

Brown

Automatic

Auto-transformer

Box, water,

Brake, magnetic,

169.

35.

plant, 245.

Armature

or

lamps,

arc

mechanical

reactance,

analogy of, 63.

126, 127.

Capacity, specificinductive, 96.

Capacity, unit of, 64.
Car, Adam's
Car,

at

Berlin

electric,48

Exposition,electric,46.

Car, Bentley and

Knight electric,47.

INDEX.

electric,45.

Car, Davenport's
Car, Davidson's

electric, 45.

Car, Farmer's

electric,46.

Car, Green's

electric,46.

Car, Grove
Car

of

Century

electricity,
Mendenhall,

Characteristic

curves

Characteristic

curves

of

of generators,

Characteristics, motor,

battery on, 46.

Characteristics

heater, electric,14.

of

magnetic

Car, Hall's reversible

Characteristics

of series d.

Characteristics

of series

electric,46.
46.

on,

Car, Page's electric,46.

Characteristics

of

Car, Short's

Characteristics

of d.

electric,48.

Car, Siemens

and

Halske

electric,46.

Car, Sprague's electric,46.

de

Car, Van
Carbon

Poele's

as

Carbon

electric,47.

resistance

arcs,

material, 74.
of

appearance

various,

3U.

effect upon

permeability,89.

Carbon

filaments, 304.

Carbon

in

Carbon,
Carbon

lamps,

arc

of

summary

80.

c.

295.

motors,

285.

motors,

283.

transformers,
c.

Characteristics

of power

Characteristics

of shunt

28^.

motors,

stations, 253.
and

compound

285.

Characteristics

of

synchronous

motors,

Charging

for electrical

Charging

current,

Chemical

composition,

262.

energy,

129.

effect upon

incandescent

an

lamp

ment,
fila-

Chemical

electro-,

in

decomposition, electro-,9.

Chemical

Carborundum,

manufacture

Carburundum

furnace,

of, 36.

Choke

of

steel, curves

decomposition, first, 24.

coils for

lightningarresters,

Circuit, function

14.

steel,composition of, 93.

magnetic

of the

ties
proper-

.Circuits,A. C.,

electric,

of, 130.

113.

Circuits,electric,construction

Cast

steel for

Cast

steel,magnetic propertiesof, 93.

Cast

steel

pole

field

cores,

Circuits, varieties

93.

of

of,

electric,101.

in

motor

circuits, 302.

Cast

steel,permeability of, 89.

Cast

iron, permeability of, 89.

Circuits, transmission, 103.

Circuits, electric,features of,

Cast

iron, magnetic propertiesof, 92.

Circuits, propertiesof electric,

of

iron, curves

magnetic properties

Circuits, design

iron, composition of, 92.

C. G.

Henry,

S. system,

Cellulose

Circuits,electric,installation
Circuits, polyphase,

of, 91.

for

units

101.

113.

of,

102.

121.

and

operation

of

trie,in.

22.

Circuit-breakers, 223.

in, 67.

incandescent

lamp

ments,
fila-

304.

Central

energy

Central

offices,telephone,370.

telephone system, 368.

102.

Circuits, telephone distributing,

372.
Circuit-breakers

163.

cores,

221.

112.

Circuit, magnetic, definition

of, 92.

Cavendish,

meability,
per-

88.

36.

304.

Cast

189.

generators,

Chemistry, earlyexperiments

79.

Carbonizing

Cast

206.

Characteristics, alternator, 181.

propertiesof, 83.

transmitter, 366.

Carbon,

Cast

a.

c.

281.

Carbon,

Cast

speed,

Characteristics of induction

motors,

313.

arc,

Carbon

materials-

92.

Characteristics, motor

motor

179.

281.

Car, Henry's electric,48.

Car, Jacobi

18.

alternator, 183.

Circuits, regulationin electric,112.

Circular

mil-foot, 80.

Circular

mil, 80.

Clarke's

electric generator,

38.

elec"=

INDEX.
London,

of

Clarke,

in d.

winding

169.

armatures,

c.

dielectric,100.

Cloth

as

Code,

Morse

Coil

and

Coil

pitch in

plunger

of d.

indoor
in

ammeters,

starting,291.

of electric

circuits,70.

windings,

for

and,

171.

railway

Coils

for

transformers, 198.

155.

armatures,

motor

of

279.

electricity,generation

20.

originaldiscovery of, 20.

electric

Conduction,

rings, 150.

Conductors

for power

Collector

rings,159-161.

Conductors

to

compounding

Conductors

190.

curve,

development, period of, 18,

Commercial
28.

development,

Commercial

of

summary

electric

lamps,

principles

Commutation,

368.

involved

in,

167.
of

review

Fay's

non-conductors,

Conduit

line, 108.

104.

principles,189.

150,

Commutator,

construction

Commutator,

view

no.

109,

of copper,

ores

of

Connections

Cleveland, 47.

74.

transformer

windings,

201.

transformer

Constant-current

istics,
character-

211.

of, 174.

of, 174.

transformer,

Constant-current

view

348.

motor

meters,

Commutator

motor

starters, 292.
19.

Constant

current

regulator,205.

Constant

current

transformer,

Constant

potentialtransformer, 196, 197.

197,

Construction

of electric

circuits, 102.

Construction

of electric

generators,

Construction

of transmission

285.

Construction

of electric

Construction

Compensated

alternator, 151.

Composite winding,
Compound

d.

c.

151.

motor

characteristics,

and

excitation, 146.
excitation, 151.

Compound

motor

applications,300.

Construction

Compound

motor

speed control, 296.

Consumer's

instruments, 330.

Compound

motor

starting,293.

Continuous

current,

Compound

d.

Continuous

current,

Compound

motors,

coil

in, 277.

Compounding,

of series

of

power

transformers, 195.

112.

fields

of, 374.
Control

151.

operation

of

stations, 217.

273.

connection

184.

265.

motors,

Compound

motors,

203.

lines, 104.

Compound

c.

of,

204.

Commutator

mariner's,

at

wiring, indoor,

Conglomerate

Du

73.

on,

construction,

166.

Commutator,

Compass,

and

Conduit

200,

Commutation,

a,

insulators,attaching, 106.

work

Conduit

303.

battery telephone system,

Common

through

lines, io6t

Conduit, underground,

period of, 50.

Commercial

circuit

in.

Collector

Commercial

properties of,

80.

Conduction,

for armatures,

Coils

'

materials,

Conduction

341.

Coils

wiring, 108-110.

motor

Conducting

armature

generator,

c.

Conducting materials, 73.

telegraphy,363.

Coherer, wireless

field,191.

curve

Conditions
81.

f.,88.

m.

curve,

Compounding

Condensers

electrical,102.

Coefficient,temperature,
m.

Compounding

Concealed

88.
Coefficient,hysteresis,

Coercive

for, 147.

turns

190.

telegraph,352.

Code, National

series

Compounding,

38.

Closed-coil, 2-phase winding, 158.

Closed

397

of motors,

287.

Converter, rotary, 197.

of

tion
applica-

398

INDEX.

Converter, rotary, 298.

Current

of series

Cooking, electric,36, 328.

Current

regulator,constant,

conductor, 74.

Copper

as

Copper

compared

with

aluminum,

compared

with

iron

76,

Current, unit of, 59.

Current, varieties of,
Cuttriss

77-

Copper

and

steel,

transformers,202.
205.

112.

magnetic siphon recorder,360.

Cycle, definition

of, 117.

77-

refiningof, 75.
Copper, electrolytic
for commutators,

Copper
Copper,

hard

Copper

losses

drawn,
in

Copper,

of, 106.

use

in nature,

74.

plating, 37, 38.

refiningand
soft

Copper

drawn,

use

Copper,

of

sumrrjary

Copper voltmeter,

Davidson,

Davy,

343.

75.

cover).

(Inside back

transformer, 133.
in d.

152.

generator,

c.

of,

curves

193Core

losses

transformers,

in

Core

loss current

Core

type transformer, 197.

in

200.

transformers,

210.

of d.

Cores

of

Cornell

c.

169.

transformers, 198.

University power

plant,236.

definition

of,

Coulomb,

Chas.

22.

Counter
Crater

m.

e.

"

of

for

Current

and

Current

C.

generator

characteristics,189.

D.

C.

generator

handling,

D.

C. generators

in

D.

C.

generator,

the, 166.

D.

C.

generator,

view

D.

C. shunt

D.

C.

and

series

compound

of,

273.

units, 58.

of C.

G.

units, 67.

S.

Delta-connected, 3-phase winding, 159.

of

transformers, 213.

de

Magnete, Gilbert's, 18,

de

Magnete,

illustration

Meritents

m.

m.

19.

from,

20.

f.,88.

alternator, 40.

Depreciation of storage batteries, 252.

transformer,

S. unit

motors,

277.

alternator, 40.

between, 53.

193.

of, 166.

motors,

of

168.

parallel,194.

Deri's

Design

40.

units, 60.
and

operation of

electric

circuits,

in.

Detectors, ground,

68.

Detroit

electricity,23.

Current, field surrounding

Current

D.

Deri's

field,reaction

33.

armature,

Derived

G.

24,

6.

Current, alternating,117.
Current, C.

experiments, 24.

pole line, 104.

Cryolite,76.

45.

