Abstract
Technical advances and institutional changes in the electric power industry have resulted in a constantly increasing penetration of distributed
generation (DG) resources in the grids. For the connection of new DG installations to the network a variety of factors are taken into account,
including technical requirements imposed by utilities to ensure that the DG station does not adversely affect the operation and safety of the
network. In this paper, fundamental issues related to the interconnection of DG installations to the grid are discussed and evaluation rules are
presented, which address power quality considerations and are suitable for application by electric utility and DG engineers. The attention is focused
on the steady-state and fast voltage variations, flicker and harmonic emissions. The simplified evaluation procedures of the paper are largely
based on the relevant IEC publications and reflect the current practice of several European utilities. A discussion of the interconnection protection
requirements is also included in the paper.
2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Distributed generation (DG); Distribution networks; Interconnection; Power quality; Voltage variations; Flicker; Harmonics; Protection
1. Introduction
The penetration of distributed generation (DG) resources
(wind turbines, photovoltaics, fuel-cells, biomass, microturbines, small hydroelectric plants, etc., ranging from sub-kW
to multi-MW sizes) in distribution grids is increasing worldwide. The drive for cleaner energy sources, the economic opportunities presented for investors in the deregulated electric industry environment and the potential benefits for utilities (peakshaving, congestion alleviation, reduction of losses, better asset
utilization, etc.) are contributing to this trend [1].
Although there always exist important regulatory and business issues concerning the integration of DG in the grids, technical considerations are often viewed as a critical factor affecting
the development of new installations [2]. To facilitate the technical evaluation process for the interconnection of new DG
installations, without compromising the operating and safety
requirements of the grid, suitable disturbance limits have been
adopted and simplified evaluation methodologies are applied by
0378-7796/$ see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsr.2006.01.009
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Dedicated interconnection lines are formally a part of the grid. For this
reason, disturbance limits may also be enforced for the point of connection (CP)
as well, albeit more lenient than for the PCC.
100
(Rk Pn + Xk Qn ) 2%
Un2
(1)
27
(3)
Umin,k + Umax,k
1.05 Un
2
(2)
Sn
Sk
(4)
where kU (k ) is the voltage change factor, defined for wind turbines in IEC 61400-21 [24], and included in their test certificates
Table 1
Magnitude limits for rapid voltage changes
Frequency of switching operations, r (h1 : per hour, d1 : per day)
LV
Steady-state change, dc
Maximum change, dmax
MV
Steady-state change, dc
Maximum change, dmax
r > 1 h1
2 d1 < r < 1 h1
r < 2 d1
3%
4%
3%
5.5%
3%
7%
r > 10 h1
1 h1 < r 10 h1
r 1 h1
2%
3%
4%
28
Sn
Sk
(8)
N
1/3.2
8
3.2
Plt =
N120,i (kf,i (k ) Sn,i )
Sk
(6)
i=1
29
Table 2
Planning levels for LV, MV and HV networks (IEC 61000-3-6 [33])
Odd harmonics = 3k
Odd harmonics = 3k
Even harmonics
Order, h
Order, h
Order, h
5
7
11
13
17
19
23
25
>25
LV
MV
HV
6
5
3.5
3
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.2 + 1.3 25
h
5
4
3
2.5
1.6
1.2
1.2
1.2
0.2 + 0.5 25
h
2
2
1.5
1.5
1
1
0.7
0.7
0.2 + 0.5 25
h
3
9
15
21
>21
MV
HV
5
1.5
0.3
0.2
0.2
4
1.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
2
1
0.3
0.2
0.2
2
4
6
8
10
12
>12
MV
HV
2
1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.2
1.6
1
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
1.5
1
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
where LhMV and LhHV are the MV and HV planning levels for
harmonic order h (from Table 2) and ThHM the harmonic transfer
coefficient from HV to MV level (ranging from below 1.0 to
more than 3.0); a is the exponent of the harmonic summation
rule:
a
a
Uh = a
Uhi
or Ih = a
Ihi
(11)
i
EUhi = GhMV a
= GhMV a si
(12)
St
where St is the total capacity of the network (e.g. equal to the
rated MVA of the feeding transformer). St can also be interpreted
as the total capacity of the distorting equipment in the network,
to avoid over-pessimistic results.
It is common practice in harmonic studies to regard the connected equipment as a harmonic current source (although this
may not be correct in certain cases, e.g. voltage controlled converters), whereas the limits discussed previously refer to the
harmonic distortion of the system voltage. In order to relate
these quantities, the system harmonic impedance Zh at the PCC
is needed. Then:
EUhi
Uhi = Zh Ihi EUhi Ihi EIhi =
(13)
Zh
Un2 sin k
Sk
(15)
where Uhi and Ihi are the h-order harmonic distortion of the voltage and current due to installation i and EUhi , EIhi the respective
limits allocated to this installation.
For MV systems no standardized reference impedance is
available and the harmonic impedance Zh has to be evaluated
for each specific network. For a purely inductive system (no
shunt capacitance):
Zh h Xk
(14)
30
Un2
sin k Ihi EUhi
Sk
(17)
= MhMV
MhMV Sk
2
Sk
kr h U n
si
(18)
Sk
sin k
(19)
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Table 3
Indicative settings for the interconnection protection relays
Relay
27
59
81U
81O
Fig. 7. Recorded voltage during the isolated operation of a feeder with significant
wind power, following the opening of the circuit breaker at its departure [38].
Settings Type A
Settings Type B
Threshold
Delay (s)
Threshold
Delay (s)
0.85Un
1.10Un
49.5 Hz
50.5 Hz
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.80Un
1.15Un
47.5 Hz
51.5 Hz
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
32
ation resources to distribution networks. Technical requirements and assessment criteria are presented for power quality
related issues, including steady-state and rapid voltage variations, flicker and harmonic emissions, which are suitable for
practical application. These criteria and procedures are largely
based on the set of relevant IEC publications, as well as on current utility practice.
It is certain that the technological advancements will call
for continuous update of the evaluation methodologies. For
instance, active front-end converters, with load balancing, flicker
cancellation and active filtering capabilities, may soon find their
way into commercial DG equipment. The operating paradigm
of distribution networks with significant DG resources will also
evolve, towards an active network principle. Further, apart
from the core technical issues, it is also certain that other market
and regulatory factors will affect critically the degree of future
DG penetration and the criteria and requirements for their integration.
Appendix A. List of symbols
a
c
dc
Qn
r
Rk
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