C. generator

de

287.

43.

D.

Demagnetizing

f. in motors,

lamps,

arc

Cross-arms

A.,

258.

62.

45.

33.

Humphrey,

Delta-connection

Cost of producing electrical energy,

Coulomb,

Sir

lamp,

Definitions

armatures,

generator

magnets,

Robert, 45.

Definition

Cores, field,of alternators, 161.

Cores

45.

electric car,

arc

table

loss

43.

Davenport, Thomas,

electrical

wire

Core

Davenport, Thomas,

Davy's

Copper

of armature,

electric motor,

Davy's

Copper

Core

Davenport's

of, 81.

manufacture,

of

electric car,

propertiesof, 82.

wire

Core

of, 81.

coefficient

Copper, temperature

field

Davenport's

Davidson's

of, 107.

Copper, specificresistance

alternator

on

165-

Copper refining,10.
Copper

locomotive, 47.

galvanometer, 338.

Dampers

200.

lines, 106.

occurrence

electric

D'Arsonval

174.

transformers,

for power

Copper

Daft's

a,

Developments

63.

measuring instruments,

Edison

331.

49.

222.

Co., power
in electric

station, 230.

traction,recent,

INDEX.

of the

Development

of

Development

lamp, 34.

arc

the

electric

399

Economics,

generator,

Eddy

149-

of the

Development

incandescent

lamp,

in

currents

Edison's

station, 258.

power

armature

electric
field

Edgewise

locomotive, 46.

winding, 164, 165.

of incandescent

Edison, invention

33-

Development,

of

summary

commercial,

period

of

Development, period

of commercial,

circuit

Dielectric, electric

28.

through

a,

Edison, work

A.,

1 1

30.

electric generators,

on

values

Effective

in.

8.
induction

materials, 73, 95, 97.

Dielectric

resistance, 97.

282, 283.

Dielectric

strength,96.

Efficiencycurve

of d.

Efficiency curve

of

of

Difference

phase,

Efficiency

arc

Differential

duplex telegraphy,356.

lamps, 316.

current,

112.

Direct

current,

fields of

Efficiency

Distribution

Drawing

application of,

52.

induction

of copper

motor,

41.

182.

on,

of,

curve

conductors

on

and

d.

generator,

c.

of,

curve

192.

Efficiencyof

wire, 75.

sulators,
inEfficiencyof

incandescent

lamps,

Efficiencyof

21.

307.

lightproduction,324.
of, 325.

table

lightsources,

Efficiencyof transformers,

Fay, Charles,

generator,

c.

transformer,

p.

c.

Efficiency of

i.

73.
Du

d.

Efficiency of alternators, 184.

Efficiencyof

Fay's work

284,

motor,

209.
power,

Drip loop, 103.

Du

shunt

Efficiency of alternators, data

of mechanical

Dobrowolski's

286, 287.

motor,

c.

of

curves

Efficiencyof
generator,

motor,

194.

374Disk

of

curve

285.

121.

Differential

Direct

208.

transformers, all-day,210.

Duplex telegraphy,30, 356.

electrical analogy of, 63.

Elasticity,

Duplex telegraphy,differential,356.

Electric

bottle, 21.

Duplex telegraphy,bridge, 357.

Electric

car

Electric

circuit

Electric

circuits,conditions

Electric

circuits,features

Electric

circuits,propertiesof, 70.

Early alternators, 39.

Electric

circuits,varieties of, 101.

Early

arc

lamps,

Electric

current,

Early

arc

lightingin

Duplex telegraphy,Wheatstone,
Dynamo-electric
Dynamo,

machine,

148.

electro-,331.

33.

Early electric motors,

Early

357.

origin of word, 148.

Dynamometers,

electric

Paris,

Electric

34.

43.

in

electro-chemistry,

36.

Early

as

14.

fire

nature

current,

risk, 103.
of, 70.
of, 101.

of, i.

synopsis

of

tions,
applica-

Electric

generator,

Clarke's, 38.

Electric

generator,

development

of

the,

149.

incandescent

lamps,

Early telegraph systems,

Economic
309-

heater,

i.

traction, 45.

Early experiments

39.

alternatingquantities,

of

Dielectric

Dielectrics, electrical propertiesof, 96.

lamp,

33-

Edison, Thomas

50.

153.

cores,

life of

33.

29.

incandescent

lamps,

Electric

generator,

definition

Electric

generator,

elements

Electric

generator,

Page's, 38.

generator,

Pixii's,38,

Electric

of, 148.
of, 148.

INDEX.

400

generators in

Electric

stations,

power

218.

Electrical

power,

56.

Electrical

power,

unit

of, 61.

Electric

generators, operation of, 178.

Electrical

properties of dielectrics,96.

Electric

heating, 33, 36,

Electrical

propertiesof materials,

Electric

lamps, commercial,

Electrical

quantity, unit of, 62.

Electric

lamps,

Electrical

steel,composition

327.
303.

improvements in,

recent

Electrical

35Electric

lighting,33.

Electric

lighting,summary

of

ment
develop-

Electric

motor,
motors,

Electric

motors,

Electric

motors,

Electric

motor

Electric

motors,

Electric

heating, 303.

of, 265.

early, 43.

recent,
G.

344.

power

Electric

power

transmission, 38,

waves,

Electrical

Hertzian,
in

Electricity,summary

of, development

knowledge

of, 50.

decomposition,

energy,

Electrical

energy,

Electrical

cost

energy,

102.

S., unit of, 69.

of

Electro-dynamometer

ammeters,

Electrical

energy,

generators,

Electrical

horsepower,

of,

surgery,

horsepower

of,

329.

of, 61.

definition

hour,

definition

year,

definition

torsion

trol,
con-

Electro-magnetism,

24.

of, 135.

excitation

26.

circuit

Electrolyte,electric

through

an,

in.

Electrolyticquantity

75.

copper,

meters,

343.

Electrolysis,9.
instruments,

applicationsof,

33"Electrical

with

Electro-magnets, Henry's,

62.

Electrical

trol,
gravity con-

333.

Electrolyticrefiningof
horsepower

with

331.

construction

62.

of,

Electro-dynamometer

Electro-magnets,
heating in

Electrical

portable, 334.

61.

148.
Electrical

Electrical

331.

Electro-dynamometers,

Electro-dynamometer
unit

331.

Siemens, 332.

Electio-dynamometers,

producing,

258.
Electrical

ment
develop-

of, 50.
stations,

charging for, 262.

C. G.

of

Electro-chemistry,summary

31.

power

code, national,

Electrical

9.

36.

41.

Electro-dynamometer,

Electrical

24.

Electro-chemistry,early experiments in,

219.

of,

21.

Electro-chemical

rupturing gradient,96.

auxiliaries

conduction

Electro-chemistry,beginning of,
of, 69.

S., unit

generation,38.

Electric

and

Electricity,
storage of,
of

44.

Electric

pressure

18.

of, 20.

263.

power,

23.

Electricity,generation

construction

C.

netic
mag-

steel,propertiesof, 94.

Electricity,
etymology,

first,26.

quantity meters,

Electric

Electrical

Electricity,current,

lightingand

of, 95.

showing

curves

properties,94.

of, 50.
Electric

Electric

steel,

72.

machine,

Electrical

machine,

Electrical

and

Guericke's,
Newton's,

20.

20.

Electrostatic

ground detector, 345.

Electrostatic

voltmeters,

Elecktron, 18.
Elements

of electric

damental, Elizabeth, Queen,

magnetic quantities,fun-

Elkington,James

51.
Electrical

measurements,

Electrical

motors,

330.

principlesof, 263.

344.

Elkington's work
E.M.F.,

generator,

148.

19.

B., 37.
in

copper

alternating,117.

refining,37

INDEX.

86.

of in generator,

calculation

E.M.F.,

S., unit of,

C.

E.M.F.,

nature
experiment illustrating

instruments
unit

E.M.F.,
Enclosed

of,

for

measuring,

lamps, Mark's,

arcs,

in

turns

344.

of, 59.

arc

Enclosed
End

of, 70.

S. definition

of, 65.

Farad, definition

Faraday

and

work

of, 26.

Faraday, Michael,

35.

18.
of

comparison

Henry,

25.

318.

Faraday's discoveries, 25.

transformers, insulation

Faraday's disk,

modified

form

of, 52.

Faraday's magnetic figures,63.

202.

C. G.

Energy,

of

S. unit

electrical,69.

Energy, electrical,unit of, 61.

Energy,

instruments

for

Energy

meters,

commutator

Energy

meters,

induction

transmission

Energy,

transformation

Equalizer

Moses

348.

work

motor,

349.

Equi-potentialconnections

lap

ings,
wind-

of

of

work, early,22.

mechanical

mission,
trans-

power

plant construction,

of

226.

as

Fields

of

rent,
applicationof alternatingcur-

of

shunt,

in

electro-magnets, 135.

core

Field

and

139,

144,
139,

motors,

150.

151.
150.

Railroad

Co.'s

station, 234.
current

in

c.

p.

transformers,

and

sheet

cast

cores,

Field

cores

of

Field

cores

for d.

Field

compounding

Field

Island

wire

for

176.

stampings, 163, 164.

saturation

150.

magneto,

generators,

cores,

Field's

38.

c.

Field

transformers, 137.

Exciters, Long

of

size

coils for d.

generators

for

143.

coil, problem

Field

for

Exciter, Wilde's

steel,163.

in d. c., 175.

alternators, 161.

electric

generators,

c.

curve,

175.

191.

locomotive, 46.

magnet

of

Field

magnet

of d.

Field

magnet

ventilation, 164.

Field

magnets

of generators,

Field

magnets

of

railway motor,
c.

278.

generators,

175.

151.

alternators, 160.

Field, rotating,267.

209.

Exciting

374.

coil, problem in size of wire

Field

Excitation, shunt,

Exciting

continuous

self-,140.

Excitation,series,

139,

current,

of

coils,alternator, 164.

of

of

application

series, 145.

146, 151.

138.

Exciter,

45.

41,

Field

Excitation, separate,

Excitation

motor,

dielectric,99.

of

Field

alternators, 165.

Excitation, conditions

Excitation

40.

Fiber

Field

4.

Excitation, compound,

Excitation

battery,37.

alternator,
induction

Fields

Exchanges, telephone, 370.

Excitation

lamps, 35.

arc

374-

2,

Examples

on

Ferrari's

173.
scientific

Examples

G., 35.

storage

Ferranti's

194.

in

44.

46.

car,

Faure, Camille, 37.

Faure's

of, 15.

connection,

or

electric

Farmer,

Engineering electro-chemistry,
36.
bar

Farmer's

Farmer's

of, 15.

Energy,

Farmer's

electric motor,

measuring, 348.

motor,

first transformer, 195.

Faraday's ring the

electrical,262.

for

Energy, charging

Exact

120.

power,
C. G.

Faraday, experimental researches,

of, 54E.M.F.

Factor,

Farad,

68.

E.M.F.,

G.

401

current

for

136.

Swings' theory, 84.

electro-magnets,

Field

strength, magnetic, C. G. S. unit

of, 67.
Field

winding, edgewise, 164, 165.

INDEX.

402

for incandescent

Filaments

Filaments,
Fire

risk, electric circuit

risks, transformers

First successful
First

39.

lamps,

33.

43.

Flashing an

generator,

Gas

holder

Gas

producer,
as

Gaulard

9.

in gas

plant, 246.

244.

dielectrics,97.
and

Gibb's

transformer,

315.

35,

incandescent

Gauss, definition

of, 66, 85.

and

conduction

of

lamp filament,

Generator

armature,

Generator

characteristics,d.

Generator,

150,

Clarke's

tricity,
elec-

permeability,

upon

88.

151.
c.,

189.

electric,38.

Generator, definition

density,effect

40.

S., definition of, 68, 69.

20.

3"4-

Flux

Gas

131.

lamps, 8,

arc

engine plants,244.

Generation

telegraph line, 30.

Flaming

engine plant, typical,244.

Gas

Gauss, C. G.

States, 43.

motor,

telephone, 31,

First

America,

incandescent

on

Gas

Gases
in

in United

patent

103.

213.

as,

machine

First Gramme

First

a,

26.

First electric motor,

motor

as

electro-plating,
37.

commercial

First

304.

metal, 134.

rare

Fire
First

lamps,

of

electric,148.

Generator, development of the electric,

149-

Generator, disk, 52.

density,magnetic, 85.

Flux

Generator,

Flux, magnetic, 85.

opment
of devel-

electric,summary
of, 50.

Fly-wheel effect,150.

of

Generator, elements

Foot-candle, 326.

electric,148.

Generator

excitation, 138.

Generator

field

Four-phase circuit,122.

Generator

field magnet,

151.

Franklin, Benjamin,

Generator

field magnet,

d.

Forming

lamp filament,

incandescent

an

3"4-

Franklin's

22.

Generator, flux in

experiments, 22.

Frankfurt, transmission,

Frequency,
Frequency

definition
meter,

Generator,

42.

Generator

of, 117.

350.

electric motor,

Fuller-board

as

Generator

of the power

Fundamental

and

magnetic

station, 253.

Fuses
Fuses
Fusible

9.

gas,

handling, d.
mechanical

193.

mounting,

151.

regulation,178.

Generator

self-excitation,invention

Generator, view

14.

166.

c.,

of d.

Generators, armatures,

in

Generators

circuits,302.

Generators

alloys,79.

of,

38.

alloys for, 79.

motor

c.,

Generator

Generator, the d.

units, 59.

Furnace, carborundum,

175.

c.,

of, 86.

Generator, Pixii's electric,38.

quantities, 51.
Function

air gap

Generator, Page's electric,38.

44.

dielectric,99.

electrical

Fundamental

176.

c.,

Generator, magnetic circuit in, 150.

Frog-leg experiments, 23.

Fromant's

d.

cores,

as

and

c.,

166.

of d.

168.

c.,

264.

motors,

corresponding

motors,

264.
for d.

Gages, wire, 83.

Generators, brushes

Galvani, Luigi, 23.

Generators, construction

Galvanometer,
Ganz's
Gas

D'Arsonval,

338.

alternator, 40.

collector

in gas

plant, 246.

of

c.,

175.

electric,148.

Generators, operation of electric, 178.

German

silver,79.

German

silver,specificresistance

of, 81.

INDEX.

of

silver,summary

German

403

Hardening,

coefficient

Hard

drawn

Head

House, Niagara

silver, temperature

of, 81.
Gaulard

transformer,

Gilbert, de Magnete, 18,

Gilbert, William,
as

Glass

and,

Co.,

40.

for line

insulators, 105.

rupturing,

pressure

Gramme's

alternators,

Gramme's

ring

Granular

America,

39.

alternators,184.

Heating

of

transformers,

Gray

of,

32.

magnetic

ties
proper-

14.

C.

Henry,

Joseph,
electric

car,

48.

Henry's electro-magnets, 26.

21.

Green, George

F., 46.

Grove

on

car,

132.

Ground

detectors,

waves,

Grounding
Grounding

of transformer

Horn

neutral,

electric circuits,

213.

steam

Hot

20.

von,

M.,

machine,

20.

wire

Hall, Thomas,

electrical, definition

reversible

Hall's

work

Halske
Hand

on

electric

Hughes,

D.

B., 32.

car,

car,

32.

generator, 9.

88.
Hysteresis coefficient,

Hysteresis

46.

aluminum

starting of

of,

Hydro-electric plants,236.

46.

Hall's

plants,233.

instruments, 347.

Hydrogen

37.

76.

37,

220.

107,

turbine

61.

electrical

process,

works, 18.

lightningarresters,

Horizontal

Hunning, Henry,
Hall

voltmeters,

ammeter

reference

Horsepower,

222.

wires, 103.

Hall, Charles

31.

346.
Historical

222.

of circuits, 103.

44.

31.

resistance

High

46.

detector, electrostatic,345.

Guericke's

Heinrich,

Hertzian

Ground

Guericke, Otto

of, 70.

26.

Gray's telephone transmitter,

Guard

of

of, 64.

Henry's electric motor,

on

comparison

S., definition

G.

Hertz,

Grounds

209.

rent,
alternating cur-

of, 326.

Gray's telautograph,364.

battery,

327.

of, 26.

Henry's

93.

Gray, Stephen,

car,

Henry, definition
of

the

Faraday,

and

work

telephone transmitter,

curves

M.

8.

Heater, electric

Henry,

iron,

of

value

Heating

Henry

39.

366.
Gray, Elisha,

"

14.

of

Hefner, definition

40.

armature,

carbon

Heating

1 1

first in

machine,

242.

96.
Gramme

H.

Heating, electric,applicationof, 328.

19.

electric

Gradient,

Falls

Heating, electric,33, 36, 303,

19.

dielectric,98.

wire, 75.

Heat, production of,

of, 85.

Gilbert, definition

Glass

permeability,

upon

89.

of, 82.
German

Gibbs

effect

properties

Siemens

reduction, 37.
and, 46.

single-phase

motors,

upon,

coefficient, effect

of

90.

Hysteresis coefficient, problem

the

use

Handling

d.

c.

Handling

of

alternators, 187.

Handling

motors,

generators,

Handling storage batteries,251.

to

89.

193.

287.

trating
illus-

of, 91.

Hysteresis coefficient,relation

291.

heat

Hysteresis in

armature

cores,

Hysteresis loss,calculation
Hysteresis,

nature

of, 88.

154.

of, 90.

meability,
per-

INDEX.

404

and

Illumination

Induction

light,323.

A.

motors,

C., 267.

Induction

motor

applications,299.

of, 324.
Illumination, efficiency

Induction

motor

curves,

Illumination, intensity,
324.

Induction

motor

characteristics,282.

Induction

motor,

Illumination,

of

Illumination

Illumination,

Impedance,

of, 324.

amount

chart

rooms,

of, 126.

Impedance, problems in,

Impulse

129.

plant,236.

Incandescence,

4, 5.

Incandescent

lamp,

Incandescent

lamps,

Incandescent

lamp applications,
320.

Incandescent

candle

308,

5.
303.

and

section

Induction

motor,

invention

of, 41.

Induction

motor

Induction

motor,

primary,

Induction

motor,

principleof, 267.

Induction

motor

Induction

motor

secondary, 270, 271.

speed control, 295.

Induction

motor

starting,289.

meters,

349.

270.

of

of,

Induction

lamps, characteristics,308.

Induction

motor,

96.
capacity,specific,
reactance,

lamps,

power

motor,

summary

history

of, 267.

309.

Incandescent

lamps, development of, 33.

Inductive

Incandescent

lamps, early, 33.

Inductive

Incandescent

lamps, efficiencyof, 307.

Incandescent

economic

Incandescent

lamps,

life

of,

Inherent

Input

Incandescent

work

Edison's

lamps,

of, 268.

view

126, 127.

Inertia, electrical analogy of, 63.

3"9-

33-

elevation

of, 269.

of, 326.

unit

definition

wheel

of, 327.

282.

on,

regulation,178.
of induction

curve

Inspectors,insurance,

motor,

circuits,107.

of electrical

Installation

282, 283.

102.

Incandescent

lamps,

Incandescent

lamp,

for, 304.

filaments

function

Insulatingmaterials, 73.
Insulatinglamps, problem

of, 303.

of,

of, 307.

in resistance

82.

Incandescent

lamps,

Incandescent

lamp manufacture,

Incandescent

lamp, parts of, 305.

Insulatingmaterials,

Incandescent

lamps, operation of, 307.

Insulating material, requirements for,

Incandescent

life

Insulatingmaterials, 95.

303.

lamps, smashing

point,

Incandescent

lamps,

Swan's

work

on,

of

Incandescent
Inclined

light,first,24.

coil ammeter,

Indicator
Indicator

card

of

342.

engine, 114.

steam

factor, 351.

for power

wiring, 108.

Inductance

analogous

Inductance

C. G.

Inductance

in electric

to

inertia,71.

S., unit of, 69.

circuit,123.

Inductance, mechanical

analogy of, 63.

Inductance, unit of, 63.

Induction

coil, telephone,365.

coils,155.

armature

Insulation, discovery of, 21.

of transformers,

Installation
Insulation
1

coils, 95,

of transformer

Insulation

34-

Indoor

96.
Insulation

3"9-

list of, 95.

of

underground

of

Insulation

on

Insulators

as

wires, 95.
line

conductors, 107.

targets, 106.

Insulators, attaching conductors

to,

106.

Insulators, construction
Insulators, Du

of, 105.

Fay's experiments with,

21.

Insulator, link type, 106.

Induction

Insulator

45.

212.

conductors,

08.

Insulation

Induction,definition of, 84.

motor,

200.

pins, 104,

105.

INDEX.

application

Instruments,

of

electrical,

33"-

Instruments,

consumers,

Instruments,

hot

43.

Jacobi's motor,

illustration

in power
for

measuring

current,

Instruments

for

measuring

e.

Instruments

for

measuring

energy,

348.

Instruments

for

measuring

power,

347.

m.

S. definition

Joule, C. G.

plants,330.

measuring

331.

Joule, definition

f.,344.

Joule's law, 57.

quantity,

Kapp's alternators,40.
Kapp, Gisbert,

40.

transmission

Kassel, power

342.

Kelvin

Intellectual

Key, telegraph,12.

18.
electricity,

transmission
Intelligence,

of, 12,

Intensityof magnetic field, C.

29, 352.

G.

S. unit

Intensityof

magnetic field,unit of,

Intensity of field, definition

66.

of, 67.

Intensityof illumination, 324.

Interpolemotors,
Insurance
Iron

as

conductor, 77.

definition

Kilowatt,

switch,

47Knob-

and

tube

Lamp,

arc,

6.

wiring, 109.

of

of the

Lamp,

incandescent, 5.

Iron, cast, permeability of, 89.

Lamp,

mercury

Iron, cast, magnetic propertiesof, 92.

Lamp,

Nernst,

Iron, cast, strength of, 93.

Lamp,

vacuum

curves

magnetic

ties
proper-

of, 91.

compared

with

copper,

of

curves

gray,

77.

magnetic

erties
prop-

of, 93.
Iron, improvements

in

magnetic qualities

of, 82.
Iron

loss

Iron

loss in

of

alternator, 183.

alternators,184.

Iron, specificresistance
Iron

steel, applications as

Iron,

of

summary

conductors,

Iron, temperature

properties of,
coefficient

35, 311.

tube, 78.

arc,

applicationof electric,320.

Lamps,

commercial

313.

Lamps, early arc

flaming

electric,303.
and
arc,

incandescent, 33.
35.

Lamps, incandescent,
manufacture

303.

of

incandescent,

3"3-

78-

77"

8.

vapor,

Lamps,

Lamps,

of, 81.

35.

arc,

Lamps,

Lamps,

curve

incandescent,

33-

enclosed

Iron,

and,

Bentley

car,

Lamp,

Iron

of, 61.

224.

electric

Knight,

of, 61.

definition

Kilowatt-hour,

Lamp, development

Iron, cast, composition of, 92.

Iron, cast,

41.

280.

inspectors,102.
a

at,

balance, 333.

Knife

of, 67.

of, 69.

of, 61.

Instruments, special,350.
rise in

of, 44.

Joints,103.

Instruments

for

Jacobi's motor,

Jacks, telephone,369.

330.

wire, 347.

Instruments

Instruments

405

82.

of, 81.

Iron, wrought, in magnetic machinery,

Lamps,

mercury

Lamps,

recent

320.

vapor,

improvements

in

electric,

35-

Lamps,
Lap

95-

or

vacuum

tube,

319.

parallelwinding

for d.

c.

tures,
arma-

172.

Lap winding, batteryanalogy, 173.

Jablochkoff candle,
Jacobi

motor

Jacobi, Moritz

on

car,

34.

46.

H., 43.

Lap winding, diagram of,

Lap

172.

windings, equipotential
in, 173.

tions
connec-

406

INDEX.

transmission

Lauffen, power
Laws

of the

Leading

from,

Load

42.

magnetic circuit,134.
f.

m.

e.

current,

or

Lichterfeld,electric

Load

120.

Life

of incandescent

Lifting magnet,
Light

and

Light

from

Load

of Buffalo

curve

Load

46.

at,

lamps,

131,

effect of storage

curve,

of

curves

Load

of

curve
curves

lamps,

Load

factor in power

319.

in

Light, production of, 4.

Edison's

Light, quantity of, 326.

Locomotive,

sources,

of, 326.

in,

relative values

sources,

of, 323.

Light, units of, 326.

of

ment
develop-

of, 50.
load

Lighting

electric,46.

Island

Long

Co.

R.R.

18.

station,

power

Island

Long

Co.

R.R.

Island

substation, 235.

station, exciters

R.R.

in,

234.

Loop, drip, 103.

254.

curves,

Lighting, protectingtransformers

from,

Losses

in

c.

transformer,

p.

curves

of,

208.

201.

Lighting

of

Lighting

of streets, 321.

residences, 320.

Lightning

arresters,

Lightning

arrester

Lightning

connections,
in

arresters

Losses

in

Losses

in

c.

221.

Lightning

arrester

stations,

power

house,

Luminescence,

table

109.

shunted

arrester,

transformers, 207.

definition

Lumen,

multi-gap,

power

19.

Lightning rod,

invention

of

armature

from, 107.

of, 22.

104.

lightning,107.

insulator, 106.

Liquids

as

as

curve,

resistance

Magnet, lifting,
131,
Magnetic

and

of, 18.
132.

Magnetic

brake

electrical

materials, 74.
Edison

magnet,

132,

133.

Magnetic circuit, definition of, 130.

the

generator, 150.

Magnetic circuit,laws of,

Magnetic

Co., 254.

damental,
quantities,fun-

51.

Magnetic circuit,in

resistances,80.
Detroit

153.

of, 326.

Province

rise, 185.

Lines, protectingfrom

Liquids

core,

Magnetic ageing, 90.

Limiting temperature
construction,

sources,

of, 325.

Lumination

Magnesia,

Lightning rod,

light

stations,

219.

Lightning, protectinglines

of, 321.

45.

Lux, definition

222.

Lightning protectionin

200.

efficiencyof

Luminous

Lightning

p.

transformers,

Lowering transformer, 196.

107.

220.

Load

Field's

Locomotives,

Long

303.

Lighting, electric,summary

Link

drawing of,

Ampere,

233-

Lighting, electric,33,

Line

the

electric, 46.

Lodestone, early knowledge of,

325-

Light

lin,"
Frank-

47-

consumption

power

stations,253.

47.

Locomotive,

source,

stations, 253.

power

electric,"Benjamin

Locomotive,

Light production,efficiencyof, 324.

Light

railway stations,254.

illumination, 323.

Light, intensity of, 326.

Light

254.

station,

power

256.

307.

132.

function

Railway Co.,

railway

Load

arc

battery on,

255-

of, 21.

car

stations,

power

261.

Leakage, magnetic, 136.

Leyden jar,invention

factor, effect of in

motor,

circuits
130,

131.

in

134.

street

railway

INDEX.

field

Magnetic
between,

and

reaction

current,

53.

field, illustration

Magnetic

of

torque

produced by, 87.

Magnetic

field

field

Marks,

L.

lamps, 35.

arc

B., 35.
characteristic

Materials,

Materials, dielectric

S. unit

G.

C.

strength,

of

magnetic,

insulating,73,

or

97-

Materials, electric propertiesof, 72.

field

strength,unit of, 66.

flux

for

Materials

shunts, 335.

ammeter

dielectric,95.

Materials, insulatingor

Magnetic flux, 85.

Magnetic

enclosed

Materials, conducting, 73.

unit of, 66.

intensity,

of, 67.

Magnetic

Mark's

92.

Magnetic field,pulling strength of, 134.

Magnetic

407

Materials, magnetic, 73, 83.

density,85.

engineering,72.

of electrical

Magnetic leakage, 136.

Materials

Magnetic leakage

Materials, resistance, 73.

transformers,

in

Magnetic material,

characteristics

Magnetic materials,

199.

of,92.

80.

83.

73,

conducting,

of

properties

Materials,

Magnetic materials, propertiesof, 88.

Materials, propertiesof magnetic, 88.

Magnetic permeability,85.

Maximum

Magnetic reluctance,

135.

Magnetic retentiveness, 91.

Magnetic

units, problem

illustrating,

Magnetism,

fundamental

Magnetism,

definition

Mclntire

joint,372.

knowledge of,
lamps,

arc

Magnetizing

of

summary

35,
in

vapor

lamp

Mercury

vapor

lamps, 8,

Magnets,

of, 84.

field of alternators, 160.

Maintenance

of

stations,

power

260.
79.

Manganin,

specificresistance

Manganin,

summary

of

properties of,

83coefficient

temperature

of,

of aluminum,

Manufacture

of copper

Manufacture

of

for

measuring frequency, 350.

commutator

Mica

as

Mica

for commutators,

19.

349.

dielectric,98.

174.

Mil, circular, 80.

steel, curves

of

76.

magnetic

ties,
proper-

Mil-foot, 80.
Miller,

wire, 75.

lamps,

K.B.

definition
370.

Milli-voltmeters, 346.
compass,

348.

motor,
motor,

93.
75,

incandescent

303Mariner's

factor, 351.

indicatingpower

Meter

spacing of, 108.

Manufacture

74.

for

Mild

81.

Manholes,

of copper,

213.

in, 329.

Meter

Meters, induction

of, 81.

transformers,

of

Metallurgy, electric heat

Meters,

Manganin,

Manganin,

-connection

Metallurgy
data

320.

60.

Mesh

force, definition

applications,322.

-connected, 3-phase winding, 159,

Mesh
1

Century

of, i.

electricity,18.

of

Mercury

Magneto-exciter, Wilde's, 38.

Magnetomotive

distribution

power,

transformers,

of, 135.

generators,

151-

Mendenhall,

Magneto-electricity,24.
excitation

of

316.

210.

Magneto,

of, 85.

mounting

Mechanical

current

stations,

power

electrical,330.

Mechanical

facts,83.

development of, 50.

Magnetite

on

Maxwell,

Measurements,

86.

on,

demand

261.

M.M.F.,

coercive, 88.

of

change,
telephone ex-

408

INDEX.

M.M.F.,

demagnetizing, 88.

Molding

indoor

Moler,

wiring, 109,
and,

Anthony

Mordey's alternator,

no.

40.

original,354.
register,

Morse's

B.,

359.

29.

telegraph alphabet or code,

Motor

applications,298.

Motor

characteristics,281.

Motor

counter

Motor,
Motor,

352.

recording telegraph,29.

e.

"

Davenport's,
d.

265.

c., 45,

ammeters,

Multiple

arc

Multiple

switchboard

337.

telephone, 370.

Multiple-unittrain control, 49.

for

shop

motors,

296.
Musschenbroeck,
Mystery,

and

221.

lamps, 316.

Multi-voltage circuits

43.

shunt

c.,

magnet

a.

Multipliersfor voltmeters, 346.

f.,287.

m.

272.

Multi-gap lightning arresters,

Morse

Morse

c., 277.

Movable

register,
353,

Morse,

c.,

Motors, synchronous

39.

Morse

S. F.

Motors, series,a.
Motors, series,d.

compound,

Peter
of

summary

21.

von,

period of, 27

Mystery, period of,

18.

National

Fire

273-

Motor,
Motor,

electric circuit

through

a,

of

electric, summary

in.

Board

of

Underwriters,

ment
develop102.

of, 50.
Motor

National

electrical

Nature

Motor,
Motor,

Farmer's,

44.

Fromant's,

44.

Motor

generators,

synchronous,

of electric current,

telegraph,29.
lamp applications,322.

and

Motor,

Henry's,

44.

Motor,

interpole,280.

Motor,
Motor

New

on,

43.

City, electric

York, Sprague

Newton's

Pacconotti's, 44.

quantity meters,

344.

locomotives

in,

electrical

Newton,

Sir

Niagara

Falls

machine,

Isaac,
H.

in, 48.

cars

20.

20.

P.

M.

"

Co.

power

plant, 241.

Motor, series, 44.

stations

Niagara Falls, power

44.

speed control, 294.

Motor

starting,287.

Motor

speed characteristics,295.

3" 4,

mechanical

from,

43"

Non-arcing metals,

synchronous,

at, 240.

transmission

Niagara Falls, power

Motor

Motor,

York

47New

Jacobi's,43.

shunt,

35, 311.

electric boat

control, 287.

Motor, repulsion,45.

Motor,

lamps,

298.
Neva,

handling

i.

Nernst
Nernst

Motor,

102.

Needle

first electric, 26.

Motor,

Motor

code,

excitation, 138.

Non-conductors,

313.

Du

Fay's

work

alogy,
an-

conductors

266.

and, 73.

Non-magnetic materials, flux in, 85.

Motor, synchronous,
Motors

and

startinga, 265.

corresponding generators,
Oerlikon

264.

Machine

Motors, early electric,43,

Oersted, Hans

Motors, electric,263.

Oersted's

Motors, induction,

Ohm,

C.

Ohm,

definition

Motors,

a.

c., 45,

protecting against overload,

Ohm's

301.

Motors,

267.

recent

electric,44.

Works,

Christian,

great discovery,
G.

S., definition
of, 59.

law, 55.

Oil-break

switch,

224.

41.

24.
24.

of, 69.

on

INDEX.

Oil-insulated

Oils

transformers, 199.

transformers,

in

Oil

Periods

Ontario

of

loc.

Power

Co.,

Power

Co., transmission

lightning arrester,
lines

of, 34arcs,

Open

indoor

magnet

Permanent

magnets,

ammeters,

331.
carbon

high

steel

Permanent

magnet

ammeters,

Permanent

magnet

ammeters

336.
with

able
mov-

coil,338.

wiring, 108,
and

Operation

Permeability,electrical analogy of, 88.

109.

of

construction

power

of electric generators,

Operation

of incandescent

Operation

of power

Operation

of

178.

lamps,

307.

stations, 253.

power

88.

on,

260.

position
com-

Permeability, effect of flux density upon,

Permeability,

stations, data

chemical

88.

upon,

Operation

of

effect

Permeability,

stations, 217.

of

effect

physical

ment
treat-

88.

upon,

Permeability, magnetic, 85.

Outdoor

circuits,103.

transmission

Over-compounding,

151.

Over-compounding,

190.

Overhead

protecting

against,

motors

Phase

difference, 121.

Phase

displacement, 120.

Phase

transformation,

electric motor,

Page's

electric generator,
as

46.

Pith-ball

38.

Pitch

dielectric,99.

Parallel

operation of alternators, 188.

Parallel

or

lap winding

for

d.

c.

tures,
arma-

operation

of

d.

c.

generators,

arc

first

on

Patent,

in load

lamp,

33.

253.

curves,

Period, definition

of, 117.

development, 18,

of commercial

of

summary

commercial

development,

of, 50.

104,

of scientific

preparation, 18,

Period

of mystery,

18.

windings,

of coils in armature

Pixii's electric

generator,

Plante'

151.

38.

36.

storage battery, 36.

37,

38.

field,number

Pole, alternator
Pole

line, 104.

Pole

stamping

Pole

for d.
of

mounting

c.

Poles

in

d.

c.

19.

of, 161.

generator,

transformer,

for transmission

Poles, spacing of, 104.

Polyphase circuits,121.

176.

212.

lines, 104.

generators,

175-

Period

175.

108.

Pixii, Hyppolyte, 38.

Poles

28.
Period

meability,
per-

Plugs, telephone,369.

lightingin, 34.
incandescent

upon

telegraph,29.

Plating, copper,

194.

Paris, early

effect

connectors,

Plante, Gaston,

172.
Parallel

271.

starting,290.

88.

44.

Pins, insulator,

Page's

in

use

treatment,

Pig-tailbrush

electric car,

Paper

Physical

38.

G., 38.

C.

secondary,

Phase-winding,

Paccinotti, 38.

Paccinotti's

214.

Phase-splittingdevices, 291.
Phase-wound

armature,

rials,
mate-

of, 88.

Permeability, source

generator, 9.

Pacinotti's

non-magnetic

86.

301.

Oxygen

of

Permeability

lines, 104.

Overload,

Period

of, 27.

Permanent

318.

Open

Peaks

scientific preparation,

for, 91.

107.
Ontario

Page,

and

mystery
summary

dielectrics,ice.

as

409

number

of,

INDEX.

Polyphase circuits,balancing phases in,

188.

circuits, transformers

on,

213.

motors,

Polyphase

motor

Porcelain
Portable

266.

starting,289.

for line'

Porcelain

as

insulators, 105.

dielectric,98.

electro-dynamometers, 334.
A.

Power,
Power

C., 119.

284, 285.

motor,

Power, C. G. S. unit of electric,69.

of induction

curve

Power

diagram

of the

motor,

factor

on,

stations, electric

in,

generators

Power

factor

Power

factor, problems in,

Power

generation,electric,38.

indicator

station

for

meter,

or

351.

measuring,

347.

construction, examples of,

station, telephone, 371.

Power

of

station

stations,functions

Power

stations,gas

Power

stations,hydro-electric,
236.

Power

stations, lightning arresters

Power

Cornell

University,

236.
of

Co.,

of, 253.

engine, 244.
in,

stations,load factor in, 253.

stations, lightningprotection m,

Power

stations, maximum

demand

on,

Power

stations,operation of, 253.

Power

stations,storage batteries in, 219,

Niagara

Falls H.

P.

in, 218.

Power

stations,source

Power

stations,switchboards

Power

stations,steam

Power

stations, water

Power

transmission, electric,38, 41.

Power

transmission, examples of, 2.

Power
station

Niagara Falls, 240.

at

247.

121.

226.
Power

stations

Power

261.

factor, 120.

Power, instruments

Power

219.

engine, 115.

steam

Power

of power

in, 219.

turbine, 230.
turbine,

240.

velopment
de-

of

transmission, summary

"

of, 50.
Power, unit of electrical,61.

241.

Power

station, impulse wheel, 236.

Power

station

Power

station,Detroit

Power

station

economics,

Power

station

load

Power

station, Long

Practical

characteristics,253.
Edison

Co., 230.

Island

of

units, 58.
of

scientific,18,

19.

Priestly,historical work,

18.

Primary cell,the first,23.

253.

curves,

system

Preparation, period

258.
R.R.

Co.,

233-

records, 258.

Primary

coils of

Primary

of induction

transformer, 196.
motor,

270.

Printing telegraph receivers,361.

Power

station

Power

station, Winona

Power

stations, instruments

Power

stations, reciprocatingsteam

Ry. Co., 226.

in, 330.
gine,
en-

Production

of

heat,

Production

of

light,4.

Properties of

14.

alloys,78.

Properties of conducting materials, 80.

226.

stations,construction

and

tion
opera-

Propertiesof
Properties of

of, 217.
of

stations,cost

Power

stations,definition of, 217.

Power

stations, electrical auxiliaries

electric
electric

stations,elements

of, 218.

circuits,113.

Propertiesof magnetic materials,

in,

88.

Propertiesof materials, electrical,72.

Protectingmotors

219.

circuits,70.

Propertiesof dielectrics,electrical,96.

operating,260.

Power

Power

Power

Power

282.

electrical,56.

Power,

Power

load

220.

of shunt

curve

Power

M.

on

218.

Polyphase

Power

stations,effect

261.

Polyphase

Power

Power

Pulsating current,

against overload,
113.

301.

INDEX.

Refining of

Quadruplex telegraphy,30, 358.

for

instruments

Quantity,

411

measuring,

Register, Morse,

342.

Regulator,

359.

353,

telegraph,29.

Register,Morse

C. G. S. unit of,
Quantity of electricity,

electrolytic,
75.

copper,

constant

current,

205.

Regulator (constant current) -vs.

68.

Quantity

electric motor,

meters,

Regulators, battery, 250.

Quantity, unity of electrical,62.

Elizabeth,

Queen

205.

344.

electrolytic,
343.

Quantity meters,

former,
trans-

Regulation

data

Regulation,

19.

of

transformers, 207.

I. E.

A.

definitions

E.

of,

179.
factor

Radiation

for

Regulation, inherent, 178.

coils,142.

Radiation, selective,5.
load

Railway
Railway

254.

curve,

in

problem

motor,

resistance

in electric

Regulation

of

Regulation

motor,

Railway

motors,

d. c., 277.

Railway

power

station,

load

Railway work,
Railways,

a.

Railways,

steel

c.

Relay, telegraph, 12,

a.

motors

c.

transmission
as

Repeaters, automatic,

Repeaters, telegraph,354.

conductor

in, 78.

Repulsion

motor,

Residence

filaments, 34.

incandescent

lamps,

Reactance,

Reactance,

with

Reactance

sine

mechanical,

of

between

Reactive

force

and

current

between

to

illustrate,54.

circuits,123.

Resistance

in electric

materials, 73.

field,53.

Resistance

materials, alloys as, 74.

and

Resistance

of

current

magnetic field,53.

wire, 81.

Resistance, specfic,80.

Receiver, telephone, 365, 366.

Resistance, unit of, 59.

Receiving devices, telegraph,359.

Retentiveness, magnetic, 88,

Recent

electric motors,

Recent

developments

44.

in

electric

tion,
trac-

improvements

in electric

lamps,

armature

Revolving

field

engine plants,226.

Recorder,

siphon, 360.

in power

stations, 258.

Rectifier, 150.

Refining, copper,

10,

37.

91.

alternator, 152.

alternator, 152.
of, 162.

Rheostats, temperature
Richmond,

35-

Reciprocating steam
Records

Revolving

Revolving field,view

49.
Recent

to

71.

Resistance

current,

127.

Reaction

electrical, analogous

Resistance, experiment

129.

wave

336.

lighting,320.

Resistance,

starting,292.

problems in,

shunts,

Resistance, dielectric specific,

97.

of, 126.

definition
in motor

Reactance

273.

Resistance, C. G. S. unit of, 69.

304.

transformation, 196.

of

355.

45,

Rare

Ratio

30.

in, 273.

Raising transformer, 196.

Rating

for, 181.

for, 49.

Requisites for ammeter

metal

182.

206.

Reluctance, magnetic, 135.

256.

curve,

c.

Regulation test, conditions

typical

on,

Regulation
p. transformers,
Regulation of generators, 178.

of, 277, 278.

view

Railway

circuits,112.

alternators, 181.

of alternators, data
of

82.

of,

Regulation

features

of

Sprague

cars

rise

in, 185.

Sprague system

in, 48.
Richmond,

Ring

armature,

38.

Ring

armature,

Gramme's,

in, 48.

39.

Ringer, telephone, 365, 367.

INDEX.

412

of copper

Roasting
Rocker

Rod,

arm

or

ring, 175.

warming, electric,328.

Rotary

converter,

197.

Rotary

converter,

197,

298.

Rotating field,267.
Rubber

as

dielectric,98.

Rupturing

gradient,

electric

pressure,

Series

motor,

44.

Series

motor,

a.

c.,

size

of

49.

Series

transformer, 196,

Series

transformer

Series

turns

Series

winding

Service

for

202.

characteristics,211.

compounding,

147.

excitation, 143.

or

connection, overhead,
coils

Shading

96.

in

coil, problem

for, 145.

wire

lightning,22.

Room

field

Series

74.

ores,

103.

single-phase

on

motors,

290.

Saturation

of

curve

alternator, 183,

Saturation

of

curve

d.

c.

generator,

steel,composition of, 95.

in d.

Saturation
Schuckert's

cores,

175.

preparation,

Scientific

period of,

of

summary

27.

data

on

station

tion,
opera-

260.
Scrubber

Secondary
Secondary

or

transformer, 196.

induction

motor,

270,

271.
Section

switches,

Selective

103.

radiation, 15.

Self -excitation,conditions

Separate excitation, 139,

a.

Series

a.

Series

a.

Series

a.

c.

Series

a.

Series

arc

Series

d.

Series

d.

Series d.

c.

motor

c.

motor

150.

Shunt

excitation, 139, 150.

Shunt

field coil in d.

Shunt

field

lamps,
c.

317.

motors,

273.

coil,problem in

for, 143.
field,size of wire for, 141.

Shunt

in

ammeter

case,

339.

motcr

curves,

motor,

272.

characteristics,285.

motor

c.

motor

curves,

Series

d.

c.

motor

speed control, 297.

286.

starting,294.

Series

excitation, 151.

motors,

Series field coil in d.

284.

elevation

and

section

of,

motor,

Shunt

motor

speed control, 296.

Shunt

motor

starting,292.

Shunt

motor,

Shunted

view

of, 274.

multi-gap lightning

arrester,

222.

Shunts,
generator,

parts of, 276.

Shunt

Shunts

277.

c.

44.

275-

applications,300.

d.

of wire

size

Shunt

Series

176.

generator,

c.

Shunt

winding, 169.

motor

d.

applications,299.

c.

c.

arc

Shunt

motor,

d.

c.

48.

car,

motor

Series

Series, d.

electric

Shunt

Shunt

armature
motor

alternator, 183,

characteristics,283.

lamps, 316.

c.

of

curve

86.

speed control, 295.

motors,

c.

Short-circuit

198.

197,

Shunt

starting,292.

motor

c.

using,

Shunt

applications,299.

motor

c.

for, 140.

for

reasons

steel,propertiesof, 94.

Short's

plant, 246.

coils of

pole cores,

163.

in gas

field

generator

c.

Shell-typetransformer,

22.

power

d.

175.

Sheet-steel

Sheet

work, exact,

Scientific

19.

magnetic

163.

cores,

for

steel

cores,

preparation,period of, 18,

showing

curves

steel field

Sheet

alternator, 40.

Scientific

Stott's

field

c.

steel,

properties,94.
Sheet

191.

Series

Sheet
Sheet

184.

177.

for ammeters,
material

335.

for ammeter,

Shunts, requisitesfor ammeter,

335.

336.

INDEX.

Halske

"

Siemens'

armature,

Siemens'

electro-dynamometer, 332.

electric car,

Spherical candle
Sprague

38.

Silver, German,

curve

Sprague

alternator

space

e.

f.,

m.

of cross-head

curve

Sine

features

system,

A.

I. E.

code,

of

transformers, 213.

Single-phase

Starr, J. W.,

33.

Startingbox,

motor,

starting,290.

Siphon recorder, 360.

Siphon recorder, Cuttriss magnetic, 360.

Startingmotors,

Siphon recorder, Thomson,

Steam

360.

Six-phase circuit, 122.

Slip in
Slot

forms,

Slots in

268.

motors,

alternator

point

282, 283.

motor,

armature,

154.

of incandescent

lamps,

magnetic meridian,

card,

Steam

226.
engine plants,reciprocating,

Steam

turbine

Steel

Steel

114.

plants,230,

alloys,95.
and

iron, applications
77,

in

forgingiron

as

as

ductors,
con-

78.

conductor, 74, 77.

Steel,cast, composition of, 93.

20.

Soft

indicator

engine

3"9-

Smith

287.

engine, alternatingquantitiesin,

Steam

Steel

169.

d.,c.armatures,

Smashing

301.

292,

114.

of induction
induction

from

extracts

185.

E., 179,

Star-connection

Slip curve

of, 48.

Squirrel-cagesecondary, 271.

Single-phase circuit, 121.

motor

46.

car,

Star-connected, 3-phase winding, 158.

of, 128.

addition

waves,

velocity, 116.

326.

J., 46.

electric

Standardization

117.
Sine

284, 285.

York, 48.

New

Frank

Sprague'

voltameter, 343.

and

motor,

power,

in

cars

Sprague,

79.

Simplex telegraphy,362.
Sine

of shunt

curve

Speed, synchronous, 265.

38.

Siemens, Werner,

Silver

Speed

46.

Siemens

413

ammeters,

core

Soft drawn
Soft

iron

Steel, cast,

331.

wire, 75.

rotating,

with

Sounder,

development

of

telegraph,

of power
of

stations, 218.

in power

light,relative

Special instruments,

values

of, 323.

of

curve

of

295.

286.

of

of

curves

magnetic

sheets, composition of, 95.

Steel

sheets, annealing of, 94.

Steel

sheets, propertiesof, 94.

motor,

282,

Steinmetz
Steinmetz's

curve

sheet, showing magnetic

Steel

Steel,summary

294.

induction

283.

Speed

78.

77,

ties,
proper-

93.

dielectrics,97.

of motors,

Speed control, motor,

copper,

Steel,electrical,propertiesof, 94.
Steel, mild,

Specificresistances,table of, 81.

characteristics

or

propertiesof, 94.

Specificresistance, 80.
Specificresistance

with

Steel, high carbon, 91.

350.

capacity,96.

Specificinductive

compared

Steel, electrical

Sounder, telegraph,12, 353.

Speed

93.

Steel,cast, strength of, 94.

Steel

359-

Speed

cores,

Steel, cast, permeability of, 89.

Soldering,electric,36.

Sources

Steel,cast, for pole

Steel, cast, magnetic propertiesof, 93.

341-

Source

ties,
proper-

92.

ammeters

core,

magnetic

of

curves

series

d.

c.

motor,

Steinmetz's

of

flaming

propertiesof, 82.
arc

lamp, 35.

law, 90.
summary
219.

of

turbances,
lightning dis-

INDEX.

414

Steinmetz's

work

in

dielectrics,
96.

Switch, knife, 224.

Step-down transformer, 196.

Switch, oil break,

Step-up transformer, 196.

Switch, telephone,365.

St.

Switchboard, Niagara Falls H. P. " M.

Joseph, Sprague

Stock

in, 48.

cars

tickers,361.

Co.,

242.

Storage batteries,capacity of, 249.

Switchboard

Storage batteries,depreciationof, 252.

Switchboards,

Storage

Switchboards

batteries

in power

stations,219.

Storage battery,n.

telephone multiple,370.

Storage battery,chemistry of, 249.

load

on

curve

Switches

of,

battery,functions

of, 247.

Storage battery in

Synchronous

stations, 247.

Storage battery,lead type, 248.

the, 247.

Storage battery,the, 36.

Storage
Scott

electricity,21.

T-connection

or

of

transformers,

214.

Straightline

law

in ammeters,

for field

Strap winding
Street

lighting,321.

Street

railway

in, 130,

characteristics,281.

motor

Synchronous

motor,

Synchronous

motor

principleof, 265.
speed control, 295.

Synchronous

motor

starting,288.

Synchronous

motor,

Synchronous

motors,

Synchronous

speed, 265.

startinga, 265.

Table

magnetic

Tantalum

circuits

of

specificresistances

Telautograph, 364.

26.

Sturgeon's electro-magnets,26.
Island

R.

Co., 235.

12.

Telegraph line,first,30.

commercial

recording, 29.

velopment,
deTelegraph, Morse's

Telegraph, needle,

50.

Summary

of

period

Summary

of

period

of mystery,

27.

of scientific preparation,

29.

Telegraph, pith-ball,29.
Telegraph receivers,printing,361.
Telegraph receivingdevices, 359.

27.

Superheater

Telegraph, duplex, 356.

Telegraph key,

74.

of

in gas

plant, 245.

Telegraph relay,

12,

Supervisory lamps, telephone, 369.

Telegraph repeaters,

Surgery, electric heat

Telegraph sounder,

Surges
Swan,

in

transmission

Sir

J. W., 34.

Swan's

lamps,

inventions
34.

code, Morse,

or

352.

of, 217.

of copper,

period

R.

alphabet

Telegraph circuit,12.

station,telephone,367.

Substations, definition

Summary

perature
tem-

106.

as,

Telegraph

of

and

filaments, 34, 306, 307.

Targets, insulators

131.

ores

265.

45,

340.

coils,160, 165.

Sturgeon, William,

Sulphide

ogy,
anal-

coefficients,81.

motor,

Substation, Long

mechanical

motor,

Strength, dielectric,96.

Subscriber's

applications,

motor

c.

266.

Storage battery plates,buckling of, 252.

battery,principlesof

a.

298.
Synchronous

power

224.

purposes,

Synchronizing alternators, 187.

Storage battery handling, 251.

of

stations,219.

for transfer

Synchronous

255-

Storage

225.

223,

in power

Switchboards, telephone, 32, 370.

Storage battery,effect
Storage

224.

in, 329.
lines,220.

30.

354.
12,

353.

Telegraph system, Wheatstone's,

Telegraph systems, early, 29.

in

incandescent

Telegraph, wireless, 362.

Telegraphy,

352.

29.

INDEX.

Telegraphy,

advances

Temperature

in, 30.

Telegraphy, automatic,

30.

Telegraphy, bridge duplex, 357.

Telegraphy,

Telegraphy, Duplex,
Telegraphy,

duplex, 356.

differential

Edison's

30.

in, 30.

invention

Telegraphy, quadruplex,

30,

358.

Telegraphy, simplex, 352.

Telegraphy,

of

summary

415

development

strength of magnetic field,134.

Tesla's

induction

incandescent

Theory

of

Telephone

"A"

board, 370.

Telephone

"B"

board, 371.

Telephone

central

45.

41,

lamps,

304.

Ewing, 84.

Thomson

balance, 333.

Thomson

inclined

Thomson

siphon recorder, 360.

Thomson

watt-hour

coil ammeter,

meter,

transmission,
Thorium

45, 273.

of

summary

342.

349.

repulsion motor,

Thomson's

Telegraphy, wireless, 31.

motor,

Testing

Thomson's

of, 50.

rise,limiting,185.

Tensile

early

power

42.

oxide, 7.

Telephone distributingcircuits, 372.

of, 183.
Three-phasealternator,curves
winding, 156.
Three-phase armature

Telephone exchanges, 370.

Telephone induction
coil,365.

Three-phase transformers, 214.

line,122.
Three-phasetransmission

Telephone jacks,369.

Tickers, stock, 361.

Telephone plugs, 369.

Titanium

Telephone power
plant,371.
Telephone receiver, 365, 366.
Telephone ringer,365, 367.

Torque

Telephone

Torque

offices,370.

subscriber's

filaments, 34.

Toronto

Exposition,electric
of series

curve

station, 367.

in

electric

or

Towers,

106.

Telephone, the,

Towers,

spacing

31.

of

Traction,

electric, recent

development
Train

system,

Telluride

Transfer

switches,

coefficient,81.

Transformation

coefficient of,
Temperature -coefficients,
81.

telephone,371.
224.

from

Transformation

2-

from

to

3-

3-phase, 215.
to

-phase,

2I5-

Temperature coefficient,control of, 81.

Temperature

coefficient,use

Temperature

rise

Temperature

rise in

alternator, 183.

Temperature

rise in

transformer,

of,

opment
devel-

control, multiple unit, 49.

Telephony, wireless, 373.

41.

of

electric, summary
of, 50.

Transfer

Temperature

development

in, 49.

of, 50.

transmission,

line, 106.

Traction, early, 45.

371.

Telephony, principlesof, 365.

summary

transformers,

line, 104.

Traction,

of

of

214.

Telephone transmitter, 32, 365.

Telephone trunk lines,370.
Telephony,

285,

problem

generator,

Scott-connection

Tower

system,

motor,

in, 87.

Telephone switch, 365.

Telephone switchboard
multiple,370.
Telephone switchboards, 32, 370.
transfer

at, 47.

car

c.

286.

Telephone supervisory lamps, 369.

Telephone system, common
battery, 368.

Telephone

d.

210.

of,

by resistance,

142.

142.

curves

Transformation

from

to

6-phase, 215,

from

6- to

3-phase, 215,

216.

Transformation
216.
Transformation

of energy,

Transformation

of

phases,

15.
214.

416

INDEX.

ratio

Transformation,

of, 196.

Transformer

characteristics,206.

Transformer

characteristics,

current,

Transformer,

the,

Transformer,

the

Transformer

constant

Transformer

characteristics,series,

Transformer

Transformer

coils,198.

Transformer,

coils,insulation

Transformers

211.

Transformer

Transformer,

constant

Transformer,

constant

of, 95,

current,

200.

197, 203.
view

current,

of,

(constant current) vs.

Transformer

ulator,
reg-

Transformer,

and

Transformer

construction, 195.

Transformer

Transformers,

of,

Transformer

Transformer,

core

Transformer

auto

current,
delta

temperature

efficiency,208.

Transformer

efficiency,all-day,

210.

of, 209.

curve
efficiency,

Transformer

Transformer,

Transformers

in

starting, 289,

neutral

motor

and

Gaulard

in,

Transformers,

magnetic leakage in,

Gibbs,

40.

of,

lowering, 196.
magnetizing
mounting

210.

pole,212.

upon

oil, 100.

primary

200.

p., 207.

c.

199.

and

insulated

air

polyphase circuits,213.

on

3-phase,
or

214.

T-connection

of,

214.

current,

and

104.

blast, 199.

Transformers, Scott-

of, 208.

curves

oil

Transformers,

excitation, 137.

of,

in

installation,212.

secondary

of, 196.
Transformer,

principlesof the,

Transformer,

principlesof the

195.

modern,

196.

Transformer

of

losses

losses,

Transformer

grounding

Transformers,

Transformer

Transformer,

p.,

lightning, protecting,

Transformers,

Transformer

Transformer,

from

losses

Transformers,

Transformer

c.

installation

Transformers

Transformer,

in

Transformers,

heating, 209.

Transformer

tion
connec-

292.

Transformer

Transformer,

mesh

or

213.

of

210.

Transformer

202.

excitingcurrent

Transformers,

Transformer, Deri's, 40.

Transformer

singlecoil,202.

201.

210.

198.

curves

risks, 213.

or

209.

type, 197.

cores,

Transformer,
in,

loss current,

core

applications,

213.

Transformers

133.

core,

their

fire

as

Transformers,

197.

200.

195Transformers

potential, 196,

constant

40.

Zipernowski's,40.

Transformers,

205.

rise

Westinghouse,

winding connections,

Transformers,

204.

first,195.

ventilation,200.

Transformer,

211.

40.

Transformers,

of

summary

essentials,

199.

Transformers,

temperature

Transformers,

varieties

Transformers,

Y-or

rise in,

185.

of, 196.

star-connection

213.
Transmission

Frankfurt

at

Exposition,

42.

Transmission

at

regulation,206.

Transmission

at

regulationdata,

Transmission

circuits, 103.

raising,196.

Transformer,

series, 196,

Transformer,

shell type, 197,

207.

Transformer,

step-down, 196.

Transformer,

step-up,

196.

Kassel,

198.

Transmission,

41.

Telluride,

Transmission, electric

202.

of,

power,

electric power,

Transmission

from

Transmission

line

41.

38.
41.

Niagara Falls, 43.

construction, 104.

INDEX.

Transmission

line, 3 -phase, 122.

Transmission

line, 2" phase,

Transmission

lines,

iron

121.

and

steel

in,

417

tube

lamp,

Vacuum

tube

lamp applications,322.

Vacuum

tube

lamps,

de

Van

77Transmission

lines

of

Ontario

Power

Co., 3.
Transmission

for,

lines, poles and

towers

Poele's

Transmission

of

intelligence,12,

29,

352Transmission

of

of

summary

power,

development of, 50.

Transmission,

of

summary

early power,

of current,

Varieties

of

Transmitter,

Berliner's

V-curves

of

Velocity,

sine

synchronous

Ventilation

of

field magnets,

of

transformers,

Trunk

lamps, vacuum,
Tungsten, filaments,
Turbine

plants,water

power,

Two-phase

armature

Two-phase,

closed-coil

Two-phase

Volt-ampere-second,

34, 307.

winding,

conduit

Underground

lines,

high

resistance

ammeter,

104.

of

Fire,

wire, 347.

Voltmeters,

hot

Voltmeters,

milli, 346.

multipliers,346.

Voltmeter
Board

of, 61.

346.

Cleveland, 47.

Underwriters, National

of, 61.

definition

ground detectors, 223.

as

Voltmeters,

line,121.

at

of, 68.

Voltmeters, electrostatic,344.

157.

wilding, 158.

transmission

Underground

Voltmeters

240.

silver, 343.

of, 59.

definition

Volt-ampere,

319.

and

S., definition

Volt, definition

lines,telephone, 370.

Tube

plants,230.
of, 23.

copper

G.

164.
200.

23.

pile,invention

Volt, C.

2.

116.

160, 162.

turbine

steam

Voltameters,

telephone,32.

cross-head,

Ventilation

Transmitter,

climbing grade,

curve

281.

motors,

armatures,

Volta

Trolley car

of

of

Transmitter, telephone, 365.

the

112.

dielectrics,too.

Volta, Alessandro,

telephone,32.

47.

320.

transformers, 196.

as

Vertical

42.

car,

mercury,

Varieties

Ventilation

319.

electric

lamps,

Vapor

Varnishes

104.

7, 8.

Vacuum

Hefner

Von

Alteneck's

alternator,40.

102.

Underwriters'

National

Electric

ciation,
Asso-

Units, fundamental,
of

Unit

of current,

Unit

of electrical

quantity,

Unit

of electrical

energy,

61.

Unit

of electrical

power,

61.

Unit

of

e.

Unit

of

inductance, 63.

Unit

of

capacity,64.

field

Units

of

strength

resistance, 59.

derived,

in the

meter

or

tensity,Wave
in-

C.

Waxes

of, 58.
G.

S. system,

Thomson,

67.

394.

of, 61.

347.
e.

m.

f., 117.

winding, diagram of,

winding

for

d.

169.
Waves,

60.

of, 69.

of, 61.

definition

of alternator

Wave

Units, definition
Units

Watt-hour,

Wave

66.

Unit

definition

Wattmeters,

Hertzian,
as

36.

of, 61.

Watt-hour,

Watt-second,

f.,59.

magnetic

S., definition

Watt, definition
62.

car,

80.

Watt, C. G.

59.

and

room

plant, 246.

gas

Water-box,

59.

Unit

m.

in

Washer

102.

electric

Warming,

31.

dielectrics,100.

Welding, electric, 329.

c.

170.
armatures,

4i8

INDEX.

Welsbach

mantle,

gas

Wire,

7.

Wire

Westinghouse

alternator,

40.

Westinghouse

alternator,

view

Westinghouse

magnetic

Westinghouse

transformer,
work

Weston,
Weston

duplex,
Sir

Wheatstone,
Wheatstone's

152.
133.

40.

generator,

indoor,

Wiring,

Long

system,
of

self

for

alternator

Winona

Ry.

Co.,

29.

-excitation,

Wire

Island

R.

R.

Co.

plant,

telegraphy,

Wireless

telephony,

373.

Wireless

telegraph

aerial,

Wireless

telegraph
iron,

Wrought

31,

362.

363.

coherer,
in

363.

electrical

machinery,

38.
armatures,

power

station

226.

Wire

95.

108.

95-

magneto-exciter,

Windings

Wire,

cover.

235-

38.
Wilde's

of,

Wireless

29.

telegraph

81.

back

insulation

Wiring,

39.

357.

Charles,

invention

Wheatstone's

132,

Inside

table,

Wires,

338.

ammeter,

Wheatstone

brake,

electric

on

of,

of,

resistance

aluminum,
gages,

156.
of,

Yarn

as

dielectric,

Y-connected,

3-phase

Y-connection

of

100.

winding,

transformers,

213.

76.
83.

manufacture,

copper,

75.

Zipernowski's

alternator,

Zipernowski's

transformer,

158.

40.

40.

CATALOGUE

SHORT-TITLE
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BOOK

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271940

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2 1-5

0??i- 8, '32

0-nAx

1. COPPER

Copper : Resistance

resistance of hard
mil-foot

copper

of

one

TABLE.*

WIRE

mil -footof pure soft copper at

times that of soft copper.

is 1.0226

.000003028. (By permissionof

the

75" F. is 10.381ohms ;
Weight in pounds per

PittsburgReduction

Co.)